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UNIT II GSM and other 2G Architectures: GSM-services and system architecture, Radio interfaces of
GSM, Protocols of GSM, Localization, Call handling, GPRS system architecture. Wireless medium
access control, CDMA, 3G, 4G and 5G Communication: Modulation, Multiplexing, Controlling the
medium access, Spread spectrum, Coding methods, IMT-20003G wireless communication
standards, WCDMA3G communication standards, CDMA 3G communication standards, Broadband
wireless access, 4G networks, 5G Networks.

GSM in Wireless Communication

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a digital mobile network commonly utilized by
mobile phone users in Europe and around the world. GSM, the most popular of the three digital
wireless telephony systems (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA), is a version of time division multiple access
(TDMA). GSM converts and compresses data before sending it along a channel with two other streams
of user data, each with its time slot.

What is GSM?

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital cellular
technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands 850 MHz, 900 MHz,
1800 MHz, and 1900 MHz. It uses the combination of FDMA and TDMA.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells

• Macro: In this size of the cell, a Base Station antenna is installed.

• Micro: In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.

• Pico: Small cells’ diameter of a few meters.

• Umbrella: It covers the shadowed (Fills the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM

• Supports international roaming

• Clear voice clarity

• Ability to support multiple handheld devices.

• Spectral / frequency efficiency

• Low powered handheld devices.

• Ease of accessing network

• International ISDN compatibility.

• Low service cost.

• New features and services.

The Architecture of GSM

• BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between a
mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC.
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• NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of GSM. That
carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in network. NSS
have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.

• OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network
operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to offer
the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.

Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is connected
to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand the functionality of
different components.

• MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed for
communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME) +
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and that
tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises transmitter and
receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and receiving.

• BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless
communication between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.

• BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider the BSC
as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have BTS.

• MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication
switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding all
functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR, HLR,
AUC, EIR and PSTN.
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o VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the
exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC. If
you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the
database of VLR.

o HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing pertinent
data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network. If you purchase SIM card
from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like your ID proof, which
plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.

o AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile subscriber
that wants to connect in the network.

o EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the record
of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then you can’t
enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.

o PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with MSC.
PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost entirely
digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as fixed
telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but PSTN.

• OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the
performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces. Total three
interfaces are there:

• Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS and BTS is
called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of ISDN.

• Abis Interface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.

• A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.

How Does GSM Work?

GSM is a globally recognised digital cellular communication protocol. The GSM standard was
developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute to describe the procedures for
second-generation digital mobile networks, such as those used by mobile phones. It is a broad-area
communications technology programme that uses digital radio channelling to provide audio,
information, and multimedia communication systems. Every GSM radio channel is 200 kHz broad and
is further divided into frames of eight time slots. The GSM system consists of mobile stations, base
stations, and interweaving switching systems.
The GSM programme allows 8 to 16 audio users to share a single radio channel, and each radio
transmission station can have numerous radio channels. Because of its simplicity, cost, and
accessibility, GSM is now the most often utilised network technology in the Internet of Things (IoT).
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GSM

Services of GSM

• Bearer services/ data services: GSM specifies different mechanism for data transmission,
The original GSM allowing for data rates of up to 9600 bits/s. Bearer services permit
transparent or non transparent data transmission.

o Transparent bearer services: Transparent bearer services only use the physical layer
to transmit data. Data transmission has a constant delay at throughput if no
transmission error occurs.

o Non-transparent bearer services: Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of

layer two and three two three to implement error correction and flow control.(data link
layer and network layer).

• Tele services: Tele services are nothing but we use now as at also.Video calls.

o Video text and face emoji.

o Short text message(SMS).

• Supplementary services: Supplementary services it means advanced services.

o Conference calls.

o Call waiting.
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o Call forwarding.

• GSM security:GSM offers several security using confidential information stored in the AUC
and in the individual SIM. The SIM stores personal secret data and is protected with a pin
against unauthorized use.

Applications of GSM

• Mobile Telephony

• VoIP Integration

• SMS (Short Message Service)

• Mobile Banking

• Smart Home Systems

• Telemedicine

• Surveillance Systems

• Alarm System

• Cell Broadcasting

Advantages of GSM

• Compatibility: GSM is widely used around the world, so it is compatible with many different
networks and devices.

• Security: GSM offers enhanced security features such as authentication, encryption and
confidentiality, which helps to protect the user’s privacy and data.

• Efficient use of bandwidth: GSM uses a time-division multiplexing (TDM) technique which
enables many users to share the same frequency channel at different times, making it an
efficient use of the available bandwidth.

• Roaming: GSM allows users to roam internationally and use their mobile phones in other
countries that use the same GSM standard.

• Wide range of features: GSM supports a wide range of features, including call forwarding, call
waiting, voicemail, conference calling, and more.

Disadvantages of GSM

• Limited coverage: GSM networks may have limited coverage in some remote areas, which can
make it difficult for users to make calls or access the internet.

• Network congestion: GSM networks may become congested during peak hours, which can
lead to dropped calls or poor call quality.

• Security vulnerabilities: Although GSM offers enhanced security features, it is still vulnerable
to certain types of attacks, such as eavesdropping and spoofing.
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• Data transfer speed: GSM networks offer relatively slow data transfer speeds compared to
newer technologies such as 3G and 4G.

• Limited capacity: GSM networks have a limited capacity for handling large volumes of data,
which can be a disadvantage for users who require high-speed internet access or other data-
intensive applications.

Protocols of GSM IN Mobile computing

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is the most widely used mobile communication
standard, and its success is largely due to the layered structure of its protocols. GSM operates on
various protocols, each designed to perform specific tasks to enable smooth communication
between the mobile device and the network infrastructure. Here's a breakdown of the key protocols in
GSM:

1. Radio Interface (Um Interface) Protocols

These protocols deal with communication between the mobile device and the base station.

• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access): GSM uses TDMA to divide the frequency band into
time slots, allowing multiple users to share the same frequency channel.

• Frequency Hopping: GSM allows the system to switch between frequencies during
communication to minimize interference.

• GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying): This modulation scheme is used to convert digital
data into radio waves, which helps reduce interference and increase spectral efficiency.

2. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) Protocols

These are responsible for the core functions of call management and mobility management.

• BSSAP (Base Station Subsystem Application Part): It includes two parts:

o DTAP (Direct Transfer Application Part): Handles communication between the mobile
device and MSC (Mobile Switching Center) for call control, SMS, and supplementary
services.

o BSSMAP (Base Station Subsystem Management Application Part): Manages radio

resources and handovers between cells.

• MAP (Mobile Application Part): This protocol enables communication between various GSM
network entities like MSC, HLR (Home Location Register), VLR (Visitor Location Register), etc. It
supports services like roaming, handover, and authentication.

• SS7 (Signaling System No. 7): A global standard for telecommunication signaling that
facilitates setting up and tearing down calls, managing databases for mobile roaming, and
supporting mobility management protocols.

3. Mobility Management Protocols

These protocols manage the movement of users across different geographical areas while
maintaining active communication.
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• Location Updating: Whenever a mobile moves from one location area to another, it updates
its location in the VLR.

• Handover Protocols: When a user moves between cells during a call, handover protocols
ensure the call continues seamlessly. The handover process involves transferring the call from
one base station to another.

• Authentication Protocol (A3): Ensures that the user is legitimate by using a challenge-
response mechanism based on the subscriber's secret key (Ki).

• TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity): To protect the identity of the user, TMSI is used
to prevent sending the IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) over the air.

4. Call Control and Supplementary Services Protocols

These protocols manage voice calls, SMS, and other supplementary services like call forwarding, call
barring, etc.

• CC (Call Control): Deals with call setup, maintenance, and teardown between the user and
the network.

• SMS (Short Message Service): GSM uses a separate control channel for delivering text
messages. SMS uses both the Mobile Originating (MO) and Mobile Terminating (MT) protocols
for message transmission and reception.

• Supplementary Services: Includes services like call waiting, call forwarding, and multi-party
calls. These are controlled through specific signaling messages.

5. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) Protocols

While GSM was initially designed for circuit-switched communication (like voice), it evolved to
support packet-switched data (like the internet) through GPRS.

• SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): Provides routing, authentication, and mobility
management for GPRS users.

• GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): Connects the GPRS network to external data networks
like the internet.

• LLC (Logical Link Control): Handles error detection and retransmission at the link layer.

• SNDCP (Subnetwork Dependent Convergence Protocol): Compresses the data before

transmission over the air interface.

6. Security Protocols

GSM has several security features to protect against eavesdropping and fraud.

• A5 Encryption Algorithm: Encrypts the data sent over the air interface to prevent
eavesdropping.

• A8 Algorithm: Used to generate the encryption key using the Ki (subscriber's secret key) and a
random number.

Summary of Key Components in GSM Protocols:

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• TDMA: Time division for efficient use of frequency channels.

• MAP & BSSAP: Manage the core functionalities of call control, handover, and mobility.

• Location Updating and Handover: Ensure mobility management.

• Security (A3, A5, A8, TMSI): Protects user identity and communication confidentiality.

• GPRS Protocols: Introduces packet data services for internet connectivity.

GSM protocols are integral to ensuring a reliable, secure, and efficient mobile communication
system.

Localization and calling in mobile computing

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In mobile computing, localization and calling are two fundamental concepts that play a significant
role in delivering seamless communication and location-based services.

1. Localization in Mobile Computing

Localization refers to determining the geographical position of a mobile device, which is essential for
various applications like navigation, location-based services (LBS), and emergency services.

Types of Localization Techniques:

a. Network-based Localization

The mobile network infrastructure helps determine the location of the mobile device. This can be
done through:

• Cell ID (Cellular-based localization):

o Every base station (cell tower) has a unique identifier called Cell ID. The location of a
mobile device can be approximated by identifying the cell tower it is connected to.

o This method is quick but less accurate, with a precision of several hundred meters to a
few kilometers, depending on the size of the cell.

• Time of Arrival (ToA):

o Measures the time it takes for a signal to travel between the mobile device and multiple
base stations. The difference in arrival times helps triangulate the position of the device.

o More accurate than Cell ID but requires synchronization among base stations.

• Angle of Arrival (AoA):

o Determines the direction from which a signal is received at the base station. The
intersection of angles from multiple base stations helps locate the device.

o Accuracy depends on how well the angles are measured and the availability of multiple
base stations.
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• Enhanced Observed Time Difference (E-OTD):

o It improves upon ToA by adding extra information from the mobile device. The mobile
measures the time difference between signals received from multiple base stations and
reports back to the network, which helps in more accurate positioning.

b. Satellite-based Localization (GPS)

• GPS (Global Positioning System):

o Uses signals from multiple satellites to triangulate the location of the mobile device.

o It is one of the most accurate positioning systems with precision down to a few meters.

o Drawback: GPS may consume more power, and it requires a clear view of the sky, which
can be challenging indoors or in urban areas with many tall buildings.

c. Wi-Fi-based Localization

• Uses the strength of Wi-Fi signals from nearby access points to estimate the position of the
mobile device.

• Databases of known Wi-Fi networks (BSSIDs) can help in estimating location based on signal
strength and proximity to access points.

• Often used in indoor environments where GPS signals may be weak.

d. Sensor-based Localization

• Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and

magnetometers in mobile devices can track movement, estimate direction, and improve
location accuracy when GPS or other methods are unavailable.

• Bluetooth Beacons: These can be used for micro-location indoors, such as in shopping malls
or airports, providing high precision (within a few meters).

e. Hybrid Methods

• Combines multiple methods (GPS, Wi-Fi, cellular) to provide more accurate and reliable
localization, especially in challenging environments like urban areas or indoors.

Applications of Localization:

• Navigation apps (Google Maps, Apple Maps).

• Location-based services (LBS): Delivering targeted ads, restaurant recommendations, or

emergency services based on location.

• Geofencing: Notifying users or triggering actions when they enter/leave a defined geographic
area.

• Asset tracking and logistics for monitoring the movement of vehicles and goods.
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Calling in Mobile Computing

Calling in mobile computing involves enabling voice communication over mobile networks or the
internet. The two main types of calling technologies are circuit-switched and packet-switched
calling.

a. Circuit-switched Calling (Traditional GSM)

• Traditional GSM networks use circuit-switched technology for voice calls. In this method, a
dedicated communication channel is established between the caller and receiver for the entire
duration of the call.

• Steps involved in Circuit-switched Calling:

1. Call setup: The mobile device sends a call request to the network, and the Mobile
Switching Center (MSC) initiates the call setup.

2. Call establishment: A circuit is established through the network to reserve resources

for the call.

3. Call conversation: During the call, data (voice) is transmitted over the established
circuit.

4. Call termination: Once the conversation is complete, the circuit is released, freeing up
network resources.

• Disadvantages:

o Resource inefficient: A dedicated channel is used for the entire duration, even if there is
silence during the conversation.

o Higher latency compared to modern methods.

b. Packet-switched Calling (VoIP, VoLTE)

• Modern mobile networks use packet-switched technologies for voice calls. Instead of
reserving a dedicated channel, voice data is broken into small packets and transmitted over
shared data networks.

• VoIP (Voice over IP): Voice calls are made over the internet using protocols like SIP (Session
Initiation Protocol) and RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol).

o Applications: Skype, WhatsApp, Zoom.

• VoLTE (Voice over LTE): This is a high-speed wireless communication standard for mobile
phones using 4G LTE networks. It allows voice calls to be carried over LTE networks using
packet switching.

o VoLTE provides better call quality (HD Voice) compared to traditional GSM calls and
allows simultaneous use of voice and data services.

• Steps involved in Packet-switched Calling:

1. Call setup: Initiates the call over the data network using SIP (or other signaling protocols).
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2. Packet transmission: Voice is broken into small data packets and transmitted over the
internet or LTE network.

3. Reassembly: At the receiving end, the packets are reassembled, and the voice is
reconstructed in real-time.

4. Call termination: The session is closed after the call.

• Advantages:

o More efficient use of network resources.

o Can handle multimedia services along with voice (video calls, messaging).

o Enables HD Voice for clearer conversations.

c. Calling Protocols:

• SIP (Session Initiation Protocol): Used for establishing, modifying, and terminating voice or
video calls over the internet.

• RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol): Responsible for delivering the voice or video packets in
real-time.

• H.323: An older protocol suite for multimedia communication over packet-switched networks.

d. Roaming and Handover:

When a mobile device moves between different network areas during a call, roaming and handover
mechanisms ensure the call continues uninterrupted.

• Roaming: Allows users to continue using their mobile services (voice and data) when they
travel outside their home network.

• Handover: The process of transferring an active call or data session from one cell tower to
another as the user moves. This can happen within the same network or between different
network types (e.g., from 4G to 3G).

Localization in mobile computing refers to tracking the position of a mobile device using various
technologies like GPS, Wi-Fi, and cell tower triangulation.

Calling involves traditional circuit-switched voice calls in GSM networks and modern packet-
switched voice calls using VoIP and VoLTE over data networks.

Both localization and calling work together to provide mobile users with services like navigation,
emergency calling, and communication across different regions, even while on the move.

Wireless Medium Access Control

Wireless Medium Access Control (MAC) in mobile computing is crucial for managing how devices in
a shared wireless medium communicate without interference, ensuring efficient use of the available
bandwidth. The primary objectives of wireless MAC protocols are to minimize collisions, manage
interference, and provide fair access to the channel. Below are some key concepts and protocols
related to MAC in mobile computing:
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1. Challenges of Wireless MAC in Mobile Computing

• Dynamic Topology: Devices can join, leave, or move within the network frequently, which
affects connectivity and access.

• Limited Bandwidth: Wireless networks typically have less bandwidth compared to wired
networks, so efficient access is essential.

• Collision and Interference: Since multiple devices share the same medium, there's a high
chance of data collision, which MAC protocols aim to minimize.

• Power Constraints: Mobile devices often run on batteries, so power efficiency in data
transmission and idle listening is essential.

2. Types of Wireless MAC Protocols

• Contention-Based Protocols: These protocols rely on contention (or competition) for channel
access and are often used in decentralized networks.

o Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA): Common in Wi-
Fi networks (802.11), this protocol uses "listen before talk" to detect if the channel is
free. It reduces collisions by requiring devices to wait for a short period (DIFS) after the
channel becomes idle before transmitting.

o ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA: Early MAC protocols where devices transmit whenever
they have data to send, with Slotted ALOHA reducing collisions by requiring
transmissions to start at specific time slots.

• Scheduled Protocols: These allocate specific time slots or channels to devices to avoid
collisions.

o Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Each device is assigned a specific time slot,
ensuring no collisions occur. It's energy-efficient but requires synchronization.

o Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Allocates different frequency channels

to different devices, reducing interference but needing more complex frequency
management.

o Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Uses unique codes for each device, allowing
simultaneous transmissions on the same frequency. This is common in cellular
networks due to its robust handling of interference.

• Hybrid Protocols: These protocols combine features of contention-based and scheduled

approaches for a balance of efficiency and flexibility.

o Hybrid CSMA/TDMA: Used in some modern wireless systems, it uses CSMA for initial
access and then assigns a time slot for data transmission to reduce further collisions.

3. Power Efficiency in MAC Protocols

• Sleep and Wake Mechanisms: Many MAC protocols incorporate sleep modes to save battery
life on mobile devices. For example, in the 802.11 standard, devices can enter a power-saving
mode, waking up only to receive beacons and data intended for them.
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• Adaptive Protocols: Some MAC protocols adapt their behavior based on network conditions.
For instance, they may increase time in sleep mode during low network traffic, or reduce
transmission power when devices are close to each other.

4. Examples of Wireless MAC Protocol Standards

• IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi): Uses CSMA/CA for MAC and includes enhancements for quality of
service, security, and power management (e.g., 802.11e for QoS).

• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1): Uses a polling mechanism for MAC, where the master device
controls when slave devices can transmit.

• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4): Designed for low-power, low-data-rate communication, often in IoT. It
employs a combination of contention-based and scheduled MAC methods.

5. Emerging Trends in Wireless MAC for Mobile Computing

• Machine Learning for Dynamic Adaptation: MAC protocols are starting to integrate machine
learning algorithms to adapt to changing network conditions, optimize channel access, and
reduce collisions.

• Cognitive Radio Networks: These networks detect unused channels in the spectrum and
adaptively use them, allowing MAC protocols to operate in dynamically allocated spectrum,
increasing efficiency.

Wireless MAC protocols continue to evolve to meet the needs of high-speed, low-latency, and power-
efficient mobile communication. Each protocol is tailored to balance network efficiency, fairness,
power consumption, and collision minimization based on the specific needs of the wireless
environment and mobile devices.

Difference Between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access), TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), and CDMA (Code
Division Multiple Access) are three distinct multiple access techniques used in telecommunications
and wireless communication systems. These are all data transmission and communication
techniques. They are highly effective, but because of their unique features, they are used in
various ways. Each technique has advantages and drawbacks that make it suited for different
purposes.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is an acronym for Frequency Division Multiple Access. It serves as a channelization protocol,
where the available bandwidth is partitioned into distinct frequency bands. Each station receives a
dedicated band to transmit data, and this specific band remains exclusively reserved for that station
continuously. This technique ensures interference-free communication by separating the frequency
bands of different stations using guard bands. This process is comparable to data link layer access
methods, in which each station’s physical layer transforms data into a bandpass signal inside its
allocated frequency band, removing the requirement for a hardware multiplexer at that layer.
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Advantages

• It offers simplicity in terms of hardware resources and ease of use.

• FDMA is efficient in handling a smaller user population.

• The system maintains a moderate level of complexity.

• All stations can operate continuously without waiting for their turn.

• It lowers inter-symbol interference.

• The lower information bit rate can positively impact capacity.

Disadvantages

• It exclusively works with analog signals.

• Flexibility is limited, necessitating gradual changes to existing traffic patterns.

• The maximum bit rate per channel is both small and fixed.

• Transponders demand extensive bandwidth.

• RF (Radio Frequency) filters need to meet strict adjacent channel rejection requirements,
potentially increasing the system’s cost.

• The carrying capacity of the traffic is not very high.

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Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA is an acronym for Time Division Multiple Access. It serves as a channelization protocol where
the channel’s bandwidth is distributed among different stations based on time. Each station is
provided with a specific time window for transmitting data. It is essential that each station only
transmit data within that time slot. The synchronization between stations is critical for successful
TDMA implementation. This technique is similar to a data link layer access method, in which the data
link layer tells each station to use its given time slot exclusively.

Advantages

• With decreasing cell sizes, TDMA offers notable savings in investment for space, support, and
base station hardware.

• It supports data transmission speeds spanning 64 kbps to 120 Mbps.

• TDMA’s time-based separation ensures interference-free concurrent transmission.

• Administrative tasks like fax, voiceband data, SMS, and multimedia applications including
video conferencing can be efficiently managed using TDMA.

• TDMA easily adjusts to data transmission and voice communication requirements.

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• TDMA increases the battery life of the client by communicating alone for part of the time during
conversations.

Disadvantages

• If all time slots in the current and target cells are already allocated, users might not be able to
connect to a call due to specific slot assignments.

• Frequency and slot allocation can be intricate in the TDMA setup.

• To achieve high data rates in TDMA, equalization is required.

• Network and spectrum planning in TDMA is complex and time-intensive, demanding

substantial expertise and resources.

• The emphasis is on organisation and range arrangement.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA is an acronym for Code Division Multiple Access, a combination of FDMA and TDMA in which
the allocation of resources is affected by both frequency and time. FDMA allocates the frequency
band to multiple users during a session, while TDMA offers each user the entire frequency band for a
specified session. Conversely, CDMA combines elements from both systems, enabling multiple
users to employ the same frequency band simultaneously, differentiated by distinct codes.
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In the above diagram, four stations are labelled 1, 2, 3, and 4. Each station is associated with specific
data labelled d1, d2, d3, and d4, respectively. Additionally, corresponding to each station, there is an
assigned code denoted as c1, c2, c3, and c4.

Advantages

• CDMA has an extremely high spectral capacity, allowing it to accommodate a large number of
users over a wide bandwidth.

• Synchronization is not required in CDMA operation.

• CDMA channels present decoding challenges, enhancing the security of cellular

communication.

• It improves transmission security.

• Dropouts occur only when the user is twice the distance from the base station.

Disadvantages

• Channel pollution is a key issue in the CDMA system, which occurs when a user’s phone
connects to many cell sites with various intensities, but only one site is powerful.

• CDMA, as a newer technology than GSM, lacks the same level of maturity as an organization.

• Time synchronization is required for CDMA.

• The CDMA system’s performance degrades as the number of users increases.

• The cost is high due to the need for extensive equipment.

Detailed Comparison between FDMA, TDMA and CDMA

The following are some of the differences between FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA:

• FDMA divides a single bandwidth into sub-channels and distributes it among numerous
stations, whereas TDMA just shares the time of transmission through the satellite, not the
channel. CDMA, on the other hand, divides time and bandwidth among several stations by
assigning a unique code to each slot.

• FDMA requires just guard bands between neighbouring channels, but TDMA requires guard
time between adjacent slots. CDMA, on the other hand, requires both guard time and guard
bands to ensure optimal operation.

• FDMA operates at a low data rate, while TDMA operates at a medium data rate. In contrast,
CDMA operates at a significantly higher data rate.

• FDMA operates without requiring synchronization, while the TDMA system necessitates
synchronization. Conversely, CDMA operates without the need for any synchronization.
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• FDMA has a significantly low cell capacity, while TDMA likewise has a limited cell capacity.
CDMA, on the other hand, has no inherent limitation for a channel, though its performance can
be affected by interference.

• In FDMA, a codeword is unnecessary, and the same applies to TDMA. Conversely, CDMA relies
on the use of a codeword for its operation.

• FDMA is accomplished by frequency domain filtering, whereas TDMA is accomplished through

time domain synchronisation. CDMA, on the other hand, operates through codes and
specialised receivers.

• FDMA has less flexibility, but TDMA has considerable flexibility. CDMA, on the other hand,
has a high level of flexibility.

SDMA

Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is a technique used in mobile computing and wireless
communications to improve the efficiency of the wireless medium by leveraging the spatial
separation of users. It is based on the idea of using multiple antennas and advanced signal
processing to focus signal beams in specific directions, allowing multiple users to share the same
frequency and time resources simultaneously.

Key Features of SDMA in Mobile Computing:

1. Spatial Separation:

o SDMA allows users located in different spatial locations (directions) to communicate

over the same frequency and time without interference.

o The system uses directional antennas or beamforming techniques to direct signals to or

from specific users.

2. Beamforming:

o This technique involves adjusting the phase and amplitude of the signals at different
antennas to create a focused beam towards the intended user. Beamforming helps to
reduce interference by limiting the area in which the signal is transmitted.

3. Increased Capacity:

o By using SDMA, the overall network capacity is increased because multiple users can
use the same resources (frequency, time) at the same time, provided they are spatially
separated.

o This is particularly useful in crowded environments, such as urban areas or stadiums.

4. Application in MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) Systems:

o SDMA is often used in conjunction with MIMO, where multiple antennas are used at
both the transmitter and receiver to exploit spatial diversity.

o In 4G LTE and 5G networks, SDMA is a critical component of MIMO systems that

enables higher data rates and better performance.
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5. Reduction of Interference:

o Since SDMA relies on directional communication, it reduces interference between

users in different spatial regions, which improves the quality of service and reduces
packet loss.

SDMA in Modern Networks:

• 5G Networks: SDMA is widely used in 5G networks, where beamforming and massive MIMO
technology enable efficient spatial separation of users, enhancing network performance,
especially in dense environments.

• Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax): Wi-Fi 6 also benefits from spatial division techniques by using
beamforming to target devices more efficiently, increasing the network's ability to handle more
devices simultaneously.

Overall, SDMA is an essential technology in modern mobile communication systems, allowing for
more efficient use of the wireless spectrum and supporting higher user densities and data rates.

3G, 4G and 5G Communication:

3G, 4G, and 5G are successive generations of mobile communication technology, each bringing
advances in speed, capacity, latency, and supported applications.

3G Communication (Third Generation)

• Release: Early 2000s

• Speed: Up to 2 Mbps for stationary users, 384 Kbps for moving users

• Technology: Primarily CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) and WCDMA (Wideband
CDMA) with some TD-SCDMA (China).

• Key Features:

o Enabled mobile internet access and supported multimedia messaging, video calling,
and basic internet browsing.

o Used packet-switching alongside circuit-switching, improving efficiency over 2G.

o Standards like UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) provided a

framework for high-speed mobile internet.

• Limitations: Limited data speeds for more data-intensive applications; was slow compared to
later generations for streaming, gaming, and other high-data activities.

4G Communication (Fourth Generation)

• Release: Late 2000s (commercially launched around 2009-2010)

• Speed: Up to 100 Mbps for high-mobility communication (e.g., users in cars) and up to 1 Gbps
for low-mobility (stationary) communication.

• Technology: Based on OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) and MIMO
(Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) for increased data capacity and efficiency.
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• Key Features:

o Supports high-speed internet, HD streaming, real-time gaming, and video conferencing.

o IP-based network: Fully packet-switched, which streamlined services and improved

internet speed and performance.

o LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and LTE Advanced provided faster data rates and more
stable connections.

o Quality of Service (QoS): Prioritized different types of data, ensuring high quality for
streaming and voice services.

• Limitations: Still limited in terms of very low latency (e.g., for critical applications in remote
surgery or autonomous driving).

5G Communication (Fifth Generation)

• Release: 2019 onward (continuing deployment and evolution)

• Speed: Up to 10 Gbps theoretically; real-world speeds vary but are significantly higher than
4G.

• Technology: Millimeter Waves (mmWave), Beamforming, Massive MIMO, SDMA (Spatial

Division Multiple Access), and Network Slicing for advanced functionality.

• Key Features:

o Ultra-Low Latency: Can reach latency levels as low as 1 ms, critical for real-time
applications like AR/VR, autonomous vehicles, and remote medical procedures.

o High Device Density: Supports up to 1 million devices per square kilometer, which is
essential for IoT (Internet of Things) applications.

o Network Slicing: Creates virtual networks within a single physical 5G network to

support specific needs, such as enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), massive
Machine-Type Communication (mMTC), and Ultra-Reliable Low Latency
Communication (URLLC).

o Energy Efficiency: Designed for lower energy consumption per bit, which helps with
sustainability and supports long battery life for IoT devices.

o Backward Compatibility: 5G networks support fallback to 4G in areas where 5G is not

yet deployed.

• Limitations: Limited coverage of mmWave technology; infrastructure upgrades are costly, and
rural coverage may lag initially.

Summary Table

Feature 3G 4G 5G

Max Speed Up to 2 Mbps Up to 1 Gbps Up to 10 Gbps

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Feature 3G 4G 5G

Latency ~100 ms ~30-50 ms 1 ms (in ideal conditions)

CDMA, WCDMA,
Technology OFDMA, MIMO, LTE mmWave, Beamforming, SDMA, Slicing
UMTS

Web browsing, basic HD video, mobile AR/VR, IoT, autonomous vehicles,

Use Cases
video gaming remote healthcare

Frequency
1-2 GHz 2-8 GHz 24 GHz and above (mmWave)
Bands

Each generation builds upon the last, addressing the shortcomings and pushing the boundaries of
speed, latency, and capacity to support evolving digital lifestyles and industries.

Spread Spectrum in Mobile Computing

Spread spectrum is a technique used for wireless communications in telecommunication and radio
communication. In this technique, the frequency of the transmitted signal, i.e., an electrical signal,
electromagnetic signal, or acoustic signal, is deliberately varied and generates a much greater
bandwidth than the signal would have if its frequency were not varied.

In other words, "Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the transmitted signals of specific
frequencies are varied slightly to obtain greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth."

Now, spread spectrum technology is widely used in radio signals transmission because it can easily
reduce noise and other signal issues.

Example of Spread Spectrum

We know that a conventional wireless signal frequency is usually specified in megahertz (MHz) or
gigahertz (GHz). It does not change with time (Sometimes it is exceptionally changed in the form of
small, rapid fluctuations that generally occur due to modulation). Suppose you want to listen
to FM stereo at frequency 104.8 MHz on your radio, and then once you set the frequency, the signal
stays at 104.8 MHz. It does not go up to 105.1 MHz or down to 101.1 MHz. You see that your set digits
on the radio's frequency dial stay the same at all times. The frequency of a conventional wireless
signal is kept as constant to keep bandwidth within certain limits, and the signal can be easily located
by someone who wants to retrieve the information.

In this conventional wireless communication model, you can face at least two problems:

1. A signal whose frequency is constant is subject to catastrophic interference. This interference

occurs when another signal is transmitted on or near the frequency of a specified signal.

2. A constant-frequency signal can easily be intercepted. So, it is not suitable for the applications
in which information must be kept confidential between the source (transmitting party) and the
receiver.
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The spread spectrum model is used to overcome with this conventional communication model. Here,
the transmitted signal frequency is deliberately varied over a comparatively large segment of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum. This variation is done according to a specific but complicated
mathematical function. If the receiver wants to intercept the signal, it must be tuned to frequencies
that vary precisely according to this function.

Reasons to use Spread Spectrum

o Spread spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of frequencies and then collected
and received back to the receiver. On the other hand, wide-band signals are noise-like and
challenging to detect.

o Initially, the spread spectrum was adopted in military applications because of its resistance to
jamming and difficulty intercepting.

o Now, this is also used in commercial wireless communication.

o It is most preferred because of its useful bandwidth utilization ability.

Usage of Spread Spectrum

There are many reasons to use this spread spectrum technique for wireless communications. The
following are some reasons:

o It can successfully establish a secure medium of communication.

o It can increase the resistance to natural interference, such as noise and jamming, to prevent
detection.

o It can limit the power flux density (e.g., in satellite down links).

o It can enable multiple-access communications.

Types of Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum can be categorized into two types:

o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

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o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us to utilize bandwidth properly and
maximum. In this technique, the whole available bandwidth is divided into many channels and
spread between channels, arranged continuously.

o The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency signals are transmitted according to
their occupancy.

o The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels available for a particular amount
of time in milliseconds.

o So, you can see that it implements the frequency division multiplexing and time-division
multiplexing simultaneously in FHSS.

The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS can also be classified into two types:

o Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a specific frequency or same
frequency.

o Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then transmitted on different
frequencies.

Advantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The following are some advantages of frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS):

o The biggest advantage of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is its high efficiency.

o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS signals are highly resistant to narrowband
interference because the signal hops to a different frequency band.

o It requires a shorter time for acquisition.

o It is highly secure. Its signals are very difficult to intercept if the frequency-hopping pattern is
not known; that's why it is preferred to use in Military services.
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o We can easily program it to avoid some portions of the spectrum.

o Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS transmissions can share a frequency band with
many types of conventional transmissions with minimal mutual interference. FHSS signals add
minimal interference to narrowband communications, and vice versa.

o It provides a very large bandwidth.

o It can be simply implemented as compared to DsSS.

Disadvantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The following are some disadvantages of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

o FHSS is less Robust, so sometimes it requires error correction.

o FHSS needs complex frequency synthesizers.

o FHSS supports a lower data rate of 3 Mbps as compared to the 11 Mbps data rate supported by
DSSS.

o It is not very useful for range and range rate measurements.

o It supports the lower coverage range due to the high SNR requirement at the receiver.

o Nowadays, it is not very popular due to the emerging of new wireless technologies in wireless
products.

Applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

Following is the list of most used applications of Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS:

o The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS is used in wireless local area networks
(WLAN) standard for Wi-Fi.

o FHSS is also used in the wireless personal area networks (WPAN) standard for Bluetooth.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a spread-spectrum modulation technique primarily
used to reduce overall signal interference in telecommunication. The Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum modulation makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth than the information
bandwidth. In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit sequencing process known as a
spreading sequence. This spreading-sequence bit is known as a chip. It has a much shorter duration
(larger bandwidth) than the original message bits. Following are the features of Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum or DSSS.

o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS technique, the data that needs to be
transmitted is split into smaller blocks.

o After that, each data block is attached with a high data rate bit sequence and is transmitted
from the sender end to

o the receiver end.

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o Data blocks are recombined again to generate the original data at the receiver's end, which
was sent by the sender, with the help of the data rate bit sequence.

o If somehow data is lost, then data blocks can also be recovered with those data rate bits.

o The main advantage of splitting the data into smaller blocks is that it reduces the noise and
unintentional inference.

The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS can also be classified into two types:

o Wide Band Spread Spectrum

o Narrow Band Spread Spectrum

Advantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The following are some advantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is less reluctant to noise; that's why the DSSS
system's performance in the presence of noise is better than the FHSS system.

o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS, signals are challenging to detect.

o It provides the best discrimination against multipath signals.

o In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum, there are very few chances of jamming because it
avoids intentional interference such as jamming effectively.

Disadvantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

The following are some disadvantages of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:

o The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS system takes large acquisition time; that's why
its performance is slow.

o It requires wide-band channels with small phase distortion.

o In DSSS, the pseudo-noise generator generates a sequence at high rates.

Applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Following is the list of most used applications of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS:
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o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is used in LAN technology.

o Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS is also used in Satellite communication

technology.

o DSSS is used in the military and many other commercial applications.

o It is used in the low probability of the intercept signal.

o It supports Code division multiple access.

IMT-2000

IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000) is a set of standards for third-generation

(3G) wireless communications. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) developed the IMT-
2000 standards to improve on the performance of second-generation mobile communication
systems.

Here are some of the key features of IMT-2000:

• Data rates

IMT-2000 systems provide peak data rates of 2 Mbit/s for fixed stations and 384 kbit/s for mobile
stations.

• Frequency band

IMT-2000 systems use a frequency band around 2000 MHz.

• Services

IMT-2000 systems support a wide range of services, including voice, data, multimedia, and internet.

• Global coverage

IMT-2000 systems integrate satellite and terrestrial systems to provide global coverage.

• Seamless roaming

IMT-2000 systems enable users to move across borders while using the same number and handset.

IMT-2000 systems were developed and deployed around the year 2000. The term "IMT Advanced"
refers to the evolution of IMT-2000 to include new radio technologies and advanced network
infrastructure capabilities.

IMT-2000 Network Architecture

The IMT-2000 framework is a convergence of 3G systems like high-speed data transmission,

multimedia content, and other services like voice. The architecture of an IMT-2000 network typically
consists of several key components:

Architecture of IMT-2000
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1. User Equipment (UE): UE refers to the portable devices defined as mobile stations for the users of
the IMT-2000 Â network. Equipped with these devices are such communication devices as
smartphones, tablets, and laptops, as well as other mobile terminals that work over the 3G network.

2. Radio Access Network (RAN): The RAN (Radio Access Network) acts as the form of
communication within the set of cells between the user equipment and the core network, thus
forming the wireless connection. The node that connects to the radio access network consists of a
BTS station, or Node B in the UMTS/WCDMA case, and radio network controllers. The functions
performed by the RAN involve issues related to radio resource management, such as radio resource
allocation, handovers between cells, and radio bearer control.

3. Core Network (CN): The core provides connectivity between the equipment and external network
systems, including the Internet, PSTN, and other mobile networks, using the communication
backbone. The core network includes several key elements: The core network includes several key
elements:

• Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The responsibility of the MSC includes the sudden demand
as well as the failure of circuit-switched services such as voice calls, data, and SMS. It is
responsible for making and handling calls for mobile users; it keep the calls routed to ensure
that the calls don’t disconnect and are terminated.

• Packet Switched Gateway (PSG): PSG provides switched datagram service inside the IMT-
2000 with such tasks as IP address assignment; this process involves protocols like routing
and QoS management, for instance, for data services.

• Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): The GGSN is the interface in the GSM/UMTS networks
to the IMT-2000 net and the outside world, which includes the internet. It undertakes IP
address allocation and manages the mobile data traffic, which consists of packet routing.

• Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): The SGSN participates in the administration of network
movement without the boundaries of mobile equipment, taking into consideration the location
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of mobile devices where appropriate, and provides users with smooth call handovers between
different RAN cells.

• Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR): These databases keep
information about subscribers and location data from which the network can and will
authenticate the users and keep the subscription profiles and services that are location-
based.

4. Interconnection Network: This network communicates by utilizing IMT-2000 technology, literally

interconnecting internal components of the IMT-2000 network with external networks and service
providers. This enables subscribers to be able to interact seamlessly with other networks and
services, which include voice calls to PSTN subscribers or internet access.

What is WCDMA in Wireless Networks?

Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) is a type of cellular technology that was
developed as a third-generation (3G) mobile communications standard. It is based on the Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technologies that were developed in the 1980s, but it uses a wider
frequency band and provides higher data rates than previous versions of CDMA.

WCDMA was developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), a collaboration between
several telecommunications standards organizations. The first version of the WCDMA standard was
released in 1998, and it was later adopted by many mobile network operators around the world as a
way to provide high-speed data services to their customers.

The development of WCDMA began in the late 1990s, and the first WCDMA networks were launched
in Japan in 2001. There were 100s of WCDMA networks open and in total 150 operators were available
with licenses for frequencies of WCDMA operations. Now WCDMA networks are deployed in Europe
and Asia in the UMTS band of around 2 GHz. WCDMA is also known as Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS), which is the third generation (3G) mobile
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telecommunications standard developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
WCDMA was one of the two main 3G technologies that were standardized by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), along with TD-SCDMA.

WCDMA was widely adopted as the dominant 3G technology in many parts of the world, including
Europe, Asia, and North America. It offered several benefits over the 2G (second generation) mobile
networks that it replaced, including higher data rates, improved capacity, and better coverage.

WCDMA has evolved over time, and later versions of the standard (such as High-Speed Packet
Access, or HSPA) have been developed to provide even higher data rates and more efficient use of the
spectrum. Today, WCDMA and its successors are used by billions of people around the world as a
means of accessing the internet and staying connected with others.

WCDMA was eventually superseded by more advanced 4G (fourth generation) technologies, such
as LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access),
which offer even higher data rates and improved performance. However, WCDMA is still used in many
parts of the world, especially in areas where 4G networks are not yet available or are not yet widely
adopted.

Advantage:

One major advantage of WCDMA is its ability to handle large amounts of data, making it well-suited
for applications such as mobile internet browsing and streaming video. It also has good coverage and
reliability, as it is able to transmit signals over long distances and through physical barriers such as
walls and buildings.

Disadvantage:

However, there are also some disadvantages to WCDMA. One drawback is that it requires a more
complex and expensive infrastructure to support its wideband frequency bands. It is also more
susceptible to interference from other sources, such as other wireless devices or electrical
equipment. Additionally, WCDMA has been superseded by newer, faster mobile technologies such as
4G and 5G.

Overall, WCDMA has played an important role in the evolution of mobile telecommunications, but it
has been replaced by newer technologies that offer improved performance and capacity.

Broadband wireless access

Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) in mobile computing refers to high-speed wireless internet
services delivered over a large area, providing reliable, high-capacity network connectivity without the
need for physical wires. BWA is central to mobile computing, as it enables devices like smartphones,
tablets, and laptops to connect to the internet seamlessly from nearly any location within the service
area.

Key Components and Types of BWA

1. Fixed Wireless Access (FWA):

o Provides broadband service to fixed locations (homes, offices) using wireless

technology instead of fiber or copper.
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o Often used in rural or remote areas where running physical cables is challenging or
costly.

o Technologies include WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) and

5G FWA, which provides high speeds for home and business broadband over cellular
networks.

2. Mobile Wireless Access:

o Enables broadband connectivity on-the-go, supporting mobile devices across large

areas.

o Utilizes cellular networks (3G, 4G LTE, and 5G) to provide consistent, high-speed data
services.

o Relies on cellular towers and base stations to provide continuous network coverage
as users move.

3. Satellite Broadband Access:

o Delivers broadband via satellites, useful for remote areas where terrestrial
infrastructure is unavailable.

o Limited by higher latency and can be affected by weather, but modern low-Earth orbit
(LEO) satellites, such as those from Starlink, have improved performance.

4. Wi-Fi-Based BWA:

o Wi-Fi networks also provide broadband access, although typically within a more
confined area (hotspots, homes, public areas).

o Often used as a local extension of broader network access, supporting high speeds
within a limited range.

Characteristics and Benefits of BWA in Mobile Computing

• High Data Rates: Provides sufficient speeds for data-intensive applications, such as HD
streaming, online gaming, and video conferencing.

• Broad Coverage: Particularly with mobile and satellite BWA, users can stay connected over
large geographical areas, facilitating mobile work, travel, and communication.

• Flexible Deployment: Wireless broadband is relatively easy to set up compared to wired

connections, especially in hard-to-reach locations or for temporary installations.

• Low Latency: Especially with 5G networks, BWA offers low latency, essential for real-time
applications like online gaming, AR/VR, and autonomous systems.

• Scalability: BWA can be scaled up with additional infrastructure, making it adaptable for
expanding urban areas or remote regions where demand for internet access is growing.

Technologies Behind BWA in Mobile Computing

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• OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) and MIMO (Multiple-Input
Multiple-Output): Used in 4G and 5G to improve spectrum efficiency, enabling high data rates
and better handling of multiple simultaneous connections.

• Beamforming and Massive MIMO in 5G: Directs wireless signals more efficiently towards
devices, improving capacity and reducing interference in high-density environments.

• Network Slicing: Specific to 5G, network slicing allocates distinct network “slices” to different
types of services (e.g., high-speed data, low-latency communication), optimizing the network
for varied use cases.

Applications of BWA in Mobile Computing

1. Internet of Things (IoT): Enables vast networks of connected devices, from smart home
gadgets to industrial sensors.

2. Mobile Work and Remote Access: Supports remote work by providing reliable internet
connections anywhere in the coverage area.

3. Smart Cities and Public Safety: Facilitates connected infrastructure and safety measures by
providing high-speed, widespread connectivity.

4. Entertainment and Social Media: Supports on-the-go access to high-bandwidth applications

like streaming and live interactions.

5. Emergency Services and Disaster Recovery: Provides critical communication services when
traditional infrastructure might be compromised.

Broadband wireless access, especially through mobile networks like 4G and 5G, has become
essential in modern mobile computing, enabling high-speed, low-latency, and wide-coverage
connectivity essential for the expanding array of connected devices and applications.
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