Wave model:

Maxwell Equations

Gauss’s Law

Faraday’s Law × ε : permittivity

µ: permeability

Ampere’s Law
×
Derivation of Wave Equation
 Wave Equation

Vector Identity:
Solution of wave equation
Cylindrical Coordinate System
 Modes in cylindrical Coordinates

Modes in cylindrical optical fiber are determined by the

wave equation(s) in cylindrical coordinates:

 2 E z 1 E z 1  2 E z
   q 2
Ez  0
r 2
r r r 
2 2

 2 H z 1 H z 1  2 H z
   q 2
Hz  0
r 2
r r r 
2 2
 Solutions to cylindrical wave equation
The z function is a propagation oscillation. The function in φ is an
azmuthal function that must have the same value at (φ + 2π) that it
does at φ.

With the azmuthal coordinate separated, the residual wave equation in

the r coordinate is of the form

This is called Bessel’s equation and will have solutions that are (a)
Bessel functions of the first kind (for the core) and (b) of second kind
(for the cladding). The solutions for the core and cladding regions must
match at the boundary.
Solutions to the cylindrical wave equation for
core/cladding optical fiber profile
For r < a (core), Bessel function = first kind, Jn(x),
where b < ( k1) is required.

For r > a (cladding), Bessel function = second kind = Kn(x),

where b < (k2) is required
Bessel function of first kind

D. Gloge, Weakly guided fibers, Applied

Optics, Oct 1971, pp 2252 - 2257
 Defining parameters for cylindrical functions

• β = bZ is the z component of the propagation constant k = 2π/λ. The

boundary conditions for the Bessel equations can be solved only for
certain values of β, so only certain modes exist.

• A mode is guided if (n2k = k2) < β < (k1 = n1k) where n1,
n2 = refractive indices of core and cladding, respectively.
 Types of cylindrical modes defined by the
cylindrical Bessel functions
• The E field component is transverse to the z direction. Ez = 0 , Hz = 0 and it is a
TEnm mode.

• The H field component is transverse to the z direction. Hz = 0 , Ez = 0 and it is a

TMnm mode.

• Each mode has a subscript of two numbers; n and m. The first is the order
of the Bessel function and the second identifies which of the various roots meets
the boundary condition.

• If neither Ez nor Hz = 0 then it is a hybrid mode.

End view, cylindrical modes
 V-number (normalized frequency)
The expression for V-number for an optical fiber is
2a 2 2 2 a
V n n  (NA)
 1 2

where a = core radius.

V is related to the number of modes M in a multimode fiber, for large V

>10).
V2
M
2
Propagation constant as a function of V
 Linearly Polarized Modes
• For weakly guided fibers (small D << 1), these type of
modes become degenerate and combine into linearly
polarized LPjm modes.

• Fields are linearly polarized.

Linearly Polarized (LP) modes in weakly-guided fibers (small D << 1 )

LP01 (HE11 ), LP11 (TE 01  TM 01  HE 21 )

• Fundamental mode: LP01 ( HE 11 )

 Superposition gives linearly polarized modes

Composition of two LP11 modes from TE, TM and HE modes

Propagation constant as a function of V

Where b is the normalized phase constant

Composition of LP (linearly polarized) modes
Cutoff wavelength
 Single mode Condition
When V  2.405, the fiber supports only the fundamental
LP01 mode while cutting off the higher order modes LP11,
LP21 and LP02, etc. This is the single-mode condition.
There is thus a wavelength at which a fiber makes a
transition from having two modes propagating to having
only the fundamental mode. This single-mode cutoff
wavelength is given by
2a
c  (NA)
2.405
For wavelengths shorter than c, the fiber becomes
multimode.
 Controlling the Number of Modes

From the V parameter, we see that we can reduce the

number of modes in a fiber by reducing:
(1) NA
(2) diameter (with reference to )
This is exactly the case in single mode fibers.
A single mode fiber at one wavelength may not be
single mode anymore at a shorter wavelength
Example 1
Solution
Solution

V= 2πa NA
λ NA = 0.205
a = 50/2 = 25 µm
V= 38
Since V > 10

M = V2 720
2 ͌
Graded Index Fibers

The Alpha () Profile The refractive index in the core is graded

 
1
n12  n22
  r 
2
D
n1 1  2D    r<a Core 2n12
n( r )     a  

 n 1  2D  1 2  n ra Cladding
 1 2

=∞ n(r)
=2 n1  = 10
The special cases are
1- The linear  = 1 =1
2- The parabolic  = 2
n2 n2
3- The step-Index  = ∞

-a a
r
Consider the Parabolic profile (a = 2 )

In Multimode Step-Index Fibers: Rays travel

in straight paths in homogenous medium

In multimode graded index fibers, rays

follow sinusoidal like (curved) path

Graded Index-Rod Lens

To understand the reason for the path to be curved

Assume that the core consists of a number of homogenous layers such that

na > nb > nc > nd > ……..

nd

nc
nb
na

Rays travels from high index to low index bend away from the normal

Rays traveling downwards, from low index to high index bend toward the normal
Modal Distortion in Graded Index Fibers

In step-index fiber, the velocity of each ray Highest order mode TE0 lowest order mode
n2
is the same, but they have different path
length. Hence different arrival time. x
Lc c n1
z

The lowest order mode (axial-

n2
mode) is the slowest with velocity L
c
v1 
n1

The highest order mode is the

fastest with velocity nearly reaching
c
v2 
n2

Comparison between the lowest and the highest rays, for example: although the highest order
mode travels longer distance, but it is faster, and this reduces the difference in arrival time
between the two rays.
Therefore the graded index fiber have smaller multimode distortion as
compared to the step index fibers.
Number of Modes in Graded Index fiber The Alpha () Profile

  V 
2
In general NM     

Both orthogonal polarizations (V > 10)
   2  2 

The special cases are

 1 V  V
2 2
The linear  = 1 NM     
 1  2  2  6


 2 V  V
2 2
The parabolic  = 2 NM   
 
 2  2   2  4

    V  V
2 2
The step-Index  = ∞ NM    
      2  2
Example 1: A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has
a diameter of 50 m. The fiber has a numerical aperture NA(0) of 0.2. Estimate the total
number of guided modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a wavelength of 1
m.
a) Calculate when the orthogonal polarization is taken into account

Solution
Example 1: A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has
a diameter of 50 m. The fiber has a numerical aperture NA(0) of 0.2. Estimate the total
number of guided modes propagating in the fiber when it is operating at a wavelength of 1
m.
a) Calculate when the orthogonal polarization is taken into account
Single Mode Operation for Graded Index Fibers
Graded index fibers can be made single modes if the V-number

The Alpha Profile

1
In general  2 2
0 < V < 2.405  1  
 

The special cases are

1
The linear  = 1  2 2 0 < V < 2.405 3
0 < V < 2.405  1  
 1

1
 2 2
The parabolic  = 2 0 < V < 2.405  1   0 < V < 2.405 2
 2

1
The Step-Index  = ∞  2 2 0 < V < 2.405
0 < V < 2.405  1  
 
Example 2: A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has
the following parameters: n1 = 1.5, D = 0.01,  = 1.3 m. Estimate the maximum possible core
diameter for single mode operation.

Example 3: Repeat the above if the fiber is a step-index fiber

Example 2: A graded index fiber has a core with a parabolic refractive index profile which has
the following parameters: n1 = 1.5, D = 0.01,  = 1.3 m. Estimate the maximum possible core
diameter for single mode operation.
Example 3: Repeat the above if the fiber is a step-index fiber