Module 25 - Counsellee Appraisal: Testing Techniques-1

Counselling psychologists address various concerns of clients ranging from psychological

problems, problems in living, conflicting relationships and career indecision. For accurate and
more comprehensive understanding of all these problems or the issues, counselee appraisal is
all-important. Throughout the professional literature the term appraisal is used interchangeably
with other terms like assessment or evaluation. Both make use of formal and informal methods
to collect the information. But the difference lies in how the information is used. During
assessment the counsellor’s goal is to document and describe what is happening with the client
and in appraisal the counsellor makes judgments on the basis of revealed information. To
understand an individual’s behaviour, both objective (testing techniques) and subjective (non-
testing techniques) information is beneficial. American psychological association (APA) and
National Council of Measurement in Education (NCME, 1999) defined the term assessment as 'a
process that integrates test information with information from other sources e.g., individual's
social, educational, employment, physical and psychological health related test details.' This
definition covers the wide scope of the process of assessment. Counselee appraisal or
assessment plays a significant role in analysing the problems, identifying the strengths and
weaknesses of the clients and taking appropriate measures in order to provide solutions to those
problems. It is a process in which the counsellors collect information they need to understand
the types of problems the client is struggling with and to form a holistic view about him/her. For
this a counsellor carries out the psychological testing and assessment (Naugle, 2010) as well as
uses other evaluative procedures. He or she may administer the standardized instruments like
psychological tests and interpret the obtained scores. Because psychological tests are valuable in
exploring the inner world of clients (Fremer & Wall, 2003), the counsellors assess their clients
regularly throughout the counselling process. They use psychological tests in the beginning of
treatment for identification, during to monitor the progress and in the end to assess treatment
outcomes. In this regard, Finn (2007) states that tests are also used to clarify the diagnoses and
to judge the obstacles in the treatment especially when it is not as effective as expected.
Psychological test results are combined with information obtained through other methods such
as clinical interview, medical or legal records and interviews with people who know the client like
parents, spouse or teacher. It is important to mention here that tests used by counsellors must
be psychometrically sound i.e., with good reliability and validity. Tests with poor psychometric
properties would give inaccurate results and potentially harmful. It would be the similar case as
if medical laboratory provides inaccurate or invalid results for the intended purpose, the
consequence will be misdiagnosis or even harmful treatment. The standardized testing and
assessment procedures help counsellors to assist their clients in making effective life choices and
acquiring new behaviours. The ACA code of ethics (2014) particularly section E is devoted
completely to the evaluation, assessment and interpretation. The role of counselling
professionals in assessment varies. For example, in school setting the counsellors are proficient
in communicating results to students and parents as well as they assist teachers and
administrators in understanding the results of tests. In settings other than schools like in mental
health agencies the related mental health professionals e.g., psychologists are also skilled in
testing and assessment. However, in most of the settings the counsellors administer and
interpret the educational and psychological tests for their clients. As in the previous lecture on
school counselling we discussed about the 4th system of ASCA's National model i.e.,
accountability that addresses the appraisal of change in clients and evaluation of programs run
by counsellors and performance of counsellors through a rating system is evaluated. So, in this
regard the role of assessment instruments or psychological testing is crucial in counselee
appraisal. There are specific tools and techniques available to counsellors for counselee
appraisal. For individual assessment some basic guidelines provide a framework for effective
functioning in counselling profession. Now we shall discuss the basic principles or guidelines for
assessment as given in Gibson & Mitchell (2008). Firstly, the uniqueness of the individual is to be
valued.

Secondly, variations exist among individuals. Each individual is unique and distinct from others.
Individual assessment seeks to recognize the strengths as well as weaknesses of the client.

Thirdly, the person must be directly and willingly involved in the process of assessment. This
involvement includes client’s input, feedback, clarification and interpretation. It assumes that for
clarification the client expands his or her response which helps to gain better understanding of
himself or herself along with the counsellor.

Accurate human assessment is limited by instruments and personnel. This means that
counsellors must be responsible for their expertise in the relevant test. They should not use the
test for which they are not been thoroughly trained. In addition to this, the clients’ limitations in
responding to individual items must be taken into account.

Further, human assessment accepts the positive. This means that assessment seeks to find out
the unique worth of person which leads to the identification of valuable goals and positive
planning. The counsellor’s attitude plays an important role in establishing the positive
environment for assessment and using results for best interests of the client.

Lastly, human assessment follows established professional guidelines which protect rights of
both the client and the counsellor. Following basic guidelines of individual assessment, the
counsellor uses a wide range of testing (standardized) and non-testing (non-standardized)
evaluative procedures that provides information about a person and help counsellors in judging
their effectiveness and to assess the effect of intervention on clients. According to Erford (2006)
the assessment serves four chief motives in counselling relationship i.e., screening or diagnosis,
treatment planning or goal identification and progress evaluation. To attain these objectives,
testing techniques have special significance in understanding the needs of the person and
evaluate his or her comprehensions. The counsellor gathers information regarding general data
that includes age, gender, and address to establish contact, physical data that contains
information of diseases, disabilities health records, family information and school history along
with class records. Further, the need is to get information regarding mental abilities, interests,
aptitudes, educational and other achievements, personality and information related with
adjustment areas. Such details help counsellor to know the client and determine his or her
problems. Gibson & Mitchell (2008) suggests that for assessment the counsellor proceeds like
what is the client’s need for which the information is needed? What type of information is
needed to deal the client effectively? What assessment procedures and techniques are most
likely to obtain this information? And lastly how can the results of this assessment be organized
and applied to satisfy the needs of client. Further, to apply testing techniques in counselling,
Corey, Corey & Callanan (1984) lay out six main principles regarding process of testing, which are
outlined below:

Testing process: The process of testing includes selection of a test, administration, scoring,
interpretation and communication of the results. Selection of a test is based on the purpose of
testing. Counsellors need to consider multiple criteria for test selection.

Administration: each test accompanies a manual that describes the administration of a test.
Most of the manuals mention the uniform procedure and specialized instructions to follow at
each step. The counsellors should follow these to obtain valid test results and comparison of an
individual’s score with norms.

Scoring: For scoring, the counsellors need to follow scoring guidelines strictly provided in the test
manuals.

Interpretation: the interpretation of test results depends upon the theoretical viewpoint of
counsellor and guidelines provided in test manuals. This area requires test users’ expertise to
individualize the interpretation of results. The counsellors must interpret the results in an
understandable way (Tymofievich & Leroux, 2000).

Communication: To give feedback of test outcomes to the client, both verbal and non-verbal
skills of a counsellor play an important role. It is ensured that results are understood by the client.

Confidentiality: Counsellor ensures to conduct the test with confidentiality i.e., the test results
are communicated with the client only and if there is need to share information with third party
then it is done with the consent of client. The counsellor discusses the issue of confidentiality
with client before test administration. This encourages client to take part in the process more
actively and more open to undergo counselling services.

Additionally, success or failure with tests is associated with sensitivity, ability and knowledge of
counsellors who choose a specific test for their clients.

Now we shall discuss the testing techniques or formal methods in detail for studying or
appraising the individual. The testing techniques focus on cognitive and affective domains which
may help counsellors in understanding the abilities and personality of a client. Also benefits in
diagnosis, goal-setting, treatment planning, program evaluation and research. Cognitive
domains include ability tests like intelligence, aptitude, interest and achievement tests. For
example, in case of what one has learned i.e., achievement testing that includes survey battery,
diagnostic and readiness tests. Further regarding aptitude testing i.e., what one is capable of
learning tests on cognitive ability, intellectual and neuropsychological testing as well as special
and multiple aptitude tests are used. Affective domains comprise personality tests that measure
temperament, habits, and dispositions. The assessment of both domains establishes the learning
and cognitive functioning of a person.

Similarly, to attain the goal of comprehensive evaluation of the client especially in the areas of
educational and vocational guidance or counselling, it is essential to have knowledge of mental
abilities of the client. Most of the times the words mental ability and IQ are used synonymously
that helps to identify the learning disabled, developmentally delayed, gifted and mentally
challenged people.

Intelligence Testing: The most popular area of ability testing includes tests claiming to appraise
general academic ability, mental ability and intelligence. Generally, we use the term ‘intelligence’
considering it as an inborn ability to look for the right thing at the right place. Various theorists
define it as the aggregate of global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally
and to deal effectively with his or her environment (Wechsler, 1939), Further, in 1949, Husband
described an intelligent person as the person who uses past experiences effectively,
concentrates, keeps his or her attention focused and adjusts in new situations rapidly as well as
capable of exercising self-criticism. This construct is defined in different ways, but it is usually
considered as related with linguistic and problem-solving capabilities of an individual
(Gottfredson & Saklofske, 2009). All these capacities are assessed by many intelligence tests
which are validated against measures of academic achievement. Moreover, intelligence tests are
a broad measure of overall or general ability which is primarily related with one’s potential for
learning. As these tests are designed to measure aptitude of a person for scholastic work or other
kinds of occupations that needs reasoning and verbal ability. So, intelligence tests can serve as
screening devices for overall ability followed by more specialized aptitude tests that appraise
aptitude in specific areas such as music or mechanics (Gladding & Batra. 2013). There are various
intelligence tests available that are intended to be administered in individual or group settings.
Usually, individual intelligence tests are the significant part of comprehensive assessment. The
most common intelligence tests that can be administered individually are the Stanford Binet and
Wechsler Scales. Both tests are used for children and adults. Recently Stanford Binet Intelligence
Scale (SB) underwent for fifth revision and seems more appropriate for adults who are less
verbally fluent. This test has been designed for individuals 2 through 85 years old. Wechsler scales
are among the popular series of individually administered tests available for different age groups.
For instance, the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-3rd (WPPSI-111, Wechsler,
2002) is designed for the age range of 2 years and 6 months to 7 years and 3 months. For the
children in the age range of 6 to 16 years and 11 months, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children- 4th Edition (WISC-IV) is available. To assess the intellectual functioning of adults,
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-4th Edition (WAIS-IV) can be used for individuals in the age
range of 16-89 years. Both of the tests provide norms for verbal IQ, performance IQ, and full-
scale IQ. In addition to this, there are a number of widely administered individually intelligence
tests. For example, Bayley Scales of Infant Development, the Vineland Social Maturity Scale, the
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) and the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult
Intelligence Test (KAIT).

There are numerous intelligence tests intended to be administered in group settings. For
example, Alpha and Beta Intelligence Tests developed during First World War and used to screen
as well as classify army inductees for training as per their ability level. Additionally, Otis-Lennon
School Ability Test-7th Edition (OLSAT-7), the Cognitive Abilities Test, and the Test of Cognitive
Skills and the California Test of Mental Maturity are also available. Furthermore, nonverbal
intelligence tests like Raven’s Progressive Matrices and the Test of Nonverbal intelligence (TONI)
are accessible. These tests are more useful to overcome language barriers especially in
multicultural testing. In this connection, Anastasi & Urbina, 1997) states that these tests are
useful if the counsellor has limited time and wishes to make a rough estimate of the client’s
intellectual level. Besides this, there are power and speed tests that assess efficiency of
performance. Speed tests are timed tests in which the client’s speed of responding in a stipulated
time period is assessed whereas power tests offer generous time limit in which examinees can
attempt more items. However, all tests cannot be used ‘as its is’ due to multicultural variations.
So many tests have been developed or adapted in accordance with Indian specifications. Most of
the Western Intelligence tests adapted in India include Western pre-school and primary scale of
Intelligence adapted by M.C. Joshi while P. Ramalingua Swami adapted Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Similarly, S.K.Kulshreshta and bureau of Psychology, Allahabad
provided Indian adaptation of Binet Simon Scale. In addition to this Jalota’s group test of mental
ability and group test of Intelligence by Pramila Ahuja as well as Bhatia’s battery of performance
test of Intelligence are the newly constructed tests in India. There are tests like L.N. Dubey’s
Problem-solving ability, Prayag Mehta’s Group Intelligence tests for adolescents (12-15 years),
Mohsin’s Verbal Intelligence test that cater the needs of special population. All these tests
provide a fair idea about counselee’s mental ability. It is important to note that counsellors
should be aware about the sensitive nature of intelligence testing because it is associated with
an individual’s self-worth and potential. Giving feedback to subjects or their parents who score
below average on an IQ test is a serious concern and if not done cautiously will damage the
psychological health of subjects.

Aptitude Testing: Both terms Intelligence and aptitude are often used interchangeably. However,
there is subtle difference lies in the assessment like intelligence tests are the broad measure of
general ability whereas aptitude tests tap a narrower range of ability. Aptitude has been defined
as a trait that describes the ability of a person to perform in a given area (Gibson & Mitchell,2008).
It is assumed that this inborn ability can be developed through learning or experience. Traxler
(1966) states that ‘aptitude a present condition is an indication of the future potentialities of an
individual.’ Likewise, Freeman (1962 as cited in A.K. Singh, 2008)) designated aptitude as a
combination of characteristics indicative of an individual’s capacity to acquire (with training)
some specific knowledge, skill or set of organized responses such as the ability to speak a
language, to become a musician and to do mechanical work. In the same way, Tuckman (1975)
considered aptitude as a combination of abilities and characteristics, whether native or acquired,
known or believed to be indicative of an individual’s ability to learn or to develop proficiency in
some particular area. These definitions recommend that aptitude is a capacity or ability that plays
a vital role in the acquisition of knowledge and skills. This may help to predict the future
performance of a person. Counsellors assess the capability of a task or aptitude by using various
tests. They use tests to make aware their clients regarding their strengths and limitations.
Aptitude tests are an important resource through which a client can know his or her professional
potentials such as legal or medical and special abilities like clerical or mechanical. According to
Gladding & Batra (2018),’an aptitude test measures the person’s ability to profit from further
training or experience in an occupation or skill.’ Therefore, aptitude tests are important tools for
guidance and counselling services. According to Gibson & Mitchell (2008) counsellors use
appropriate aptitude tests for the following purposes: 1. identify potential abilities for which the
client is not aware. 2. Motivate the client to develop special or potential abilities. 3. Provide
information to the clients to make career or educational decisions. 4. Predict the academic or
vocational success. 5. Useful in assembling the individuals with similar aptitudes for
developmental or other educational purposes.

Generally, aptitude tests are categorized into multi-aptitude batteries that include a variety of
tests to assess a number of skills and component ability tests also known as special aptitude tests
that assess a single ability or skill like music or language ability.
Firstly, we will discuss multi-aptitude batteries that are an outgrowth of factorial studies of
intelligence. These batteries comprise of a series of subtests related with varying combinations
of occupations. Most commonly used multiple aptitude batteries are General Aptitude Test
Battery (GATB), the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) and Differential
Aptitude Tests (DAT). The United States Employment Service (1962) developed General Aptitude
Test Battery especially for armed services and has also been used extensively for employment
services. This battery includes 12 tests that assess nine factors like intelligence (G), numerical
aptitude (N), verbal aptitude (V), spatial aptitude (S), form perception (P), clerical perception (Q),
motor coordination (K), finger dexterity (F), and manual dexterity (M). Out of the 12 tests, eight
are verbal tests whereas four tests are non-verbal for the measurement of finger and manual
dexterities. This battery requires approximately two hours for complete administration. The
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery assesses multiple aptitudes of the 11th, 12th grade
and post-secondary students. It can be used in both military and educational settings. In military
settings, it helps to identify those students who are fit for different types of military occupational
programs. This battery consists of 10 subtests that are classified into academic composites i.e.,
academic ability, verbal ability, and mathematical ability, occupational composites include
mechanical and crafts, business and clerical, electronics and electrical, and health and social
along with overall composite reflects general ability. The Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) is
among the most common multi-aptitude tests. This test was printed first time in 1947 and
underwent several revisions and presently available in 5th edition published in 1992. This test
contains eight independent subtests i.e., verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning, abstract
reasoning, mechanical reasoning, clerical and speed and accuracy, space relations, spelling and
language usage. This test has been extensively used for educational and vocational counselling
for students of 8th grade to 12th grade. Indian adaptation of DAT is also available. Another
Differential Test Battery has been adapted by J.M. Ahuja. In addition to this, there are Mechanical
Aptitude Test Battery by A.N. Sharma, Engineering Test battery by Swaran Partap, and Davis’s
battery of differential abilities by E.M. Kapoor are available for Indian population. Moreover,
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) and the American College Testing Program batteries are
important tools for the measurement of a person’s potential for performing in academic
situations. These tests predict academic achievement on the basis of past learning rather than
the native ability of a person. High school counsellors use these tests for admission, placement
and counselling college students.

Counsellors use aptitude tests to get an idea of the strengths of the clients as well as what they
might be good at given the right training. However, a clear picture of outstanding skills and
limitations can be obtained by using aptitude tests in combination of other tests in the areas like
intelligence, interest and personality.