Practical Information

Data Visualization Lecturers Teaching Assistants

IN4089 Data Visualization

Thomas Höllt - Computer Graphics & Visualization
Nafie
* Nicolas
Thomas Höllt Elmar Eisemann Martin Skrodzki
[email protected] Soumyadeep
Casper

Contact: Brightspace forum for organization, answers.ewi.tudelft.nl for content

[*xkcd] 2

Practical Information Lectures

• Lectures: On Campus lecture hall Boole • No mandatory attendance, but strongly advised
• Labs: • No streaming/recording
• answers.ewi.tudelft.nl for questions (use/follow tag in4089) • Previous years lectures are on Collegerama
• Hands on session Wednesdays 8:45-12:30 in PC Hall 2 (+3), Drebbelweg (no guarantee on completeness wrt this years course)
• Exams: hand-written, on campus" Register no later than 2 weeks before" • Book (extra information)
• Brightspace • Visualization Analysis and Design, Tamara Munzner
• Project assignments ebook: TU Delft Library

• Lecture slides, Papers, etc.

3 4
Projects Labs
• 2 Projects: • No mandatory attendance
• Information Visualization (Open, recommendation: javascript / D3) • Time to work on projects with access to support
• See D3Intro on Brightspace to get started • We will be available in for feedback/discussion during the lab hours
• Volume Visualization (C++) - 50% group, 50% individual

• Groups of 3
• Same group for both projects.
• Work on and bring up issues early"
• Make groups now" Group Finding channel on Brightspace

5 6

Assessment Tentative Schedule

Tuesday Wednesday

• This is IN4089 and gives 5 Credits" 8:45 – 10:30 8:45 – 12:30

Introduction Color Perception

15th Nov. 16th Nov. (11:00)

• Final Mark
Design Study Methodology Flipped Classroom

22th Nov. Visualization Idioms 23th Nov. InfoVis

• Written exam (30%) 29th Nov. MCV, Interaction, Animation 30th Nov. InfoVis

• 2 Projects (70%, 35% each)

Graphs
6th Dec. 7th Dec. InfoVis
Dimensionality Reduction

Course is passed if the final combined grade is 6 or higher

13th Dec. Virtual Reality 14th Dec. InfoVis
•
20th Dec. Direct Volume Rendering 21th Dec. InfoVis/VolVis InfoVis Project Deadline: 06.01.2023

• Each component has to get the mark of 5 or higher 10th Jan. Indirect Volume Rendering 11th Jan. VolVis

• Exam: 17th Jan. Vector Field Visualization 18th Jan. VolVis lecture
lab

• Lecture material" You should show you understand and can apply what was discussed. 31th Jan. Exam exam
VolVis Project Deadline: 03.02.2023

7 8
 "
Questions!
Visualization is the process that transforms
(abstract) data into interactive graphical representations
for the purpose of
exploration, confirmation, or presentation.

10

A B C D A B C D
x y x y x y x y x y x y x y x y
1 8. 1 9. 1 7. 8. 6. 1 8. 1 9. 1 7. 8. 6.
0.
8. 04
6. 0.
8. 1
8. 0.
8. 46
6. 0
8. 58
5. 0.
8. 04
6. 0.
8. 1
8. 0.
8. 46
6. 0
8. 58
5.
0
1 95
7. 0
1 1
8. 0
1 77
12 0
8. 76
7. 0
1 95
7. 0
1 1
8. 0
1 77
12 0
8. 76
7.
3.
9. 58
8. 3.
9. 7
8. 3.
9. .7
7. 0
8. 71
8. 3.
9. 58
8. 3.
9. 7
8. 3.
9. .7
7. 0
8. 71
8.
0
1 81
8. 0
1 7
9. 0
1 11
7. 0
8. 84
8. 0
1 81
8. 0
1 7
9. 0
1 11
7. 0
8. 84
8.
1.
1 33
9. 1.
1 2
8. 1.
1 81
8. 0
8. 47
7. 1.
1 33
9. 1.
1 2
8. 1.
1 81
8. 0
8. 47
7.
4.
6. 96
7. 4.
6. 1
6. 4.
6. 84
6. 0
8. 04
5. 4.
6. 96
7. 4.
6. 1
6. 4.
6. 84
6. 0
8. 04
5.
0
4. 24
4. 0
4. 1
3. 0
4. 08
5. 0
1 25
12 0
4. 24
4. 0
4. 1
3. 0
4. 08
5. 0
1 25
12
0
1 26
10 0
1 1
9. 0
1 39
8. 9.
8. .5
5. 0
1 26
10 0
1 1
9. 0
1 39
8. 9.
8. .5
5.
2.
7. .8
4. 2.
7. 1
7. 2.
7. 15
6. 0
8. 56
7. 2.
7. .8
4. 2.
7. 1
7. 2.
7. 15
6. 0
8. 56
7.
0
5. 82
5. 0
5. 2
4. 0
5. 42
5. 0
8. 91
6. 0
5. 82
5. 0
5. 2
4. 0
5. 42
5. 0
8. 91
6.
0 68 0 7 0 73 0 89 0 68 0 7 0 73 0 89

Visualization is the process that transforms Visualization is the process that transforms
(abstract) data into interactive graphical representations (abstract) data into interactive graphical representations
for the purpose of for the purpose of
exploration, confirmation, or presentation. exploration, confirmation, or presentation.

10 10
Three Types of Goals Visualization for Data Exploration I
Present • Can’t machines do (learn) that#
• “Everything” known about the data,
• Machine learning is great for
➫ Visualization used for Communication of results
• Well defined problems
Analyze
• Verifying Hypothesis
• There are hypotheses
➫ Visualization used Verification or Falsification • Not so great for
Explore • Finding the unknown
• Nothing is known • Fuzzy problems
➫ Visualization used for data Exploration • Hypothesis generation

11 12

Visualization for Data Exploration II Numbers do not tell the whole story…
• Interactive Visualization / Visual Analytics
A B C D

x y x y x y x y

• Human visual system

10.0 8.04 10.0 9.14 10.0 7.46 8.0 6.58

8.0 6.95 8.0 8.14 8.0 6.77 8.0 5.76

great at pattern recognition 13.0 7.58 13.0 8.74 13.0 12.74 8.0 7.71

Show the data for

9.0 8.81 9.0 8.77 9.0 7.11 8.0 8.84

• 11.0 8.33 11.0 9.26 11.0 7.81 8.0 8.47

initial/early exploration 14.0 9.96 14.0 8.10 14.0 8.84 8.0 7.04

6.0 7.24 6.0 6.13 6.0 6.08 8.0 5.25

• Sometimes statistics only tell half the story 4.0 4.26 4.0 3.10 4.0 5.39 19.0 12.50

12.0 10.84 12.0 9.13 12.0 8.15 8.0 5.56

7.0 4.82 7.0 7.26 7.0 6.42 8.0 7.91

5.0 5.68 5.0 4.74 5.0 5.73 8.0 6.89

Anscombe’s Quartet
13 14
Numbers do not tell the whole story… Numbers do not tell the whole story…
15 15
A B C D
Statistics: A B C D R2 = 0.6665 R2 = 0.6662
12 12
x y x y x y x y x y x y x y x y

10.0 8.04 10.0 9.14 10.0 7.46 8.0 6.58

Mean(x): A=B=C=D=9 exact 10.0 8.04 10.0 9.14 10.0 7.46 8.0 6.58 9 9

8.0 6.95 8.0 8.14 8.0 6.77 8.0 5.76

Variance(x): A=B=C=D=11 exact 8.0 6.95 8.0 8.14 8.0 6.77 8.0 5.76
6 6

13.0 7.58 13.0 8.74 13.0 12.74 8.0 7.71 13.0 7.58 13.0 8.74 13.0 12.74 8.0 7.71 A B
Mean(y): A=B=C=D=7.50 (2 decimals) 3
3 7 11 15 19
3
3 7 11 15 19
9.0 8.81 9.0 8.77 9.0 7.11 8.0 8.84 9.0 8.81 9.0 8.77 9.0 7.11 8.0 8.84

11.0 8.33 11.0 9.26 11.0 7.81 8.0 8.47 Variance(y): A=B=C=D=4.125 (+/- 0.003) 11.0 8.33 11.0 9.26 11.0 7.81 8.0 8.47

14.0 9.96 14.0 8.10 14.0 8.84 8.0 7.04 14.0 9.96 14.0 8.10 14.0 8.84 8.0 7.04
Correlation(x,y): A=B=C=D=816 (3 decimals) 15 15
6.0 7.24 6.0 6.13 6.0 6.08 8.0 5.25 6.0 7.24 6.0 6.13 6.0 6.08 8.0 5.25 R2 = 0.6663 R2 = 0.6667
12 12
4.0 4.26 4.0 3.10 4.0 5.39 19.0 12.50 4.0 4.26 4.0 3.10 4.0 5.39 19.0 12.50

12.0 10.84 12.0 9.13 12.0 8.15 8.0 5.56 12.0 10.84 12.0 9.13 12.0 8.15 8.0 5.56 9 9

7.0 4.82 7.0 7.26 7.0 6.42 8.0 7.91 7.0 4.82 7.0 7.26 7.0 6.42 8.0 7.91
6 6

5.0 5.68 5.0 4.74 5.0 5.73 8.0 6.89 5.0 5.68 5.0 4.74 5.0 5.73 8.0 6.89 C D
3 3
3 7 11 15 19 3 7 11 15 19

Anscombe’s Quartet Anscombe’s Quartet

14 15

http://blog.revolutionanalytics.com/2017/05/the-datasaurus-dozen.html
16 http://blog.revolutionanalytics.com/2017/05/the-datasaurus-dozen.html
16
 we are great at pattern recognition find the red dot

Data Visualization

visualization pictures
! !
History stock market
https://www.flickr.com/photos/watz/2962012261/ The purpose of computing is insight, not numbers.
http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/learn-more/chart-dos-and-donts

- Richard Wesley Hamming

19 - Card, Mackinlay, Shneiderman
Data Visualization Two Main Flavors of Visualization
Non-Spatial Data Spatial Field Data
Information Visualization Scientific Visualization

History stock market

https://www.flickr.com/photos/watz/2962012261/

http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/learn-more/chart-dos-and-donts

http://www.valuewalk.com/2014/06/bubbles-history-shows-us-bonds-stocks/

21 22

Two Main Flavors of Visualization

"
InfoVis SciVis
Abstract Data
Spatial Field Data
No/limited spatial reference
N-dimensional
Mostly 2 or 3-dimensional
Heterogeneous
Numerical, text, Scientific, engineering,
images, multimedia biomedical
Questions!
The two parts of this course

23
 A lot of options – Design space is huge
5

3.8

2.5

1.3

Visualization Design 0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
5

Series 1
3.8

2.5

1.3

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

26

A lot of options – Design space is huge When does Visualization make sense#
5

3.8

2.5

1.3

+Interaction !
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4
5

Series 1
3.8

2.5

1.3

0
Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4

26 Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 27

How to build a visualization system# How to build a visualization system#

Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 28 Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 28

How to build a visualization system# How to build a visualization system#

Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 28 Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 28
How to build a visualization system# Analysis framework: Four levels, three questions
• domain situation
• who are the target users# Goals and questions#

Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 28 Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 / Brehmer and Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2013 29

Analysis framework: Four levels, three questions Analysis framework: Four levels, three questions
• domain situation • domain situation
• who are the target users# Goals and questions# • who are the target users# Goals and questions#
• abstraction • abstraction
• translate from specifics of domain to vocabulary of vis • translate from specifics of domain to vocabulary of vis
• what is shown# data abstraction • what is shown# data abstraction
• why is the user looking at it# task abstraction • why is the user looking at it# task abstraction
• idiom
• how is it shown#
• visual encoding idiom: how to draw
• interaction idiom: how to manipulate

Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 / Brehmer and Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2013 29 Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 / Brehmer and Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2013 29
Analysis framework: Four levels, three questions Why is validation difficult#
• domain situation different ways to get it wrong at each level
• who are the target users# Goals and questions#
• abstraction Domain situation
• translate from specifics of domain to vocabulary of vis You misunderstood their needs

• what is shown# data abstraction Data/task abstraction

• why is the user looking at it# task abstraction You’re showing them the wrong thing

• idiom
Visual encoding/interaction idiom
• how is it shown# The way you show it doesn’t work
• visual encoding idiom: how to draw Algorithm
• interaction idiom: how to manipulate Your code is too slow

• algorithm
• efficient computation
Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 / Brehmer and Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2013 29 30

Why is validation difficult# Why is validation difficult#

solution: use methods from different fields at each level solution: use methods from different fields at each level
Domain situation Domain situation
Observe target users using existing tools Observe target users using existing tools

Data/task abstraction Data/task abstraction

Visual encoding/interaction idiom Visual encoding/interaction idiom

Justify design with respect to alternatives Justify design with respect to alternatives

Algorithm computer Algorithm technique-

Measure system time/memory science Measure system time/memory driven work
Analyze computational complexity Analyze computational complexity
Analyze results qualitatively Analyze results qualitatively
Measure human time with lab experiment (lab study) Measure human time with lab experiment (lab study)

Observe target users after deployment ( ) Observe target users after deployment ( )
Measure adoption Measure adoption

Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 31 Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 31

Why is validation difficult# Why is validation difficult#
solution: use methods from different fields at each level solution: use methods from different fields at each level
Domain situation
Observe target users using existing tools
anthropology/ Domain situation
Observe target users using existing tools
ethnography
Data/task abstraction Data/task abstraction

design Visual encoding/interaction idiom design Visual encoding/interaction idiom

Justify design with respect to alternatives Justify design with respect to alternatives

computer Algorithm technique- computer Algorithm technique-

science Measure system time/memory driven work science Measure system time/memory driven work
Analyze computational complexity Analyze computational complexity
cognitive Analyze results qualitatively cognitive Analyze results qualitatively
psychology Measure human time with lab experiment (lab study) psychology Measure human time with lab experiment (lab study)

anthropology/
Observe target users after deployment ( ) Observe target users after deployment ( )
Measure adoption ethnography Measure adoption

Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 31 Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 31

Why is validation difficult#

solution: use methods from different fields at each level
problem-driven work
anthropology/ Domain situation
Observe target users using existing tools (design study)
ethnography
Data/task abstraction

design
What" Why" How"
Visual encoding/interaction idiom
Justify design with respect to alternatives

computer Algorithm technique-

science Measure system time/memory driven work
Analyze computational complexity
cognitive Analyze results qualitatively
psychology Measure human time with lab experiment (lab study)

anthropology/
Observe target users after deployment ( )

ethnography Measure adoption

Munzner. IEEE TVCG, 2009 31

 Three major datatypes
What?
Datasets Attributes

What? Data Types Attribute Types

Items Attributes Links Positions Grids Categorical Dataset
Dataset
Dataset
Dataset Types
Types
Types
Types Dataset Types
Why? Data and Dataset Types TablesTypes
Dataset
Tables
Tables
Tables Networks
Networks
Tables
Networks
Networks FieldsFields
Networks
Fields
Fields
Spatial
(Continuous)
(Continuous)
(Continuous)
Geometry
(Continuous) Geometry
Fields
Geometry
Geometry (Spatial)
(Spatial)(Spatial)
(Continuous)(Spatial)
Tables Networks & Fields Geometry Clusters, Ordered
Trees Sets, Lists Ordinal Grid of positions
Attributes (columns) Grid of Grid
positions
How? Items Items (nodes) Grids Items Items Tables
Attributes (columns)
Attributes
Attributes (columns)
(columns) Networks
Attributes (columns) Fields Gridof
ofpositions
positions
(Continuous) Geometry
Grid of positions(Spatial)
Attributes Links Positions Positions
Items Items Link Link
Attributes Attributes Quantitative
Items
Items Items Link
Link Cell Cell Link
Grid of positions
(rows)(rows) Attributes (columns) Cell
Cell Cell Position Position
(rows)
(rows) (rows) Node Node Position
Position
Dataset Types Node
Node Node
Ordering Direction Items (item)Link(item)
Cell containing
Cell containing value value (item)
(item) Cell (columns)
Attributes (item)
Attributes (columns)
Tables Networks Fields (Continuous) (rows) Cell containing value Attributes
Attributes(columns)
(columns) Attributes (columns) Position
Sequential Cell
Cellcontaining
containingvalue
value
Attributes (columns) Grid of positions Node
Items Link (item) Value in cell Value in cell
(rows)
Cell
Diverging Cell containing value Attributes
Valueinin(columns)
Value cell
cell Value in cell
Node
Multidimensional Table Table
Multidimensional Trees Trees
Trees
Trees
Multidimensional Table Trees
(item)
Cell containing value Attributes (columns)
Multidimensional
MultidimensionalTable
Table
Value in cell
Cyclic Value in cell
Multidimensional Table Trees
Multidimensional Table Trees

Value in cell
Value in cell
Value in cell
Value
Valueinincell
cell Value in cell
Geometry (Spatial)
Value in cell

Position

Munzner Book - Chapter 2 34

What?

Dataset and data types Dataset and data types

Dataset Availability
Static Dynamic Why?

How?

Data Types Data Types

Items Attributes Links Positions Grids Items Attributes Links Positions Grids

Data and Dataset Types

Tables Networks & Fields Geometry Clusters,
Trees Sets, Lists
Items Items (nodes) Grids Items Items
Attributes Links Positions Positions
Attributes Attributes

35 35
Dataset and data types Attribute types Attributes

Data Types Attribute Types

Items Attributes Links Positions Grids Categorical Ordered
Ordinal Quantitative
Data and Dataset Types
Tables Networks & Fields Geometry Clusters,
Trees Sets, Lists
Items Items (nodes) Grids Items Items
Attributes Links Positions Positions Ordering Direction
Attributes Attributes
Sequential Diverging Cyclic

35 36

Further reading

"
• A Multi-Level Typology of Abstract Visualization Tasks. Brehmer and Munzner. IEEE Trans.
Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proc. InfoVis) 19:12 (2013), 2376–2385.
• Low-Level Components of Analytic Activity in Information Visualization. Amar, Eagan, and
Stasko. Proc. IEEE InfoVis 2005, p 111–117.
• A taxonomy of tools that support the fluent and flexible use of visualizations. Heer and
Shneiderman. Communications of the ACM 55:4 (2012), 45–54.
• Rethinking Visualization: A High-Level Taxonomy. Tory and Möller. Proc. IEEE InfoVis 2004, p Questions!
151–158.
• Visualization of Time-Oriented Data. Aigner, Miksch, Schumann, and Tominski. Springer, 2011.

37
 Why? Why?
Actions Targets Actions Targets

Analyze All Data Analyze All Data

Consume Trends Outliers Features Consume Trends Outliers Features
Discover Present Enjoy Discover Present Enjoy

Attributes Attributes
Produce Produce
Annotate Record Derive One Many Annotate Record Derive One Many
tag Distribution Dependency Correlation Similarity tag Distribution Dependency Correlation Similarity

Extremes Extremes
Search Search

{action, target} pairs

Target known Target unknown Target known Target unknown
Location Location
Network Data
–discover Network Data
Lookup Browse Lookup Browse
known known
Location
unknown
Locate Explore Topology distribution Location
unknown
Locate Explore Topology

–compare trends
Query Paths –locate outliers Query Paths
Identify Compare Summarize Identify Compare Summarize
What? –browse topology What?
Spatial Data Spatial Data
Why? Why?
Shape Shape
How? How?
Munzner Book - Chapter 3 Munzner Book - Chapter 3

Actions: Analyze Actions Actions: Analyze Actions

• consume Analyze • consume Analyze

• discover vs present Consume • discover vs present Consume
• aka explore vs explain Discover Present Enjoy
• aka explore vs explain Discover Present Enjoy

• enjoy • enjoy
• newcomer • newcomer
aka casual, social aka casual, social
Produce Produce
• •
Annotate Record Derive Annotate Record Derive
• produce tag
• produce tag

• annotate, record, derive • annotate, record, derive

• crucial design choice • crucial design choice
Search Search

Target known Target unknown41 Target known Target unknown41

Location Location
Lookup Browse Lookup Browse
known known

Location Location
Locate Explore Locate Explore
unknown unknown

Query Query
 Attributes
Produce
Annotate Record Derive One Many
tag Distribution Dependen

Why? Extremes

Derive Why: Targets

Search
Actions Targets
Target known Target unknown
• don’t just draw what you’re given" Analyze All Data Location
Lookup Browse Network Data
known
• decide what the right thing to show is Consume Trends Outliers
Location Features
Locate Explore Topology
Discover Present Enjoy unknown
• create it with a series of transformations from the original dataset

• one of the four major strategies for handling complexity Query Paths
Attributes Identify Compare Summarize
Produce
exports Annotate Record Derive One Many
Distribution Dependency Correlation Similarity Spatial Data
imports tag

trade Shape
balance
Extremes
Search
trade balance =Target
exports −imports
known Target unknown
LocationDerived Data
Original Data known
Lookup Browse 42 Network Data 43

"
Location Locate Explore Topology
unknown

Query Paths
Identify Compare Summarize
What?
Spatial Data
Why?
Shape
How?

Questions!
Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Tamara Munzner (University of British Columbia)
 Good morning!

Colors
and the Human Visual System
(“The day I found out: There is no reason to be blue…”)
Colors
Elmar Eisemann and the Human Visual System
Computer Graphics and Visualization
Delft University of Technology

Today Today

• How do we see? • How do we see?

– Human visual system - Basics – Human visual system - Basics

• How can we represent colors? • How can we represent colors?

General Overview
– Color spaces – Color spaces

• How do we process colors? • How do we process colors?

– Human visual system – Advanced – Human visual system – Advanced

• What can we do with colors? • What can we do with colors?

 What do we see ? Physical Definition
Observer
• Light is registered •Light = Distribution of power over a spectrum
by our eyes…
and perceived as color

Electromagnetic Wave

Light Spectrum Physical Definition

•Visible colors between •Light = Distribution of power over a spectrum

380 nm (violette) and 720 nm (red)
•Outside visible range
– Below 380 nm : ultra-violet
– Above 720 nm : infra-red
 Simple example Examples of Spectra

Energie
P()
Peak is what
people often
Saturation or Chroma

e2 refer to…

e1
Luminance =
area under the curve 
400 nm Hue 720 nm

Everything we see is light… Everything we see is light…

Observer

Electromagnetic Wave
Spectral
Power
Distribution

Illuminant D65
Reflectance
(nm)
Stimulus Spectrum

Spectral
Power
Distribution

12
 Everything we see is light… Everything we see is light…
…but not all of
Neon Lamp
it, as our eyes
are not perfect.
Spectral
Power
Observer
Distribution

Illuminant F1
Spectral
Reflectance
Power
Spectrum
Distribution Stimulus
Under D65

Spectral
Power
Distribution
Under F1

15

Eye Biology Eye Biology

Ganglion Horizontal
Cells Cells
Bipolar
Cells Rod
Cone

Light
Light

Amacrine
Cells
Retina Optic Nerve
17
Rods Cones
 Eye Biology Eye Biology
•Cones : • Retina consists of Cones & Rods
– Chromatic perception (3 types-LMS)
– Concentrated in center of retina
– 6 to 7 million in retinal center
- 3 times full HD

•Rods :
Periphery
– Achromatic perception Center – fovea Boundary region
Mix of both (more rods)
only cones Mix of both
– Low-light vision
Curcio, C. A., Sloan, K. R., Kalina, R. E., Hendrickson, A. E., 1990. Human photoreceptor topography. J Comp Neurol 292, 497-523

Night Vision Night Vision

• During night, all cats are gray… • Who sees noise in the night?
Cones shut off!

Rods Cones Rods Cones

 During the Day 3 Cone types
• Rods saturate!
• All that we have left are cones…

Rods Cones

•For “color”, cones are the interesting case…

Receptor and Incoming Light Receptor and Incoming Light

• Multiply incoming light and receptor • Sensitivity = probability of excitation

and integrate

Incoming light

Probability that a photon

“gets through”

Report as ratio of
maximal stimulation
Multiplication Receptor
 Eye Biology 3 Cone types

• Visual system combines cone responses

The Spectrum is much larger Today

• How do we see?
– Human visual system - Basics

• How can we represent colors?

– Color spaces

• How do we process colors?

– Human visual system – Advanced

https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-microwave-range-and-millimeter-range-of-frequencies
• What can we do with colors?
 What do we want? A map for colors?

• Something like a map of colors • Is a 2D map enough?

Where is black?

Color Map? We only have 3 Cones!

• How many dimensions?

3! Different spectra,
but same perception:
metameres

Screens work with

RGB mask
Printers work with
CMY ink
34
@Nicolas Holzschuch
 Except… some people only have 2… 3 Cone Types > 2 Cone Types

Color blindness

4 Cones exist! Different Species Different View

But it seems that
it is usually not useful…
 Different Species Different View Different Species Different View
Confirmed:
Deer See Ultraviolet, What Does This Mean To Hunters?
Ultraviolet
Good hunter… Bad hunter…

https://bowhunting.net/2019/02/confirmed-deer-see-ultraviolet-what-does-this-mean-to-hunters/

We can distinguish ~10M colors on a screen Today: Cheap screens have 16M colors

• Is that too much?

• values of green mapped out in steps of 10

Today: Cheap screens have 16M colors Today: Cheap screens have 16M colors

• True Color claims to have 16M colors, • True Color claims to have 16M colors,
is that too much? is that too much?

• values of green mapped out in steps of 5 • values of green mapped out in steps of 2

Today: Cheap screens have 16M colors What about a “Screen” Color Space?

• True Color claims to have 16M colors,

is that too much?

• values of green mapped out in steps of 1

Yes, on a standard screen 16M is enough…

What about a “Screen” Color Space? What about Screen RGB?

• Is this a good basis to describe all colors? • Control color on screen with knobs

• Experiments used special lamps:

• Roughly: ~700, ~520, ~420 nm

• Notice: 3 dimensions because of 3 cone types

Red Green Blue

49
@Nicolas Holzschuch

RGB Space RGB Space

• Extremely simple • Extremely simple

• Defined per device • Defined per device
• Direct connection to hardware • Direct connection to hardware

• Easy to understand… • Easy to understand…

• So what is the problem???

 RGB has some issues Color Spaces

• Not device independent • Device dependent: the description of color information is

related to the characteristics of a particular device
• Some colors do not exist on some devices – Set of primaries
– Technology

• Device independent: the description of color information is

not dependent on the characteristics of a particular device

Why was RGB ever used? RGB can be remapped to HLS

• CRT Screens typically used the same • HLS

phosphor to produce light (Hue, Lightness, Saturation)

Energie
P()


• While working on one device RGB can be ok 400 nm 720 nm
 RGB can be remapped to HLS Demo Color Picker
Energie
P()
• HLS
(Hue, Lightness, Saturation) 400 nm 
720 nm

Don’t learn this!

RGB Space Device independence?

• Extremely simple • To make a device independent color

• Defined per device space, we can use a reference.
• Direct connection to hardware
• First attempt:
• Easy to understand • Use lights with ~700, ~520, ~420 nm

• Typically referred to as (linear) sRGB

• Not suited for image transfer
– Typically it is converted into a device
independent representation first
 Making a reference Making a reference

• Screen: ~700, ~520, ~420 nm • Screen: ~700, ~520, ~420 nm

• Control color on screen with knobs • Control color on screen with knobs
• Match pure color (monochromatic) • Match pure color (monochromatic)

Added the option to

Turns out: for some wavelengths, it was change color of the stimulus
impossible to find combinations of RGB

Red Green Blue Red Green Blue Red Green Blue

Why is it enough to match pure colors? Making a reference

• Light is additive! • Screen: ~700, ~520, ~420 nm

• Control color on screen with knobs
• Match pure color (monochromatic)
= +

Hence, we can represent any spectrum

as the sum of monochromatic light
Added the option to
change color of the stimulus

Red Green Blue Red Green Blue

 What about the result? What about the result?

The French The French

way to put way to put
labels…  labels

Values can be negative!

64 65
@Nicolas Holzschuch @Nicolas Holzschuch

Looking for a new reference system! Quantifying Color – XYZ space

•What we want:
Spectral distribution of the light
– 3D color space
x , y , z   CIE color matching functions
– Device independent
– All colors should be covered with values in [0,1]3
• Also means: all coefficients positive
– Linear conversion with respect to sRGB

•Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage

– www.cie.co.at Mimic perception with 2 axes
– 1931 Y=Luminance
Z=~S Cone
…and some more constraints
 XYZ Space sRGB Color Space

• How did they come up with these curves?

3D representation is
complex to draw…

sRGB Chromaticity What about Screen RGB?

r=R/(R+G+B)
• Constant energy: g=G/(R+G+B) The French
way to put
labels… 
Idea:
White = gray
just darker.
Hence,
normalize by
the sum to
eliminate one
dimension

71
@Nicolas Holzschuch
 sRGB Chromaticity sRGB Chromaticity
r=R/(R+G+B) r=R/(R+G+B)
• Constant energy: g=G/(R+G+B) • Constant energy: g=G/(R+G+B)

• What about the

pure sRGB colors?

B R

XYZ Chromaticity CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram

• Create virtual colors around all visible colors

X
x
X Y  Z

Y
G y
X Y  Z

B
 CIE XYZ CIE XYZ
•X, Y, Z is device independent •X, Y, Z is device independent
•Y : roughly luminance (perceived brightness) •Y : roughly luminance (perceived brightness)
•Z : roughly the exitation of S-cones •Z : roughly the exitation of S-cones
•X,Z : chroma values •X,Z : chroma values

• Advantages:
– XYZ covers all visible colors with positive values
– Conversion to RGB is linear
• 3x3 Conversion Matrix
• Screens come with a driver…

How to convert your device to XYZ? CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram

• If your device has 3 emitting elements

(e.g., RGB), map selected colors on X
screen to englobe all producible colors x
X Y  Z

Y
• “Reddest Red”, “Bluest Blue”, “Greenest y
X Y  Z
Green” (“brightest Bright” and “darkest
Dark”)

• This defines a 3x3 matrix

• Invert to go back and forth
 Different Devices Different Devices

• Each device can cover a certain color region • When creating content keep gamut in mind!

Gamut

Pitstop Is such a space perfect for all purposes?

• RGB: • E.g.:
– Simple • “Would this change be visible?”
– But device dependent • “If I compress the information, will I see artifacts?”
• linear sRGB
– Device independent
– But negative values for some wavelengths • Not tied to the visual system yet
• XYZ:
– Device independent
– Easy conversion
– Y represents roughly luminance
– But a rather mathematical construction
 Nobody’s perfect! But why were the curves the same…?

• We all have some bias in our visual system:

– Green is slightly better distinguishable than red

– Blue perception is very weak!
– Typical Luminance

Proof – bluring a single color channel Proof – bluring a single color channel

Blue channel blurred Green channel blurred

 Towards a Perceptual Space Perceptually Uniform Spaces

• Measure perception: •CIE, 1976

116Y /Y•L*a*b*
n  16 si Y /Yn 0.008856 and L*u*v*
1
3

MacAdam’s Ellipses L*903.3Y  /Yn  sinon


a*500 X /X n  Y /Yn   u*13L*(u'u'n )
1 1
3 3

v*13L*(v' v'n )

b*200 Y /Yn  Z/Zn   4X
1 1

– indistinguishable
3 3
u'
X15Y 3Z
colors grouped v' 9Y
X15Y 3Z

– ellipse contour = CIE could not agree on which one to pick…

just noticeable
differences L*a*b has the advantage that axes are almost orthogonal

L*u*v is easier to transform…

Blur test… What are these ab-axes?

• Roughly a, b represent change between

• red-green and blue-yellow

Blurred a Blurred b

• Lab color space

 Localized Perception:
Opposing Colors
Opposing Colors
• Receptors are not working independently!
• Cones response is not interpreted directly
• Instead converted to differences:

Opposing Colors Mach Banding

• Receptors are not working independently! • Local contrast produces false intensity ramps
Extreme Case Color Space Summary

RGB: Simple, but device dependent

linear sRGB: negative values
HLS: Simple for artists
XYZ: The device independent standard
L*u*v* : Simple conversion, based on perception
L*a*b* : Orthonormal basis, slightly more costly

In practice:
anchored in XYZ conversion when needed

Questions Today

• How do we see?
– Human visual system - Basics

• How can we represent colors?

– Color spaces

• How do we process colors?

– Human visual system – Advanced

• What can we do with colors?

Lab and LUV use same Luminance How do we see intensity differences?
White point
• Luminance formula: • First, we need a unit: 1 cd/m2
“Perceivedlight emitted by a
common candle”

• How to get such a formula?

• Show gradients and check linearity:

• New question, similar to color:

What intensity differences can we perceive?

Sensitivity to luminance Consequence of the Weber-law

• Weber-law:
just-noticeable difference is L ΔL
proportional to magnitude 100 cd/m2 1 cd/m2
1 cd/m2 0.01 cd/m2
smallest
Ernst Heinrich Weber
detectable
difference
• Adding or subtracting luminance depends
Background Constant
on the background luminance
luminance

L
Typical stimuli: ΔL

111 112
Make Luminance (more) perceptually uniform Assuming the Weber law

• Fechner’s Law: • The response of the visual system is:

Where R is the perceptual response to L
1
1 R(L)  0
L
dl
dR(L)  L(l)
L(L)
response R

1 Derivative of
response Detection
ΔL threshold

1
R(L)  0
L
dl
luminance L
L(l) • Local contrast is perceived logarithmically!
This tells you “how many different
grays you perceive on the way to L”

114

BUT WAIT! There was a cubic root Brightness Perception is complex…

White point
• Local contrast sometimes logarithmic (Weber)

• Global changes rather cubic root

• Dark values rather linear

• I think you are lying…

• Luminance formula: I remember an
illustration from
last week!
• This is for global brightness appearance
Stevens’ Power Law Cornsweet Effect

Cornsweet Effect Effects of locality

• Explore 2D space of possibilities:

Sinusoid
 Contrast Sensitivity Function Brightness Perception is complex…

• Local contrast kind of logarithmic (Weber)

• Global changes rather cubic root

• Dark values rather linear
-> somewhere in between: simple root!
Contrast

Frequency

Brightness via cubic root Brightness Perception is complex…

• VERY common: Gamma Correction • Local contrast kind of logarithmic (Weber)

• Encoding for compression (e.g., JPEG)
• Global changes rather cubic root
• MAGIC Coincidence: • Dark values rather linear
CRT screen phosphors had Gamma ~2! -> somewhere in between: simple root!

• Your screens still do the same!

• That is why I wrote linear sRGB because the
real definition of sRGB is roughly quadratic
with a gamma in R, G, B
 Stevens’ Power Law CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram

• There is something still to discuss.

Where is white?
Pure colors
• CIE actually
defined
the space to
have white at
around
X=Y=Z=1/3
• Saturation vs. Brightness

Perception of Color depends on Context Big Spanish Castle Illusion

Big Spanish Castle Illusion

Relatively
fast.

Ferwerda 1998

Adaptation state in color spaces?

You need to define a White point

Can take
minutes!

Ferwerda 1998
 CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram

• Let’s start with white. Where is it? • Let’s start with white. Where is it?

Pure colors

• We adapt
throughout
There is a whole
range of whites! the day!
D65 D65
Morning
to evening

Dress illusion Pit Stop

• Color spaces for devices work well

• Perception of color is complex

– Difference between
global (cube root) and local perception (log)

Roughly: Weber Law describes what is going on

for the case of background intensity

What about local effects and adaptation state?

 Eye Biology High-level Processing

• Our brain interprets the reported response

• This high-level processing is not well
understood but has a strong effect.

Completion/Inpainting

• Blind spot –
we are actually all blind at/in some point…
(Where the nerves connect in our eye)

Visual system invents information all the time!

 Who did you see? Higher-Level Processing
Right LGN

Left LGN
Visual
Cortex

LGN = Lateral Geniculate Nucleus 145

Avec la contribution de Fredo Durand

Higher-Level Processing Strawberry Illusion

• Memory has an impact [Delk & Fillenbaum] • Kitaoka: Grey strawberry illusion

• Known shapes appear slightly in known color

 Perception Some small things are known…

• Adelson Checkerboard Illusion • How do you explain this image?

Assumption made by our brain: Light comes from above…

We are trained to recognize certain shapes Pattern Recognition

• Pigeons outperform doctors…

• Levenson RM, Krupinski EA, Navarro VM, Wasserman EA (2015) Pigeons (Columba livia) as
Trainable Observers of Pathology and Radiology Breast Cancer Images. PLoS ONE 10(11):
e0141357. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141357
 Conclusion Today

• Even today: • How do we see?

– Higher-level processing not understood – Human visual system - Basics
– Lower-level some models exist
• How can we represent colors?
– Much more research is needed! – Color spaces

• BUT: Some insights can be used! • How do we process colors?

So let’s look at some more “practical” cases – Human visual system - Advanced

• What can we do with colors?

– Illusions and Illustrations

Color perception depends on: Is the rainbow map a good choice?

– Spectral distribution of stimulus

– Structure of image/surrounding

– Temporal aspects

• Structures arise that are not actually there…

155
 Uniform Color Ramps? My currently favorite map discussion…

• Problem of Rainbow mappings

Opposing: (Blue->Yellow, Red->Green)

https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/10/30/opinion/election-results-maps.html

Are opposing colors a good choice? Good choices?

• Hard to distinguish levels in the middle

Parula colormap

These can be made nicely in perceptual color spaces

E.g., “Go from dark blue to light yellow in unit steps”
 Good Color Ramps? Color Discussions

• http://colorbrewer2.org/ • color.adobe.com
• Color combination community

Spectral Distribution Color perception depends on:

For color composition: Ask artists!

– Spectral distribution of stimulus

– Structure of image/surrounding

– Temporal aspects

[Cohen-Or et al. SIGGRAPH 06]

164
Color Optimization for Clusters [Lee et al. TVCG 2013] Compensation for Surrounding

• Mittelstaedt et al. 2015

• Left: initial input

• Middle: Optimization
• Right: Left image with enhanced contrast

HDR Tonemapping HDR Tone Mapping

Contrast Restoration by Adaptive Countershading
Grzegorz Krawczyk, Karol Myszkowski, Hans-Peter Seidel
EG 2007
 Contrast Perception Hybrid Images [Oliva et al. SIGGRAPH06]

• Different images for different distances

Willet et al. Hybrid-image visualization for

large viewing environments. 2013

Color perception depends on: Afterimages

• Adding afterimages can boost brightness

[Ritschel & Eisemann 12]
– Spectral distribution of stimulus

– Structure of image/surrounding

– Temporal aspects

172
 [Didyk, Eisemann, Ritschel, Myszkowski, Seidel – SIGGRAPH 2010]

Subtle Gaze Direction Apparent Resolution

• [Bailey et al. TOG 2012]
Gaze Direction

• Attractive Flicker
[Waldner et al.
TVCG2014]

low res

high res

low res

high apparent resolution

Summary: Acknowledgments

• Human Visual System – Basics

– Eye optics, receptors • Guillaume Thierry
• Color spaces • Fredo Durand
– RGB, HSV, Luv, Lab • Nicolas Holzschuch
• Human visual system – Advanced
– Adaptation, Contrast perception, for some of the material of this session
higher-level processing

• Application examples
– Background Contrast, Temporal integration…
Thank you very much!
 Data Visualization
IN4089 Data Visualization
Thomas Höllt - Computer Graphics & Visualization
What? Why? How?
*
How?
Encode Manipulate Facet Reduce

Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter

Express Separate

Order Align Select Partition Aggregate

[*xkcd]

Use
How? Navigate Superimpose Embed
How? How?
Encode
Encode Manipulate
Encode Manipulate
Facet Facet
Reduce
Manipulate Facet Reduce
Reduce

Arrange Map Change

Arrange Juxtapose ChangeFilter Juxtapose Filter
Arrange from Change
categorical and ordered Juxtapose Filter
Express Separate Express Separate
Express Separateattributes
Color
Hue Saturation
Order Align Select
Order Align Luminance
Partition Select Aggregate Partition Aggregate

Order Align Select

Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Partition Aggregate

What? Why? How? Use Use

Navigate
Shape
Superimpose Navigate
Embed Superimpose Embed

What?
Use
Map Map Navigate Superimpose Embed
from categorical and ordered Motion
from categorical and ordered Why?
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
attributes
attributes
How?
Color Color
Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance
Map
from categorical
Size, Angle, Curvature, and
... ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
attributes
Color
Shape Shape
Hue Saturation Luminance What?
What?

Motion Why?
Motion Direction, Rate, Frequency, ... Why?
Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
How?
How?

Shape
What?
 How?
Encode Manipulate Facet Reduce

Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter

Express Separate

Order Align Select Partition Aggregate

Use
How? Navigate Superimpose Embed
How? How?
Encode
Encode Manipulate
Encode Manipulate
Facet Facet
Reduce
Manipulate Facet Reduce
Reduce

Arrange Map Change

Arrange Juxtapose ChangeFilter
Arrange from Change
categorical and ordered JuxtaposeJuxtapose Filter
Filter
Express Separate Express Separate
Express Separateattributes
Color
Hue Saturation
Order Align Select
Order Align Luminance
Partition Select Aggregate Partition Aggregate

Order Align Select

Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Partition Aggregate

Marks and Channels Use Use

Navigate
Shape
Superimpose Navigate
Embed Superimpose Embed

What?
How? Use
Map Map Navigate Superimpose Embed
Encode Manipulate Facet from categorical and ordered Motion
from categorical and ordered Why?
Reduce Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
attributes attributes
Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter How?
Color Color
Express Separate Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance
Map
from categorical
Size, Angle, Curvature, and
... ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Order Align Select Partition Aggregate attributes
Munzner Book - Chapter 5 Color
Shape Shape
Hue Saturation Luminance What?
What?
Use
How?
Visual encoding
Navigate Superimpose Embed Motion Why?
How? How? Motion Why?
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
Encode
Encode Manipulate
Encode Manipulate
Facet Facet
Reduce
Manipulate Facet Reduce
Reduce Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
How?
How?
Arrange Map Change
Arrange Juxtapose ChangeFilter
Arrange from Change
categorical and ordered JuxtaposeJuxtapose Filter
Filter • analyze idiom structure
Express Separate Express Separate
Express Separateattributes Shape
Color What?
Hue Saturation
Order Align Select
Order Align Luminance
Partition Select Aggregate Partition Aggregate

Order Align Select

Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Partition Aggregate Motion Why?
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
Use Use
Navigate Superimpose Navigate
Embed Superimpose Embed How?
Shape
What?
Use
Map Map Navigate Superimpose Embed
from categorical and ordered Motion
from categorical and ordered Why?
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
attributes
attributes
How?
Color Color
Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance
Map
from categorical
Size, Angle, Curvature, and
... ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
attributes
Color
Shape Shape 6
Hue Saturation Luminance What?
What?

Motion Why?
Motion Direction, Rate, Frequency, ... Why?
Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
How?
How?

Shape
What?
Definitions: Marks and channels Definitions: Marks and channels
• marks Points Lines Areas
• marks Points Lines Areas

• geometric primitives • geometric primitives

Position Color
Horizontal Vertical Both
• channels
• control appearance of marks
• can redundantly code with Shape Tilt
multiple channels

Size
Length Area Volume

7 7

Visual encoding Visual encoding

• analyze idiom structure => as combination of marks and channels • analyze idiom structure => as combination of marks and channels

1:
length or
vertical position

mark: line

8 8
Visual encoding Visual encoding
• analyze idiom structure => as combination of marks and channels • analyze idiom structure => as combination of marks and channels

1: 2: 1: 2: 3:
length or vertical position length or vertical position vertical position
vertical position horizontal position vertical position horizontal position horizontal position
color hue

mark: line mark: point mark: line mark: point mark: point

8 8

Visual encoding Channels

Channels: Expressiveness Types And Effectiveness Ranks

Magnitude Channels: Ordered Attributes Identity Channels: Categorical Attributes

• analyze idiom structure => as combination of marks and channels Position on common scale Spatial region

Position on unaligned scale Color hue

Length (1D size) Motion

Tilt/angle Shape

Area (2D size)

Depth (3D position)

1: 2: 3: 4:
length or vertical position vertical position vertical position Color luminance
vertical position horizontal position horizontal position horizontal position
Color saturation
color hue color hue
size (area) Curvature

mark: line mark: point mark: point mark: point Volume (3D size)

8 9
Channels: Matching Types
Channels: Expressiveness Types And Effectiveness Ranks Channels: Rankings
Channels: Expressiveness Types And Effectiveness Ranks

Magnitude Channels: Ordered Attributes Identity Channels: Categorical Attributes Magnitude Channels: Ordered Attributes Identity Channels: Categorical Attributes
Position on common scale Spatial region Position on common scale Spatial region

Position on unaligned scale Color hue Position on unaligned scale Color hue

Length (1D size) Motion Length (1D size) Motion

Tilt/angle Shape Tilt/angle Shape

Area (2D size) Area (2D size)

Depth (3D position)

• expressiveness principle Depth (3D position)
• expressiveness principle
–match channel and data characteristics –match channel and data characteristics
Color luminance Color luminance
• effectiveness principle
Color saturation Color saturation
–encode most important attributes with highest
Curvature Curvature ranked channels
Volume (3D size) Volume (3D size)

10 11

Channels: Rankings
Channels: Expressiveness Types And Effectiveness Ranks
Channels: Expressiveness types and effectiveness rankings
Channels: Expressiveness Types And Effectiveness Ranks

Magnitude Channels: Ordered Attributes Identity Channels: Categorical Attributes Magnitude Channels: Ordered Attributes Identity Channels: Categorical Attributes
Position on common scale Spatial region Position on common scale Spatial region

Position on unaligned scale Color hue Position on unaligned scale Color hue

Length (1D size) Motion Length (1D size) Motion

Tilt/angle Shape Tilt/angle Shape

Area (2D size) Area (2D size)

Where does this order come from?
Depth (3D position)
• expressiveness principle Depth (3D position)
• expressiveness principle
–match channel and data characteristics –match channel and data characteristics
Color luminance Color luminance
• effectiveness principle • effectiveness principle
Color saturation Color saturation
–encode most important attributes with highest –encode most important attributes with highest
Curvature ranked channels Curvature ranked channels
Volume (3D size) Volume (3D size) –spatial position ranks high for both

11 12
Accuracy: Accuracy: Vis experiments
Fundamental Theory S
Cleveland & McGill’s Results
Graphical Perception: Theory,
Experimentation, and Application to the
Development of Graphical Methods.
Cleveland and McGill, Journal of the
American Statistical Association, 1984
Positions
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Log Error

Crowdsourced Results

Angles

Circular
areas
Crowdsourcing Graphical Perception:
Rectangular Using Mechanical Turk to Assess
I areas Visualization Design. Heer and Bostock.
(aligned or in a
treemap) Proc ACM Conf. Human Factors in
Computing Systems (CHI) 2010
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Log Error

13 after Michael McGuffin course slides, http://profs.etsmtl.ca/mmcguffin/ 14

Color as a Channel

first rule of color: do not talk about color!

Munzner Book - Chapter 10

 Channels: Expressiveness Types And Effectiveness Ranks

Channels: Rankings
Magnitude Channels: Ordered Attributes
Position on common scale
Identity Channels: Categorical Attributes
Spatial region

Position on unaligned scale Color hue

Length (1D size) Motion

Tilt/angle Shape

first rule of color: do not talk about color! Area (2D size)

Depth (3D position)

Color luminance

Color saturation

Curvature
17
Volume (3D size)

Decomposing color Decomposing color

• color is confusing if treated as monolithic • color is confusing if treated as monolithic

• ordered can show magnitude

Luminance values
Luminance values
• luminance: how bright
• saturation: how colorful Saturation Saturation

• categorical can show identity

Hue Hue
• hue: what color

18 18
 Attributes Attributes

Attribute Types Attributes

Attribute Types
Categorical Attributes Ordered
Categorical
Attributes
Attribute Types
Ordered
Attributes
Ordinal
Categorical color: limited number of discriminable bins
Quantitative
Attribute Types
Ordinal Quantitative
Categorical Ordered
Categorical Ordered
ute Types Attribute Types • human perception built on relative
Ordinal Quantitative
Ordinal Quantitative
egoricalAttributes Categorical
Ordered Ordered comparisons
Ordinal QuantitativeOrdinal Quantitative • great if color contiguous
Ordering Direction Ordering Direction • surprisingly bad for absolute
Ordered Ordering Direction
comparisons
Sequential
Ordinal Diverging
Quantitative Sequential
Sequential Cyclic Diverging
Diverging Cyclic Cyclic
Ordering Direction

ng DirectionSequential
Ordering Direction
Diverging Cyclic

uential Diverging
Sequential CyclicDiverging Cyclic
n
Cinteny: flexible analysis and visualization of synteny and genome
Diverging Cyclic rearrangements in multiple organisms. Sinha and Meller. BMC Bioinformatics

19 20

Categorical color: limited number of discriminable bins Categorical color: limited number of discriminable bins
• human perception built on relative • human perception built on relative
comparisons comparisons
• great if color contiguous • great if color contiguous
• surprisingly bad for absolute • surprisingly bad for absolute
comparisons comparisons

Cinteny: flexible analysis and visualization of synteny and genome Cinteny: flexible analysis and visualization of synteny and genome
rearrangements in multiple organisms. Sinha and Meller. BMC Bioinformatics rearrangements in multiple organisms. Sinha and Meller. BMC Bioinformatics

20 20
Categorical color: limited number of discriminable bins Categorical color: limited number of discriminable bins
• human perception built on relative • human perception built on relative
comparisons comparisons
• great if color contiguous • great if color contiguous
• surprisingly bad for absolute • surprisingly bad for absolute
comparisons comparisons
• noncontiguous small regions of
color
• fewer bins than you want
• rule of thumb: 6-12 bins, including
Cinteny: flexible analysis and visualization of synteny and genome background and highlights Cinteny: flexible analysis and visualization of synteny and genome
rearrangements in multiple organisms. Sinha and Meller. BMC Bioinformatics rearrangements in multiple organisms. Sinha and Meller. BMC Bioinformatics

20 20

Further reading

?
• On the Theory of Scales of Measurement. Stevens. Science 103 2684 (1946), 677–680.
• Psychophysics: Introduction to its Perceptual, Neural, and Social Prospects. Stevens. Wiley, 1975.
• Graphical Perception: Theory, Experimentation, and Application to the Development of
Graphical Methods. Cleveland and McGill. Journ. American Statistical Association 79 387
(1984), 531–554.
• Perception in Vision. Healey. http://www.csc.ncsu.edu/faculty/healey/PP
• Visual Thinking for Design. Ware. Morgan Kaufmann, 2008. Questions!
• Information Visualization: Perception for Design, 3rd edition. Ware. Morgan Kaufmann /Academic
Press, 2004.

21
:
:
How to build a visualization system?
How?
How?
Encode Manipulate
Encode Facet
Manipulate FacetReduce Reduce

Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter

Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter
Express Separate
Express Separate

Order Align Select

Idioms
Partition Aggregate

Order Align Select Partition Aggregate

Use
Navigate Superimpose Embed

Use
Map Navigate Superimpose Embed
from categorical and ordered
attributes
Color
Sedlmair et al., IEEE TVCG, 2012 23 Hue Saturation Luminance
Map
from categorical and ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ... 100
attributes Idiom: bar chart 75
Color Shape 50
Hue Saturation Luminance
• 1 categorical + 1 quantitative attribute What?
25
Motion 0
Size, Angle, Curvature, ... • mark: lines
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
Why?

How?
• channels:
Animal Type
• position/length to express quantitative value
Shape
1 key, 1 value 100 20
100
• spatial regions: one per mark What?
75 15
75
• task: 50 10
50
Motion Why?
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ... • compare or lookup: beware of the25order! 5
25
How? 00
• scalability 0

• dozens to hundreds for key attribute

Animal Type Animal Type

20 20
15 15 26
10 10
5 5
0 0
Relative vs. absolute judgements Idiom: line chart / dot plot
Animal Type Animal Type
• perceptual system mostly operates with relative judgements, not absolute • 2 quantitative attributes
• accuracy increases with common frame/scale and alignment • 20 line connection between
mark: points, 20

• channels: 15 15

• position to 10
express quantitative value 10

• 5 ordered by key attribute

separated and 5
• task: 0 0
• find trend
B B B B
A A
B
A A
B A A B
A
B
B • scalability Year Year
A A
Unframed
length
Unframed
Unframed
Framed
position
Framed along
Framed
Unframedalong
position
Unframed
Unframed
• hundreds of key levels, hundreds of value levels
Unaligned
Unaligned Unaligned
Unaligned Aligned
Aligned
Unaligned unaligned
Unaligned aligned
Aligned scale
common scale
after Cleveland and McGill. Journ. American Statistical Association 1984 27 28

Choosing bar vs line charts 60 60

Choosing bar vs line charts 60 60
50 50 50 50

• depends on type of key attrib 40

30
40
30
• depends on type of key attrib 40
30
DO NOT D 40
O THIS
30

bar charts if categorical bar charts if categorical

20 20 20 20
• 10 10
• 10 10
0 0 0 0
• line charts if ordered Female Male Female Male
• line charts if ordered Female Male Female Male

• do not use line charts for • do not use line charts for
60 60 60 60
50 50 50 50

categorical key attribs categorical key attribs

40 40 40 40
30 30 30 30
20 20 20 20

• violates expressiveness principle 10

0
10
0
• violates expressiveness principle 10
0
10
0
10-year-olds 12-year-olds 10-year-olds 12-year-olds 10-year-olds 12-year-olds 10-year-olds 12-year-olds
• implication of trend so strong that it • implication of trend so strong that it
after Bars and Lines: A Study of Graphic Communication. after Bars and Lines: A Study of Graphic Communication.
overrides semantics! Zacks and Tversky. Memory and Cognition 27 6 1999
overrides semantics! Zacks and Tversky. Memory and Cognition 27 6 1999
• “The more male a person is, the • “The more male a person is, the
taller he/she is” taller he/she is”

29 29
:
:
Idioms: pie chart Idioms: pie chart
• 1 categorical + 1 quantitative attribute • 1 categorical + 1 quantitative attribute
• mark: area • mark: area
• channels: • channels:
• angle (?) • angle (?)
• arclength less accurate than line length • arclength less accurate than line length
• task: • task:
• part-to-whole judgements • part-to-whole judgements
• scalability • scalability
• well… • well…

30 30

Idioms: pie chartTHIS

DO NOT DO
• 1 categorical + 1 quantitative attribute
• mark: area
• channels:
• angle (?)
• arclength less accurate than line length 2 keys, 1 value
• task:
• part-to-whole judgements
• scalability
• well…

30
Idiom: stacked bar chart 3/21/2014

100%
bl.ocks.org/mbostock/raw/3886394/
Idiom: streamgraph
65 Years and Over

• 1 categ., 1 ordered key, 1 quant attrib

90%

• 2 categorical + 1 quantitative attributes

80%

70% 45 to 64 Years

• mark: vertical stack of line marks

60%

50%
• generalized stacked bar
emphasizing horizontal continuity vs vertical items
25 to 44 Years

•
glyph: composite object from multiple marks
40%

• 30%
18 to 24 Years

channels: • derived data

20%

•
14 to 17 Years

10% 5 to 13 Years

Under 5 Years
0%

• length and color hue geometry: layers, where height encodes counts
UT TX ID AZ NV GA AK MS NM NE CA OK SD CO KS WY NC AR LA IN IL MN DE HI SCMO VA IA TN KY AL WAMD ND OH WI OR NJ MT MI FL NY DC CT PA MAWV RI NH ME VT

• spatial regions: one per glyph 3/21/2014

100% 3/21/2014
bl.ocks.org/mbostock/raw/3886394/

bl.ocks.org/mbostock/raw/3887235/
• 1 quant attrib (layer ordering)
65 Years and Over

task:
90%

• 80%

70%
≥65 <5
45 to 64 Years
• scalability
45-64 5-13

part-to-whole relationship
60%

• 14-17

hundreds of time keys Stacked Graphs Geometry & Aesthetics. Byron and
50%

40%
18-24 25 to 44 Years
•
Wattenberg. IEEE Trans. TVCG 14(6) 2008
• scalability
25-44
30%
18 to 24 Years

dozens to hundreds of categ keys

20%

•
14 to 17 Years

10% 5 to 13 Years

several to one dozen levels for stacked attrib

Under 5 Years

•
0%
UT TX ID AZ NV GA AK MS NM NE CA OK SD CO KS WY NC AR LA IN IL MN DE HI SCMO VA IA TN KY AL WAMD ND OH WI OR NJ MT MI FL NY DC CT PA MAWV RI NH ME VT

• > stacked bars: most layers don’t extend across whole chart
32 33

Idiom: heatmap http://bl.ocks.org/mbostock/raw/3886394/ 1/1 Idiom: heatmap

http://bl.ocks.org/mbostock/raw/3887235/ 1/1

• 2 categorical + 1 quantitative attributes • 2 categorical + 1 quantitative attributes

• mark: area http://bl.ocks.org/mbostock/raw/3886394/ 1/1 • mark: area
• channels: • channels:
• color by quantitative attribute • color by quantitative attribute
• task: • task:
• find clusters, outliers, patterns • find clusters, outliers, patterns
sorting is important! e.g., dendrogram sorting is important! e.g., dendrogram
• scalability: • scalability:
• 100s of category levels • 100s of category levels
• ~10 quantitative attribute levels • ~10 quantitative attribute levels

34 34
 Idiom: scatterplot
• no keys, only attributes
• 2 quantitative attributes
• mark: points
• channels:
2 values • horizontal + vertical position
• tasks:
• find trends, outliers, distribution,
correlation, clusters
• scalability:
• hundreds of items

A layered grammar of graphics. Wickham. Journ. Computational and Graphical Statistics 19 1 2010 36

:
Beware! Additional channels, beware of interference
• overplotting is a serious issue with large data.
Position Size Width Red
• density or binned representation allows pattern finding. Hue (Color) Hue (Color) Height Green

Fully separable Some interference Some/significant Major interference

interference
2 groups each 2 groups each 3 groups total: 4 groups total:
integral area integral hue

37 38
Popout Popout
• how long did it take to find the red dot? • how long did it take to find the red dot?
• parallel processing on many individual • parallel processing on many individual
channels channels
– speed independent of distractor count – speed independent of distractor count
– speed depends on channel and amount of – speed depends on channel and amount of
difference from distractors difference from distractors
• serial search for (almost all) combinations
• additional channels worse for popout

39 39

Idiom: connected scatterplots Idiom: connected scatterplots

• scatterplot with line connection marks • scatterplot with line connection marks
• line connection marks: temporal order • line connection marks: temporal order

• alternative to dual-axis charts • alternative to dual-axis charts

• horiz: time / vert: two value attribs • horiz: time / vert: two value attribs

• little research on how well it • little research on how well it

actually works actually works

• scalability: Needs to be carefully designed! • scalability: Needs to be carefully designed!

The Connected Scatterplot for Presenting Paired Time Series. The Connected Scatterplot for Presenting Paired Time Series.
Haroz, Kosara and Franconeri. IEEE TVCG 22(9):2 2016 Haroz, Kosara and Franconeri. IEEE TVCG 22(9):2 2016

http://steveharoz.com/research/connected_scatterplot/ 40 http://steveharoz.com/research/connected_scatterplot/ 40
Idiom: connected scatterplots
• scatterplot with line connection marks DO NOT D
O THIS
• line connection marks: temporal order

• alternative to dual-axis charts

• horiz: time / vert: two value attribs
geographic keys
• little research on how well it
actually works

• scalability: Needs to be carefully designed!

The Connected Scatterplot for Presenting Paired Time Series.
Haroz, Kosara and Franconeri. IEEE TVCG 22(9):2 2016

http://steveharoz.com/research/connected_scatterplot/ 40

Idiom: choropleth map Beware!

• Not every task with geocoded data needs a map
• geographic geometry
• 1 quantitative attribute per region • Know your audience
• mark: area
• channels color by quantitative attribute
• task:
• understanding spatial relationships!

https://coronadashboard.rijksoverheid.nl 42 New York Times 43

Beware!
• Don’t create a population map!

?
• absolute vs relative again

Questions!
Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Tamara Munzner (University of British Columbia)

https://xkcd.com/1138 44
 Data Visualization
IN4089 Data Visualization
Thomas Höllt - Computer Graphics & Visualization
What! Why! How!
*

[*xkcd]

Idiom scatterplot Table

matrix Scatterplot Matrix
• scatterplot matrix
Math(SPLOM)
Physics Dance Drama
• rectilinear axes,85
point mark
95 70 65 Math

all possible pairs65of axes

90 80 60 50
•
50 90 90
scalability
Physics
• 50 40 95 80

> 2 values one dozen attribs

40 60 80 90
•
• dozens to hundreds of items Dance
Table Scatterplot Matrix Parallel Co
• Interaction is crucial
Math Physics Dance Drama Math Physics
85 95 70 65 Drama
Math
100
90 80 60 50 90
65 50 90 90 Math Physics Dance Drama
80
Physics
50 40 95 80 70
40 60 80 90 60

Dance 50
40
http://www.michaelmcguffin.com/courses/vis/
30 4
20
Drama
10
0
Math Physics Dance Drama
 Idiom scatterplot matrix Idiom scatterplot matrix
• scatterplot matrix (SPLOM) • scatterplot matrix (SPLOM)
• rectilinear axes, point mark • rectilinear axes, point mark
• all possible pairs of axes • all possible pairs of axes
• scalability • scalability
• one dozen attribs • one dozen attribs
• dozens to hundreds of items • dozens to hundreds of items
• Interaction is crucial • Interaction is crucial

https://observablehq.com/@d3/brushable-scatterplot-matrix 5 https://observablehq.com/@d3/brushable-scatterplot-matrix 5
Scatterplot Matrix Parallel Coordinates
Idiom parallel coordinates Math Physics Dance Drama Idiom parallel coordinates
Math
• parallel coordinates 100 • parallel coordinates
• parallel axes, jagged line representing item 90 • parallel axes, jagged line representing item
• rectilinear axes, item as point
hysics 80 • rectilinear axes, item as point
• axis ordering is major challenge 70 • axis ordering is major challenge
60
• scalability • scalability
Dance• dozens of attribs 50
• dozens of attribs
Table 40 Scatterplot Matrix Parallel Coordinates
• hundreds of items 30
• hundreds of items
Math Physics Dance Drama Math Physics Dance Drama
Math
85 95 70 65 20 100
Drama 90 80 60 50 90
65 50 90 90
Physics
10 80
50 40 95 80 70
0
Math Physics 40
Dance
60 80
Drama
90 60

Dance 50
40
http://www.michaelmcguffin.com/courses/vis/
30 6 bl.ocks.org/jasondavies/raw/1341281/ 7
20
Drama
10
0
Math Physics Dance Drama
Idiom parallel coordinates Correlation
Table Scatterplot Matrix Parallel Coordinates
Math Physics Dance Drama Math Physics Dance Drama
85 95 70 65 Math
100

• parallel coordinates • SPLOM

90 80 60 50 90
65 50 90 90 80
Physics
50 40 95 80
parallel axes, jagged line representing item
70
•
positive correlation • PCP
40 60 80 90 60
•
rectilinear axes, item as point
50
•
Dance
diagonal low-to-high 40
positive correlation
•

axis ordering is major challenge

• 30
• • negative correlation 20
• parallel line segments
Drama

scalability
Table Scatterplot Matrix Parallel Coordinates 10
• • diagonal
Dancehigh-to-low
0
Math Physics Dance Drama
Math Physics Drama • negative correlation
Math Physics Dance Drama

• dozens of attribs 85
• uncorrelated
95 70 65 Math
100
90 80 60 50 90 • all segments cross at halfway point
• hundreds of items
65 50 90 90 80
Physics
uncorrelated
50 40 95 80 70
40 60 80 90 •
60
50
scattered crossings
Dance
40 •
30
20
Drama
10
0
Math Physics Dance Drama

bl.ocks.org/jasondavies/raw/1341281/ 7 8

Parallel Coordinate Plots (PCP) Radar Plots c b

• PCPs can and do scale up to millions of points, with some effort. • Instead of parallel, axes in star shape.
• Additive blending vs line drawing, histogram equalization. • Samples are now polygons.
• Shapes can be recognized and compared. d a

e f

Figure courtesy of Prof. J.J. van Wijk

Blaas et al.Extensions of Parallel Coordinates for Interactive Exploration of Large Multi-Timepoint Data Sets. IEEE TVCG 2008 9 10
Iconification/Glyphs with Radar Plots Icons/Glyph
• Map multi-dimensional data to properties of graphics object:
Icon or Glyph
• Famous example: Chernoff faces (1973) – be careful. ☺
Use capabilities of humans to recognize faces to
communicate information

by Daniel Dorling, 1995

11 https://grouplens.org/blog/investigating-the-potential-for-miscommunication-using-emoji/ 12

Icons/Glyph
• Map multi-dimensional data to properties of graphics object:
Icon or Glyph
• Famous example: Chernoff faces (1973) – be careful. ☺
Use capabilities of humans to recognize faces to
communicate information
pitfalls and rules of thumb

by Daniel Dorling, 1995

https://grouplens.org/blog/investigating-the-potential-for-miscommunication-using-emoji/ 12
 Avoid Unjustified 3D

3D

http://viz.wtf/post/137826497077/eye-popping-3d-triangles http://viz.wtf/post/139002022202/designer-drugs-ht-ducqn

15

Perspective Distortion Perspective Distortion

Share of All Companies in Our Market
Record Share of All Companies in Our Market
Re
Sales! Sa
Competitor 4 Competitor 1 Competitor 4 Competitor 1

35 3
Competitor 3 Competitor 2 Competitor 3 Competitor 2

35 35
2018 sales Market share Sales since 2011
Record million dollars Millions of dollars Record
Millions of dollars million dollars
sales of in 2018 million dollars
40
36 35 Competitor 1 40
sales of in 2018 mill
Competitor 1 in 2018 Competitor 1
20 20
Competitor 2 Competitor 2
Competitor 3 Competitor 3
Competitor 4 0 0 Competitor 4
Our Our

Our Company Competitor 1 company company 2011 2013 2018

Our Company
Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 16 Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 16
 Cutting Axes
• labelled axis is critical
• avoid cropping y-axis
• include 0 at bottom left

axes • or slope misleads Under President Obama,

more students are earning their high school diplomas than ever before
High school graduation rate
100%

75%
75% 82%
50%

25%

0%
2007–8 2008–9 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14

Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 18

Cutting Axes Average annual global temperature in degrees Fahrenheit

100 Cutting Axes Average annual global temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
100

75 75 200 feet of sea level rise

• labelled axis is critical 50

• labelled axis is critical 50
56.8 Civilization: at line 58.2

• avoid cropping y-axis • avoid cropping y-axis

Last Ice Age

25 25

• include 0 at bottom left • include 0 at bottom left

0 0
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2012 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2012

• or slope misleads Average annual global temperature in degrees Fahrenheit • or slope misleads Average annual global temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
59 59

• But is 0 meaningful! 58.2 • But is 0 meaningful! 58.2

58 58

57 57

56.8 56.8

56 56
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2012 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2012

Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 19 Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 19
Scale 10,000,000,000 Scale
8,000,000,000

• logarithmic scale! • logarithmic scale!

Gerbil 6,000,000,000
population
4,000,000,000

2,000,000,000
• know your audience"
0

1st 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th 32nd

Generations of gerbils

8,589,934,592
134,217,728
2,097,152
Gerbil
32,768
population
512
8

1st 5th 10th 15th 20th 25th 32nd

Generations of gerbils

Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 20 https://twitter.com/vb_jens/status/1372251931444350976 21

Dual Axes
Planned Parenthood Federation of America:
Abortions up—life-saving procedures down Planned Parenthood Federation of America
Ca 2,000,000 Can
nc ce
pre er-sc pre r-scre
ven ree
2,007,371
328,000
ven e
tion ning-
2,007,371
in 2006
tio ning
in 2006 in 2013

ns
erv -and ser and-
vice
ice - s
s 935,573
in 2013

s 1,000,000
r tion
Abo

289,750

radial layouts
in 2006
935,573 Abortions
in 2013
289,750 328,000
in 2006 in 2013

0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2006 2013
(Source: Americans United for Life)

• dual axes controversial

• acceptable if proportional
• beware, very easy to mislead"

Alberto Cairo. How Charts Lie. 2019 22

The “BArc” chart Circular bar/line chart
Jan Temperature
Dec Feb

Nov Mar

Oct Apr

Sep May

Aug Jun
Jul

https://www.data-to-viz.com/graph/circularbarplot.html https://flowingdata.com/2017/11/07/how-to-make-and-
animate-a-circular-time-series-plot-in-r/

https://www.visualisingdata.com/2017/09/problems-barc-charts/ 24 25

Eyes beat memory

eyes beat memory

27
Eyes beat memory “Eyes Beat Memory”
• Implications for animation False intuitive mapping: Time in data (acquisition) vs. time in visualization
• great for choreographed storytelling Data gathering vs. perception
900,000,000

!
• great for transitions between two states
• poor for many states with changes everywhere 675,000,000

• consider small multiples instead

"
450,000,000

#
225,000,000

$
%
&

0
World Development Indicators

28 https://app.flourish.studio/@flourish/bar-chart-race 29

Exercises

"
• Data!
• Task!

Questions!

31
Exercises

Encode
How?
Manipulate Facet Reduce Encode
"
Questions!Manipulate
How?
Facet Reduce

Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter

Express Separate Express Separate

Order Align Select Partition Aggregate Order Align Select Partition Aggregate

32

Use Use
How? Navigate Superimpose Embed How? Navigate Superimpose Embed
How? How? How? How?
Encode
Encode Manipulate
Encode Manipulate
Facet Facet
Reduce
Manipulate Facet Reduce
Reduce Encode
Encode Manipulate
Encode Manipulate
Facet Facet
Reduce
Manipulate Facet Reduce
Reduce

Arrange Map Change

Arrange Juxtapose ChangeFilter Juxtapose Filter Arrange Map Change
Arrange Juxtapose ChangeFilter Juxtapose Filter
Arrange from Change
categorical and ordered Juxtapose Filter Arrange from Change
categorical and ordered Juxtapose Filter
Express Separate Express Separate Express Separate Express Separate
Express Separateattributes Express Separateattributes
Color Color
Hue Saturation Hue Saturation
Order Align Select
Order Align Luminance
Partition Select Aggregate Partition Aggregate Order Align Select
Order Align Luminance
Partition Select Aggregate Partition Aggregate

Order Align Select

Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Partition Aggregate Order Align Select
Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Partition Aggregate
Use Use Use Use
Navigate Superimpose Navigate
Embed Superimpose Embed Navigate Superimpose Navigate
Embed Superimpose Embed
Shape Shape
What? What?
Use Use
Map Map Navigate Superimpose Embed Map Map Navigate Superimpose Embed
from categorical and ordered Motion
from categorical and ordered Why? from categorical and ordered Motion
from categorical and ordered Why?
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
attributes Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
attributes
attributes attributes
How? How?
Color Color Color Color
Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance
Map Map
from categorical
Size, Angle, Curvature, and
... ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ... from categorical
Size, Angle, Curvature, and
... ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
attributes attributes
Color Shape Munzner Book - Chapter 11 Color Shape Munzner Book - Chapter 11
Shape Shape
Hue Saturation Luminance What?
What? Hue Saturation Luminance What?
What?

Motion Why? Motion Why?

Motion Direction, Rate, Frequency, ... Why? Motion Direction, Rate, Frequency, ... Why?
Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
How?
Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
How?
How? How?

Shape Shape
What? What?
Interaction principles How? Change View over Time
Encode Manipulate Facet Reduce
• Manipulate, • Deal with complexity
Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter
• change Express Separate • change encoding, parameters,

• selection and highlighting viewpoint, aggregation…

• navigate Order Align Select Partition Aggregate

• Low-latency visual feedback. Use

Navigate Superimpose Embed
• Overview first, Zoom and Filter, Details on Demand
Information Gathering Mantra, Shneidermann 1996.
Map
from categorical and ordered
attributes 36 Heer & Robertson, InfoVis 2007 37

Change View over TimeHue Select

Color
Saturation Luminance

• Deal with complexity Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Basic operation for all interaction
• change encoding, parameters, • Design choices:
viewpoint, aggregation… Shape
• Single: click vs hover
What?
• Within encoding • Multiple: brushingWhy?
Motion
• Highlight: changeHow?
visual encoding for selection targets
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
• change sorting order

rearrange layout
Color
•
•
…
border or other visual property
•
•
• Consider Animation (Gapminder)
• explicitly link items (containment)
https://www.ted.com/talks/hans_rosling_the_best_stats_you_ve_ever_seen

https://bost.ocks.org/mike/miserables/ 38 39
 Navigate
• Change viewpoint
• changes visibility of items
• camera metaphor (zoom, translate, rotate)

• Semantic zooming
change item’s visual encoding (depending on “zooming”)

40
T. Höllt et al.: Interactive Immune Cell Phenotyping for Large Single-Cell Datasets, EuroVis 2016 41

Further reading
• Animated Transitions in Statistical Data Graphics. Heer and Robertson. IEEE
Trans. on Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proc. InfoVis07) 13:6 (2007),
1240– 1247.
• Selection: 524,288 Ways to Say “This is Interesting”. Wills. Proc. IEEE Symp.
Information Visualization (InfoVis), pp. 54–61, 1996.
• Smooth and efficient zooming and panning. van Wijk and Nuij. Proc. IEEE Symp.
Information Visualization (InfoVis), pp. 15–22, 2003.
• Starting Simple - adding value to static visualisation through simple interaction.
Dix and Ellis. Proc. Advanced Visual Interfaces (AVI), pp. 124–134, 1998.

42 43
 How?
Encode Manipulate Facet Reduce

Arrange Change Juxtapose Filter

Express Separate

Order Align Select Partition Aggregate

(Coordinated) Multiple Views

Use
How? Navigate Superimpose Embed
How? How?
Encode
Encode Manipulate
Encode Manipulate
Facet Facet
Reduce
Manipulate Facet Reduce
Reduce

Types of multiple views:

Arrange Map Change
Arrange Juxtapose ChangeFilter
Arrange from Change
categorical and ordered JuxtaposeJuxtapose Filter
Filter
Express Separate Express Separate
Express Separateattributes
Color
Hue Saturation
• Multiple views
Order Align Select
Order Align Luminance
Partition Select Aggregate Partition Aggregate

Order Align Select

Size, Angle, Curvature, ... Partition Aggregate • Different visual encodings of same data.
Use Use
Navigate Superimpose Navigate
Embed Superimpose Embed
• Small multiples
Shape

Same representations of many different datasets.

What?
Use •
Map Map Navigate Superimpose Embed
from categorical and ordered Motion
from categorical and ordered Why?

Overview and detail

Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
attributes
attributes •
How?
Color Color
Hue Saturation Luminance Hue Saturation Luminance • Same visual encoding, same data, different level of zooming.
Map
from categorical
Size, Angle, Curvature, and
... ordered Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
attributes
Color Shape Munzner Book - Chapter 12 45
Shape
Hue Saturation Luminance What?
What?

(Coordinated)
Motion
Multiple Views
Size, Angle, Curvature, ...
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
Motion
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ... Why?
Why?
(Coordinated) Multiple Views
How?
How?

• Design Choices
Shape • View count: few vs many
What? • View visibility: popup vs side by side

Motion Why?
• View arrangement: manual vs automatic

• Linkage:
Direction, Rate, Frequency, ...
How?
• Actions in one view are somehow propagated to other
views. Show selected items in one view highlighted in
other view(s)
• Linked highlighting / brushing – items selected in one
view selected in all others.
• Linked view parameters.

Somarakis et al. 2021 46 47

Idiom: Linked highlighting Idiom: cross filtering
• item filtering
• see how regions contiguous in one view
• coordinated views/controls combined
are distributed within another
• all scented histogram bisliders update when any ranges change
• powerful and pervasive interaction idiom

• encoding
• multiform

• data
• all shared
Visual Exploration of Large Structured Datasets. Wills. Proc.
New Techniques and Trends in Statistics (NTTS), pp. 237–
246. IOS Press, 1995.

48 http://square.github.io/crossfilter/ 49

(Coordinated) Multiple Views Small Multiples

Types of multiple views: • Side-by-side windows with same visual encoding of different datasets.
• Multiple views
Comparison,
• Trading time for space vs. animation.
• Different visual encodings of same data.

• Small multiples

• Same representations of many different datasets.

• Overview and detail

• Same visual encoding, same data, different level of zooming.

50 Tufte, The Visual Display of Quantitative Information, p172. 51

(Coordinated) Multiple Views Overview and Detail
Types of multiple views: • Same encoding
• Multiple views • Shared navigation
• Different visual encodings of same data. • Shared data
• Small multiples • Differences
• Same representations of many different datasets. • viewpoint

• Overview and detail • (size)

• Same visual encoding, same data, different level of zooming.

52 53

Coordinate views: Linking Coordinate views: Layout

• why juxtapose views!
• benefits: eyes vs memory
All Subset None • lower cognitive load to move eyes between 2 views
than remembering previous state with single
Same Redundant
Overview/ changing view
Detail
Small Multiples
• costs: display area, 2 views side by side each have only
Multiform,
No Linkage
half the area of one view
Overview/
Multiform Detail

54 55
Focus+Context Visualization Focus+Context Visualization
• Different levels of detail integrated in one view. • Different levels of detail integrated in one view.
• Show area of interest (focus) in detail and its surroundings (context) in less detail. • Show area of interest (focus) in detail and its surroundings (context) in less detail.
Information space containing documents, emails, etc. Information space containing documents, emails, etc.

The same space wrapped around two uprights

View direction

https://www.youtube.com/watch!v=DaF5brrdpJw 56 https://www.youtube.com/watch!v=DaF5brrdpJw 56

Focus+Context Visualization Focus+Context Examples

• Different levels of detail integrated in one view.
• Show area of interest (focus) in detail and its surroundings (context) in less detail.
Information space containing documents, emails, etc.

The same space wrapped around two uprights

View direction
Appearance of the information space when viewed
from an appropriate direction

https://www.youtube.com/watch!v=DaF5brrdpJw 56 http://tulip.labri.fr/TulipDrupal/!q=node/351 57
 Further reading
• A Review of Overview+Detail, Zooming, and Focus+Context Interfaces. Cockburn, Karlson, and Bederson. ACM Computing Surveys
41:1 (2008), 1–31.
• A Guide to Visual Multi-Level Interface Design From Synthesis of Empirical Study Evidence. Lam and Munzner. Synthesis Lectures
on Visualization Series, Morgan Claypool, 2010.
• Zooming versus multiple window interfaces: Cognitive costs of visual comparisons. Plumlee and Ware. ACM Trans. on Computer-
Human Interaction (ToCHI) 13:2 (2006), 179–209.
• Exploring the Design Space of Composite Visualization. Javed and Elmqvist. Proc. Pacific Visualization Symp. (PacificVis), pp. 1–9,
2012.
• Visual Comparison for Information Visualization. Gleicher, Albers, Walker, Jusufi, Hansen, and Roberts. Information Visualization 10:4
(2011), 289–309.
• Guidelines for Using Multiple Views in Information Visualizations. Baldonado, Woodruff, and Kuchinsky. In Proc. ACM Advanced
Visual Interfaces (AVI), pp. 110–119, 2000.
• Cross-Filtered Views for Multidimensional Visual Analysis. Weaver. IEEE Trans. Visualization and Computer Graphics 16:2 (Proc.
InfoVis 2010), 192–204, 2010.
• Linked Data Views. Wills. In Handbook of Data Visualization, Computational Statistics, edited by Unwin, Chen, and Härdle, pp. 216–
241. Springer-Verlag, 2008.
• Glyph-based Visualization: Foundations, Design Guidelines, Techniques and Applications. Borgo, Kehrer, Chung, Maguire, Laramee,
Hauser, Ward, and Chen. In Eurographics State of the Art Reports, pp. 39–63, 2013.

Höllt et al., Focus+Context Exploration of Hierarchical Embeddings. Computer Graphics Forum 2019 59

"
Questions!
Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Tamara Munzner (University of British Columbia)
 Graphs
Graphs

IN4089 Data Visualization

Martin Skrodzki – Computer Graphics & Visualization

Graph (Network) Visualization Tree Root

Parent

Depth
What is a graph 𝐺𝐺 ? • Graph that is
Child
𝐺𝐺 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸): 𝐸𝐸 ⊆ 𝑉𝑉 2 • Connected: all nodes can be reached

Undirected • Acyclic: without cycles Tree

𝑉𝑉 are vertices
• Can determine a root, then:
𝐸𝐸 are edges connecting two vertices
• Each (child)node has a parent
• Distance from root: depth
also called Network with attributes 𝑉𝑉 and 𝐸𝐸
Directed Not trees

3 4
Networks/graphs and trees Node-link techniques
• Layout:
• Nodes should not overlap

• Minimize edge crossing

• Edge length homogeneous

• Graph structures easily recognizable

• …

• A lot of research in the Graph

Drawing community
Munzner Book - Chapter 9

5 http://mbostock.github.com/d3/ex/force.html 6

Idiom: force-directed placement Node-link techniques: Force based

• visual encoding
• link connection marks, node point marks Force-directed algorithms:
• considerations
• Mechanical laws
• spatial position: no meaning directly encoded
• left free to minimize crossings • Model edges as springs, also nodes repel each other.
• proximity semantics?
• sometimes meaningful • Numerically simulate until stable state is reached.
• sometimes arbitrary, artifact of layout algorithm
• Repelling force on vertices (all other vertices)
• tension with length
• long edges more visually salient than short • Attracting force on edges (only connected vertices)
• tasks
• explore topology; locate paths, clusters
• scalability
• node/edge density E < 4N

http://mbostock.github.com/d3/ex/force.html 7 Based on slides by Michel Westenberg 8

Vertex Force Edge Force
• Repelling force between vertices 𝑖𝑖 and 𝑗𝑗 • Spring forces on edge
• Attracts vertices connected by edge
Repulsion strength Repulsion direction
Spring tension Spring length
𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 − 𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 −𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗
𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑖,𝑗𝑗 = 2 𝒙𝒙𝒋𝒋 • 𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 , 𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 − 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 , 𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 ) 𝑑𝑑(𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 , 𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 ) 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ,𝑥𝑥𝑗𝑗 𝒙𝒙𝒋𝒋

• Prevents these vertices from getting too far apart

• Prevents vertices to come too close to each other

Based on slides by Michel Westenberg 9 Based on slides by Michel Westenberg 10

Layout Layout
• Compute forces • Compute forces
• Move vertices according to forces • Move vertices according to forces
• Terminate on • Terminate on
• Fixed number of iteration • Fixed number of iteration
• Total energy below some • Total energy below some
threshold threshold
• Local minimum • Local minimum
• User input • User input

Based on slides by Michel Westenberg 11 Based on slides by Michel Westenberg 12

Idiom: adjacency matrix view Connection vs. adjacency comparison
• data: network • adjacency matrix strengths
• predictability, scalability, supports reordering
• transform into same data/encoding as
heatmap NodeTrix: a Hybrid Visualization of Social • some topology tasks trainable
Networks. Henry, Fekete, and McGuffin. IEEE

• derived data: table from network

TVCG (Proc. InfoVis) 13(6):1302-1309, 2007.
• node-link diagram strengths
• topology understanding, path tracing
• 1 quant attrib
• intuitive, no training needed
• weighted edge between nodes
• empirical study
• 2 categ attribs: node list x 2 • node-link best for small networks
• visual encoding • matrix best for large networks
• cell shows presence/absence of edge • if tasks don’t involve topological structure! http://www.michaelmcguffin.com/courses/vis/patternsInAdjacencyMatrix.p
ng
• scalability On the readability of graphs using node-link and matrix-based
representations: a controlled experiment and statistical analysis.
• 1K nodes, 1M edges Ghoniem, Fekete, and Castagliola. Information Visualization 4:2 (2005),
Points of view: Networks. Gehlenborg and Wong. Nature Methods 9:115. 114–135.

13 14

Networks/graphs and trees Idiom: (radial) node-link tree

• data
• tree
• encoding
• link connection marks
• point node marks
• (radial) axis orientation
• vertical/angular proximity: siblings
• Horizontal distance/ from center:
depth in tree
• tasks
• understanding topology, following paths
• scalability
• 1K - 10K nodes
Munzner Book - Chapter 9

15 https://observablehq.com/@d3/tidy-tree 16
Idiom: treemap Idiom: icicle/sunburst
• data Icicle SunBurst
• tree
• 1 quantitative attribute at leaf nodes
• encoding
• area containment marks for hierarchical
structure
• Every level one row/circle
• rectilinear orientation
• size encodes quant attrib • No overlapping parent child – attributes easier
• tasks displayed
• query attribute (at leaf nodes)
• scalability • Space on interior nodes can be used
• 1M leaf nodes • Not as dense as Treemaps
https://observablehq.com/@d3/treemap 17 http://homes.cs.washington.edu/~jheer/files/zoo/ 18

Idiom: icicle/sunburst Link marks: Connection and containment

marks as links (vs. nodes)
• common case in network drawing
• 1D case: connection
• ex: all node-link diagrams
• emphasizes topology, path tracing
• networks and trees
• 2D case: containment
• ex: all treemap variants
• emphasizes attribute values at leaves
(size coding) Elastic Hierarchies: Combining Treemaps and Node-
Thomas Höllt, Nicola Pezzotti, Vincent van Unen, Frits Koning, Boudewijn P.F. Lelieveldt, and Anna Vilanova. CyteGuide: Visual
Guidance for Hierarchical Single-Cell Analysis. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proceedings of InfoVis • only trees Link Diagrams. Dong, McGuffin, and Chignell. Proc.
InfoVis 2005, p. 57-64.
2017), 24(1), 2018.

19 20
Tree drawing idioms comparison Further reading
• data shown • Visual Analysis of Large Graphs: State-of-the-Art and Future Research Challenges. von
– link relationships Landesberger et al. Computer Graphics Forum 30:6 (2011), 1719–1749.
– tree depth • Simple Algorithms for Network Visualization: A Tutorial. McGuffin. Tsinghua Science and
– sibling order Technology (Special Issue on Visualization and Computer Graphics) 17:4 (2012), 383–398.
• design choices • Drawing on Physical Analogies. Brandes. In Drawing Graphs: Methods and Models, LNCS
– connection vs containment link marks Tutorial, 2025, edited by M. Kaufmann and D. Wagner, LNCS Tutorial, 2025, pp. 71–86.
What‘s a Springer-Verlag, 2001.
– rectilinear vs radial layout fitting data
– spatial position channels • http://www.treevis.net Treevis.net: A Tree Visualization Reference. Schulz. IEEE Computer
set for any
of these Graphics and Applications 31:6 (2011), 11–15.
• considerations
idioms? • Perceptual Guidelines for Creating Rectangular Treemaps. Kong, Heer, and Agrawala. IEEE
– information density?
Quantifying the Space-Efficiency of 2D Graphical Representations of Trees. Trans. Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proc. InfoVis) 16:6 (2010), 990–998.
• avoid wasting space McGuffin and Robert. Information Visualization 9:2 (2010), 115–140.

21 22

Further reading
• Visual Analysis of Large Graphs: State-of-the-Art and Future Research Challenges. von
Landesberger et al. Computer Graphics Forum 30:6 (2011), 1719–1749.
• Simple Algorithms for Network Visualization: A Tutorial. McGuffin. Tsinghua Science and
Technology (Special Issue on Visualization and Computer Graphics) 17:4 (2012), 383–398.
• Drawing on Physical Analogies. Brandes. In Drawing Graphs: Methods and Models, LNCS
Tutorial, 2025, edited by M. Kaufmann and D. Wagner, LNCS Tutorial, 2025, pp. 71–86.
Springer-Verlag, 2001.
• http://www.treevis.net Treevis.net: A Tree Visualization Reference. Schulz. IEEE Computer Questions!
Graphics and Applications 31:6 (2011), 11–15. Slides (partially) based on lectures by
• Perceptual Guidelines for Creating Rectangular Treemaps. Kong, Heer, and Agrawala. IEEE Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Trans. Visualization and Computer Graphics (Proc. InfoVis) 16:6 (2010), 990–998. Tamara Munzner (University of British Columbia)
Thomas Höllt (TU Delft)

23
 Recap: Idiom scatterplot matrix
• scatterplot matrix (SPLOM)
Dimensionality • rectilinear axes, point mark

Reduction •

•
all possible pairs of axes
scalability
• one dozen attributes
IN4089 Data Visualization
• dozen to hundreds of items
Martin Skrodzki – Computer Graphics & Visualization
• Interaction is crucial

Reduce items and attributes Aggregation

• filter • Clustering
• pro: straightforward and intuitive
• Typically group items
• con: out of sight, out of mind
• Also on attributes (bi-clustering)
• aggregation
• pro: inform about whole set • Dimensionality Reduction
• con: difficult to avoid losing signal • Aggregate attributes
• not mutually exclusive • Remove redundancies in the data
• combine filter, aggregate
• Reduce downstream costs
• combine reduce, change, facet
• Visualization

3 4
Dimensionality Reduction Types of Dimensionality Reduction
• Filter attributes possible • Linear
Resulting attributes are linear combination of existing attributes (interpretable)
… but which ones?
• Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
• New space/embedding preserves • Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)
specific properties (e.g., variance, • …

cluster and structure) of the original • Non-Linear

Resulting attributes do not have straightforward relation to original attributes
high-dimensional space as much as • Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) – preserve distances
possible. • t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE) – preserve neighborhoods

• Typically target 2D, vis as Scatterplot! • …

5 6
PCA - Intuition Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in Brief
• Given a dataset with n attributes (n-dimensional problem)
• PCA:
• finds a new coordinate system obtained from the previous one by translation
and rotation only – changes the point of view
• moves the center of the coordinate system with center of the data
• moves the x-axis into the principal axis of variation
• orders axes by amount of variation (importance)

11 12
PCA PCA
• PCA transforms an n-dimensional space to an n-dimensional space
• In the new space dimensions are ordered by importance (highest variance)
PCA - Projection that best
• Dimensionality reduction: take the first m dimensions (m<n) represents the data variation

Projections that consider the

variance

classes need other dimensionality

reduction methods – NOT PCA

PC

13 14

Types of Dimensionality Reduction

• Linear
Resulting attributes are linear combination of existing attributes (interpretable)
• Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
• Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA)
• …
• Non-Linear
Resulting attributes do not have straightforward relation to original attributes
Questions! • Multi-Dimensional Scaling (MDS) – preserve distances
• t-Distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE) – preserve neighborhoods
• …

16
MNIST dataset – Handwritten numbers t-SNE Intuition
0 • Non-linear dimensionality reduction 7
• Compute neighborhoods in hi-D 1
4
• Model low-D to preserve 9

neighborhoods 8
2
6
• Preserves local neighborhoods 3 5

➫ Preserves high-D clusters! 0

17 18

t-SNE in Brief t-SNE in Brief

• Create probability Remember force directed graphs?

distributions P/Q
• P: similarities in HD
• Q: random init

• Minimizie Kullback
Leiber Divergence
KLD(P,Q)

19 20
t-SNE in Brief t-SNE Parameters
• Computationally intensive • Perplexity
• compute high dimensional • Number of iterations
neighborhoods
• Learning rate
• optimize low dimensional neighborhoods
• Theta (for BH t-SNE)
(Many optimized implementations)
…
• Several parameters
• Some can severely impact results
https://distill.pub/2016/misread-tsne/

21 22

Progressive and Approximated tSNE at Tensorflow

collaboration with

GPGPU Linear Complexity t-SNE Optimization

Nicola Pezzotti, et al.
IEEE TVCG (Proceedings of VAST 2019)

https://nicola17.github.io/tfjs-tsne-demo/
https://github.com/tensorflow/tfjs-tsne

23 T. Höllt et al.: Interactive Immune Cell Phenotyping for Large Single-Cell Datasets, EuroVis 2016
Dimensionality Reduction Theses Projects
• Dimensionality Reduction is an
active field of research
• Both application-driven and
theory-based projects possible
• Come talk to us if you are
interested!
• Tensorflow GPU t-SNE in javascript: https://nicola17.github.io/tfjs-tsne-demo/
• Many algorithms in javascript: https://github.com/saehm/DruidJS
• Further Read: Visualizing Dimensionally-Reduced Data: Interviews with Analysts and a
Characterization of Task Sequences, Brehmer, et al. In BELIV 2014
25

Questions!
Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Thomas Höllt (TU Delft)
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Tamara Munzner (University of British Columbia)
 Dataset
Dataset
Dataset
Dataset Types
Types
Types
Types Dataset Types

Data Visualization TablesTypes

Dataset
Tables
Tables
Tables
Tables Attributes
Attributes (columns)
(columns)
Attributes
Attributes (columns)
(columns)
Networks
Networks
Tables
Networks
Networks
Networks
Attributes (columns)
FieldsFields
Networks
Fields
Fields
Spatial
(Continuous)
(Continuous)
(Continuous)
Grid of Grid
Fields positions
Gridof
Geometry
(Continuous) Geometry
Fields
Geometry
Geometry
ofpositions
positions
(Continuous)
(Continuous)
Grid of positions
(Spatial)
(Spatial)(Spatial)
(Spatial)

Geometry
Grid of positions(Spatial)

IN4089 Data Visualization

Items Items Link Link
Items
Items Items Link
Link Cell Cell Link
Grid of positions
(rows)(rows) Attributes (columns) Cell
Cell Cell Position Position
(rows)
(rows) (rows) Node Node Position
Position
Node
Node Node
Items (item)Link(item)
Cell containing
Cell containing value value (item)
(item) Cell (columns)
Attributes (item)
Attributes (columns)
Thomas Höllt - Computer Graphics & Visualization
(rows) Cell
Cellcontaining
containingvalue
value Cell containing value Attributes
Attributes(columns)
(columns) Attributes (columns) Position
Node
(item) Value in cell Value in cell
Cell containing value Attributes
Valueinin(columns)
Value cell
cell Value in cell
* Multidimensional Table Table
Multidimensional Trees Trees
Multidimensional
MultidimensionalTable
Table Trees
Trees
Multidimensional Table Trees
Value in cell

Multidimensional Table Trees

Value in cell
Value in cell
Value
Valueinincell
cell Value in cell

Value in cell

2
[*xkcd]

Volume Data

3
Volume data in different applications Volume data
• Objects with internal structure • 3D grid of data points, indices: m, n, k
• medical data • one scalar value per data point
• Industrial applications • density, concentration
• seismic data • pressure
• astronomy/astrophysics • temperature
𝑓(→
𝑥 ): ℝ3 → ℝ
• velocity
• etc … 𝑓[𝑚, 𝑛, 𝑘]: ℕ 3 → ℕ

5 6

Volume visualization Volume visualization

2D visualization of slice images 2D visualization of slice images
arbitrary cut planes (multi planar arbitrary cut planes (multi planar
reconstruction, MPR) reconstruction, MPR)

Indirect 3D visualization Indirect 3D visualization

Extract and reformat structures: Extract and reformat structures:
isosurfaces isosurfaces

Direct 3D visualization Direct 3D visualization

Interactively classify structures: Interactively classify structures:
direct volume rendering (DVR) direct volume rendering (DVR)

7 7
MPR: Multi-planar reconstruction / reformatting MPR: Multi-planar reconstruction / reformatting
Axis aligned Oblique
2D slices through the volume 2D slices through the volume

8 8

Resampling Resampling
f [x, y] : [1,M1] × [1,M2] → [1,K] f [x, y, z] : [1,N1] × [1,N2] × [1,N3] → [1,L] f [x, y] : [1,M1] × [1,M2] → [1,K] f [x, y, z] : [1,N1] × [1,N2] × [1,N3] → [1,L]

M ≠N M ≠N
ΔM ≠ ΔN ΔM ≠ ΔN

Acquired Volume (3D) Acquired Volume (3D)

9 9
Resampling Resampling
f [x, y] : [1,M1] × [1,M2] → [1,K] f [x, y, z] : [1,N1] × [1,N2] × [1,N3] → [1,L] f [x, y] : [1,M1] × [1,M2] → [1,K] f [x, y, z] : [1,N1] × [1,N2] × [1,N3] → [1,L]

M ≠N M ≠N
ΔM ≠ ΔN ΔM ≠ ΔN

Acquired Volume (3D) Acquired Volume (3D)

f(x)⃗ : ℝ3 → ℝ

9 9

Interpolation: reconstruct a continuous signal Interpolation: reconstruct a continuous signal

f(x) f(x) f[i] → f(x)

x x
Δx Δx

10 10
Interpolation: reconstruct a continuous signal Convolution: Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula
∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]

f[i] → f˜ ≈ f(x)
i=−∞
f(x) x − iΔx
( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

f [i]
f(x)

x
Δx
x
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10 11

Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter) Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter)
∞ ∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]
i=−∞ i=−∞
x − iΔx x − iΔx
( Δx ) ( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c • With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

• Simplest case: nearest neighbor • Simplest case: nearest neighbor

f [i] f [i]
1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) 1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx h[i, x] = Δx

0 else 0 else
1.0 1.0 1.0

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

12 12
Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter) Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter)
∞ ∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]
i=−∞ i=−∞
x − iΔx x − iΔx
( Δx ) ( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c • With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

• Simplest case: nearest neighbor • Simplest case: nearest neighbor

f [i] f [i]
1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) h[i, x] 1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx h[i, x] = Δx

0 else 0 else
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

12 12

Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter) Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter)
∞ ∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]
i=−∞ i=−∞
x − iΔx x − iΔx
( Δx ) ( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c • With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

• Simplest case: nearest neighbor • Simplest case: nearest neighbor

f [i] f [i]
1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) h[i, x] 1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx h[i, x] = Δx

0 else 0 else
1.0 1.0

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

13 13
Interpolation - Nearest Neighbor (Box Filter) Interpolation - Linear (Tent Filter)
∞ ∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]
i=−∞ i=−∞
x − iΔx x − iΔx
( Δx ) ( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c • With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

• Simplest case: nearest neighbor • Better than NN: linear interpolation

f [i] f [i]
1 x
− i ≤ 0.5 f(x) h[i, x] 1− x
−i x
−i ≤1 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx h[i, x] = Δx Δx

0 else 0 else
1.0

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

13 14

Interpolation - Linear (Tent Filter) Interpolation - Linear (Tent Filter)

∞ ∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]
i=−∞ i=−∞
x − iΔx x − iΔx
( Δx ) ( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c • With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

• Better than NN: linear interpolation • Better than NN: linear interpolation
f [i] f [i]
1− x
−i x
−i ≤1 f(x) h[i, x] 1− x
−i x
−i ≤1 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx Δx h[i, x] = Δx Δx

0 else 0 else

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

14 14
Interpolation - Linear (Tent Filter) Interpolation - Linear (Tent Filter)
∞ ∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x]
i=−∞ i=−∞
x − iΔx x − iΔx
( Δx ) ( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c • With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c

• Better than NN: linear interpolation • Better than NN: linear interpolation
f [i] f [i]
1− x
−i x
−i ≤1 f(x) h[i, x] 1− x
−i x
−i ≤1 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx Δx h[i, x] = Δx Δx

0 else 0 else

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

15 15

Interpolation - Linear (Tent Filter) Interpolation - Linear

Nearest Neighbor

∞
• Can be computed using simple convolution f(x) = ∑ f [i]h[i, x] • Better than NN: Linear Interpolation
i=−∞
• Fast to compute
x − iΔx
( Δx )
• With convolution kernel h[i, x] = c (important for interactive applications)
• Built in hardware in GPUs
• Better than NN: linear interpolation
f [i] Linear
1− x
−i x
−i ≤1 f(x) h[i, x]
h[i, x] = Δx Δx

0 else

-2 -1 0 1 2
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

15 16
Interpolation - Linear Perfect interpolator: Sinc function
Nearest Neighbor

• Better than NN: Linear Interpolation • Sinc: … …

• Fast to compute -x 0 x

(important for interactive applications)

• Range from −∞ to ∞
• Built in hardware in GPUs
• Requires band limited function f [i]
Linear
• Large number of better interpolators f (x) h[i, x]
e.g. cubic or spline-based
<latexit sha1_base64="SCbBBhlA67bViBXJ7GErgh7hAp0=">AAAB6nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0WomzAJfdhdwY0rqWCs0IYymU7aoTNJmJmIJfQX3LhQcesXufNvnLQVVPTAhcM593LvPUHCmdIIfViFldW19Y3iZmlre2d3r7x/cKPiVBLqkZjH8jbAinIWUU8zzeltIikWAafdYHKe+907KhWLo2s9Tagv8ChiISNY51JYvT8dlCvIduqoUW9BQ1y31agZUnebjRqCjo3mqIAlOoPye38Yk1TQSBOOleo5KNF+hqVmhNNZqZ8qmmAywSPaMzTCgio/m986gydGGcIwlqYiDefq94kMC6WmIjCdAuux+u3l4l9eL9XhmZ+xKEk1jchiUZhyqGOYPw6HTFKi+dQQTCQzt0IyxhITbeIpmRC+PoX/E8+1Wza6qlXal8s0iuAIHIMqcEATtMEF6AAPEDAGD+AJPFvCerRerNdFa8FazhyCH7DePgFIGI36</latexit>

• More expensive to compute

x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

16 17

Interpolation - Cubic Interpolation - Cubic

• Cubic interpolation kernel • Cubic interpolation kernel
h[i, x] = h ( Δx )
h[i, x] = h ( Δx )
x − iΔx x − iΔx

(a + 2) ⋅ | x |3 − (a + 3) ⋅ | x |2 + 1 0 ≤ |x| < 1 -2 -1 0 1 2 (a + 2) ⋅ | x |3 − (a + 3) ⋅ | x |2 + 1 0 ≤ |x| < 1 -2 -1 0 1 2

h(x) = 3 2
a ⋅ | x | − 5a ⋅ | x | + 8a ⋅ | x | − 4a 1 ≤ | x | < 2 h(x) = a ⋅ | x |3 − 5a ⋅ | x |2 + 8a ⋅ | x | − 4a 1 ≤ | x | < 2
0 2 ≤ |x| f(x) f [i] 0 2 ≤ |x| f(x) f [i]
h[i, x] h[i, x]
• Parameter a is defined by other constraints. • Parameter a is defined by other constraints.
• Typical values: a = − 1, a = − 0.75, or a = − 0.5 • Typical values: a = − 1, a = − 0.75, or a = − 0.5
• Negative kernel values imply values • Negative kernel values imply values
out of original range. x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

out of original range. x

<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

Play with values for a at: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/sjd88swub4 18 Play with values for a at: https://www.desmos.com/calculator/sjd88swub4 18
Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D
• How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y • How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y
• Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation
<latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit>

• Interpolation can be separated per axis

• 2D
• Interpolate points with same y-coord on the
sides of the cell along x

x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

19 20

Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D

• How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y • How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y
• Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation • Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation
<latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit>

• Interpolation can be separated per axis • Interpolation can be separated per axis
• 2D • 2D
• Interpolate points with same y-coord on the • Interpolate points with same y-coord on the
sides of the cell along x sides of the cell along x

x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

20 20
Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D
• How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y • How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y
• Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation • Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation
<latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit>

• Interpolation can be separated per axis • Interpolation can be separated per axis
• 2D • 2D
• Interpolate points with same y-coord on the • Interpolate points with same y-coord on the
sides of the cell along x sides of the cell along x
• Interpolate the two resulting samples along y

x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

20 21

Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D

• How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y • How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y
• Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation • Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation
<latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit>

• Interpolation can be separated per axis • Interpolation can be separated per axis
• 2D • 2D
• Interpolate points with same y-coord on the • Interpolate points with same y-coord on the
sides of the cell along x sides of the cell along x
• Interpolate the two resulting samples along y • Interpolate the two resulting samples along y

x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit
x
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

21 21
Interpolation - Linear 2D/3D

"
• How can we interpolate in 2D/3D! y
• Bi-/Tri-linear interpolation
<latexit sha1_base64="QDYbyZGLCCdGil7ujUDRTs54LBU=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFSahD7sruHElLRhbaEOZTCft2MkkzEyEEPoFblyouPWX3Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69J0g4UxqhD6uwtr6xuVXcLu3s7u0flA+PblWcSkI9EvNY9gKsKGeCepppTnuJpDgKOO0G08u5372nUrFY3OgsoX6Ex4KFjGBtpE42LFeQ7dRQvdaEhrhus141pOY26lUEHRstUAErtIfl98EoJmlEhSYcK9V3UKL9HEvNCKez0iBVNMFkise0b6jAEVV+vjh0Bs+MMoJhLE0JDRfq94kcR0plUWA6I6wn6rc3F//y+qkOL/yciSTVVJDlojDlUMdw/jUcMUmJ5pkhmEhmboVkgiUm2mRTMiF8fQr/J55rN23UqVZa16s0iuAEnIJz4IAGaIEr0AYeIICCB/AEnq0769F6sV6XrQVrNXMMfsB6+wTEL40m</latexit>

• Interpolation can be separated per axis

• 2D
• Interpolate points with same y-coord on the
sides of the cell along x
• Interpolate the two resulting samples along y Questions!
• 3D
• Do the same for the two z-planes and then x
interpolate the two resulting values along z
<latexit sha1_base64="+Nz6rkGurZZUCbsGAnqQ/92sASk=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90V3LiSFowttKFMpjft6GQSZiZiKf0CNy5U3PpL7vwbpw9BRQ9cOJxzL/feE6acKe04H1ZuZXVtfSO/Wdja3tndK+4fXKskkxR8mvBEdkKigDMBvmaaQyeVQOKQQzu8PZ/57TuQiiXiSo9TCGIyFCxilGgjte77xZJjuxWnWqljQzyvXi0bUvFq1bKDXduZo4SWaPaL771BQrMYhKacKNV1nVQHEyI1oxymhV6mICX0lgyha6ggMahgMj90ik+MMsBRIk0Jjefq94kJiZUax6HpjIkeqd/eTPzL62Y6OgsmTKSZBkEXi6KMY53g2dd4wCRQzceGECqZuRXTEZGEapNNwYTw9Sn+n/ieXbedVrnUuFymkUdH6BidIhfVUANdoCbyEUWAHtATerZurEfrxXpdtOas5cwh+gHr7RPCrI0l</latexit>
<latexit

22

Volume visualization Volume visualization

2D visualization of slice images 2D visualization of slice images
arbitrary cut planes (multi planar arbitrary cut planes (multi planar
reconstruction, MPR) reconstruction, MPR)

Indirect 3D visualization Indirect 3D visualization

Extract and reformat structures: Extract and reformat structures:
isosurfaces isosurfaces

Direct 3D visualization Direct 3D visualization

Interactively classify structures: Interactively classify structures:
direct volume rendering (DVR) direct volume rendering (DVR)

24 24
 25 25

Direct volume rendering Direct volume rendering

Direct visualization of volume data – without Direct visualization of volume data – without
transformation into geometric primitives transformation into geometric primitives

screen data screen data

Two main methods

screen data screen data

26 26
Direct volume rendering ray-casting Direct volume rendering ray-casting

Direct visualization of volume data – without Direct visualization of volume data – without
transformation into geometric primitives transformation into geometric primitives

screen data screen data

Two main methods Two main methods

• ray-casting: image order approach • ray-casting: image order approach

screen data screen data

26 26

Direct volume rendering ray-casting Direct volume rendering ray-casting

Direct visualization of volume data – without Direct visualization of volume data – without
transformation into geometric primitives transformation into geometric primitives

screen data screen data

Two main methods Two main methods

voxel-projection voxel-projection
• ray-casting: image order approach • ray-casting: image order approach
• voxel-projection: object order approach • voxel-projection: object order approach

screen data screen data

26 26
Ray-Casting Ray-Casting
Image order approach Image order approach
Screen Screen

Eye Eye

Data Set Data Set

For each pixel {
shoot a ray through the pixel
calculate color along the ray
}
27 27

Ray-Casting Ray-Casting
Image order approach Image order approach
Screen Screen

Eye Eye

Data Set Data Set

For each pixel { For each pixel {
shoot a ray through the pixel shoot a ray through the pixel
calculate color along the ray calculate color along the ray
} }
27 27
Ray-Casting Intensity Profile per Pixel Screen

Image order approach

Screen Intensity
et
Data S

Eye

Data Set
For each pixel { Eye
shoot a ray through the pixel
calculate color along the ray Pixel
}
27 28

Intensity Profile per Pixel Screen

Intensity Profile per Pixel Screen

Intensity Intensity
et et
Data S Data S

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

28 28
 Different profile evaluations 1. Maximum/Average Intensity Projection

Maximum Intensity Projection Average Intensity Projection

Maximum value along ray Integrate all values along ray (X-ray like Projection)

Intensity Intensity
maximum intensity

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

31 32
Average Intensity Projection Average Intensity Projection
Integrate all values along ray (X-ray like Projection) Integrate all values along ray (X-ray like Projection)

Intensity Intensity

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

32 32

Maximum/Average Intensity Projection

Algorithm
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray 2. Isosurface Rendering
b) interpolate the intensity at the position
2. Track the maximum/average encountered intensity

33
Isosurfaces/contours Isosurfaces/contours

35 36

Isosurface Raycasting Isosurface Raycasting

Intensity Intensity

Iso value

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

37 37
Isosurface Raycasting Isosurface Raycasting

Intensity Intensity

Iso value Iso value

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

37 37

Isosurface Raycasting Bisection Algorithm

Intensity Intensity

Iso value Iso value

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

37 38
Bisection Algorithm Bisection Algorithm

Intensity Intensity

Iso value Iso value

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

38 38

Bisection Algorithm Bisection Algorithm

Intensity Intensity

Iso value Iso value

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

38 38
Bisection Algorithm Bisection Algorithm

Intensity Intensity

Iso value Iso value

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

38 38

Bisection Algorithm Isosurface Raycasting

Algorithm
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray:
Intensity

1. Sample the Volume along the ray

a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position
Iso value
c) If the interpolated value is larger than the iso-value stop
Eye a) Optional: bi-section algorithm to refine the stop position
Pixel 2. At the stop position calculate shading

38 39
 Isosurface Raycasting

"
Algorithm
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position
Questions! c) If the interpolated value is larger than the iso-value stop
a) Optional: bi-section algorithm to refine the stop position
2. At the stop position calculate shading

41

Isosurface Raycasting Phong Reflection Model

Algorithm
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray Ambient
b) interpolate the intensity at the position ka(Ia ∘ Sa)
component-wise multiplication
c) If the interpolated value is larger than the iso-value stop
ka: Phong weight
a) Optional: bi-section algorithm to refine the stop position
Ia: Light property - color (RGB - vector)
2. At the stop position calculate shading
Sa: Surface property - color (RGB - vector)

42 43
Phong Reflection Model Phong Reflection Model

Ambient Ambient
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) ka(Ia ∘ Sa)
component-wise multiplication component-wise multiplication
! !
ka: Phong weight ka: Phong weight S
Ia: Light property - color (RGB - vector) Ia: Light property - color (RGB - vector)
Sa: Surface property - color (RGB - vector) Sa: Surface property - color (RGB - vector)

43 43

Phong Reflection Model Phong Reflection Model

Ambient Ambient Diffuse

I" I"
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ
component-wise multiplication
! !
ka: Phong weight S ka, kd: Phong weights S
Ia: Light property - color (RGB - vector) Ia, Id: Light properties - color (RGB - vector)
Sa: Surface property - color (RGB - vector) Sa, Sd: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector)

43 44
Phong Reflection Model Phong Reflection Model

surface
Ambient Diffuse Ambient Diffuse normal n ⃗
I " L⃗ I " L⃗
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ

! !
ka, kd: Phong weights S ka, kd: Phong weights S
Ia, Id: Light properties - color (RGB - vector) Ia, Id: Light properties - color (RGB - vector)
Sa, Sd: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector) Sa, Sd: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector)

44 44

Phong Reflection Model Phong Reflection Model

a⃗
Remember:
α b⃗
cos α = a ⃗ ⋅ b⃗ | a,⃗ bnormalized
⃗

surface surface
Ambient Diffuse normal n ⃗ Ambient Diffuse normal n ⃗
I " L⃗ I " L⃗
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ

θ ! θ !
ka, kd: Phong weights S ka, kd: Phong weights S
Ia, Id: Light properties - color (RGB - vector) Ia, Id: Light properties - color (RGB - vector)
Sa, Sd: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector) Sa, Sd: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector)

44 45
Phong Reflection Model Phong Reflection Model

surface surface
Ambient Diffuse Specular normal n ⃗ Ambient Diffuse Specular normal n ⃗
I " L⃗ I " L⃗ reflect L ⃗
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ kd(Id ∘ Sd)(cos ϕ)a ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ kd(Id ∘ Sd)(cos ϕ)a
specular reflection term θ specular reflection term θ
! !
ka, kd, ks: Phong weights S ka, kd, ks: Phong weights S
Ia, Id, Is: Light properties - color (RGB - vector) Ia, Id, Is: Light properties - color (RGB - vector)
Sa, Sd, Ss: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector) Sa, Sd, Ss: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector)
46 46

Phong Reflection Model Phong Reflection Model

surface surface
Ambient Diffuse Specular normal n ⃗ Ambient Diffuse Specular normal n ⃗
I " L⃗ reflect L ⃗ I " L⃗ reflect L ⃗
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ kd(Id ∘ Sd)(cos ϕ)a ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ kd(Id ∘ Sd)(cos ϕ)a
specular reflection term θ specular reflection term θ
! ϕ !
ka, kd, ks: Phong weights S V⃗ ka, kd, ks: Phong weights S V⃗
Ia, Id, Is: Light properties - color (RGB - vector) Ia, Id, Is: Light properties - color (RGB - vector)
Sa, Sd, Ss: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector) Sa, Sd, Ss: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector)
46 46
Phong Reflection Model

Ambient
ka(Ia ∘ Sa)
+

+
Diffuse
kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ
+

+
Specular
kd(Id ∘ Sd)(cos ϕ)a
=

=
Phong Reflection "
Questions!
ka, kd, ks: Phong weights
Ia, Id, Is: Light properties - color (RGB - vector) - typically Ia = Id = Is
Sa, Sd, Ss: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector) - typically Sa = Sd = Ss
47

49 49
 Compositing
Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model

Intensity

3. Emission/Absorption (Compositing)

Eye

Pixel

51

Compositing Compositing
Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model

Intensity Intensity

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

51 51
Compositing Compositing
Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model

Intensity Intensity

Eye Eye

Pixel Pixel

51 51

Compositing Compositing
Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model Make transparent layers visible. Emission-absorption model

Intensity Intensity

Eye Eye
…
Pixel Pixel

51 51
Compositing Compositing
Idea: Simulate physical light transport
Algorithm
• The volume is considered a semi-transparent,
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray: light emitting medium (Participating Medium)
1. Sample the Volume along the ray • Light is emitted, absorbed and scattered
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position
2. Accumulate and composit the intensities along the ray

Light increase Light decrease increase decrease

52 53

Compositing Compositing
Idea: Simulate physical light transport Idea: Simulate physical light transport
• The volume is considered a semi-transparent, • The volume is considered a semi-transparent,
light emitting medium (Participating Medium) light emitting medium (Participating Medium)
• Light is emitted, absorbed and scattered • Light is emitted, absorbed and scattered

Interpret as color Interpret as color Interpret as opacity

Light increase Light decrease increase decrease Light increase Light decrease increase decrease

53 53
Compositing Emission model
dI
Idea: Simulate physical light transport Intensity I at a position s of the ray S within the volume: = q(s)
ds
• The volume is considered a semi-transparent,
light emitting medium (Participating Medium)
Source term (homogeneous medium)
• Light is emitted, absorbed and scattered Dependent on emitted light
S Sample value at s
Interpret as color Interpret as opacity q(s)

∫s
Integration: I(s) = I(s0) + q(s̃)ds̃
0

Light increase Light decrease increase decrease

53 Renata Raidou 54

Example Absorption model

dI
Absorption I, at a position s of the ray S within the volume: = − κ(s) ⋅ I(s)
ds

Extinction coefficient ~ density of material ~ opacity a ∈ [0,1]

− ∫ss κ(s̃)ds̃
Integration: I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e 0

s2
Accumulated transparency
∫s
Optical depth: τ(s1, s2) = κ(s)ds
1
~how much of the initial transparency passes

Renata Raidou 55 Renata Raidou 56

Absorption model Examples
dI
Absorption I, at a position s of the ray S within the volume: = − κ(s) ⋅ I(s)
ds

Extinction coefficient ~ density of material ~ opacity a ∈ [0,1]

− ∫ss κ(s̃)ds̃
Integration: I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e 0

I = I0e
s2 ∫ −μ(x)dx
Accumulated transparency
∫s
Optical depth: τ(s1, s2) = κ(s)ds
1
~how much of the initial transparency passes

Renata Raidou 56 Renata Raidou 57

Emission + Absorption (Basic Compositing DVR) Emission + Absorption (Basic Compositing DVR)

s0 s s0 s

s s Without absorption all

∫s ∫s
I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e −τ(s0,s)+ q(s̃) ⋅ e −τ(s̃,s)ds̃ I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e −τ(s0,s)+ q(s̃) ⋅ e −τ(s̃,s)
theds̃initial radiant energy
0 0 would reach the point s.

Initial emitted energy at point s0 (background color) Received energy

58 58
Emission + Absorption (Basic Compositing DVR) Emission + Absorption (Basic Compositing DVR)

s0 s̃ s s0 s̃ s

Absorption from s0 to s Absorption from s̃ to s

s s

∫s ∫s
I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e −τ(s0,s)+ q(s̃) ⋅ e −τ(s̃,s)ds̃ I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e −τ(s0,s)+ q(s̃) ⋅ e −τ(s̃,s)ds̃
0 0
Energy emitted at addition point s̃

59 60

Emission + Absorption (Basic Compositing DVR) Emission + Absorption (Basic Compositing DVR)

s0 s̃ s s0 s̃ s

Every point s̃ along the viewing ray emits additional radiant energy q(s̃). Every point s̃ along the viewing ray emits additional radiant energy q(s̃).

Absorption from s0 to s Absorption from s̃ to s

s s

∫s ∫s
I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e −τ(s0,s)+ q(s̃) ⋅ e −τ(s̃,s)ds̃ I(s) = I(s0) ⋅ e −τ(s0,s)+ q(s̃) ⋅ e −τ(s̃,s)ds̃
0 0
Energy emitted at addition point s̃
Received energy Initial emitted energy at point s0 (background color)

61 62
 Numerical Solution - Absorption

"

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Z t
Optical depth ⌧ (0, t) = (t0 )dt0
0
Questions!
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64

Numerical Solution - Absorption Numerical Solution - Absorption


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2 1 i=0
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t t
0 0
Optical depth ⌧ (0, t) = (t )dt Optical depth ⌧ (0, t) = (t0 )dt0
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0

65 65
Numerical Solution - Absorption Numerical Solution - Absorption

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2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
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2 1 i=0
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t t
Z
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sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>

t t/ t
0 0 X
Optical depth ⌧ (0, t) = (t )dt Approximate by
⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t
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sha1_base64="SWQu1l3ob3U16fjJz2VsVvP1T9k=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="+Kna48uszvHqsvSFJrdQKX6TUMg=">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</latexit>
0 Riemann sum
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i=0
t/ t
X t/ t
Approximate by Y
Riemann sum
⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t ⌧ (0,t)
Pt/ t
(i· t) t (i· t) t
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i=0
e =e i=0 = e
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sha1_base64="wnYqIsttwbYWzu9fANWCic+YkQ4=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="4JnPxJirfbYA/92o+ED+vOSRboI=">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</latexit>
i=0
65 66

Numerical Solution - Absorption Numerical Solution - Absorption


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
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... ...
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2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="85dmcLAfFKzQb2PpeNWUPpWTbJ0=">AAAB6XicdZDLSsNAFIZP6q3GW9Wlm8EiuApJ6MUuxKIblxWNLbShTKaTdujkwsxEKKXgC7hxoeLWh3Hvzrdx2iqo6A8DH/9/DnPOCVLOpLLtdyO3sLi0vJJfNdfWNza3Cts71zLJBKEeSXgiWgGWlLOYeoopTlupoDgKOG0Gw7Np3ryhQrIkvlKjlPoR7scsZAQrbV1altUtFG3LKduVcg1pcN1apaSh7FYrJRs5lj1T8eTVPL4FgEa38NbpJSSLaKwIx1K2HTtV/hgLxQinE7OTSZpiMsR92tYY44hKfzwbdYIOtNNDYSL0ixWaud87xjiSchQFujLCaiB/Z1Pzr6ydqfDIH7M4zRSNyfyjMONIJWi6N+oxQYniIw2

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="SWRYvjoQGw2+HOg9ezLtE8bBebY=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCqZoRe7KBbduKzoWKEdSibNtKGZC0lGKKXgC7hxoeLWh3HvzrcxbRVU9IfAx/+fQ845fiK40hi/W5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71zpeJUUubSWMTy2ieKCR4xV3Mt2HUiGQl9wVr+8HSat26YVDyOLvUoYV5I+hEPOCXaWBe8jrv5Ai7aZVwp15ABx6lVSgbKTrVSwsgu4pkKx6+5+i0ANLv5t04vpmnIIk0FUapt40R7YyI1p4JNcp1UsYTQIemztsGIhEx549moE3RgnB4KYmlepNHM/d4xJqFSo9A3lSHRA/U7m5p/Ze1UB0femEdJqllE5x8FqUA6RtO9UY9LRrUYGSBUcjMrogMiCdXmOjlzhK9N0f/gOsVa0T7HhcYJzJWFPdiHQ7ChCg04gya4QKEPd/AAj5aw7q0n63lemrE+e3bhh6yXDwScj1U=</latexit>
sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t
t/ t t/ t
X X
Approximate by
Riemann sum
⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t ⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t
i=0 i=0
n e p e as opac y
<latexit sha1_base64="zassCrVTM9xCksJ/s6P1HDCbWf4=">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</latexit> <latexit sha1_base64="zassCrVTM9xCksJ/s6P1HDCbWf4=">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</latexit>

Let’s define opacity

t/ t
Pt/ t Y (i· t) t
⌧ (0,t) (i· t) t (i· t) t
e =e i=0 = e Ai = 1
<latexit sha1_base64="K0LK4D0MRSW6ihLZRMn+5jlrpMo=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="uXhVUsKRc2eGc6XdNOfaSh+NATg=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="PPs5xaOJ63YmKE2hyPXo3MnIMUw=">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</latexit>
e
<latexit sha1_base64="Pp+8jjb0cQZ5RxICb3RMjVgRV0M=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="wnYqIsttwbYWzu9fANWCic+YkQ4=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="4JnPxJirfbYA/92o+ED+vOSRboI=">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</latexit>
i=0 L gh dec ease
66 67
Numerical Solution - Absorption Numerical Solution - Absorption

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2 1 i=0
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2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t
t/ t t/ t
X X
⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t ⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t
<latexit sha1_base64="zassCrVTM9xCksJ/s6P1HDCbWf4=">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</latexit>
i=0 <latexit sha1_base64="zassCrVTM9xCksJ/s6P1HDCbWf4=">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</latexit>
i=0
Let’s define opacity Let’s define opacity
t/ t t/ t
Y Y
⌧ (0,t) (i· t) t (i· t) t ⌧ (0,t) (i· t) t (i· t) t
e = e Ai = 1
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sha1_base64="uXhVUsKRc2eGc6XdNOfaSh+NATg=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="PPs5xaOJ63YmKE2hyPXo3MnIMUw=">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</latexit>
e e = e Ai = 1
<latexit sha1_base64="K0LK4D0MRSW6ihLZRMn+5jlrpMo=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="uXhVUsKRc2eGc6XdNOfaSh+NATg=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="PPs5xaOJ63YmKE2hyPXo3MnIMUw=">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</latexit>
e
(i· t) t
<latexit sha1_base64="SHJjlMrIFmQay2H4wDBNFmZoDek=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="3jlF/ukT+q+8d8+LKvYcKCpNdgo=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="sHqL3L0aOpHxF0vhnwyD90UCe9I=">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</latexit>
i=0 <latexit sha1_base64="SHJjlMrIFmQay2H4wDBNFmZoDek=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="3jlF/ukT+q+8d8+LKvYcKCpNdgo=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="sHqL3L0aOpHxF0vhnwyD90UCe9I=">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</latexit>
i=0 1
<latexit sha1_base64="cG4CbKHPgGTps3NrWt7E9aeVcCs=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="N6TmQel8LKhAZcoz5At7ZYrDREw=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="U1nlslI3XPr9uJP77yjDBbqe8w4=">AAACGXicdZC/ThtBEMb3CARwQjChpBmBEkGBdWdhExeRiEhBCVEMSD5jza3HsPLeH+3ORbJOfog0pEmfp6ChIIgSKsTLZG2HKImST1rpp29mNDtflGll2ffvvakn0zNPZ+fmS8+eL7xYLC+9PLRpbiQ1ZapTcxyhJa0SarJiTceZIYwjTUdRf3dUP/pExqo0+ciDjNoxniaqpySyszrlIIBNeNdR8BbopNiEsI9ZhusKQtlNGcL3pBmBN37RsFNe8ytBza/XGuCgWm3UtxzUqtv1LR+Cij/W2s7rg4eb88/f9jvl27CbyjymhKVGa1uBn3G7QMNKahqWwtxShrKPp9RymGBMtl2MTxvCK+d0oZca9xKGsfv7RIGxtYM4cp0x8pn9uzYy/1Vr5dx70y5UkuVMiZws6uUaOIVRTtBVhiTrgQOURrm/gjxDg5JdmiUXwuOl8H9oViuNSnDgwvggJpoTK2JVrItAbIsdsSf2RVNI8UVciCvx3fvqXXrX3s2kdcr7ObMs/pB39wO2BaJS</latexit>
Ai = e
68 68

Numerical Solution - Absorption Numerical Solution - Absorption


<latexit sha1_base64="5hRbH+cK4NLzE2Iukk5HydewYGM=">AAAB7HicdVDLSgMxFM3UV62vqks3wSK4GjKlD7sruHFZxWkL7VAyaaaNzSRDkhHK0H9w40LFrR/kzr8xfQgqeuDC4Zx7ufeeMOFMG4Q+nNza+sbmVn67sLO7t39QPDxqa5kqQn0iuVTdEGvKmaC+YYbTbqIojkNOO+Hkcu537qnSTIpbM01oEOORYBEj2Fip3Z/gJMGDYgm5XhXVqg1oSbncqFUsqZbrtQqCnosWKIEVWoPie38oSRpTYQjHWvc8lJggw8owwums0E81TTCZ4BHtWSpwTHWQLa6dwTOrDGEklS1h4EL9PpHhWOtpHNrOGJux/u3Nxb+8XmqiiyBjIkkNFWS5KEo5NBLOX4dDpigxfGoJJorZWyEZY4WJsQEVbAhfn8L/iV92G653jUrNm1UaeXACTsE58EAdNMEVaAEfEHAHHsATeHak8+i8OK/L1pyzmjkGP+C8fQJw749J</latexit>
<latexit sha1_base64="D/3dURZdLwr69/97qJD6/udOhbY=">AAAB7HicdZDLSsNAFIZPvNZ4q7p0M1gEVyEJvdiFWHDjsoppC20ok+mkHTu5MDMRSin4CG5cqLj1gdyIb+O0VVDRHwY+/v8c5pwTpJxJZdvvxsLi0vLKam7NXN/Y3NrO7+w2ZJIJQj2S8ES0AiwpZzH1FFOctlJBcRRw2gyGZ9O8eUOFZEl8pUYp9SPcj1nICFbaanSGOE1xN1+wLadkl0tVpMF1q+WihpJbKRdt5Fj2TIXTN/PkFgDq3fxrp5eQLKKxIhxL2XbsVPljLBQjnE7MTiZpiskQ92lbY4wjKv3xbNoJOtROD4WJ0C9WaOZ+7xjjSMpRFOjKCKuB/J1Nzb+ydqbCY3/M4jRTNCbzj8KMI5Wg6eqoxwQlio80YCKYnhWRARaYKH0gUx/ha1P0P3iuVbWcC7tQu4S5crAPB3AEDlSgBudQBw8IXMMdPMCjkRj3xpPxPC9dMD579uCHjJcP8/qRJg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="dSZH2Itwj/qDhhWZnM/2+YV5FAk=">AAAB7HicdZDLSsNAFIYn9VbjrerSzWARXIUk9GIXYsGNyyqmLbShTKaTduwkGWYmQgl9BzcuVFwJPpCb4ts4bRVU9IeBj/8/hznnBJxRqWz73cgtLa+sruXXzY3Nre2dwu5eUyapwMTDCUtEO0CSMBoTT1HFSJsLgqKAkVYwOp/lrVsiJE3iazXmxI/QIKYhxUhpq9kdIc5Rr1C0LadsV8o1qMF1a5WShrJbrZRs6Fj2XMWzqXnKX6Zmo1d46/YTnEYkVpghKTuOzZWfIaEoZmRidlNJOMIjNCAdjTGKiPSz+bQTeKSdPgwToV+s4Nz93pGhSMpxFOjKCKmh/J3NzL+yTqrCEz+jMU8VifHiozBlUCVwtjrsU0GwYmMNCAuqZ4V4iATCSh/I1Ef42hT+D55r1Szn0i7Wr8BCeXAADsExcEAV1MEFaAAPYHAD7sADeDQS4954Mp4XpTnjs2cf/JDx+gHkFZKa</latexit>

...
{

{
<latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqU
sha1_base64="85dmcLAfFKzQb2PpeNWUPpWTbJ0=">AAAB6XicdZDLSsNAFIZP6q3GW9Wlm8EiuApJ6MUuxKIblxWNLbShTKaTdujkwsxEKKXgC7hxoeLWh3Hvzrdx2iqo6A8DH/9/DnPOCVLOpLLtdyO3sLi0vJJfNdfWNza3Cts71zLJBKEeSXgiWgGWlLOYeoopTlupoDgKOG0Gw7Np3ryhQrIkvlKjlPoR7scsZAQrbV1altUtFG3LKduVcg1pcN1apaSh7FYrJRs5lj1T8eTVPL4FgEa38NbpJSSLaKwIx1K2HTtV/hgLxQinE7OTSZpiMsR92tYY44hKfzwbdYIOtNNDYSL0ixWaud87xjiSchQFujLCaiB/Z1Pzr6ydqfDIH7M4zRSNyfyjMONIJWi6N+oxQYniIw2YCKZnRWSABSZKX8fUR/jaFP0PnmvVLOfCLtZPYa487ME+HIIDVajDOTTAAwJ9uIMHeDS4cW88Gc/z0pzx2bMLP2S8fACRJI8J</latexit>
sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
<latexit sha1_base64="PhBSuiWndTe1EjpV7jNkWgeC6DM=">AAAB6XicdVDJSgNBEK2JW4xb1KOXxiB4GnqGLOYgBL14jGhMIBlCT6cnadKz0N0jhCGf4MWDilf/yJt/Y2cRVPRBweO9Kqrq+YngSmP8YeVWVtfWN/Kbha3tnd294v7BnYpTSVmLxiKWHZ8oJnjEWpprwTqJZCT0BWv748uZ375nUvE4utWThHkhGUY84JRoI93wc9wvlrDtVHC1UkeGuG69Wjak4taqZYwcG89RgiWa/eJ7bxDTNGSRpoIo1XVwor2MSM2pYNNCL1UsIXRMhqxraERCprxsfuoUnRhlgIJYmoo0mqvfJzISKjUJfdMZEj1Sv72Z+JfXTXVw5mU8SlLNIrpYFKQC6RjN/kYDLhnVYmIIoZKbWxEdEUmoNukUTAhfn6L/Scu167ZzjUuNi2UaeTiCYzgFB2rQgCtoQgsoDOEBnuDZEtaj9WK9Llpz1nLmEH7AevsElyKNiA==</latexit>
sha1_base64="SWRYvjoQGw2+HOg9ezLtE8bBebY=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCqZoRe7KBbduKzoWKEdSibNtKGZC0lGKKXgC7hxoeLWh3HvzrcxbRVU9IfAx/+fQ845fiK40hi/W5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71zpeJUUubSWMTy2ieKCR4xV3Mt2HUiGQl9wVr+8HSat26YVDyOLvUoYV5I+hEPOCXaWBe8jrv5Ai7aZVwp15ABx6lVSgbKTrVSwsgu4pkKx6+5+i0ANLv5t04vpmnIIk0FUapt40R7YyI1p4JNcp1UsYTQIemztsGIhEx549moE3RgnB4KYmlepNHM/d4xJqFSo9A3lSHRA/U7m5p/Ze1UB0femEdJqllE5x8FqUA6RtO9UY9LRrUYGSBUcjMrogMiCdXmOjlzhK9N0f/gOsVa0T7HhcYJzJWFPdiHQ7ChCg04gya4QKEPd/AAj5aw7q0n63lemrE+e3bhh6yXDwScj1U=</latexit>
sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

2 1 =0

t/ t
X
⌧ (0, t) ⇡ (i · t) t
t/ t
i=0 Y
⌧ (0,t)
e = (1 Ai )
<latexit sha1_base64="zassCrVTM9xCksJ/s6P1HDCbWf4=">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</latexit>

Let’s define opacity

t/ t
Y i=0
⌧ (0,t) (i· t) t (i· t) t
e = e Ai = 1
<latexit sha1_base64="K0LK4D0MRSW6ihLZRMn+5jlrpMo=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="uXhVUsKRc2eGc6XdNOfaSh+NATg=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="PPs5xaOJ63YmKE2hyPXo3MnIMUw=">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</latexit>
e
(i· t) t
<latexit sha1_base64="SHJjlMrIFmQay2H4wDBNFmZoDek=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="3jlF/ukT+q+8d8+LKvYcKCpNdgo=">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</latexit>
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i=0 1
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sha1_base64="N6TmQel8LKhAZcoz5At7ZYrDREw=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="U1nlslI3XPr9uJP77yjDBbqe8w4=">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</latexit>
Ai = e
68 69
Numerical Solution - Emission Numerical Solution - Emission
q
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q
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...
Z

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2 1 i=0
t
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sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t
0
Emission q(0, t) = q(t0 ) · e ⌧ (t ,t)
dt0 Z t
0 ⌧ (t0 ,t)
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q(0, t) = q(t0 ) · e dt0

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sha1_base64="/e5catyTfRfMym0ov3Gv119+D4Q=">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</latexit>
0
t/ t
X
⌧ (0,i)
q(0, t) = q(i) · e
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sha1_base64="qC1Ng8pM2vctgzL6g8p/U4+JsQs=">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</latexit>
i=0
70 71

Numerical Solution - Emission Numerical Solution - Emission

q
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q
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sha1_base64="/sQo9a5K6l/7Jw05p6yVz5ScbRI=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqrhyM1gEFxKS0IfdFdy4EVoxttCGMplO2rGTSZyZCCX0C9y4UHHrX/gd7lz7Gy6ctgoqeuDC4Zx7ufceP2ZUKst6NTJz8wuLS9nl3Mrq2vpGfnPrQkaJwMTFEYtEy0eSMMqJq6hipBULgkKfkaY/PJ74zWsiJI34uRrFxAtRn9OAYqS01Ljq5guWaZescqkKNXGcarmoScmplIsWtE1rikLt8Pn0/W1nvd7Nv3R6EU5CwhVmSMq2bcXKS5FQFDMyznUSSWKEh6hP2ppyFBLppdNDx3BfKz0YREIXV3Cqfp9IUSjlKPR1Z4jUQP72JuJfXjtRwZGXUh4ninA8WxQkDKoITr6GPSoIVmykCcKC6lshHiCBsNLZ5HQIX5/C/4nrmFXTbugwzsAMWbAL9sABsEEF1MAJqAMXYEDADbgD98alcWs8GI+z1ozxObMNfsB4+gBZx5CS</latexit>

... ...
{

{
t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
sha1_base64="85dmcLAfFKzQb2PpeNWUPpWTbJ0=">AAAB6XicdZDLSsNAFIZP6q3GW9Wlm8EiuApJ6MUuxKIblxWNLbShTKaTdujkwsxEKKXgC7hxoeLWh3Hvzrdx2iqo6A8DH/9/DnPOCVLOpLLtdyO3sLi0vJJfNdfWNza3Cts71zLJBKEeSXgiWgGWlLOYeoopTlupoDgKOG0Gw7Np3ryhQrIkvlKjlPoR7scsZAQrbV1altUtFG3LKduVcg1pcN1apaSh7FYrJRs5lj1T8eTVPL4FgEa38NbpJSSLaKwIx1K2HTtV/hgLxQinE7OTSZpiMsR92tYY44hKfzwbdYIOtNNDYSL0ixWaud87xjiSchQFujLCaiB/Z1Pzr6ydqfDIH7M4zRSNyfyjMONIJWi6N+oxQYniIw2YCKZnRWSABSZKX8fUR/jaFP0PnmvVLOfCLtZPYa487ME+HIIDVajDOTTAAwJ9uIMHeDS4cW88Gc/z0pzx2bMLP2S8fACRJI8J</latexit>
sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="SWRYvjoQGw2+HOg9ezLtE8bBebY=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCqZoRe7KBbduKzoWKEdSibNtKGZC0lGKKXgC7hxoeLWh3HvzrcxbRVU9IfAx/+fQ845fiK40hi/W5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71zpeJUUubSWMTy2ieKCR4xV3Mt2HUiGQl9wVr+8HSat26YVDyOLvUoYV5I+hEPOCXaWBe8jrv5Ai7aZVwp15ABx6lVSgbKTrVSwsgu4pkKx6+5+i0ANLv5t04vpmnIIk0FUapt40R7YyI1p4JNcp1UsYTQIemztsGIhEx549moE3RgnB4KYmlepNHM/d4xJqFSo9A3lSHRA/U7m5p/Ze1UB0femEdJqllE5x8FqUA6RtO9UY9LRrUYGSBUcjMrogMiCdXmOjlzhK9N0f/gOsVa0T7HhcYJzJWFPdiHQ7ChCg04gya4QKEPd/AAj5aw7q0n63lemrE+e3bhh6yXDwScj1U=</latexit>
sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
sha1_base64="85dmcLAfFKzQb2PpeNWUPpWTbJ0=">AAAB6XicdZDLSsNAFIZP6q3GW9Wlm8EiuApJ6MUuxKIblxWNLbShTKaTdujkwsxEKKXgC7hxoeLWh3Hvzrdx2iqo6A8DH/9/DnPOCVLOpLLtdyO3sLi0vJJfNdfWNza3Cts71zLJBKEeSXgiWgGWlLOYeoopTlupoDgKOG0Gw7Np3ryhQrIkvlKjlPoR7scsZAQrbV1altUtFG3LKduVcg1pcN1apaSh7FYrJRs5lj1T8eTVPL4FgEa38NbpJSSLaKwIx1K2HTtV/hgLxQinE7OTSZpiMsR92tYY44hKfzwbdYIOtNNDYSL0ixWaud87xjiSchQFujLCaiB/Z1Pzr6ydqfDIH7M4zRSNyfyjMONIJWi6N+oxQYniIw2YCKZnRWSABSZKX8fUR/jaFP0PnmvVLOfCLtZPYa487ME+HIIDVajDOTTAAwJ9uIMHeDS4cW88Gc/z0pzx2bMLP2S8fACRJI8J</latexit>
sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="SWRYvjoQGw2+HOg9ezLtE8bBebY=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCqZoRe7KBbduKzoWKEdSibNtKGZC0lGKKXgC7hxoeLWh3HvzrcxbRVU9IfAx/+fQ845fiK40hi/W5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71zpeJUUubSWMTy2ieKCR4xV3Mt2HUiGQl9wVr+8HSat26YVDyOLvUoYV5I+hEPOCXaWBe8jrv5Ai7aZVwp15ABx6lVSgbKTrVSwsgu4pkKx6+5+i0ANLv5t04vpmnIIk0FUapt40R7YyI1p4JNcp1UsYTQIemztsGIhEx549moE3RgnB4KYmlepNHM/d4xJqFSo9A3lSHRA/U7m5p/Ze1UB0femEdJqllE5x8FqUA6RtO9UY9LRrUYGSBUcjMrogMiCdXmOjlzhK9N0f/gOsVa0T7HhcYJzJWFPdiHQ7ChCg04gya4QKEPd/AAj5aw7q0n63lemrE+e3bhh6yXDwScj1U=</latexit>
sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

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sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t

t/ t t/ t
X X
⌧ (0,i) ⌧ (0,i)
q(0, t) = q(i) · e q(0, t) = q(i) · e Interpret as color
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sha1_base64="8UAKPRZS0jTCfjLP3qfJ7AwHbRI=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="qC1Ng8pM2vctgzL6g8p/U4+JsQs=">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</latexit>
i=0 <latexit sha1_base64="HP1Gldvs1da/cXW4zLECpXNp/UY=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="8UAKPRZS0jTCfjLP3qfJ7AwHbRI=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="qC1Ng8pM2vctgzL6g8p/U4+JsQs=">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</latexit>
i=0
Let’s define emission as color!

q(i) ⇡ Ci = c(i · t) t
Light increase
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sha1_base64="BlYPyPf+L9ne8mac0VphG9Xuj0E=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="koUZt+j6sAeq/Xu9P4Mfb8QHZFA=">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</latexit>

72 73
Numerical Solution - Emission Numerical Solution - Emission
q
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sha1_base64="5vDDivajr7Bvr7b7Adi21JNOm6c=">AAAB53icdVDLSgNBEOz1GeMr6tHLYBA8yLK75GFuAS+eJBHXBJIlzE5mkzGzD2dmhbDkC7x4UPHqX/gd3vwbJ4mCihY0FFXddHf5CWdSWda7sbC4tLyymlvLr29sbm0XdnavZJwKQl0S81i0fSwpZxF1FVOcthNBcehz2vJHp1O/dUuFZHF0qcYJ9UI8iFjACFZaat70CkXLtMtWpVxDmjhOrVLSpOxUKyUL2aY1Q7F+/HoOGo1e4a3bj0ka0kgRjqXs2FaivAwLxQink3w3lTTBZIQHtKNphEMqvWx26AQdaqWPgljoihSaqd8nMhxKOQ593RliNZS/van4l9dJVXDiZSxKUkUjMl8UpBypGE2/Rn0mKFF8rAkmgulbERligYnS2eR1CF+fov+J65g1027qMC5gjhzswwEcgQ1VqMMZNMAFAhTu4AEejWvj3ngynuetC8bnzB78gPHyAat7jpE=</latexit>
sha1_base64="/sQo9a5K6l/7Jw05p6yVz5ScbRI=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqrhyM1gEFxKS0IfdFdy4EVoxttCGMplO2rGTSZyZCCX0C9y4UHHrX/gd7lz7Gy6ctgoqeuDC4Zx7ufceP2ZUKst6NTJz8wuLS9nl3Mrq2vpGfnPrQkaJwMTFEYtEy0eSMMqJq6hipBULgkKfkaY/PJ74zWsiJI34uRrFxAtRn9OAYqS01Ljq5guWaZescqkKNXGcarmoScmplIsWtE1rikLt8Pn0/W1nvd7Nv3R6EU5CwhVmSMq2bcXKS5FQFDMyznUSSWKEh6hP2ppyFBLppdNDx3BfKz0YREIXV3Cqfp9IUSjlKPR1Z4jUQP72JuJfXjtRwZGXUh4ninA8WxQkDKoITr6GPSoIVmykCcKC6lshHiCBsNLZ5HQIX5/C/4nrmFXTbugwzsAMWbAL9sABsEEF1MAJqAMXYEDADbgD98alcWs8GI+z1ozxObMNfsB4+gBZx5CS</latexit>
q
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sha1_base64="/sQo9a5K6l/7Jw05p6yVz5ScbRI=">AAAB53icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqrhyM1gEFxKS0IfdFdy4EVoxttCGMplO2rGTSZyZCCX0C9y4UHHrX/gd7lz7Gy6ctgoqeuDC4Zx7ufceP2ZUKst6NTJz8wuLS9nl3Mrq2vpGfnPrQkaJwMTFEYtEy0eSMMqJq6hipBULgkKfkaY/PJ74zWsiJI34uRrFxAtRn9OAYqS01Ljq5guWaZescqkKNXGcarmoScmplIsWtE1rikLt8Pn0/W1nvd7Nv3R6EU5CwhVmSMq2bcXKS5FQFDMyznUSSWKEh6hP2ppyFBLppdNDx3BfKz0YREIXV3Cqfp9IUSjlKPR1Z4jUQP72JuJfXjtRwZGXUh4ninA8WxQkDKoITr6GPSoIVmykCcKC6lshHiCBsNLZ5HQIX5/C/4nrmFXTbugwzsAMWbAL9sABsEEF1MAJqAMXYEDADbgD98alcWs8GI+z1ozxObMNfsB4+gBZx5CS</latexit>

... ...

{
t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
sha1_base64="85dmcLAfFKzQb2PpeNWUPpWTbJ0=">AAAB6XicdZDLSsNAFIZP6q3GW9Wlm8EiuApJ6MUuxKIblxWNLbShTKaTdujkwsxEKKXgC7hxoeLWh3Hvzrdx2iqo6A8DH/9/DnPOCVLOpLLtdyO3sLi0vJJfNdfWNza3Cts71zLJBKEeSXgiWgGWlLOYeoopTlupoDgKOG0Gw7Np3ryhQrIkvlKjlPoR7scsZAQrbV1altUtFG3LKduVcg1pcN1apaSh7FYrJRs5lj1T8eTVPL4FgEa38NbpJSSLaKwIx1K2HTtV/hgLxQinE7OTSZpiMsR92tYY44hKfzwbdYIOtNNDYSL0ixWaud87xjiSchQFujLCaiB/Z1Pzr6ydqfDIH7M4zRSNyfyjMONIJWi6N+oxQYniIw2YCKZnRWSABSZKX8fUR/jaFP0PnmvVLOfCLtZPYa487ME+HIIDVajDOTTAAwJ9uIMHeDS4cW88Gc/z0pzx2bMLP2S8fACRJI8J</latexit>
sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
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sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

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sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t

t/ t
X
⌧ (0,i)
q(0, t) = q(i) · e
i=0 t/ t
<latexit sha1_base64="HP1Gldvs1da/cXW4zLECpXNp/UY=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="8UAKPRZS0jTCfjLP3qfJ7AwHbRI=">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</latexit>
sha1_base64="qC1Ng8pM2vctgzL6g8p/U4+JsQs=">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</latexit>

X
Let’s define emission as color!
t/ t
X e=
C Ci · e ⌧ (0,i)
e=
C Ci · e ⌧ (0,i)
q(i) ⇡ Ci = c(i · t) t <latexit sha1_base64="+mbtbXM6yZt8Yr3N2+3FYgfRv90=">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</latexit>
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i=0
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i=0

74 75

Numerical Solution - Combined Numerical Solution - Combined

q
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q
... ...
{

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2 1 i=0
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2 1 i=0
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t

t/ t i
Remember absorption
X Y
e=
C Ci · e ⌧(a
(0,t)
Aj )
t/ t t/ t
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C Ci · e ⌧ (0,i) e ⌧ (0,t)
= (1 Ai )
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i=0

76 77
Numerical Solution - Combined Numerical Solution - Combined
q
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... ...

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2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
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2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

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sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t

t/ t i
X Y Can be computed recursively/iteratively!
e= Ci · e ⌧(a
(0,t)
C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1
C Aj )
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sha1_base64="1ZsvV8XIktapRPG/CO2tkpTPGbk=">AAACLHicdVBNSxxBEO3RfJjNhxs9eikiAQPJpmdxV/cgCOshRxOyWWFnHXp6arWx54PumoSlmd8jeMlfCUIOKrn6O+zdTSAJyYOCx3tVVNVLSq0scX4VLC3fu//g4cqjxuMnT5+tNp+vfbJFZSQOZKELc5QIi1rlOCBFGo9KgyJLNA6Ts/7MH35GY1WRf6RpieNMnORqoqQgL8XNg+iLSpGUTtH1a9iDyFZZ7NQer48dvY0OUJMAql0/VhDJtCDAY/cmIlFt8ddAr+oaGnFzk7fCDu92euBJu93rbnvSae90tzmELT7H5v4QzpnHYdy8jNJCVhnmJLWwdhTyksZOGFJSY92IKoulkGfiBEee5iJDO3bzb2t46ZUUJoXxlRPM1d8nnMisnWaJ78wEndq/vZn4L29U0WR37FReVoS5XCyaVBqogFl0kCqDkvTUEyGN8reCPBVGSPIBz0L49Sn8nwzarV4rfO/D+MAWWGEb7AXbYiHbYfvsHTtkAybZBfvGrth18DX4HtwEPxatS8HPmXX2B4LbO1BwqJ0=</latexit>
sha1_base64="12AbQcjuwxwlFYUXXu7+EBpk4fE=">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</latexit>
i=0 <latexit sha1_base64="MBcXOuv/Taqt3yCAkhjPYcu8w2s=">AAAB/3icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqAsXbgaLUBeWJPRhF0LFjcsq1hbaGibTaTvtJBNmJkIJ2fgrblyouPU33Pk3Th+Cih64cDjnXu69xwsZlcqyPozUwuLS8kp6NbO2vrG5ZW7v3EgeCUzqmDMumh6ShNGA1BVVjDRDQZDvMdLwRucTv3FHhKQ8uFbjkHR81A9oj2KktOSae+1Q8K4bD0+t5DamCcyh4zN3eOSaWStvF61SsQI1cZxKqaBJ0SmXCha089YUWTBHzTXf212OI58ECjMkZcu2QtWJkVAUM5Jk2pEkIcIj1CctTQPkE9mJpw8k8FArXdjjQleg4FT9PhEjX8qx7+lOH6mB/O1NxL+8VqR6J52YBmGkSIBni3oRg4rDSRqwSwXBio01QVhQfSvEAyQQVjqzjA7h61P4P6k7+Urevixkq1fzNNJgHxyAHLBBGVTBBaiBOsAgAQ/gCTwb98aj8WK8zlpTxnxmF/yA8fYJOA6Vxg==</latexit>
j=0

Can be computed recursively/iteratively!

77 78

Numerical Solution - Combined Numerical Solution - Combined

... ...
{

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2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
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sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

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t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
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t

Can be computed recursively/iteratively! Can be computed recursively/iteratively!

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1 C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1

Color (accumulated)
observed at position i

79 79
Numerical Solution - Combined Numerical Solution - Combined

... ...

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2 1 i=0
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2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
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sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t

Can be computed recursively/iteratively! Can be computed recursively/iteratively!

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1 C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1

Color (accumulated) Color Color (accumulated) Color Color (accumulated)
observed at position i emitted at position i observed at position i emitted at position i observed at position i+1

79 79

Numerical Solution - Combined Volume Rendering Equation

...

{
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sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="SWRYvjoQGw2+HOg9ezLtE8bBebY=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCqZoRe7KBbduKzoWKEdSibNtKGZC0lGKKXgC7hxoeLWh3HvzrcxbRVU9IfAx/+fQ845fiK40hi/W5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71zpeJUUubSWMTy2ieKCR4xV3Mt2HUiGQl9wVr+8HSat26YVDyOLvUoYV5I+hEPOCXaWBe8jrv5Ai7aZVwp15ABx6lVSgbKTrVSwsgu4pkKx6+5+i0ANLv5t04vpmnIIk0FUapt40R7YyI1p4JNcp1UsYTQIemztsGIhEx549moE3RgnB4KYmlepNHM/d4xJqFSo9A3lSHRA/U7m5p/Ze1UB0femEdJqllE5x8FqUA6RtO9UY9LRrUYGSBUcjMrogMiCdXmOjlzhK9N0f/gOsVa0T7HhcYJzJWFPdiHQ7ChCg04gya4QKEPd/AAj5aw7q0n63lemrE+e3bhh6yXDwScj1U=</latexit>
sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

... t
{

t 2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>

• Back-to-front compositing
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sha1_base64="85dmcLAfFKzQb2PpeNWUPpWTbJ0=">AAAB6XicdZDLSsNAFIZP6q3GW9Wlm8EiuApJ6MUuxKIblxWNLbShTKaTdujkwsxEKKXgC7hxoeLWh3Hvzrdx2iqo6A8DH/9/DnPOCVLOpLLtdyO3sLi0vJJfNdfWNza3Cts71zLJBKEeSXgiWgGWlLOYeoopTlupoDgKOG0Gw7Np3ryhQrIkvlKjlPoR7scsZAQrbV1altUtFG3LKduVcg1pcN1apaSh7FYrJRs5lj1T8eTVPL4FgEa38NbpJSSLaKwIx1K2HTtV/hgLxQinE7OTSZpiMsR92tYY44hKfzwbdYIOtNNDYSL0ixWaud87xjiSchQFujLCaiB/Z1Pzr6ydqfDIH7M4zRSNyfyjMONIJWi6N+oxQYniIw2YCKZnRWSABSZKX8fUR/jaFP0PnmvVLOfCLtZPYa487ME+HIIDVajDOTTAAwJ9uIMHeDS4cW88Gc/z0pzx2bMLP2S8fACRJI8J</latexit>
sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

<latexit sha1_base64="PhBSuiWndTe1EjpV7jNkWgeC6DM=">AAAB6XicdVDJSgNBEK2JW4xb1KOXxiB4GnqGLOYgBL14jGhMIBlCT6cnadKz0N0jhCGf4MWDilf/yJt/Y2cRVPRBweO9Kqrq+YngSmP8YeVWVtfWN/Kbha3tnd294v7BnYpTSVmLxiKWHZ8oJnjEWpprwTqJZCT0BWv748uZ375nUvE4utWThHkhGUY84JRoI93wc9wvlrDtVHC1UkeGuG69Wjak4taqZYwcG89RgiWa/eJ7bxDTNGSRpoIo1XVwor2MSM2pYNNCL1UsIXRMhqxraERCprxsfuoUnRhlgIJYmoo0mqvfJzISKjUJfdMZEj1Sv72Z+JfXTXVw5mU8SlLNIrpYFKQC6RjN/kYDLhnVYmIIoZKbWxEdEUmoNukUTAhfn6L/Scu167ZzjUuNi2UaeTiCYzgFB2rQgCtoQgsoDOEBnuDZEtaj9WK9Llpz1nLmEH7AevsElyKNiA==</latexit>
sha1_base64="SWRYvjoQGw2+HOg9ezLtE8bBebY=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIbP1Futt6pLN8EiuCqZoRe7KBbduKzoWKEdSibNtKGZC0lGKKXgC7hxoeLWh3HvzrcxbRVU9IfAx/+fQ845fiK40hi/W5mFxaXllexqbm19Y3Mrv71zpeJUUubSWMTy2ieKCR4xV3Mt2HUiGQl9wVr+8HSat26YVDyOLvUoYV5I+hEPOCXaWBe8jrv5Ai7aZVwp15ABx6lVSgbKTrVSwsgu4pkKx6+5+i0ANLv5t04vpmnIIk0FUapt40R7YyI1p4JNcp1UsYTQIemztsGIhEx549moE3RgnB4KYmlepNHM/d4xJqFSo9A3lSHRA/U7m5p/Ze1UB0femEdJqllE5x8FqUA6RtO9UY9LRrUYGSBUcjMrogMiCdXmOjlzhK9N0f/gOsVa0T7HhcYJzJWFPdiHQ7ChCg04gya4QKEPd/AAj5aw7q0n63lemrE+e3bhh6yXDwScj1U=</latexit>
sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1
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sha1_base64="Vqpb3Q78eDZqpXH9VgW9UCx7tV4=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgNBEEVrfMbxFXXppjEIrsJMyMMsxKAuXEYwJpAMoafTSZr0POyuEUII+A1uXKi49U/cu/Nv7CQKKnqh4XBvFV1VfiyFRsd5t+bmFxaXllMr9ura+sZmemv7SkeJYrzGIhmphk81lyLkNRQoeSNWnAa+5HV/cDrJ6zdcaRGFlziMuRfQXii6glE0VqN1xiVSgu10xsm6BadYKBMDuVy5mDdQyJWKeYe4WWeqzPGrfXQLANV2+q3ViVgS8BCZpFo3XSdGb0QVCib52G4lmseUDWiPNw2GNODaG03nHZN943RIN1LmhUim7veOEQ20Hga+qQwo9vXvbGL+lTUT7B56IxHGCfKQzT7qJpJgRCbLk45QnKEcGqBMCTMrYX2qKENzItsc4WtT8j/Uctly1r1wMpUTmCkFu7AHB+BCCSpwDlWoAQMJd/AAj9a1dW89Wc+z0jnrs2cHfsh6+QDSYJGL</latexit>
sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>

Iterate from i=t (back) to i=0 (front):

Can be computed recursively/iteratively! i decreases

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1
Color (accumulated) Color Opacity at Color (accumulated)
observed at position i emitted at position i position i observed at position i+1

79 80
Volume Rendering Equation Volume Rendering Equation

... ...

{
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2 1 i=0
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t <latexit sha1_base64="I48YXu+eve/kJZZqdjZ9Hv6lhCY=">AAAB6XicdVDLSsNAFL3xWeur6tLNYBFchST0YXdFNy4rGltoQ5lMJ+3QySTMTIQS+gluXKi49Y/c+TdOH4KKHrhwOOde7r0nTDlT2nE+rJXVtfWNzcJWcXtnd2+/dHB4p5JMEuqThCeyE2JFORPU10xz2kklxXHIaTscX8789j2ViiXiVk9SGsR4KFjECNZGurFtu18qO7ZbdWrVBjLE8xq1iiFVr16rOMi1nTnKsESrX3rvDRKSxVRowrFSXddJdZBjqRnhdFrsZYqmmIzxkHYNFTimKsjnp07RqVEGKEqkKaHRXP0+keNYqUkcms4Y65H67c3Ev7xupqPzIGcizTQVZLEoyjjSCZr9jQZMUqL5xBBMJDO3IjLCEhNt0imaEL4+Rf8T37MbtnvtlJsXyzQKcAwncAYu1KEJV9ACHwgM4QGe4Nni1qP1Yr0uWles5cwR/ID19gkjuY08</latexit>
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sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

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sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>
t <latexit sha1_base64="uPFZ1GDPk069eEsUlSYCQfMOQG0=">AAAB7nicdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0VwFZLQh90VdeGygrGFNpTJdNIOnUzizI1QSn/CjQsVt36PO//G6UNQ0QMXDufcy733hKngGhznw8qtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DW51kijKfJiJR7ZBoJrhkPnAQrJ0qRuJQsFY4upj5rXumNE/kDYxTFsRkIHnEKQEjtbuXTADB0CuWHNutONVKHRviefVq2ZCKV6uWHezazhwltESzV3zv9hOaxUwCFUTrjuukEEyIAk4Fmxa6mWYpoSMyYB1DJYmZDibze6f4xCh9HCXKlAQ8V79PTEis9TgOTWdMYKh/ezPxL6+TQXQWTLhMM2CSLhZFmcCQ4NnzuM8VoyDGhhCquLkV0yFRhIKJqGBC+PoU/098z67b7rVTapwv08ijI3SMTpGLaqiBrlAT+YgigR7QE3q27qxH68V6XbTmrOXMIfoB6+0TZPWPvg==</latexit>
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t
• Back-to-front compositing • Back-to-front compositing

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1 C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1

Iterate from i=t (back) to i=0 (front): Iterate from i=t (back) to i=0 (front):
i decreases i decreases

• Front-to-back compositing • Front-to-back compositing

C′i = C′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ci Iterate from i=0 (front) to i=t (back): C′i = C′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ci Iterate from i=0 (front) to i=t (back):

A′i = A′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ai A′i = A′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ai

i increases i increases

80 81

Volume Rendering Equation Associated Colors

• Associated (or opacity-weighted colors) are often used in
... compositing equations
{

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sha1_base64="nChbrtpRlv3SAGRUZA3jhPiltOo=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7EItuXFZ0rNAOJZNm2tBMZkgyQil9BDcuVNz2Ydy7Ed/GtFVQ0R8CH/9/DjnnhClnSiP0buUWFpeWV/Kr9tr6xuZWYXvnWiWZJNQnCU/kTYgV5UxQXzPN6U0qKY5DTpvh4GyaN2+pVCwRV3qY0iDGPcEiRrA21qXjOJ1CETluGVXKNWjA82qVkoGyV62UEHQdNFPx5MU+TidvdqNTeG13E5LFVGjCsVItF6U6GGGpGeF0bLczRVNMBrhHWwYFjqkKRrNRx/DAOF0YJdI8oeHM/d4xwrFSwzg0lTHWffU7m5p/Za1MR0fBiIk001SQ+UdRxqFO4HRv2GWSEs2HBjCRzMwKSR9LTLS5jm2O8LUp/B98z6k57gUq1k/BXHmwB/bBIXBBFdTBOWgAHxDQA3fgATxa3Lq3nqzneWnO+uzZBT9kTT4AgT+QfQ==</latexit>

2 1 i=0
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sha1_base64="goZtonkoJFeEhDFwtpbrgmRpMno=">AAAB6XicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXA2ZoRe7KBbduKzo2EI7lEyaaUMzF5KMUIY+ghsXKm77MO7diG9j2iqo6A+Bj/8/h5xz/IQzqRB6N3JLyyura/l1c2Nza3unsLt3I+NUEOqSmMei7WNJOYuoq5jitJ0IikOf05Y/Op/lrVsqJIujazVOqBfiQcQCRrDS1hWro16hiCy7jCrlGtTgOLVKSUPZqVZKCNoWmqt4+mLWk+mb2ewVXrv9mKQhjRThWMqOjRLlZVgoRjidmN1U0gSTER7QjsYIh1R62XzUCTzSTh8GsdAvUnDufu/IcCjlOPR1ZYjVUP7OZuZfWSdVwYmXsShJFY3I4qMg5VDFcLY37DNBieJjDZgIpmeFZIgFJkpfx9RH+NoU/g+uY9Us+xIVG2dgoTw4AIfgGNigChrgAjSBCwgYgDvwAB4NbtwbT8bzojRnfPbsgx8yph/0qJDJ</latexit>

t
Early Ray Termination: • Every color is pre-multiplied by its corresponding opacity
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sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>

• Back-to-front compositing
Stop the calculation when opacity

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1
Iterate from i=t (back) to i=0 (front):
is close to maximum
• Our compositing equations assume associated colors
A0i ⇡ i1decreases
• Front-to-back compositing Ri Ri ⋅ Ai
Gi ⋅ Ai
C′i = C′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ci
Gi
Iterate from i=0 (front) to i=t (back): ci = Ci = ci ∘ Ai =
Bi Bi ⋅ Ai

A′i = A′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ai

i increases Ai Ai

81 82
 "
Questions!
Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Markus Hadwiger (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology)
 Compositing
Data Visualization Idea: Simulate physical light transport
• The volume is considered a semi-transparent,
light emitting medium (Participating Medium)
IN4089 Data Visualization
• Light is emitted, absorbed and scattered
Thomas Höllt - Computer Graphics & Visualization
Interpret as color Interpret as opacity

Light increase Light decrease increase decrease

Thomas Höllt ☃ Computer Graphics and Visualization ☃ TU Delft ☃ 2

Volume Rendering Equation Associated Colors

• Associated (or opacity-weighted colors) are often used in
... compositing equations
{

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2 1 i=0
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t
• Back-to-front compositing • Every color is pre-multiplied by its corresponding opacity
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sha1_base64="VwRkrL1W8MtM7OpNkdwBIS9Ll98=">AAAB7nicdZDLSgMxFIYz9VbHW9Wlm2ARXJWZ0otdiEVduKzg2EJbSiZN29BMZkzOCGXoS7hxoeLCjW/i3o34Nqatgor+EPj4/3PIOcePBNfgOO9Wam5+YXEpvWyvrK6tb2Q2ty51GCvKPBqKUDV8opngknnAQbBGpBgJfMHq/vBkktevmdI8lBcwilg7IH3Je5wSMFajdcoEEAydTNbJuUWnVKxgA/l8pVQwUMyXSwUHuzlnquzRi30YPb3ZtU7mtdUNaRwwCVQQrZuuE0E7IQo4FWxst2LNIkKHpM+aBiUJmG4n03nHeM84XdwLlXkS8NT93pGQQOtR4JvKgMBA/84m5l9ZM4beQTvhMoqBSTr7qBcLDCGeLI+7XDEKYmSAUMXNrJgOiCIUzIlsc4SvTfH/4OVzlZx77mSrx2imNNpBu2gfuaiMqugM1ZCHKBLoBt2he+vKurUerMdZacr67NlGP2Q9fwDCe5L/</latexit>

C′i = Ci + (1 − Ai)C′i+1
Iterate from i=t (back) to i=0 (front):
• Our compositing equations assume associated colors
i decreases

• Front-to-back compositing Ri Ri ⋅ Ai
Gi ⋅ Ai
C′i = C′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ci
Gi
Iterate from i=0 (front) to i=t (back): ci = Ci = ci ∘ Ai =
Bi Bi ⋅ Ai

A′i = A′i−1 + (1 − A′i−1 )Ai

i increases Ai Ai

☃ 3 ☃ 4
 Transfer function

Ci0 = Ci + (1
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Ai )Ci0 1
Color Opacity at

Where does color/opacity come from!

emitted at position i position i

based on intensity value in volume

Idea: transform data values to custom color/opacity using a function

i.e. the transfer function

☃ ☃ 6

Transfer function Transfer function

• The transfer function defines opacity
• which parts are transparent: Ai = tfα( f(x))
⃗ 1

• which parts have what color: ci = tfRGB( f(x))

⃗
• Simplest case: 1D tf : intensity → (R, G, B, A)T
• domain: intensity
• range: color(RGB) + opacity 0
data intensity
• The transfer function is defined by the user
f (x)min
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f (x)max
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☃ 7 ☃ 8
Transfer function Transfer function
opacity opacity
1 1

0 0
f (x)min
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data intensity f (x)max
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f (x)min
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data intensity f (x)max
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sha1_base64="tiNtlqMU9YGq6wofRHqOStmG7cY=">AAAB/3icdVC7SgNBFL0bXzG+ohYWNoNBiM2yG/IwXcDGSiIYE0hCmJ3MJkNmH8zMSsKyjX+RTrCxULH1N+z8GyeJgooeGOZwzr3ce48TciaVZb0bqaXlldW19HpmY3Nreye7u3ctg0gQ2iABD0TLwZJy5tOGYorTVigo9hxOm87obOY3b6iQLPCv1CSkXQ8PfOYygpWWetkDN99xAt6XE09/8Tg56cUeHie9bM4y7ZJVLlWRJoVCtVzUpFSolIsWsk1rjlzNnE7vAKDey751+gGJPOorwrGUbdsKVTfGQjHCaZLpRJKGmIzwgLY19bFHZTeeH5CgY630kRsI/XyF5ur3jhh7crahrvSwGsrf3kz8y2tHyj3txswPI0V9shjkRhypAM3SQH0mKFF8ogkmguldERligYnSmWV0CF+Xov9Jo2BWTftSh3EBC6ThEI4gDzZUoAbnUIcGEEjgHh7hybg1Hoxn42VRmjI+e/bhB4zXDzv6mU4=</latexit>
sha1_base64="7gDYEvR/BfIqRES5Zgw+TBZd9UA=">AAAB/3icdVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVdeHCzWAR6iYkoQ+7K7hxJRWMLbShTKaTdujkwcxEWkI2/oVu3bhQcetvuPNvnLQKKnpgmMM593LvPV7MqJCm+a4tLC4tr6wW1orrG5tb2/rO7pWIEo6JgyMW8Y6HBGE0JI6kkpFOzAkKPEba3vg099vXhAsahZdyGhM3QMOQ+hQjqaS+vu+Xe17EBmIaqC+dZMf9NECTrK+XTMOqmrVqAypi241aRZGqXa9VTGgZ5gylpnGb467V1996gwgnAQklZkiIrmXG0k0RlxQzkhV7iSAxwmM0JF1FQxQQ4aazAzJ4pJQB9COuXijhTP3ekaJA5BuqygDJkfjt5eJfXjeR/omb0jBOJAnxfJCfMCgjmKcBB5QTLNlUEYQ5VbtCPEIcYakyK6oQvi6F/xPHNhqGdaHCOAdzFMABOARlYIE6aIIz0AIOwCAD9+ARPGk32oP2rL3MSxe0z5498APa6weXcpsT</latexit>

☃ 9 ☃ 10

Transfer function Transferfunction in the DVR pipeline

opacity
x
1 z

y R R⋅A
position interpolated G G⋅A
Sampling tf(s) c= PreMult. C= Comp. C′
(x, y, z) scalar value s B B⋅A
A A

s
0
f (x)min
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sha1_base64="G8ssdt8N/ZfgL11TppnpJvrOYAE=">AAAB/3icdVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1YMHL4tF0EtIQlvtTfDiSRSMFtpQNtuNLm42YXcjlpCL/6I3wYsHFa/+DW/+G7etgoo+WPbx3gwz88KUM6Ud592amJyanpktzZXnFxaXlisrq2cqySShPkl4IlshVpQzQX3NNKetVFIch5yeh1cHQ//8mkrFEnGq+ykNYnwhWMQI1kbqVtaj7U6Y8J7qx+bLb4qdbh4zUXQrVcd2606j3kSGeF6zUTOk7u02ag5ybWeE6r49GNwBwHG38tbpJSSLqdCEY6XarpPqIMdSM8JpUe5kiqaYXOEL2jZU4JiqIB8dUKAto/RQlEjzhEYj9XtHjmM13NBUxlhfqt/eUPzLa2c62gtyJtJMU0HGg6KMI52gYRqoxyQlmvcNwUQysysil1hiok1mZRPC16Xof+J7dtN2T0wYRzBGCTZgE7bBhV3Yh0M4Bh8IFHAPj/Bk3VoP1rP1Mi6dsD571uAHrNcPOPqZTA==</latexit>
sha1_base64="PIqLvd8aCLm3w73EZUnJoDh1Cz4=">AAAB/3icdVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqAsXbgaLUDchCX3YXcGNK6lgbaEtZTKdtEMnkzAzEUvIxr/QrRsXKm79DXf+jZNWQUUPDHM4517uvceLGJXKtt+N3MLi0vJKfrWwtr6xuWVu71zKMBaYtHDIQtHxkCSMctJSVDHSiQRBgcdI25ucZH77ighJQ36hphHpB2jEqU8xUloamHt+qeeFbCingf6S6/RokASUpwOzaFtOxa5W6lAT161Xy5pU3Fq1bEPHsmcoNqzbDHfNgfnWG4Y4DghXmCEpu44dqX6ChKKYkbTQiyWJEJ6gEelqylFAZD+ZHZDCQ60MoR8K/biCM/V7R4ICmW2oKwOkxvK3l4l/ed1Y+cf9hPIoVoTj+SA/ZlCFMEsDDqkgWLGpJggLqneFeIwEwkpnVtAhfF0K/yct16pbzrkO4wzMkQf74ACUgANqoAFOQRO0AAYpuAeP4Mm4MR6MZ+NlXpozPnt2wQ8Yrx+UcpsR</latexit>
data intensity f (x)max
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sha1_base64="7gDYEvR/BfIqRES5Zgw+TBZd9UA=">AAAB/3icdVDLSsNAFJ34rPUVdeHCzWAR6iYkoQ+7K7hxJRWMLbShTKaTdujkwcxEWkI2/oVu3bhQcetvuPNvnLQKKnpgmMM593LvPV7MqJCm+a4tLC4tr6wW1orrG5tb2/rO7pWIEo6JgyMW8Y6HBGE0JI6kkpFOzAkKPEba3vg099vXhAsahZdyGhM3QMOQ+hQjqaS+vu+Xe17EBmIaqC+dZMf9NECTrK+XTMOqmrVqAypi241aRZGqXa9VTGgZ5gylpnGb467V1996gwgnAQklZkiIrmXG0k0RlxQzkhV7iSAxwmM0JF1FQxQQ4aazAzJ4pJQB9COuXijhTP3ekaJA5BuqygDJkfjt5eJfXjeR/omb0jBOJAnxfJCfMCgjmKcBB5QTLNlUEYQ5VbtCPEIcYakyK6oQvi6F/xPHNhqGdaHCOAdzFMABOARlYIE6aIIz0AIOwCAD9+ARPGk32oP2rL3MSxe0z5498APa6weXcpsT</latexit>
Transferfunction tf(s) = (R, G, B, A)T

☃ 11 ☃ 12
Manual TF generation Compositing
Algorithm
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position
c) classify the sample with the tf using the intensity
2. Accumulate and composit the intensities along the ray

☃ 13 ☃ 14

Same data, different transfer function

"
Questions!

☃ 15 ☃
Same data, different transfer function Phong Reflection Model

+ + =

Ambient Diffuse Specular Phong Reflection

+ + =
ka(Ia ∘ Sa) kd(Id ∘ Sd)cos θ kd(Id ∘ Sd)(cos ϕ)a

ka, kd, ks: Phong weights

Ia, Id, Is: Light properties - color (RGB - vector) - typically Ia = Id = Is
Skin classified with one color
Sa, Sd, Ss: Surface properties - color (RGB - vector) - typically Sa = Sd = Ss
☃ 17 ☃ 18

Phong Shading Transferfunction in the DVR pipeline

x
z

y R R⋅A
position interpolated G G⋅A
Sampling tf(s) c= PreMult. C= Comp. C′
(x, y, z) scalar value s B B⋅A
A A

Transferfunction tf(s) = (R, G, B, A)T

Ambient + Diffuse + Specular

☃ 19 ☃ 20
Transferfunction + Shading in the DVR pipeline Shading
• Normal vector n is needed for Surface
x
z light reflection calculation

y • The gradient is a measure for

R R R⋅A n⃗
position
Sampling
interpolated
tf(s) c=
G
Shading
G
PreMult. C=
G⋅A
Comp. C′
the slope of the surface material b
(x, y, z) scalar value s B B B⋅A
A A A • Surface strength: | n ⃗ |
material a
s

Transferfunction tf(s) = (R, G, B, A)T

nx δf/δx
• Grey-level gradient shading: n ⃗ = ny = ∇f = δf/δy
nz δf/δz

☃ 21 ☃ 22

Central differences, discrete gradient at [i, j, k] Normal Calculation - Central Differences

Y
data value is 0

f [i + 1,j, k] − f [i − 1,j, k] data value is 2

X
R
Gx[i, j, k] =
2Δx Q data value is 4
Gz
f [i, j + 1,k] − f [i, j − 1,k] ⃗
Gy[i, j, k] = G = Gy ≈ n ⃗ 0−2 4−0
( 2 2 ) (2)
T
−1
2Δy P ∇(P) = , =
Gz kernel x -1 0 1

f [i, j, k + 1] − f [i, j, k − 1]
Gz[i, j, k] =
2Δz 1
kernel y 0
-1

☃ 23 ☃ 24
Normal Calculation - Central Differences Normal Calculation - Central Differences

Y
data value is 0 Y
data value is 0
X
R data value is 2 X
R data value is 2

Q data value is 4 Q data value is 4

0−2 4−0 0−2 4−0

( 2 2 ) (2) ( 2 2 ) (2)
T T
−1 −1
-1 0P 1 ∇(P) = , = -1 0P 1 ∇(P) = , =
kernel x -1 0 1 kernel x -1 0 1

1 1
kernel y 0 kernel y 0
-1 -1

☃ 24 ☃ 24

Normal Calculation - Central Differences Normal Calculation - Central Differences

Y
data value is 0 Y
data value is 0
X
R data value is 2 X
R data value is 2

Q data value is 4 Q data value is 4

1 1
0−2 4−0 0−2 4−0
( 2 2 ) (2) ( 2 2 ) (2)
T T
−1 −1
0P ∇(P) = , = 0P ∇(P) = , =
kernel x -1 0 1
-1
kernel x -1 0 1
-1

1 1
kernel y 0 kernel y 0
-1 -1

☃ 24 ☃ 24
Normal Calculation - Central Differences Normal Calculation - Central Differences

Y
data value is 0 Y
data value is 0
X
R data value is 2 X
R data value is 2

Q data value is 4 Q data value is 4

0−2 4−0 0−2 4−0

( 2 2 ) (2) ( 2 2 ) (2)
T T
−1 −1
P ∇(P) = , = P ∇(P) = , =
kernel x -1 0 1 kernel x -1 0 1

1 1
kernel y 0 kernel y 0
-1 -1

☃ 24 ☃ 24

Normal Calculation - Central Differences Normal Calculation - Central Differences

Y
data value is 0 Y
data value is 0
X
R data value is 2 X
R data value is 2

Q data value is 4 Q data value is 4

0−2 4−0 0−2 4−0

( 2 2 ) (2) ( 2 2 ) (2)
T T
−1 −1
P ∇(P) = , = P ∇(P) = , =
kernel x -1 0 1 kernel x -1 0 1

0−4 4−0 0−4 4−0

( 2 2 ) (2) ( 2 2 ) (2)
T T
−2 −2
∇(Q) = , = ∇(Q) = , =
1 1
kernel y 0 kernel y 0
-1 -1

☃ 24 ☃ 24
Normal Calculation - Central Differences Example, 2D

Y
data value is 0
X
R data value is 2

Q data value is 4

0−2 4−0
( 2 2 ) (2)
T
−1
P ∇(P) = , =
kernel x -1 0 1

0−4 4−0
( 2 2 ) (2)
T
−2
∇(Q) = , =
1
kernel y 0
4−4 4−4
( 2 2 ) (0)
0
T
∇(R) = , = Gx Gy
-1

☃ 24 ☃ 25

Gradient calculation in DVR Homogeneous Areas

• How do we get the gradient at a sample point!
• Precompute gradient per voxel (VolVis Project)
• Interpolate the gradient at the sample position
Surface
• Fast to evaluate, extra memory required
• Compute the gradient at the sample position on the fly
• Central differences at the sample point" n
material b
• Interpolate neighbors, compute gradient
• Slower, but no extra memory material a Gx Gy

☃ 26 ☃ 27
Phong Shading Model Gradient Free Shading
• Not optimal for direct volume rendering • Ambient Occlusion
• Designed for surfaces • Sample volume around the sample point
• normal (gradient) inside homogeneous areas • Sample occlusion in a given sphere
not well defined normal n ⃗
• noise has large impact I # L⃗ reflect L ⃗ I#
(ambient)
θ " "
ϕ
S V⃗ S

Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 28 Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29

Gradient Free Shading Gradient Free Shading

• Ambient Occlusion • Ambient Occlusion
• Sample volume around the sample point • Sample volume around the sample point
• Sample occlusion in a given sphere • Sample occlusion in a given sphere

I# I#
(ambient) (ambient)

" "
S S

Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29 Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29
Gradient Free Shading Gradient Free Shading
• Ambient Occlusion • Ambient Occlusion
• Sample volume around the sample point • Sample volume around the sample point
• Sample occlusion in a given sphere • Sample occlusion in a given sphere

I# I#
(ambient) (ambient)

" "
S S

Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29 Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29

Gradient Free Shading Gradient Free Shading

• Ambient Occlusion • Ambient Occlusion
• Sample volume around the sample point • Sample volume around the sample point
• Sample occlusion in a given sphere • Sample occlusion in a given sphere

I# I#
(ambient) (ambient)

" "
S S

Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29 Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29
Gradient Free Shading
• Ambient Occlusion
• Sample volume around the sample point
• Sample occlusion in a given sphere

I#
(ambient)

"
S

Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 29 Hernell et al. / Local Ambient Occlusion in Direct Volume Rendering 30

Compositing

"
Algorithm
For each pixel on the screen/target image, shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position
c) classify the sample with the tf using the intensity Questions!
d) shade the sample
2. Accumulate and composit the intensities along the ray

☃ 31 ☃
1D transfer function issues Multi-Dimensional Transfer Functions
• Idea: use additional volume properties
• Derived Attributes
• ‘Boundarieness’ of the sample
• Curvature
• Uncertainty
• Geometric relations
• …

☃ ☃ 34

Multi-Dimensional Transfer Functions ‘Boundarieness’

• Idea: use additional volume properties
• Derived Attributes
• ‘Boundarieness’ of the sample
• Curvature
• Uncertainty
• Geometric relations
• …

☃ 35 ☃ 36
‘Boundarieness’ ‘Boundarieness’

☃ 36 ☃ 36

‘Boundarieness’ 2D Histogram
f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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f(x) f′(x) f 0 (x)

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f (x)
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☃ 37 ☃ 38
2D Histogram 0
2D Histogram
f (x)
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f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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f (x)
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f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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f (x)
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☃ 39 ☃ 39

2D Histogram 0
2D Histogram
f (x)
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f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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f (x)
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f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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f (x)
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☃ 40 ☃ 40
2D Histogram 0
2D Histogram
f (x)
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f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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f (x)
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f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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<latexit sha1_base64="2JQxLKQS2rKuAXuO/oGTqSCzZ8U=">AAAB63icdVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSLWS0iqtOmt4MVjFWMLbSib7aZdutmE3Y1YSn+DFw8qXv1D3vw3bj8EFX0w8Hhvhpl5YcqZ0o7zYS0tr6yurec28ptb2zu7hb39W5VkklCfJDyRrRArypmgvmaa01YqKY5DTpvh8GLqN++oVCwRN3qU0iDGfcEiRrA2kh+dlO5Pu4WiY9e8M8/1kCHVilMuT4lXq1TLyLWdGYqwQKNbeO/0EpLFVGjCsVJt10l1MMZSM8LpJN/JFE0xGeI+bRsqcExVMJ4dO0HHRumhKJGmhEYz9fvEGMdKjeLQdMZYD9Rvbyr+5bUzHXnBmIk001SQ+aIo40gnaPo56jFJieYjQzCRzNyKyABLTLTJJ29C+PoU/U/8sl2z3avzYv16kUYODuEISuBCFepwCQ3wgQCDB3iCZ0tYj9aL9TpvXbIWMwfwA9bbJ9XHjk4=</latexit>

f (x)
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☃ 41 ☃ 42

2D Histogram 0
2D Transfer Function
f (x)
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f 0 (x)
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f (x)
<latexit sha1_base64="7qkF0/HAS1GcbdiehWmpMpLJ7qM=">AAAB6nicdVBNS8NAEN3Ur1q/qh69LBahXkJSpU1vBS8eqxhbaEPZbDft0t1N2N2IJfQvePGg4tVf5M1/46atoKIPBh7vzTAzL0wYVdpxPqzCyura+kZxs7S1vbO7V94/uFVxKjHxccxi2Q2RIowK4muqGekmkiAeMtIJJxe537kjUtFY3OhpQgKORoJGFCOdS1H1/nRQrjh20zvzXA8a0qg7tVpOvGa9UYOu7cxRAUu0B+X3/jDGKSdCY4aU6rlOooMMSU0xI7NSP1UkQXiCRqRnqECcqCCb3zqDJ0YZwiiWpoSGc/X7RIa4UlMemk6O9Fj99nLxL6+X6sgLMiqSVBOBF4uilEEdw/xxOKSSYM2mhiAsqbkV4jGSCGsTT8mE8PUp/J/4Nbtpu1fnldb1Mo0iOALHoApc0AAtcAnawAcYjMEDeALPFrcerRfrddFasJYzh+AHrLdPdQ6OHQ==</latexit>
f (x)
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f 0 (x) f 0 (x)
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f (x)
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<latexit sha1_base64="2JQxLKQS2rKuAXuO/oGTqSCzZ8U=">AAAB63icdVBNS8NAEJ34WetX1aOXxSLWS0iqtOmt4MVjFWMLbSib7aZdutmE3Y1YSn+DFw8qXv1D3vw3bj8EFX0w8Hhvhpl5YcqZ0o7zYS0tr6yurec28ptb2zu7hb39W5VkklCfJDyRrRArypmgvmaa01YqKY5DTpvh8GLqN++oVCwRN3qU0iDGfcEiRrA2kh+dlO5Pu4WiY9e8M8/1kCHVilMuT4lXq1TLyLWdGYqwQKNbeO/0EpLFVGjCsVJt10l1MMZSM8LpJN/JFE0xGeI+bRsqcExVMJ4dO0HHRumhKJGmhEYz9fvEGMdKjeLQdMZYD9Rvbyr+5bUzHXnBmIk001SQ+aIo40gnaPo56jFJieYjQzCRzNyKyABLTLTJJ29C+PoU/U/8sl2z3avzYv16kUYODuEISuBCFepwCQ3wgQCDB3iCZ0tYj9aL9TpvXbIWMwfwA9bbJ9XHjk4=</latexit>

f (x)
<latexit sha1_base64="1PHy3Vx+ABZmF9OySyQWpxQ9ZAg=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBahXkoignorePFYxdhCG8pmu2mX7m7C7kYsoX/BiwcVr/4ib/4bN20O2vpg4PHeDDPzwoQzbVz32ymtrK6tb5Q3K1vbO7t71f2DBx2nilCfxDxWnRBrypmkvmGG006iKBYhp+1wfJ377UeqNIvlvZkkNBB4KFnECDa5FNWfTvvVmttwZ0DLxCtIDQq0+tWv3iAmqaDSEI617npuYoIMK8MIp9NKL9U0wWSMh7RrqcSC6iCb3TpFJ1YZoChWtqRBM/X3RIaF1hMR2k6BzUgvern4n9dNTXQZZEwmqaGSzBdFKUcmRvnjaMAUJYZPLMFEMXsrIiOsMDE2nooNwVt8eZn4Z42rhnd7XmveFWmU4QiOoQ4eXEATbqAFPhAYwTO8wpsjnBfn3fmYt5acYuYQ/sD5/AHezI21</latexit>

☃ 43 ☃ 44
2D Transfer Function 0
2D Histogram
f (x)
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f (x)
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f 0 (x)
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f (x)
<latexit sha1_base64="1PHy3Vx+ABZmF9OySyQWpxQ9ZAg=">AAAB6nicbVBNS8NAEJ3Ur1q/qh69LBahXkoignorePFYxdhCG8pmu2mX7m7C7kYsoX/BiwcVr/4ib/4bN20O2vpg4PHeDDPzwoQzbVz32ymtrK6tb5Q3K1vbO7t71f2DBx2nilCfxDxWnRBrypmkvmGG006iKBYhp+1wfJ377UeqNIvlvZkkNBB4KFnECDa5FNWfTvvVmttwZ0DLxCtIDQq0+tWv3iAmqaDSEI617npuYoIMK8MIp9NKL9U0wWSMh7RrqcSC6iCb3TpFJ1YZoChWtqRBM/X3RIaF1hMR2k6BzUgvern4n9dNTXQZZEwmqaGSzBdFKUcmRvnjaMAUJYZPLMFEMXsrIiOsMDE2nooNwVt8eZn4Z42rhnd7XmveFWmU4QiOoQ4eXEATbqAFPhAYwTO8wpsjnBfn3fmYt5acYuYQ/sD5/AHezI21</latexit>
The boundaries correspond to arches that can cross due to the overlapping ranges of values.

☃ 45 ☃ 46

2D Histogram 2D Transfer Function

☃ 47 ☃ 48
2D Transfer Function 2D Transfer Function
• 2-D histogram as intensity-plot • 2-D histogram as intensity-plot
• plots show arcs: • plots show arcs:
• TFs derived automatically • TFs derived automatically
• Manual interaction to select arcs • Manual interaction to select arcs

http://www.sci.utah.edu/cibc-software/imagevis3d.html http://www.sci.utah.edu/cibc-software/imagevis3d.html

☃ 49 ☃ 50

Compositing

"
Algorithm
• For each pixel shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps
fi
along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position

Questions! c) classify the sample with the tf and the intensity

d) shade the sample
2. Accumulate and composit the color/opacity along the ray

☃ ☃ 52
Compositing Compositing
Algorithm Algorithm
• For each pixel shoot a ray: • For each pixel shoot a ray:
1. Sample the Volume along the ray 1. Sample the Volume along the ray
a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps a) calculate the position e.g. using equidistant steps
fi fi
along the ray along the ray
b) interpolate the intensity at the position b) interpolate the intensity at the position
c) classify the sample with the tf and the intensity c) classify the sample with the tf and the intensity
d) shade the sample d) shade the sample
2. Accumulate and composit the color/opacity along the ray 2. Accumulate and composit the color/opacity along the ray

☃ 52 ☃ 52

GPU – Raycasting Excursus: GPU–Pipeline (Simplified)

Generic GPUs fast enough for straight- Vertex Data (3D)
forward ray casting.
• Use of the texture storage of the
graphics hardware as volume
• Highly efficient texture (volume) access
with built-in trilinear interpolation
• Shader programming to traverse texture
Vertex Stage Shape Assembly Rasterization Pixel Stage
and composite final values. Project to 2D Vertices to Geometry Geometry to Pixels Compute Pixel Values

adapted from learnopengl.com

☃ 53 ☃ 54
GPU Raycasting GPU Raycasting
• Pixel/fragment (shader) == ray • Pixel/fragment (shader) == ray
• Need ray start position and direction vector • Need ray start position and direction vector
• Rasterize ([0,1]-normalized) bounding box with position as color

☃ 55 ☃ 55

GPU Raycasting GPU Raycasting

• Pixel/fragment (shader) == ray • Pixel/fragment (shader) == ray
B B
• Need ray start position and direction vector • Need ray start position and direction vector
• Rasterize ([0,1]-normalized) bounding box with position as color • Rasterize ([0,1]-normalized) bounding box with position as color

B F B

☃ 55 ☃ 55
GPU Raycasting

"
• Entry- and exit points are determined by rendering the cube twice
(once with backface culling, once with frontface culling).
• Compositing is carried out in a third rendering pass.
• Highly parallel (1 thread per ray) + free linear interpolation

Questions!
- =
Slides (partially) based on lectures by

v Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)

B F
Markus Hadwiger (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology)

☃ 56 ☃
 Volume visualization
2D visualization of slice
images
Indirect Volume arbitrary cut planes (multi
planar reconstruction, MPR)
Visualization
Indirect 3D visualization
Extract and reformat
structures: isosurfaces
IN4089 Data Visualization
Martin Skrodzki – Computer Graphics & Visualization Direct 3D visualization
Interactively classify
structures: direct volume
rendering (DVR)

Isosurface Raycasting

Intensity

Iso Surfaces in Direct Volume Rendering

Iso value

Eye

Pixel

4
 Indirect Volume Visualization
Idea: Make the inner parts of the volume
visible by extracting contours/surfaces of
features and visualize these
contours/surfaces (indirect)
Back to Indirect Volume Rendering

Iso-contours, level sets, etc.

Iso-contours Iso-contours

set of points where set of points where

the scalar field f the scalar field f
has a given iso-value c has a given iso-value c
→ → → →
{𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ𝑛𝑛 : 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑐} {𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ𝑛𝑛 : 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑐}

8 9
Iso-contours Recap: Volume data
• 3D grid of data points, indices: m, n, k
• one scalar value per data point
set of points where • density, concentration
the scalar field f • pressure
has a given iso-value c • temperature →
→ → 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 : ℝ3 → ℝ
{𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ𝑛𝑛 : 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑐} • velocity
• etc … 𝑓𝑓[𝑚𝑚, 𝑛𝑛, 𝑘𝑘]: ℕ3 → ℕ

10 11

Volume data Iso-contours • Discrete Case

set of points where

the scalar field f
has a given iso-value c
→ →
{𝑥𝑥 ∈ ℝ𝑛𝑛 : 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑐}

Voxel Cell
Sampled data point Voxel centers = Vertices of the cube
example: iso-value c = 8

12 13
Marching Squares Algorithm (2D) Marching Squares Algorithm (2D)
v3 v4 grid value v3 v4 grid value
• For all cells with data values larger and ≥c • For all cells with data values larger and ≥c
<c <c
smaller than iso-value c at the grid points vi smaller than iso-value c at the grid points vi
v1 v2 v1 <c v1 v2 v1 <c
v2 <c v3 v4 v2 <c
v3 >c v3 >c
v4 >c • Find cell edges with intersection v4 >c

v1 v2

14 15

Marching Squares Algorithm (2D) Marching Squares Algorithm (2D)

v3 v4 grid value v3 v4 grid value
• For all cells with data values larger and ≥c • For all cells with data values larger and ≥c
<c <c
smaller than iso-value c at the grid points vi smaller than iso-value c at the grid points vi
v1 v2 v1 <c v1 v2 v1 <c
v3 v4 v2 <c v3 v4 v2 <c
v3 >c v3 >c
• Find cell edges with intersection v4 >c • Find cell edges with intersection v4 >c

• Connect intersection points • Connect intersection points

v1 v2 v1 v2
v3 v4

v1 v2

16 17
Marching Squares Algorithm (2D) Iso-contours • Discrete Case
v3 v4 grid value
• For all cells with data values larger and ≥c • For all cells with data values larger and
<c
smaller than iso-value c at the grid points vi smaller than iso-value 8 at the grid points vi
v1 v2 v1 <c
v3 v4 v2 <c 10 10
v3 >c
• Find cell edges with intersection v4 >c • Find cell edges with intersection
• Connect intersection points • Connect intersection points
v1 v2 10 10
v3 v4

• Interpolate along the cell edges • Interpolate along the cell edges
v1 v2
example: iso-value c = 8

18 19

Iso-contours • Discrete Case Marching Squares Algorithm (2D)

• For all cells with data values larger and • For all cells with data values larger and
smaller than iso-value 8 at the grid points vi smaller than iso-value c at the grid points vi 0 1 2 3
10 10

• Find cell edges with intersection • Find cell edges with intersection
4 5 6 7
• Connect intersection points 10 10
• Connect intersection points
8 9 10 11

• Interpolate along the cell edges • Interpolate along the cell edges
12 13 14 15
example: iso-value c = 8

20 21
Marching Squares - Case Tables Marching Squares - Case Tables
≥c • For each vertex compute ≥c • For each vertex compute
<c <c
0 1 2 3

• For each cell: 4 5 6 7 • For each cell:

• Process vertices in given order • Process vertices in given order
̂ 𝑖𝑖 ) as the i-th bit of a 4-bit int
• Take 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 8 9 10 11 • Take (xi) as the i-th bit of a 4-bit int

12 13 14 15
____ 0101 = 5 (decimal)

22 23

Marching Squares - Problem Cases Marching Squares – Problem Cases

v3 v4 v3 v4 v3 v4 v3 v4 v3 v4 v3 v4
v1 <c v1 <c
v2 >c v2 >c
v3 >c ? v3 >c ?
v4 <c v4 <c
v1 v2 v1 v2 v1 v2 v1 v2 v1 v2 v1 v2

Solutions
• smallest change of direction
wrt neighboring cells
• ask for user input
Join Contour Break Contour Join Contour Break Contour
http://users.polytech.unice.fr/~lingrand/MarchingCubes/algo.html
• … http://users.polytech.unice.fr/~lingrand/MarchingCubes/algo.html

24 25
Marching Squares - Problem Cases Marching Squares
v3 v4 v3 v4 v3 v4
v1 <c Algorithm
v2 >c
v3 >c ? For each cell (square):
v4 <c
v1 v2 v1 v2 v1 v2 1. Classify each vertex
2. Build an index
3. Get intersected edge list 5

4. Find exact intersection by

In 2D every connection is plausible!
interpolation
Join Contour Break Contour 5. Connect intersection to iso-line
http://users.polytech.unice.fr/~lingrand/MarchingCubes/algo.html

26 27

3D – Connecting 2D Contours

Marching Cubes (2D to 3D)

Stack of 2D data planes repeatedly connect two

determine closed contours contours with triangles

28 29
Marching Cubes (3D) Marching Squares (2D) Excursus: why triangles?
• Most simple surface element
Algorithm
• Unambiguous definition with three points
• For each cell (cube): • For each cell (square):
• Historically: graphics hardware built around triangles
1. Classify each vertex 1. Classify each vertex
2. Build an index 2. Build an index
3. Get intersected edge list 3. Get intersected edge list
4. Find exact intersection by 4. Find exact intersection by
interpolation interpolation
5. Connect intersections to polygon 5. Connect intersections to iso-line
6. Triangulate polygon to iso-surface 30 https://youtu.be/U93RImC-by4 31

Marching Cubes Marching Cubes – Step 1

Create a cell (cube) Classify each vertex
Consider a cube defined Classify each vertex of the
by eight data values, four cube as to whether it lies
from slice k, and four from outside or inside the
slice k+1 surface

Inside, if grid value

Outside, if grid value

32 33
Marching Cubes – Step 2 Marching Cubes – Step 3
Build an index Get edge list
Create an index between 0 and For a given index, access a list of
255 from the binary labeling of cubes edges that contain a
each vertex triangle vertex
Using symmetry of the cube, all
256 cases can be generated
from 15 cases (14 intersected, 1
index: 00000100
…
not intersected)

34 35

Marching Cubes – Step 3 Marching Cubes - Step 4

Find triangle vertices by interpolation
For each edge in edge list, find the
triangle vertex position using linear
interpolation of the density values
(e.g. x-direction):

: Sample distance in x-direction

index: 01000001 index: 10110001
: Isovalue : Image value
36 37
Problematic Cases Problematic Cases
Occur on any cube face that has adjacent vertices with different
states, but diagonal vertices in same state

IN OUT OUT IN

cubeface cubeface

OUT IN IN OUT

There are six of these cases (from 15 cases)

38 39

Problematic Cases Problematic Cases

Inconsistent choice results in holes

40 41
Drawing Drawing
• Locate the surface using marching cubes • Locate the surface using marching cubes
• Draw triangles • Draw triangles
• Illuminate/Shade triangles

42 43

𝐼𝐼 💡💡
Phong Reflection Model Shading
⃗
𝐿𝐿 ⃗
𝑛𝑛

𝜃𝜃
𝜙𝜙
• Normal vector n is needed for light ⃗
𝑉𝑉
+ + = reflection calculation
• Can easily be computed per triangle
Ambient Diffuse Specular Phong Reflection (vector orthogonal to the triangle
+ + =
𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 (𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 ∘ 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 ) 𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 (𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑 ∘ 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 )cos𝜃𝜃 𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 (𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑 ∘ 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 )(cos𝜙𝜙)𝑎𝑎 surface)
• Gives a 'flat' appearance with hard
𝑘𝑘𝑎𝑎 , 𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 , 𝑘𝑘𝑠𝑠 : Phong weights
edges
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 , 𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑 , 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 : Light properties – color (RGB - vector) - typically 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 = 𝐼𝐼𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠
𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 , 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 , 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 : Surface properties – color (RGB - vector) - typically 𝑆𝑆𝑎𝑎 = 𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑 = 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠
44 45
Shading Shading
• Normal vector n is needed for light • Normal vector n is needed for light
reflection calculation reflection calculation
• Can easily be computed per triangle • Can easily be computed per triangle
(vector orthogonal to the triangle (vector orthogonal to the triangle
surface) surface)
• Gives a 'flat' appearance with hard • Gives a 'flat' appearance with hard
edges edges

46 47

Shading
• Normal vector n is needed for light
reflection calculation
• Normal per vertex + Interpolation
gives a much smoother impression
• Here n is approximated by the gradient
(see direct volume rendering)
Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Thomas Höllt (TU Delft)
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Markus Hadwiger (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology)

48
 Vector Fields

Vector Field Visualization

IN4089 Data Visualization

Martin Skrodzki – Computer Graphics & Visualization

Steady vs. Unsteady Flow Direct vs. Indirect Flow Visualization

• Stead flow: time-independent • Direct flow visualization
Arrow plot
• Flow itself is static over time: 𝑣𝑣 𝑥𝑥⃗ 𝑣𝑣: ℝ𝑛𝑛 → ℝ𝑛𝑛 • Overview of current flow state

• Example: laminar flows 𝑥𝑥⃗ → 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥) • Visualization of vectors: arrow plots (“hedgehog” plots), LIC

• Indirect flow visualization

• Unsteady flow: time-dependent • Use intermediate representation: vector field integration over time
LIC
• Flow itself changes over time 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥)
⃗ 𝑣𝑣: ℝ𝑛𝑛 ×ℝ→ ℝ𝑛𝑛 • Visualization of temporal evolution

• Example: turbulent flows 𝑥𝑥⃗ → 𝑣𝑣(𝑥𝑥, 𝑡𝑡) • Integral curves: streamlines, pathlines, streaklines, timelines

(here just for Euclidean domain; analogous on general manifolds) • Integral surfaces: streamsurfaces, pathsurfaces, streaksurfaces
Integral curve
4 5
 Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Direct/Vectors

Direct Flow Visualization

𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅 x
z

𝑦𝑦 = 𝐺𝐺
𝑧𝑧 𝐵𝐵
6 7

Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Glyph/Hedgehog Hedgehogs Problems in 3D

• Ambiguity
• Hedgehog plots
• Perspective
• Direct flow visualization
• 1D objects in 3D: difficult spatial perception
• Normalized arrows vs. scaling with velocity • Visual clutter
• Scaling problematic
• Limited expressivity • 3D arrows (help to a certain extent)
(temporal component missing)
• But often used as basic technique!
𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 =
8 10
Hedgehogs Problems in 3D Line Integral Convolution (LIC)
• Ambiguity
• Goal: General overview of the flow
• Perspective
• 1D objects in 3D: difficult spatial perception • Idea: Flow ⬄ visual correlation
• Visual clutter

• 3D arrows (help to a certain extent)

• Compromise: Arrows only on slices

11 Cabral and Leedom, Imaging Vector Fields Using Line Integral Convolution, Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '9312

Line Integral Convolution (LIC) Line Integral Convolution (LIC)

• Goal: General overview of the flow • Start with dense flow field

• Idea: Flow ⬄ visual correlation

• Approach: Use dense textures

• Cover domain with random texture
(input texture, usually white noise)
• Blur (convolve) the input texture along stream lines
using a specified 1D (line-)kernel

Cabral and Leedom, Imaging Vector Fields Using Line Integral Convolution, Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '9313 15
Line Integral Convolution (LIC) Line Integral Convolution (LIC)
• Start with dense flow field • Start with dense flow field
• Cover the domain with noise • Cover the domain with noise
• Blur noise tangential to vector
field

16 17

Line Integral Convolution (LIC) How to Convolve?

∫ 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜏𝜏 ⋅ 𝑘𝑘 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• Start with dense flow field • Convolution:

• Cover the domain with noise 𝐿𝐿
𝑓𝑓 ∗ 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜏𝜏 ⋅ 𝑘𝑘 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Blur noise tangential to vector field −𝐿𝐿

• Result:
• Along flow lines visually coherent values • For function 𝑓𝑓 and kernel 𝑘𝑘 of size 2𝐿𝐿 (1D)
• LIC: convolve along the vector field 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2
𝑝𝑝0
𝐿𝐿
.1 .2 .4 .2 .1 𝑝𝑝−1
𝑓𝑓 ∗ 𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡 + 𝜏𝜏) ⋅ 𝑘𝑘 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
−𝐿𝐿
−𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿 𝑝𝑝−2
18 19
 Integral Curves / Stream Objects

Indirect Flow Visualization

20 21

Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect

• Streamline • Streamline
• Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time • Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time
Identical
• Pathline for • Pathline
steady
• Describes motion of a massless particle over time flow • Describes motion of a massless particle over time

• Streakline • Streakline
• Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time • Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time

• Timeline • Timeline
• Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time • Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time
Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 22 Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 23
Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect
• Streamline • Streamline
• Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time • Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time

• Pathline • Pathline
• Describes motion of a massless particle over time • Describes motion of a massless particle over time

• Streakline • Streakline
• Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time • Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time

• Timeline • Timeline
• Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time • Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time
Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 24 Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 25

Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect

• Streamline • Streamline
• Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time • Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time

• Pathline • Pathline
• Describes motion of a massless particle over time • Describes motion of a massless particle over time

• Streakline • Streakline
• Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time • Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time

• Timeline • Timeline
• Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time • Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time
Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 26 Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 27
Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect Flow/Vector Field Visualization: Indirect
• Streamline • Streamline
• Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time • Curve parallel to the vector field in each point for a fixed time

• Pathline • Pathline
• Describes motion of a massless particle over time • Describes motion of a massless particle over time

• Streakline • Streakline
• Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time • Location of several particles released at a fixed position over time

• Timeline • Timeline
• Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time • Location of several particles released along a line at a fixed time
Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 28 Check https://www3.nd.edu/~cwang11/flowvis.html for an interactive demo 29

How to track the line/particles? Numerical Integration: Euler

• Vector field integration: • idea: (very) locally the solution is (approx.) linear
• : tracetory • Euler integration: follow the flow vector v at
• : vector field value at position x the current point p for a very small time

𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠

30 31
Numerical Integration: Euler Numerical Integration: Euler
Simple 2D model:
• Testing Example 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥/2
• Exact solution: ellipses Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5
−1

1
𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝0 =
0

After Helwig Hauser 32 33

Numerical Integration: Euler Numerical Integration: Euler

Simple 2D model: Simple 2D model:

𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦

𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥

Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5 Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5
−1 −1

1 1
𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝0 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝1 =
0 0.25
0 1 0.5
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠1 = + ⋅ 0.5 =
−1 0 −1

34 35
Numerical Integration: Euler Numerical Integration: Euler
Simple 2D model: Simple 2D model:

𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦

𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥

Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5 Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5
−1 −1

1
𝑣𝑣 𝑝𝑝1 =
0.25
0.5 1
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠2 = + ⋅ 0.5
−1 0.25
1
=
−0.875
36 37

Numerical Integration: Euler Numerical Integration: Euler

Simple 2D model: Simple 2D model:

𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦

𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥

Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5 Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5
−1 −1
Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.25
−1

38 39
 Numerical Integration: Euler Better: Runge Kutta
Simple 2D model: Simple 2D model:

𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 • Idea: cut short the curve arc 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦
𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 • 2nd order RK: 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
1. Do half Euler step
Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.5
−1 2. Evaluate flow vector there

Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.25 3. Use it at the origin
−1
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0
Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.1
−1 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1
Example: 𝑝𝑝0 =
0 , Δ𝑆𝑆 = 0.01 Δ𝑆𝑆
−1 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
2
40 41

Better: Runge Kutta Better: Runge Kutta

Simple 2D model: Simple 2D model:
• idea: cut short the curve arc 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 • idea: cut short the curve arc 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦
• 2nd order RK: 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 • 2nd order RK: 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2

1. Do half Euler step 1. Do half Euler step

2. Evaluate flow vector there 2. Evaluate flow vector there
3. Use it at the origin 3. Use it at the origin
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1
Δ𝑆𝑆 Δ𝑆𝑆
= 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
2 2
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 Better: Runge Kutta Better: Runge Kutta
Simple 2D model: Simple 2D model:
• idea: cut short the curve arc 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 • idea: cut short the curve arc 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦
• 2nd order RK: 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 • 2nd order RK: 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2

1. Do half Euler step 1. Do half Euler step

2. Evaluate flow vector there 2. Evaluate flow vector there
3. Use it at the origin 3. Use it at the origin
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠0 = 𝑝𝑝0
𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖+1
Δ𝑆𝑆 Δ𝑆𝑆
= 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 + 𝑣𝑣⃗ 𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖 ⋅ ⋅ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
2 2
44 45

Better: Runge Kutta How to track the line/particles?

Simple 2D model:
• idea: cut short the curve arc 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 −𝑦𝑦 • Analytic typically not possible
• 2nd order RK: 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥⁄2 • Instead: numerical integration
1. Do half Euler step • Several methods: Euler, Runge-Kutta, etc.
2. Evaluate flow vector there • Euler: simple, imprecise, esp. with large steps
3. Use it at the origin
• RK: more accurate with fewer steps
RK2: 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 1 • Higher order for complex flows
Euler: 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 1⁄8 • Downsides: error accumulates, manual seed point can introduce error

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Slides (partially) based on lectures by
Thomas Höllt (TU Delft)
Anna Vilanova (TU Eindhoven)
Markus Hadwiger (King Abdullah University of Science and Technology)

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