Power Plant Engineering

Power Plant Engineering

Manoj Kumar Gupta

Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Ujj aM Engineering College
Ujjain

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PHI Learning r)71t7EN
New Delhi-110001
2012
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Manoj Kumar Gupta

© 2012 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part
of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4612-3

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, M-97, ConnaughtCircus,

New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Raj Press, New Delhi-110012.
In memory of my parents
Shri Mangi Lal Modi
Smt. Janaki Devi
 Contents

Preface xiii

1. ENERGY FUNDAMENTALS 1-12

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Conventional Energy Resources 3
1.2.1 Fossil Fuels 3
1.2.2 Nuclear Fuels 4
1.2.3 Hydropower Resources 5
1.3 Power Plant 5
1.4 Environmental Aspects of Power Generation 6
1.5 Methods of Air Pollution Control 8
1.6 Energy Conservation 10
Review Questions 11

2. THERMAL POWER PLANT 13-81

2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Review of Power Cycles 13
2.2.1 Rankine Cycle 13
2.2.2 Brayton or Joule Cycle 18
2.2.3 Thermodynamics of Coupled Cycles in Series 21
2.2.4 Binary Vapour Power Cycle 22
2.2.5 Combined Cycle Power Plant 22
2.3 Working of Steam Power Plant/Generation of Electricity
from Coal in a Modern Steam Power Plant 26
2.3.1 Steam Generation from Coal (Fuel) 26
2.3.2 Conversion of Enthalpy of Steam into
Mechanical Energy 27
2.3.3 Conversion of Mechanical Energy into Electrical
Energy 29
2.4 Power Station Design 29
2.5 Site Selection of Coal Fired Power Plant 30
vii
viii Contents

2.6 Boiler 32
2.6.1 Economiser 34
2.6.2 Superheater, Reheater, Desuperheater 35
2.7 Steam Turbine 36
2.7.1 Classification of Turbines 38
2.8 Water Treatment 39
2.8.1 External Treatment 39
2.8.2 Internal Treatment 42
2.9 Condensing Plant and Circulating Water System 43
2.9.1 Steam Condenser 44
2.9.2 Circulating Water System 47
2.10 Fuel Handling 51
2.10.1 Coal Handling 51
2.10.2 Fuel Oil Handling 54
2.10.3 Fuel Gas Handling 54
2.11 Fuel Firing 55
2.11.1 Methods of Coal Firing 55
2.12 Ash Handling 73
2.13 Dust Collection 75
2.13.1 Mechanical Dust Collectors 75
2.13.2 Fabric Filters and Bag Houses 77
2.13.3 Electrostatic Precipitators 78
Review Questions 79

3. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 82-115

3.1 Introduction 82
3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant 83
3.2.1 Advantages 83
3.2.2 Disadvantages 83
3.3 Site Selection of Nuclear Power Plant 84
3.4 Nuclear Physics 84
3.4.1 Energy Mass Relationship 85
3.4.2 Radioactive Decay 86
3.4.3 Mass Defect and Binding Energy 87
3.4.4 Nuclear Reaction, Nuclear Fission and Nuclear
Fission Chain Reaction 89
3.5 Classification of Nuclear Reactors 92
3.5.1 On the Basis of Neutron Energy 92
3.5.2 On the Basis of Fertile Material 93
3.5.3 On the Basis of Core Composition 94
3.5.4 On the Basis of Type of Fuel 95
3.5.5 On the Basis of Coolant 95
3.5.6 On the Basis of Moderator 95
3.5.7 On the Basis of Method of Cooling 95
3.5.8 On the Basis of State of Fuel 95
 Contents ix

3.6 Main Parts of a Heterogeneous Nuclear Reactor 95

3.6.1 Core 96
3.6.2 Moderator 97
3.6.3 Control Rods 98
3.6.4 Reflector 99
3.6.5 Coolant 99
3.6.6 Radiation Shielding 101
3.6.7 Reactor Vessel 101
3.7 Basic Reactor Systems 101
3.7.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) 102
3.7.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) 103
3.7.3 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) or
CANDU Reactor 104
3.7.4 Gas Cooled Reactor 105
3.7.5 Sodium Cooled Reactor 106
3.7.6 Light Water Graphite Moderated Reactor 107
3.7.7 Homogeneous Reactor 107
3.8 Fuel Cycle 107
3.8.1 Fuel Preparation 108
3.8.2 Fuel Fabrication, Reprocessing, Spent Fuel Storage
and Transportation and Nuclear Waste 109
3.9 Importance of Nuclear Power Development in
Indian Context 110
3.9.1 Thermal Power 110
3.9.2 Hydropower 111
3.9.3 Importance of Nuclear Power 111
3.10 Review of the Nuclear Power Programme 112
Review Questions 114
4. HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT 116-179
4.1 Introduction 116
4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric
Power Plant 118
4.2.1 Advantages 118
4.2.2 Disadvantages 119
4.3 Site Selection of Hydroelectric Power Plant 119
4.4 Hydrology 121
4.4.1 Runoff and Measurement of Runoff 121
4.4.2 Hydrograph and Flow Duration Curve 123
4.4.3 Storage Capacity and Mass Curve 126
4.4.4 Storage and Pondage 129
4.5 Essential Features of a Hydroelectric Power Plant 130
4.5.1 Catchment Area 130
4.5.2 Reservoir 131
4.5.3 Dam and Intake House 131
4.5.4 Inlet Waterway 138
4.5.5 Powerhouse 143
4.5.6 Tail Race or Outlet Waterway 143
x Contents

4.6 Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants 143

4.6.1 According to the Water Flow Regulation 144
4.6.2 According to the Availability of Head 146
4.6.3 According to the Power Plant Capacity 147
4.6.4 According to the Nature of Load 147
4.7 Hydraulic Turbines 148
4.7.1 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines 148
4.8 Selection of Turbines 154
Solved Examples 158
Review Questions 176
Numerical Problems 177

5. DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT 180-206

5.1 Introduction 180
5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 180
5.2.1 Advantages 180
5.2.2 Disadvantages 181
5.3 Applications of Diesel Engine Power Plant 181
5.4 Review of Internal Combustion Engines 182
5.4.1 Classification of IC Engines 182
5.4.2 Four Stroke SI Engine 182
5.4.3 Two Stroke SI Engine 183
5.4.4 Compression Ignition or Diesel Engine 184
5.4.5 Combustion in CI Engine 185
5.4.6 CI Engine Combustion Chambers 186
5.5 Components of a Diesel Engine Power Plant 188
5.5.1 Diesel Engine 189
5.5.2 Air Intake System 189
5.5.3 Exhaust System 189
5.5.4 Fuel System 190
5.5.5 Cooling System 193
5.5.6 Lubricating System 196
5.5.7 Engine Starting System 200
5.6 Layout of Diesel Engine Power Plant 201
5.7 Diesel Engine Power Plant Operation 201
5.8 Intake Pressurization—Supercharging and Turbocharging 202
5.8.1 Supercharging 203
5.8.2 Turbocharging 204
5.9 Emissions Control 205
Review Questions 205

6. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT 207-230

6.1 Gas Turbine Power Plant 207
6.2 Comparison between Open and Closed Cycle Gas
Turbine Power Plants 208
6.2.1 Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant 208
 Contents xi

6.2.2 Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant 208

6.2.3 Advantages of Closed Cycle over Open Cycle Gas
Turbine Power Plants 209
6.2.4 Disadvantages of Closed Cycle over Open Cycle Gas
Turbine Power Plants 209
6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant 210
6.3.1 Advantages 210
6.3.2 Disadvantages 210
6.4 Comparison between Gas Turbine and SI and CI Engines 211
6.4.1 Advantages of Gas Turbine over SI and CI Engines 211
6.4.2 Disadvantages of Gas Turbine over SI and CI Engines 211
6.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of Gas Turbine Power Plant 211
6.5.1 Brayton Cycle 212
6.5.2 Effect of Pressure Ratio on Performance of
Brayton Cycle 213
6.5.3 Refinements/Modifications in Simple Brayton Cycle 217
6.6 Components of Gas Turbine Power Plant 220
6.6.1 Compressor 221
6.6.2 Combustion Chamber 223
6.6.3 Gas Turbine 225
6.6.4 Heat Exchangers 226
6.7 Combined Cycle Power Plants 226
6.7.1 Gas Turbine-Steam Turbine Combined Power Plant 226
Review Questions 230

7. POWER STATION ECONOMICS 231-276

7.1 Introduction 231
7.2 Cost Analysis 231
7.2.1 Fixed Cost 232
7.2.2 Operating Cost 235
7.3 Terms and Definitions Related to Electrical Load 236
7.4 Estimation and Prediction of Load 241
7.5 Plant Design, Operation and Economics 242
7.5.1 Combined Working of Power Plants
(Interconnected System) 243
7.5.2 Load Sharing between Base Load and Peak Load
Power Plants 244
7.5.3 Economic Scheduling Principle or Load Division 246
7.6 Tariffs or Energy Rates 248
7.6.1 Types of Tariffs 248
Solved Examples 250
Review Questions 272
Analytical Problems 273
 Contents

8. NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION 277-327

8.1 Introduction 277
8.2 Solar Energy 278
8.2.1 Solar Thermal Conversion 279
8.2.2 Solar Thermal Power Generation 283
8.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Systems 290
8.3.1 Open Cycle 291
8.3.2 Closed Cycle 292
8.4 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Conversion 292
8.4.1 Single Crystal Silicon Solar Cell 294
8.5 Wind Energy 296
8.5.1 Windmill 298
8.6 Geothermal Energy 300
8.6.1 Hydrothermal Systems 302
8.6.2 Geopressurized Systems 304
8.6.3 Hot Dry Rock (HDR) Systems 305
8.6.4 Magmatic Systems 305
8.7 Tidal Energy 306
8.7.1 Operation of Tidal Power Plant 308
8.8 Energy from Biomass 310
8.8.1 Direct Combustion 311
8.8.2 Thermochemical Conversion 311
8.8.3 Biological Conversion 313
8.9 MHD Power Generation 315
8.9.1 Open Cycle MHD Power System 317
8.9.2 Closed Cycle MHD Power System 319
8.10 Fuel Cell 319
8.10.1 Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell 320
8.11 Thermoelectric Power Generation 322
8.12 Thermionic Power Generation 324
8.13 Wave Energy 326
8.13.1 Wave Energy Conversion Devices 328
Review Questions 334

BIBLIOGRAPHY 337

INDEX 339-341
 Preface

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of a country.
Our energy requirements are being met today from a variety of conventional
sources such as fossil fuels, radioactive substances, and from numerous sources
of renewable energy. Hydropower is a conventional as well as a renewable
energy source. The conventional energy sources such as coal, oil and nuclear
fuels are continuously getting depleted with time. The renewable energy sources
are not only inexhaustible, but can also be harnessed without the release of
harmful pollutants.
This book on "Power Plant Engineering" is devoted to the study of generation
of power by various types of conventional and renewable energy sources. It is
written in accordance with the syllabi prescribed for the B.E./B.Tech. students
of both mechanical and electrical engineering. A power plant is an assembly
of several subsystems designed to generate electricity economically and in an
environment-friendly manner acceptable to society. In order to fulfil the needs of
the curriculum for a one-semester course, the book addresses the five main types
of conventional power generation plants currently in use in almost all countries
to meet their energy requirements. The power plants dealt with in Chapters 2
to 6 are thermal or steam power plants, nuclear power plants, hydroelectric
power plants, diesel or internal combustion engine power plants, and gas turbine
plants. In addition, several sources of renewable energy such as solar, wind,
geothermal, tidal, biomass, fuel cells, thermoelectric and thermionic systems,
magneto hydrodynamic, etc. have been explained in Chapter 8. The pollution
of the environment is becoming one of the most serious threats to mankind as
a result of energy production and its associated use. Some methods of pollution
control have been briefly discussed in Chapter 1. The other important issue is
how to operate the power plants in an economical manner. The various facets
of economic operation of power plants, including estimation and prediction of
load, are discussed in Chapter 7.
I am highly indebted to my Ph.D. supervisor Dr. S.C. Kaushik (Professor,
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi), who motivated
and moulded me to write this book.
xiii
xiv Preface

I am grateful to my wife Chitra for her support and encouragement while

writing this book. I also feel indebted to all those who helped me in this work
directly and indirectly.
It is hoped that the purpose of this book to make students familiar with the
operation of various power plants has been fulfilled. The readers are encouraged
to send suggestions for improvement of the book.

Manoj Kumar Gupta

[email protected]
 CHAPTER 1

Energy Fundamentals

1.1 Introduction
Energy is the basic need and the backbone of human activities in all sectors
(industry, agriculture, transportation, etc.) of life. It is one of the major inputs
for the economic development of a country. There is a strong link between
energy consumption and GDP. Every country meets its energy requirement
from a variety of energy sources which can be classified as follows:
(i) Primary and secondary energy sources
(ii) Conventional and non-conventional energy sources
(iii) Commercial and non-commercial energy sources
(iv) Renewable and non-renewable energy sources
Let us discuss them one by one:
(i) The primary energy sources are those that are found in nature, e.g.
fossil fuels, biomass, radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in
the earth's interior. The energy required to obtain the primary energy
sources is much less than the energy they produce. The primary energy
sources undergo various forms of transformation or converted into
the secondary energy sources (steam, electricity) before being utilized
finally.
(ii) The conventional energy sources are those which are traditionally
being used for many decades. Energy resources other than fossil
fuels, nuclear and hydro resources are termed non-conventional energy
sources.
(iii) The commercial energy sources (thermal power from fossil fuels,
hydropower, and nuclear power) are available in the market for a
definite price, while the non-commercial energy sources (crop residue,
dung cake, animal power, solar, winds etc.) are not available in the
commercial market for a price. The commercial energy sources are
predominant sources not only for industrial, agricultural, transport
1
2 Power Plant Engineering
and commercial development, but also for many household tasks of
general population. In an industrially less developed country such
as India the utilization of commercial and non-commercial energy
sources is about equal, though non-commercial energy sources are
often ignored in energy accounting.
(iv) The renewable energy sources are inexhaustible and renewed by nature
again and again, e.g. solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
and hydropower. Hydropower is a primary as well as conventional
and renewable energy source. The renewable energy sources can
be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants or with less
environmental pollution. The non-renewable energy sources such as
coal, oil and nuclear fuels are likely to deplete with time.
Man's large scale use of commercial energy has led to a better quality
of life. The energy consumption is increasing day by day due to increased
population and growth in industrial and transportation sectors. The USA is the
largest consumer of the primary energy (about 26% of world's consumption)
which has about 5% of the world's population, while the India which has
17% of the world's population consumes only 3.3% of the world's primary
energy consumption. The major sectors using the primary energy sources
include electrical power, transportation, heating, industrial and others, such as
cooking. The total primary energy demand in the world increased from 5536
MTOE (Mega Tonnes of Oil Equivalent) in 1971 to 10,345 MTOE in 2002
representing an average annual increase of 2%. The global energy consumption
in the last half-century has increased very rapidly and is expected to continue
to grow over the next 50 years. Of the total primary energy demand in 2002,
the fossil fuels accounted for about 80% with oil, coal and natural gas being
35.5%, 23%, and 21.2%, respectively. Biomass accounted for 11% of all the
primary energy in the world, almost all of it being traditional biomass in the
developing countries which is used very inefficiently.
Although primary energy use in all sectors has increased, their relative
shares except for transportation and electricity have decreased. The living
standard and prosperity of a nation directly depends on the power/electricity
consumption. Electricity is the only form of energy which is easy to use, easy
to transport and easy to control. Cheap and abundant supply of electricity is
the major factor in the development of a country. Presently, the coal is the
largest source of electricity generation in the world. The hydroelectric power
which is a renewable energy source accounted for 15% share of electricity
generation in the world. All other renewable sources generate a negligible
amount of electricity in the world.
India's annual demand for electricity has increased from 1713 MW in 1950
to 1,56,783.98 MW as of 01.02.2010. Demand is increasing at a very rapid
rate compared to the supply. According to the World Bank report, roughly
40 per cent of residences in India are without electricity. The Government of
 Energy Fundamentals 3

India has set an ambitious target to add approximately 78,000 MW of installed

generation capacity by 2012. The total demand for electricity in India is
expected to cross 950,000 MW by 2030. India's 35 per cent electricity demands
can be met from renewable energy by 2030 and 50 per cent of the projected
energy requirements can be met simply from smart and efficient generation,
distribution and use of energy.
The whole world is in the grip of energy crisis and the increased pollution
associated with energy use. The ways to meet these challenges are:
(i) To check the growing energy demand but that would slowdown the
economic growth.
(ii) To develop non-polluting energy conversion system.
For sustainable development we should also utilize our renewable
(non-decaying) resources. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas were the
fuel of choice during the last half of the twentieth century. The future energy
demand will be met by a global energy mix that includes a range of fuel types.
There is a resurgence of interest in nuclear power; however, it is doubtful
that it alone will be able to fill the gap between energy demand and supply.
The renewable sources technologies of wind power and solar energy have
vastly improved in the last two decades and are becoming more cost effective.
As these technologies mature and become even more cost competitive in the
future, they may be in a position to replace major fractions of fossil fuels for
meeting energy requirements and electricity generation. The renewable energy
technologies of solar, wind, and biomass will not only be essential but also
hopefully be able to provide the additional resources to fill the gap and provide
a clean and sustainable energy future.

1.2 Conventional Energy Resources

1.2.1 Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) are the fossils of old biological life. Fossil fuels
are formed by decomposition and chemical actions of buried organic matter
under favourable conditions of heat and pressure in several million years. Fossil
fuels have been a major source of energy since long.
(i) Coal: The largest share of the global coal reserve (about 25%) is in the
USA followed by Russia and China. India ranks 4th in the list with about 9%
of global coal reserve. As per an estimate, global coal reserve will last for
200 years with present consumption rate.
Coal contributes about 55% of the total primary energy production in
India. Coal is the major energy source for power/electricity (approximately
70%) production in India and it is expected to remain the dominant fuel
for power generation. India has huge coal reserves and may last for about
4 Power Plant Engineering
300 years. Coal reserves are concentrated in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Indian
coal is typically of poor quality (high ash content) and requires beneficiation
to improve the quality. Coal imports will also need to increase dramatically
to satisfy growing power requirements of India.
(ii) Oil: Saudi Arabia has the largest share of the global oil reserve with
almost 23% followed by Russia and the USA. As per an estimate, the global
oil reserve will last for 40 years with present consumption rate. India is an oil
deficient country and has only 0.6% of the global oil reserve. The majority of
India's oil reserves are located in the Bombay High, upper Assam, Cambay, and
Krishna-Godavari. Oil reserves in India will exhaust in about 25 years if no
further oil reserves are discovered. The country's annual crude oil production
is peaked at about 32 million tonnes as against the current peak demand of
about 110 million tonnes. India's self sufficiency in oil has consistently declined
from 60% in the 1950s to 30% currently. India imports 70% of its crude needs
mainly from gulf nations. India will have to import up to 92% by 2020 with
present consumption rate. Oil contributes about 35% of the total primary energy
production in India. In terms of sectorwise consumption, transport accounts
for 42% followed by domestic and industry with 24% and 24% respectively.
(iii) Gas: The Russian Federation has the largest share of the global gas
reserve with almost 27%. As per an estimate, the global gas reserve will last
for 70 years with present consumption rate. Natural gas reserves in India are
estimated at 660 billion cubic metres. Gas reserves in India will exhaust in
about 30 years if no further gas reserves are discovered. Natural gas accounts
for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in India. Over the years, there
has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in primary energy
production. The current demand for natural gas is about 150 million cubic
metres per day while the availability is less. India's natural gas production is
likely to be increased by involving private operators.

1.2.2 Nuclear Fuels

Uranium reserves in the world are small and are expected to last for 60 years
with the present consumption rate. The major available reserves of uranium are
in Australia, Canada and to a lesser extent in the USA. India has the modest
reserves of uranium at Jadugoda, Jharkhand.
Thorium reserves are large and utilization of thorium in breeder reactor
may fulfil the growing energy need. The breeder reactor technology is not
yet commercially developed due to slow breeding rate. India has about 25%
of world's thorium reserves in the sand beaches of Kerala. Nuclear power
contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity generated in India.
 Energy Fundamentals 5
1.2.3 Hydropower Resources

Hydropower is a renewable and well developed conventional source of

energy for electricity generation at low cost. The global installed capacity of
Hydroelectric power plant is about 7,78,038 MW, which is about 20% of the
world's electricity generation capacity and about 3% of the world's primary
energy production. Only about one-third of world's hydropower potential has
been utilized so far because of huge capital investment and environmental and
social concerns. China is the leader in terms of world's hydropower generation.
India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation.
Hydro potential in India is about 100,000 MW and India ranks 7th in the world
in terms of world's hydropower potential. Only 15% of hydropower potential
in India has been harnessed so far. About 25% power generation in India is
through hydro resources. But, the share of hydropower in the country's total
generated units has steadily decreased.
The rivers in India can be divided into four regions. Brahmaputra river
system or region covers West Bengal and the north-east states of India.
The important rivers of this region are: Brahmaputra, Barak and their tributaries
such as Tista and Mahananda. Ganga river system or region covers Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and
West Bengal. The important rivers of this region are: Ganga and its tributaries
such as Yamuna, Sone, Gomati and Mahananda. The north-west river region
covers Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan.
The important rivers of this region are: Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum—
the tributaries of river Indus. Central India and Deccan river region covers
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Orissa, Maharashtra, Gujarat
and Madhya Pradesh. The important rivers of this region are: Narmada, Tapi,
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. The Indus, Brahmaputra and Ganga
together account for 80% of the total hydropower potential of India.

1.3 Power Plant

A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate and deliver
mechanical or electrical energy. The power plant must be efficient, economic
and environmental friendly to the society. The main pieces of equipment for the
generation of electric power in a power plant are prime mover and generator.
A prime mover runs the generator and the electricity is generated. The type
of prime mover determines the type of power plants. The power plant may
be classified as:

1. Conventional
(i) Thermal power plant based on steam turbine or gas turbine
(ii) Hydroelectric power plant
(iii) Nuclear power plant
6 Power Plant Engineering
Thermal power plant includes Rankine cycle based power plant using
steam turbine as a prime mover, Brayton cycle based power plant using gas
turbine as a prime mover and combined cycle power plant. The diesel engine
power plant also belongs to the category of thermal power plant and it is used
for smaller power generation capacity. Hydroelectric power plant utilizes the
potential energy of water to develop mechanical energy in water turbines.
Nuclear power plant is essentially a Rankine cycle based steam turbine driven
power plant utilizing the heat energy liberated due to fission chain reaction
instead of combustion of fossil fuel.

2. Non-conventional
(i) Solar thermal power plant
(ii) Solar photovoltaic cell
(iii) Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
(iv) Wind energy power plant
(v) Tidal energy power plant
(vi) Wave energy power plant
(vii) Geothermal energy power plant
(viii) Magneto hydrodynamic (MHD) power plant
(ix) Fuel cells
(x) Biomass based thermal power plant
(xi) Thermoelectric power plant
(xii) Thermoionic power plant
Solar thermal energy, geothermal energy, heat energy due to combustion
of biomass is utilized to produce power based on the Rankine cycle. Tidal
energy power plant is essentially a hydroelectric power plant. Solar cell,
fuel cell, thermoelectric power plant, thermoionic power plant and MHD
power plant belong to the category of direct energy conversion system. Solar
cell or photovoltaic cell directly converts the solar radiation in electricity.
The fuel cell converts the chemical energy of fuel directly into electrical energy.
Thermoelectric power plant is based on Seeback's effect. MHD power plant
principle is the same as that of electric generator except that solid conductor
is replaced by a fluid conductor which flows across a strong magnetic field.
The conventional power plants will be dealt separately in subsequent
chapters. The detail discussion on non-conventional sources of energy is
covered in Chapter 8.

1.4 Environmental Aspects of Power Generation

Nature has originally provided the environment (air, soil and water) to its
inhabitants in clean form. However, the man-made activities and energy
production processes produce by-products which are harmful to the environment.
 Energy Fundamentals 7

Though, nature has self-cleaning capability and replenishes its resources through
various cyclic processes (CO2 cycle, hydrological cycle, etc.) in order to
maintain the equilibrium, but due to excessive utilization of natural resources
ecological balance is getting disturbed. The major power production as well
as major energy production is by combustion of fossil fuels. The products of
combustion of such fuels are CO2, CO, H2O, SOx and NOx, etc, and particulates.
The effects of these products are as follows:

1. CO2
CO2 is not considered as a toxic gas, if it is not inhaled in a great amount.
Photosynthesis keeps the level of CO2 in balance. The level of CO2 in
atmosphere is increasing at a rapid rate due to over combustion of fuels and
deforestation on a large scale. CO2 in the atmosphere acts like the glass cover
in a greenhouse or a solar thermal collector, and leads to greenhouse effect.
Thus, CO2 (also other greenhouse gases such as CO, CH4 and CFCs to a lesser
extent) traps the sun's heat (short wavelength radiation) and prevents the low
temperature radiation (long wavelength radiation) from the earth to the outer
space. This causes the heating of the earth's atmosphere or global warming.
As per a forecast the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere will be
doubled by 2050, leading to an average global temperature rise of 1.5°C to
4.5°C. Currently the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is 380 parts per
million (ppm), which is almost 70 ppm more compared to the pre-industrial
period. Experts have established the danger zone at 450 ppm. The global
warming caused the ocean level to rise by melting of ice caps at North and
South poles. It has been projected that as a consequence of global warming
the fertile coastal plains will be severely flooded. Simultaneous increase in
sea water temperature will also lead to release of more CO2 from sea water,
severity of hurricanes, heavy rainfall and change in rainfall pattern.

2. SO„
SO2 and SO3 (termed SOO are formed due to combustion of fuels containing
sulphur. SOx in atmosphere causes respiratory diseases such as asthma and
irritation of eyes. During rainfall or precipitation, SOx is converted into
sulphuric acid (H2504) by mixing with water. Acid rain is harmful to stone,
soil, agriculture, forest, and aquatic organism. Acidic rain water due to its
corrosive action deteriorates the materials which come in contact with it.
Deterioration of Taj Mahal is an example. Acidified water if used for drinking
causes diseases in urinary system.

3. CO
CO is formed due to incomplete combustion of carbon in fuels. It suffocates
the people who inhale it. Higher concentration (> 500 ppm) of it seriously
damages the oxygen dependent tissues (brain, heart and skeletal muscles) in
the body.
8 Power Plant Engineering
4. NO„
Nitrogen and oxygen combine at higher temperature to form NO, NO2, N20
and N203, which are commonly referred to as NOR, oxides of nitrogen. It forms
acid (nitric acid) in lungs which leads to low oxygen absorbing capacity of
lungs and respiratory and cardiovascular illness.

5. Unburned Hydrocarbons
When Unburned Hydrocarbons (UHCs) combine with NO, in the presence of
sunlight, ozone and photochemical oxidants are formed that can adversely affect
human health. Certain UHCs are also considered to be carcinogenic. The UHCs
are formed due to incomplete combustion of the fuel air mixture. In IC engines
UHCs are formed due to engine misfiring, fuel mixture trapped in crevices of the
top piston ring, fresh mixture exiting the exhaust port in two-stroke SI engines
and fuel injected near the end of the combustion process in CI engines.

6. Other pollutants
Other pollutants in the air (smoke, smog, dust, etc.) clog the tiny pores in
the plant leaves, reduce photosynthetic activity and restrict the plant growth.
Particulates (those can be trapped on a filter) are a troublesome constituent
in the exhaust from IC engines. These pollutants are harmful to respiratory
system of human beings. These pollutants also reduce sunlight and visibility.
Global environmental degradation is one of the most serious threats to
mankind as a result of energy production and its associated use. Any energy
production process leads to degradation of environment to a lesser or greater
extent. Nuclear power generation may be extremely hazardous to life if any
kind of failure takes place in nuclear reactor. The large-scale storage type
hydropower plants have environmental impacts such as deforestation, degradation
of catchment area and reservoir-induced seismicity. Renewable energy sources
either do not pollute the environment or pollute to such less extent that nature
itself can clean it.

1.5 Methods of Air Pollution Control

In order to reduce environmental pollution, pollutant emissions can be reduced
through improved combustion and environmental control by fundamental changes
in the way fuel is combusted. The coal can be used by adopting clean coal
technologies. Clean coal technologies can be categorized as follows:
(i) Pre-combustion technology: Sulphur and other impurities are removed
from the coal (mostly at mines) before it is burned.
(ii) Combustion technology: Techniques to prevent pollutant emissions
are used in the boiler while the coal burns.
(iii) Post-combustion technology: Pollutants are removed from the flue
gas leaving the boiler.
 Energy Fundamentals 9
(iv) Conversion: Coal is changed into a gas or liquid that can be cleaned
and used as a fuel.
The combustion technology and post-combustion technology are also
applicable for any fuel. Environmental pollution by various products of
combustion of any fuel can be controlled by adopting the following measures.

1. CO2
Scientists suggest that an area of the size of the France should be planted
afresh every year to maintain the level of CO2 at current level.

2. SO2
SO2 is directly a function of the sulphur content in the coal. SO2 emission
can be controlled by removal of sulphur from coal, sulphur reduction during
combustion and by treatment of flue gases. Sulphur in the coal is present in
both organic and inorganic forms. Sulphur in inorganic form exists in the coal
mostly as iron disulphide or in the form of pyrites. Coal washing removes
primarily pyritic sulphur and increases the heating value of the coal, but it
also results in loss of combustible material. The removal of organic sulphur
is more difficult and can only be possible using chemical processing methods.
The removal of sulphur during the combustion is done by adding limestone
or dolomite (CaCO3) in the furnace. The limestone converts liberated SO2 into
CaSO4 which is removed along with the ash. This method is attracting much
attention and is used in fluidized bed combustion.
The SO2 from the flue gas can be removed by acid gas scrubbing devices
using chemical treatment. However, this type of flue gas cleaning equipment
is subject to problems such as corrosion, erosion, generation of acidic waste
water, and high operating cost. Another method of gas treatment is based on
the injection of slurry of limestone, adsorption, and absorption, followed by
chemical conversion.

3. CO
High carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are caused by incomplete
combustion. Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are best controlled by
maintaining proper combustion temperature, proper (more) residence time, and
by providing sufficient air to assure oxidation of the CO. However, attempts to
limit these emissions by improving combustion conditions and raising furnace
operating temperatures seem to have resulted in increasing the level of NO„
emissions. Catalysts in the exhaust stream are also utilized to convert CO to
CO2 with the help of remaining 02 supplied for combustion. It is to be noted
that internal combustion engines emit more CO and hydrocarbon.

4. UHC
The unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC) emissions are also caused by incomplete
10 Power Plant Engineering

combustion. The control of hydrocarbon emissions can be done by using

incineration, adsorption, absorption and condensation.

5. NO„
High NO emissions are generally caused by high combustion temperatures
and more residence time. By limiting the temperature in the furnace NO),
formation is reduced.
NO„ can be removed during or after coal/fuel combustion. The least
expensive option is combustion control, first through reduced excess air, and
second through using low NO burners and staged combustion. In the staged
combustion method re-burning of flue gases is carried out by recirculation.
In the staged combustion method the first stage of combustion is carried out
with less air. Though, more CO and UHCs are formed but NO„ formation is
less because of the lack of 02. Some heat is transferred from these flue gases
rich in CO and UHCs, and then the remaining air is added to burn off the CO
and UHCs. Because of the reduced combustion temperature NO), formation
is limited.
The post-combustion technology converts NO„ to nitrogen and water vapour
through reactions with amines such as ammonia and urea. At lower temperatures,
a catalyst is required to promote the reaction. For greater effectiveness, in a
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) ammonia is injected into the boiler exhaust
gases in the presence of a catalyst. The low NO„ burners can reduce NO up to
50% and SCR up to 80%, but the low NO), burner option is more cost effective.

6. Particulate material
Particulate material causes both aesthetic and public health problem. The pieces
of dust collection equipment (refer to Chapter 2) are used to control the
particulate material. Earlier the electrostatic precipitators were most commonly
used as a gas cleaning device for particulate emission control but nowadays
fabric filters/ bag houses have replaced electrostatic precipitators. Fabric filters
can operate at high efficiency, even in the submicron particle size range. Fabric
filters are more effective than electrostatic precipitators for acid gas scrubbing
when preceded by a spray dryer.

1.6 Energy Conservation

Fossil fuels, which have taken million years to form, are likely to deplete
soon with the present rate of consumption. It is necessary to adopt energy
conservation and energy efficiency measures for energy security, economic
development and to prevent environmental degradation. In India Bureau of
Energy Efficiency (BEE) institutionalizes energy efficiency services, enables
delivery mechanisms in the country and provides leadership to energy efficiency
in all sectors of economy. To create awareness about energy conservation,
the 14th of December is observed as the World Energy Day.
 Energy Fundamentals 11

Energy conservation and energy efficiency are separate, but related concepts.
Energy conservation means reduction in energy consumption without making
any sacrifice to the quantity and quality of production. Energy conservation
can, therefore, be the result of several processes or developments, such as
productivity increase or technological progress. Energy efficiency is achieved
when energy input in a specific product, process or area of production or
consumption is reduced without affecting the output. Energy conservation means
using the available energy as efficiently as possible. Thus, the promotion of
energy efficiency improvement policy/ activity contributes to energy conservation
and is therefore an integral part of energy conservation promotional policies.
Energy efficiency is the most cost effective and reliable means of mitigating
the global climatic change. For example, by replacing the traditional light bulb
with compact fluorescent lamp (CFL) for the same luminous intensity energy
consumption is reduced to only 1/4th and pollution levels also reduced by the
same amount.
Energy conservation can be done on supply side as well as on demand
side. On supply side, the energy conservation can be achieved by promoting
utilization of renewable energy sources, efficiency improvement of power
generating units, and reducing transmission and distribution losses. Energy
conservation on demand side can be achieved by self discipline, efficient energy
saving appliances and utilization of untapped energy resources. There are many
opportunities for energy conservation in all sectors of life and to mention, only
a few of them are: recycling of waste, waste heat utilization, modernization
of technology, judicial use of proper type of energy (e.g. promotion of solar
water heater instead of electric geyser), cogeneration, proper operation and
maintenance, turning off light when not in use, use of CFL and LED, adopting
passive air conditioning methods, promoting public transport system, adopting
daylight saving time. In short, energy conservation measures can be adopted
in every sector (domestic, agriculture, transport, power generation, industrial
etc) of life.
Our ancestors in India had tendency to save for future generation,
but nowadays our tendency is to consume. If we really want to save our planet,
then we must adopt the lifestyle of our ancestors either by self or by force.
Especially on health front we are being forced to go for walking (diabetic
patient), and to do physical and breathing (pranayam) exercises.

Review Questions

1. Classify the types of the energy sources available on the earth.

2. Briefly discuss the primary sources of energy.
3. What is the renewable energy? List the three renewable energy sources.
4. Discuss the following terms: (i) conventional energy source, (ii) non-
conventional energy source, and (iii) renewable energy source.
12 Power Plant Engineering
5. What is the present position of power in India?
6. What are the resources for power development in India?
7. Name the five states in India, where coal production is concentrated.
8. Discuss the potential of non-conventional energy sources in India.
9. Write a brief note on environment pollution due to energy uses.
10. Discuss the harmful effect of emissions from thermal power plant.
11. What is the greenhouse gas effect?
12. What are the steps to be taken for reducing air pollution?
13. What is the aim of energy security of any country?
14. Discuss some of the long-term energy strategies for the better energy
secured nation.
15. How Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) facilitates energy efficiency
programs in India?
16. Discuss the statement 'the environment, energy and economic
development are closely related in a complex manner'.
17. Search the following websites:
(i) www.beeindia.in (ii) www.mnre.gov.in (iii) www.teriin.org
(iv) www.worldbank.org (v) www.ntpc.co.in (vi) www.npcil.nic.in
 CHAPTER 2

Thermal Power Plant

2.1 Introduction
Thermal power plant converts heat energy into electrical energy. The nuclear
power plant is also a thermal power plant, where heat energy liberated due
to nuclear reaction is utilized to generate electricity. The conversion of heat
energy of fuel into mechanical energy is carried out by employing various
thermodynamic power cycles and mainly among them are Otto cycle, Diesel
cycle, Rankine cycle and Brayton cycle. The I.C. engines are based on Otto
cycle (S.I. engine) and Diesel cycle (C.I. engine), and are used mainly in the
transportation sector. The Diesel engine is also used as a smaller capacity
captive power plant for electricity production. The major electricity production
(almost 70%) in the world is by steam turbine driven thermal power plant,
gas turbine driven thermal power plant and combined cycle thermal power plant.
The conventional coal fired steam power plant is the predominant power producer,
especially in the developing countries that have indigenous coal or can import
coal inexpensively. Because the Rankine cycle is the overwhelmingly preferred
for steam power generation, it is discussed first. Topping and bottoming cycles,
with one exception, are rare and mentioned only for completeness. The exception
is the combined cycle, in which the steam turbine cycle is a bottoming cycle.
The power plant concepts featuring a combination of gas and steam turbines
have been successfully commercialized since the early 1970s. These combined
cycle power plants make very efficient use of fuel compared with other power
plants. Developed countries have been switching to the combined cycle because
of relatively low capital costs when compared with coal fired steam power
plants; its high thermal efficiency which approaches 60%, and low emissions.

2.2 Review of Power Cycles

2.2.1 Rankine Cycle
The working fluid in Rankine cycle may be water, mercury, low boiling substance
13
14 Power Plant Engineering

or any other. Rankine cycle is the thermodynamic cycle for steam power generation
and thermodynamics govern the ultimate performance of the cycle whether used
in a coal-fired steam plant or the bottoming cycle of a combined cycle plant. The
core components of a steam power plant are boiler, turbine, condenser and feed-
water pump, and generator. The basic, ideal Rankine cycle is shown in Figure 2.1.
The ideal cycle comprises the following four processes from state 3:
(i) 3-4: Saturated water from the condenser at state 3 is pumped
isentropically (S3 = S4) to state 4 and into the boiler. The pump work
required is Wp.
(ii) 4-1: Water at state 4 is heated at constant pressure in the boiler to
state 1 (either superheated or saturated steam) and heat input is Qi.
(iii) 1-2: Steam expands isentropically (Si = S2) through the turbine to
state 2 and turbine develops work WT, thereafter it enters the condenser
as a wet vapour.
(iv) 2-3: Constant pressure heat removal takes place in the condenser to
return the steam to state 1 (saturated water) and heat rejection is Q2.

Figure 2.1 Flow and T—S diagrams of basic Rankine cycle.

If changes in kinetic and potential energies are neglected, the total heat
added to the Rankine cycle can be represented by the shaded area on the T—S
diagram in Figure 2.1; the work done by this cycle can be represented by the
cross-hatching within the shaded area. The thermal efficiency of the cycle ri is
defined as the ratio of net work output (Wnet) to the heat input to the cycle (Q1)
Wnet W p ( hi h2) (h4 h3) (h1 — h2 ) — v3 (P4 — P3)
= (2.1)
Q1 Q1 ( h, _h4) (h1 — h4 )
where h is enthalpy, v is specific volume, p is pressure, s is entropy and
subscripts denote the salient points.
The actual Rankine cycle is far from the ideal because of the internal
and external irreversibilities. The internal irreversibilities associated with the
cycle include piping losses due to friction and heat transfer, turbine losses
associated with steam flow, pump losses due to friction, and condenser losses
 Thermal Power Plant 15
when condensate is sub-cooled. The losses in the compression (pump) and
expansion (turbine) processes result in an increase in entropy. The external
irreversibility of Rankine cycle is caused due to the finite temperature differences
between the combustion gases and the working fluid on the source side and
the finite temperature differences between the condensing working fluid and
coolant circulating through condenser on the sink side. Thus available energy
(exergy) is lost in heat addition (boiler) and rejection (condenser) processes as
they occur over a finite temperature differences. The cost of heat exchangers
(boiler and condenser) is increased due to excessive surface area requirement
if this finite temperature difference is made small.
The efficiency of Rankine cycle can also be expressed as

_1 2 1 T2 (Si - S4 ) 1 T2
(2.2)
a -
7 (si S 4 )
Thus for higher efficiency the mean temperature of heat addition T,ni should be
as high as feasible and the temperature of heat rejection T2 should be as low
as possible. The temperature of heat rejection is fixed by ambient conditions
and the lowest practicable temperature of heat rejection is the temperature of
surrounding or cooling water dependent on climatic condition of the location.
It is obvious that thermal efficiency of a condensing steam power plant will
be less in a warm region/summer than in cold region/winter. The saturation
pressure corresponding to the ambient temperature is the minimum pressure to
which steam can be expanded in the turbine. The vacuum has to be maintained
in the condenser of steam power plant to keep the temperature of heat rejection
low. A lower cooling water temperature gives lower condenser pressure or
higher vacuum. The absolute pressure in condenser in steam power plant is
about 70 mm of Hg.
Most modern power plants employ some variation of the basic Rankine
cycle in order to improve thermal efficiency. The efficiency of the Rankine
cycle can be increased by utilizing a number of variations to the basic cycle.
One such variation is superheating the steam in the boiler. An increase in
superheat at constant pressure increases the mean temperature of heat addition
and hence, efficiency. It also improves the quality of steam at turbine exit as
well as performance of turbine by preventing blade erosion. The efficiency
increases linearly with an increase in steam generation temperature. However,
the maximum temperature of steam that can be used is fixed because of the
metallurgical limits. The ultimate strength of unalloyed steel drops by 30%
as the steam temperature is raised from 400°C to 500°C. Further the creep
phenomenon at elevated temperature also restricts the use of high temperatures.
Steam temperature up to 620°C have been used in some steam power plants
by using expensive high temperature austenitic steel. The cost increases
exponentially with an increase in steam generation temperature after 540°C.
The recent practice in steam power plants generally limits the steam temperature
up to 540°C and in a few cases up to 565°C.
16 Power Plant Engineering
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can also be increased by increasing
the pressure in the boiler. For a given maximum temperature of steam fixed
by the metallurgical limit, as the operating steam pressure at which heat is
added in the boiler increases, the mean temperature of heat addition increases.
The efficiency increases monotonically with an increase in steam generation
pressure but for steam generation pressure above 100 bar, the rate of
improvement in efficiency decreases. The steam generation pressure is limited
by considerations of mechanical stresses and ensuing higher cost of equipment.
The mechanical stresses increase in much higher proportion than the pressure
because of prevailing high temperature. Though the steam generation pressure
higher than critical (221.2 bar) is also possible in a once through boiler,
but by using such super critical cycle, the higher efficiency is obtained at the
expense of increased cost and complexity of plant. The recent practice in steam
power plants generally limits the steam generation pressure up to 120 bar and
in a few cases up to 165 bar.
However, increasing the steam generator pressure at a constant temperature
will result in the excess moisture content of the steam exiting the turbine. If the
moisture content of steam in the later stages of the turbine is high, the water
particle due to centrifugal action strikes the blades and causes blade erosion. Due
to blade erosion the blade surface becomes rough, internal efficiency of turbines
reduces and the life of blade decreases. Thus, at the turbine exhaust the dryness
fraction of steam is not allowed to fall below 0.88. To take advantage of higher
steam generator pressures and keep turbine exhaust moistures at acceptably
low values, the steam is expanded to some intermediate pressure in the turbine
and then reheated in the boiler. Following reheat, the steam is expanded to the
cycle exhaust pressure. The reheater tubes add to the cost of the plant and as the
maximum steam generation pressure is also fixed due to mechanical stresses, only
one reheat is used in steam power plant. Double reheat needs to be incorporated
in super critical cycle and more than two reheats have not yet been used. The use
of more than two reheats results in cycle complication and increases capital cost.
The thermal efficiency of a single reheat cycle depends on the reheat
pressure. If the reheating of steam is carried out at a pressure nearer to the
condenser pressure, there will be decrease in thermal efficiency and exhaust
steam will be in superheated state which is not good for the condenser. Further
the lower reheat pressure causes the temperature difference between the flue
gases and working fluid to increase, and brings down the efficiency. If the
reheating is carried out at a pressure nearer to the initial pressure, there will
be little improvement in thermal efficiency because a very small amount of
heat is added in reheating. The optimum reheat pressure for modern steam
power plant is 0.2 to 0.25 of the initial steam pressure.
Another modification of the Rankine cycle is the regenerative cycle,
which involves the use of regenerative heating or feed water heaters. By using
regenerative heating the feed water enters the boiler at higher temperature,
therefore, the amount of heat added at low temperature reduces or mean
 Thermal Power Plant 17

temperature of heat addition increases. The cycle efficiency improves with the
use of regenerative feed water heating as the mean temperature of heat addition
increases. In the ideal regenerative cycle the condensate before entering the
boiler is reversibly heated up to saturation temperature with the help of steam
expanding in the turbine by circulating the condensate around the turbine
casing. The efficiency of ideal regenerative cycle is equal to that of the Carnot
cycle. However, the ideal regenerative cycle is not practicable because the heat
exchanger in the turbine is mechanically impracticable and reversible heat
transfer cannot be realized in finite time. The practical regenerative cycle uses
number of feed water heaters in which the condensate leaving the condenser
is heated with the help of steam extracted from the stages of the turbine.
The regenerative feed water heating for the same turbine output requires more
steam flow rate (bigger boiler) and reduces the steam flow to the condenser or
needs smaller condenser. Though there is irreversibility in feed water heaters,
the regenerative cycle reduces the irreversibility in boiler, overall irreversibility.
The reversible heating similar to the ideal regenerative cycle could be carried
out by using infinite number of feed water heaters. However this would add
to the cost, make plant complex and unreliable. Further the gain in thermal
efficiency follows the law of diminishing returns with the increase in the
number of feed water heaters. The greatest gain in efficiency is brought by the
first heater and the increment in efficiency for each additional heater thereafter
successively diminishes. The number of feed water heaters or extraction points
used in practice is from five to seven.
The feed water heaters may be open or closed. In open or direct contact/
mixing type, the extracted/bleed steam is directly mixed with feed water.
While closed or transfer/non-mixing type is a shell and tube heat exchanger
in which the feed water passes through the tubes and bleed steam condenses
surrounding the tube in the shell. Open feed water heaters are simple, low in
cost and gives better heat transfer. However, open feed water heater requires
pump at each heater to handle the large quantity feed water stream. In steam
power plant, closed feed water heaters are favoured but at least one open feed
water heater is must for the purpose of deaeration or removal of dissolved
gases from feed water. Such open feed water heater is termed "deaerator".
The closed feed water heaters require only a single pump for the main feed
water stream, regardless of the number of heaters. The condensed bleed steam
termed heater drip is passed to the next low pressure heater through a trap
which passes only water and no vapour. The heater drip from the lowest
pressure heater could similarly be sent to the condenser, but this would
cause wastage of heat energy of heater drip to condenser cooling water and
requires bigger condenser. To avoid this, a small drip pump feeds the heater
drip from the lowest pressure heater directly into main feed water stream. The
size of drip pump is small as it has to handle small quantity of water. In a
typical 200 MW steam power plant, seven feed water heaters are used and
these, in order, are low pressure feed water heaters 1, 2 and 3, deaerator,
18 Power Plant Engineering

intermediate pressure feed water heaters 1 and 2 and a high pressure feed
water heater.
For larger power plants, the economies of scale will dictate the use of
one or all of these variations to improve thermal efficiency. In most cases,
the power plants in excess of 200 MW will have 150°C superheated steam
leaving the boiler, one reheat up to maximum temperature and seven to eight
stages of feed water heating. Figure 2.2 shows the flow sheet of a typical steam
power plant of 220 MW capacity incorporating the variations to basic Rankine
cycle as discussed above. Figure 2.2 also shows P (bar), T (°C), m (kg/s) of
steam/water at various salient points.
150, 537 180 40, 537, 160 7, 310, 140

HPT IPT LPT

0.103, 46, 121

RH 4-
B

''..---A-I'0, 351, 20
2.4, 185,8 I
0.22, 62, 6
CEP
207,246,180 14, 425, 10 7 310, 10 0.9, 106, 5
HPFWH 11PFWH LPFWH3 ,LLPFWH2 LPFWH1
BFP DC GSC
—N1-1—N1-1-10>F -4-EaN1-4—N1— NI — IN -IN -
Tra13— - t- -E_T-LT-L_t-a_
6.5, 160, 180 8, 120, 140
HPT = High pressure turbine, IPT = Intermediate pressure turbine,
LPT = Lower pressure turbine, B = Boiler, C = Condenser, D = Deaerator,
DC = Drain cooler, GSC = Gland steam cooler RH = Reheater,
CEP = Condensate extraction pump, BFP = Boilder feed pump
Figure 2.2 A typical 220 MW thermal power plant.

2.2.2 Brayton or Joule Cycle

Gas turbines are steady flow power machines in which a gas (usually air)
is compressed, heated, and expanded for the purpose of generating power.
Gas turbines are used in electrical power generation, propulsion, and compressor
and pump drives. A gas turbine plant requires less installation time and cost,
is quick in starting and stopping, and has fast response to load changes.
Thus, a gas turbine plant is also used as a peak load power plant. The most
efficient power generation systems in commercial service are gas turbine
combined cycle plants with power to fuel energy efficiencies of more than
54% based on higher heating value basis.
The basic thermodynamic cycle on which the gas turbine is based is known
as the Brayton or Joule cycle. The Brayton cycle (such as Rankine cycle) consists
of two isentropic and two reversible isobaric processes. In a simple Brayton
 Thermal Power Plant 19
cycle as shown in Figure 2.3, the air is first compressed isentropically in a
compressor and the compressed air is heated at constant pressure by burning
fuel directly in this air in combustion chamber or in a heat exchanger. The
heated high pressure air is expanded isentropically in a gas turbine and air
leaving the turbine is either exhausted in the atmosphere in case heat is added
to the combustion chamber or cooled in a heat exchanger to supply again to
the compressor. Thus, the gas turbine plant may be either open or closed.
Heat exchanger/
Combustion chamber

Heat exchanger/
Fresh air from Air cooler Exhaust to
surrounding surrounding
Figure 2.3 Flow and T—S diagrams of Brayton cycle.

In idealizing the actual cycle, combustion is replaced by constant pressure

heat addition, and the cycle is completed by the assumption that the exhaust
to ambient pressure could be followed by a zero pressure loss cooling to inlet
conditions. The efficiency of a simple Brayton cycle can be calculated as

11 =
_ 1 n c p a (TA —71 )
=1
1
(2.3)
a a C
pa
( T3 - T2 ) R(Y -1)/Y
where Wc is compressor work, C pa is specific heat of air at constant pressure
and Rp is the pressure ratio equal to p2/pi. It is evident that as the pressure ratio
increases, the efficiency of the cycle also increases.
A T—S diagram of the simple cycle T A
gas turbine with an upper temperature
limit, set by metallurgical conditions is
illustrated in Figure 2.4 for cycles of
low, medium, and high pressure ratios.
It is seen that the low pressure ratio
cycle requires a large heat addition,
which leads to a low efficiency, and
the high pressure ratio cycle has T,,,„
turbine power output barely greater ►S
than the compressor power requirement, Figure 2.4 Effect of pressure ratio on
thereby leading to low net output. At Brayton cycle.
20 Power Plant Engineering
intermediate pressure ratios, the turbine power output is substantially higher
than the compressor power requirement, and the heat addition is modest in
comparison with the difference between the turbine and compressor powers.
There is an optimum pressure ratio for maximum efficiency (Carnot value),
which is given by
y/(7-1)
Tma,
(R p )m,„ = (2.4)
Tmin /

where Tmax is the maximum practical temperature at inlet to turbine fixed

by the material or metallurgical consideration and Tmin is the atmospheric
temperature. There is another optimum pressure ratio for maximum net work
output (turbine minus compressor work), which is given by

Tmax y/2(y-1)
(R p ) opt = (2.5)
Tmin
The optimum pressure ratios (for both maximum efficiency and maximum net
work output) increase as the achievable turbine inlet temperature increases.
Due to economic considerations for the lowest equipment cost, industrial gas
turbines are typically designed to operate near the point of maximum net
work output.
The gas turbines are designed with two criteria into consideration: achieving
the lowest cost for peak load based on the simple cycle configuration and
achieving the highest efficiency in combined cycle configuration for base
load use. The optimum pressure ratios for these two system configurations
are very close and are nearly equal to optimum pressure ratio for maximum
net work output.
The thermal efficiency of the simple open cycle is less as lot of heat
energy goes waste in the exhaust gases and increase in efficiency cannot be
expected through the increased temperature of the gases at inlet to turbine.
The refinements in the simple open cycle in the form of intercooling,
regeneration, reheating can be incorporated to improve thermal efficiency.
But the plant will become complex in contrast to the simple open cycle plant.
Figure 2.5 shows a gas turbine plant incorporating these refinements.
The compressors use intercoolers to reduce compressor power when the
compressor has a high pressure ratio. Recuperators and regenerators recover
heat from the turbine exhaust and use it to preheat the air from the compressor
before it enters the combustion chamber. Turbine reheat increases power but
decreases efficiency, unless the turbine exhaust heat is used for additional power
generation, as is the case with a combined cycle, or is used with a recuperator
to preheat the compressed air.
 Thermal Power Plant 21
Regenerator
Q2
4 4-
Reheater
Exhaust to
surrounding Intercooler

Combustion ci
chamber
Ti T,

Fresh air from

surrounding
Figure 2.5 Gas turbine plant with intercooler, regenerator and reheater.

2.2.3 Thermodynamics of Coupled Cycles in Series

Figure 2.6 shows two reversible heat engine cycles coupled in series, where
heat rejected/lost by topping cycle is utilized/absorbed in the bottoming cycle.

Sink
(T3)

Figure 2.6 Thermodynamic cycles coupled in series.

Let ht and 112 be the efficiencies of topping and bottoming cycles, and 1. / be
the overall efficiency of combined (coupled in series) cycle. The rib 1/2 and
ri are given by:
rh =1 —Qz Q and ri = 1 — Q3
— , 1-12 =1 — A — (2.6)
Q2 a
The 1
. / can be expressed in terms of //I and r/2 as follows:

71 = 1 —Q3
—=1 Q2 (1 112 ) = 1 Q1 0 rh ) (1 — ri2 ) = 1 — 0 _ rh ) 0 _ 7. )
72
Q1 Q1 Q1
(2.7)
22 Power Plant Engineering

Similarly, for n cycles coupled in series, the overall efficiency would be given by

ri =1— (1 — .V (1— 112 ) ... (1 — )=1— —) (2.8)

The efficiency of two cycles coupled in series (Eq. 2.7) can also be written as
11 = 1/1 + 112 — 1/11/2 (2.9)
If 111 = 0.4 and 112 = 0.3, then ri = 0.58. Thus, it is possible to obtain high
combined efficiency by cycles coupled in series, even the individual efficiencies
are low, which cannot be attained by a single cycle.
There is a great scope for the fuel to electricity conversion efficiency
improvement by using cycles coupled in series. The temperature of combustion
gases attained in a pulverized gas furnace is about 1300°C, while the heat available
at this temperature is utilized to generate steam at 600°C for use in a Rankine
cycle. Therefore, there is large exergy loss due to the difference in temperature of
source (combustion gases) and end utilization. By using combined cycles coupled
in series a higher fuel to electricity conversion efficiency can be obtained, since the
combined cycles coupled in series operates through a higher temperature range.
This concept of cycles coupled in series is used either in binary vapour
power cycle or combined cycle power plant.

2.2.4 Binary Vapour Power Cycle

No single fluid has desirable characteristic for ideal working fluid for Rankine
cycle. Rankine cycles can be combined with topping and/or bottoming
cycles to form binary thermodynamic cycles. For conventional steam cycles,
the state of the art materials allow peak working fluid temperatures higher than
the supercritical temperature for water. Much of the energy delivered into the
cycle goes into superheating the steam, which is not a constant temperature
process. Therefore, a significant portion of the heat supply to the steam cycle
occurs substantially below the peak cycle temperature. Adding a cycle that
uses a working fluid with a boiling point higher than water allows more of the
heat supply to the thermodynamic cycle to be near the peak cycle temperature,
thus improving efficiency. Heat rejected from the topping cycle is utilized
into the lower temperature steam cycle. The mercury has been used as the
topping cycle fluid in a plant that operated for a period of time but has since
been dismantled. Significant research and testing has also been performed
over the years toward the eventual goal of using other substances, such as
potassium, sodium, or cesium, as a topping cycle fluid, but none has proven
to be commercially successful.

2.2.5 Combined Cycle Power Plant

The combined cycle power plants may be based on non-conventional

(non-commercial) plant as a topping unit, e.g. MHD-steam plant, thermionic-
 Thermal Power Plant 23
steam plant, thermoelectric-steam plant. However, the gas turbine-steam turbine
combined power plant is mostly used nowadays in new power plants and is
discussed below.
The gas turbines operate at temperatures (1000 to 1200°C) above the limit
of turbine materials by using blades and vanes with complex internal cooling
passages through which up to 20% of compressor discharge air is directed.
Because heat can be removed from the blades, the turbine can be operated
with a combustion gas temperature higher than the metallurgical limit of the
blade material.
For optimum pressure ratio (10-14) and higher inlet temperature (1200°C)
to the gas turbine, the exhaust from a gas turbine is quite hot (500°C to 600°C)
and can be used to generate steam. The gas turbine exhaust flows into a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) where steam is generated, which can then
be used to generate additional power with a steam turbine. Such a compound
gas turbine-steam turbine system is referred to as a combined cycle. The recent
trend is to set up the new plant based on gas turbine-steam turbine system
or repowering (conversion of older power plant) the existing steam turbine
system into gas turbine-steam turbine system. Steam bottoming cycles used
in gas-steam turbines combined cycles usually use steam at multiple pressure
levels (generally two) to increase efficiency by reducing the irreversibility
during heat transfer from gas turbine exhaust to steam generation in HRSG.
Figure 2.7 shows a typical gas turbine-steam turbine combined cycle.
The high pressure steam (at about 80 bar, 520°C) generated in HRSG is supplied
to high pressure turbine and the low pressure steam (at about 7 bar, 200°C)
generated in HRSG is supplied to low pressure turbine along with the steam
exiting from the high pressure turbine. The high air to fuel ratio (50:1 to 100:1)
is used in gas turbine to limit the maximum gas temperature to about 1300 K
at inlet to gas turbine. Thus, the gas turbine exhaust contains oxygen in which
additional fuel may be burned to raise the temperature of gas turbine exhaust.
By using such supplementary firing, steam can be generated at higher pressure
and temperature (84 bar, 520°C) in HRSG for improvement in efficiency of
Low pressure drum

High pressure drum

Fresh air from

surrounding
Supplementary firing
Figure 2.7 A typical gas turbine-steam turbine combined cycle.
24 Power Plant Engineering

Rankine cycle and increase in steam turbine output. In a typical gas turbine-
steam turbine combined plant, about 2/3 of total power is produced by the gas
turbine and 1/3 is produced by the steam turbine.
Another system working on combined cycle concept is the steam injected
gas turbine, in which the power and efficiency of a gas turbine is increased
through the use of steam. Here the steam is generated in heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) at a pressure higher than the compressor discharge pressure.
This steam is introduced into the gas turbine at the combustion chamber.
Additional fuel is required by the combustion chamber because the steam must
be heated from the HRSG delivery temperature to the combustion chamber
discharge temperature. The steam air mixture then passes into the turbine,
where the augmented mass flow increases the power produced by the turbine.
The steam injection in combustion chamber reduces NO), formation by lowering
the flame temperature and this method has also been used in some plants.
However, as per the study reports available, there is no specific economic
advantage of this method.
It is evident from the previous discussion that gas turbine-steam turbine
system is favoured nowadays. Besides the higher efficiency, this combined plant
also has low investment costs, operating flexibility, and low environmental
impact. Usually the gas turbine plant requires costly fuel such as natural gas,
kerosene, naphtha, etc. However, in the developing countries such as China
and India, due to very large reserves of coal, the coal is the primary choice
for power generation. The dominant technologies for the successful utilization
of coal in combined cycle power generation are fluidized bed combustion and
gasification and will be discussed latter in the fuel firing section (Section 2.11).
The power plants based on these technologies are discussed below.

Pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) power plant

In pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) coal in a fluid bed is burned
with limestone in a pressurized steel chamber in which combustion air is
supplied at elevated pressure from the compressor. Figure 2.8 shows a schematic

Cyclone and ceramic filters

ST
PFBC unit

11, Condenser
Dust Gas Coal and
limestone Gas to chimney

Ash FBC boiler

GT C Economiser
Air
Figure 2.8 A typical PFBC combine cycle.
 Thermal Power Plant 25
of PFBC power plant. The pressurized flue gases leaving the pressurized steel
chamber are first cleaned and then expanded through a gas turbine. The exhaust
gases from the gas turbine are passed through economizer to heat the boiler
feed water. The cooling tubes immersed in the fluidized bed generate steam
for a steam turbine cycle.
The clean-up of the flue gas is a key technical objective and the first
generation units have used cyclones together with gas turbines with special
blade coatings. For more advanced, higher efficiency PFBC systems, hot gas
clean-up technology (where the gas is directed through large ceramic filter
units) will likely be needed.
Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant
The integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant (Figure 2.9)
replaces the traditional coal combustor with a gasifier and gas turbine.
Steam generation by syngas cooling
Coal and
Desulphurizi Condenser
limestone syngas
Syngas
cooling ST
Gas to chimney
Gasifier —0,

Oxygen
Steam i\
Cyclone and
ilceramic filters
Slag Air
To sulphur recovery
from rich solution
Figure 2.9 A typical IGCC plant.

The heat energy of hot syngas leaving the gasifier is first utilized for generating
high pressure steam for a steam turbine. It is necessary to cool the syngas first
in order to facilitate cleaning. The syngas is then cleaned of particulates by
cyclones and filters. The sulphur compounds in the syngas are removed and the
cleaned syngas is finally combusted in the combustion chamber of gas turbine
plant to produce electricity. The hot exhaust exiting from the gas turbine is
used to generate the steam in HRSG for power generation by steam turbine.
A gasification cycle can take advantage of all the technology advances
made in gas turbines and steam turbines, so as to increase the overall cycle
efficiency. Due to the higher efficiency advantages of combined cycles, CO2
emissions are also low. Gasification based plants have the lowest emissions
of pollutants among any central station fossil technology. Fuel flexibility is
an additional benefit because the gasifier can accommodate a wide range of
coals. Further, IGCC plants permit a protection against long term increases in
natural gas prices because natural gas fired combustion turbines can be installed
initially, and gasifiers at a later time, when a switch to coal becomes must.
26 Power Plant Engineering

2.3 Working of Steam Power Plant/Generation of Electricity

from Coal in a Modern Steam Power Plant
The general layout or flow sheet of a steam power plant is shown in
Figure 2.10. It consists of the following four main circuits:
1. Coal and ash circuit
2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit
4. Cooling water circuit

Coal Atmospheric air Bus bar

1 Flue
Coal —.1 Hot Air
storage 4, air preheater gases cd —0-X Cooling
Coal "Mr ..... C.) .8 A tower
handling Superheated steam
system Flue gases
rV V Turbine
Boiler- Condenser
Economiser
Ash house + 4'
storage Ash
1- Ash
handling
Ash disposal/ system HP BFP 1 LP CEP
auction FWHs Deaerator FWHs River

Figure 2.10 Flow sheet of a coal fired thermal (steam) power plant.

The coal is supplied to furnace by coal handling system and ash formed
is removed by ash handling system, the fresh air is supplied to furnace for
combustion of coal and resulting combustion products (flue gases) after passing
over the various heat transfer surfaces (boiler tubes, superheater, economizer,
air preheater) is exhausted in the atmosphere through the chimney. The steam is
generated by treated feed water supplied to boiler and this steam after expansion
in the turbine is condensed in the condenser with the help of cooling water.
The cooling water circuit may be open if water is taken from and discharged
to a river or closed if cooling water is reused after cooling in cooling towers.
In a steam power plant the electricity generation from the coal is carried
out in the following sequence:
1. Steam generation from coal (fuel)
2. Conversion of enthalpy of steam into mechanical energy
3. Conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy

2.3.1 Steam Generation from Coal (Fuel)

The unloaded coal from the coal wagons is transported up to the raw coal
bunkers with the help of belt conveyors. The coal feeders transport the coal
 Thermal Power Plant 27

from coal bunkers to bowl mills, where it is pulverized or ground to a powder

form. This crushed coal is taken to the furnace through coal pipes with the help
of hot and cold air mixture from primary air fan. The primary air fan takes
atmospheric air, a part of which is sent to air preheaters for heating while a
part goes directly to the bowl mill for temperature control. Atmospheric air
from forced draught fan is heated in the air preheaters and sent to the furnace
as combustion air. Flue gases from the furnace is extracted by induced draft
fan which maintains balance draught in the furnace (5 to 10 mm of water
column) with forced draft fan. These flue gases emit their heat energy to
various superheaters and finally passes through air preheaters and goes to
electrostatic precipitators where the ash particles are extracted and collected
in a hopper for disposal. This ash is mixed with water to form slurry and is
pumped to ash pond.
Water from the boiler feed pump is supplied to the boiler drum after
passing through economiser. Only water tube boilers are used for all central
power plants. Water from the drum passes through down commers and goes
to bottom ring header, from where water is divided in water wall tubes to all
the four sides of the furnace. The water rises up in the water wall tubes (due
to heat and the density difference) and water is partly converted to steam as
it rises up in the furnace. This steam and water mixture is again taken to
the boiler drum where the steam is separated from water. Water follows the
same path while the steam is sent to superheaters, located inside the furnace,
for superheating. The superheated steam (540°C) finally goes to steam turbine.

2.3.2 Conversion of Enthalpy of Steam into Mechanical Energy

Superheated steam from the boiler is supplied to turbine through a stop valve
(which can be used to shut off steam in an emergency) and through control
valves that automatically regulate the supply of steam to the turbine. The
capacity of large turbines varies from 50 MW to 300 MW. In case of turbines
of more than 100 MW capacity generally three cylinders are used, one high
pressure, one intermediate pressure and one low pressure cylinder. For more
than 200 MW capacity there may be 4 cylinders: one high pressure, one
intermediate pressure and two low pressure cylinder. Superheated steam from
the control valves enters the high pressure cylinder (casing) of the turbine,
where it passes through a ring of stationary blades (fixed to the cylinder wall)
which act as nozzles and direct the steam into a second ring of moving blades
mounted on a disc secured to the turbine shaft. This second ring turns the
shafts as a result of the tangential force exerted by the steam due to change
in momentum. The stationary and moving blades together constitute a stage
of the turbine and in practice many stages are necessary. Thus, the cylinder
contains a number of rings of stationary blades with rings of moving blades
arranged between them. The steam passes through each stage in turn until
it reaches the end of the high pressure cylinder and in its passage some of
28 Power Plant Engineering
its enthalpy is changed into mechanical energy. The steam leaving the high
pressure cylinder is supplied to the intermediate pressure cylinder after reheating
in boiler up to the same maximum temperature. In intermediate pressure
cylinder reheated steam passes through another series of stationary and moving
blades. The low pressure cylinder (turbine) may be single flow or double flow.
The steam leaving the intermediate pressure cylinder is taken to the double flow
low pressure cylinders where steam enters at the centre and flowing outwards
in opposite directions through the rows of turbine blades to the extremities of
the cylinder. Because of the expansion of steam (increase in specific volume)
towards the low pressure ends of the turbine the blades are much larger and
longer and double flow low pressure cylinders are necessary to limit the
centrifugal stresses. The turbine shaft usually rotates at 3,000 revolutions per
minute determined by the frequency (50 cycles per second) of the electrical
system used in our country and is the speed at which a two pole generator
must be driven. The numbers of stages in a typical 120 MW steam turbine
are 11 in high pressure cylinder or H.P.T., 13 in intermediate pressure cylinder
or I.P.T. and 6 + 6 = 12 in a double flow low pressure cylinder or L.P.T.,
while the numbers of stages in a typical 210 MW steam turbine are 20-25
in H.P.T., 20 + 20 = 40 in a double flow I.P.T. and 8 + 8 = 16 in a double
flow L.P.T.
The steam leaving the low pressure cylinders is exhausted directly to
the condenser. The condenser (shell and tube type) consists of a large vessel
containing some 20,000 tubes, each about 25 mm in diameter. Cooling water
from the river, estuary, sea or cooling tower is circulated through these tubes
and as the exhaust steam passes round them, it is rapidly condensed into water
termed condensate. Because water (condensate) has a much lesser volume
than steam, a vacuum is created in the condenser, which allows the steam to
expand in turbines to pressure below that of the normal atmosphere and more
energy can be utilized. The condensate from the condenser is pumped by
the extraction pump and passed through low pressure closed feed water
heaters and deaerator. The pressure of water leaving the deaerator is raised
to boiler pressure by the boiler feed pump and water is passed through
further feed water heaters to the economiser and the boiler for reconversion
into steam.
A power plant generating 2,000 MW of electricity requires about 227,500
cubic metres of cooling water per hour. Where the cooling water for power
plants is taken from large rivers, estuaries or the coast, it is returned directly
to the source after use. Power plants situated on smaller rivers and inland do
not have such vast water resources available, so the cooling water is passed
through cooling towers (where its heat is removed by evaporation) and reused.
About one hundredth part of the cooling water evaporates in cooling towers
and a certain amount is returned to its source to carry away any impurities
that is collected.
 Thermal Power Plant 29

2.3.3 Conversion of Mechanical Energy into Electrical Energy

The electricity is usually produced at about 25 kV in the stator windings of

large modern generators and is fed through terminal connections to one side
of a generator transformer that step up the voltage to 132, 220 or 400 kV.
From here conductors carry it to a series of three switches comprising an
isolator, a circuit-breaker and another isolator. The circuit-breaker is used to
switch off the current flowing to the transmission lines. The isolators isolate
the circuit-breaker from all outside electrical sources, so that there is no chance
of any high voltages being applied to its terminals. From the circuit-breaker,
the current is taken to the busbars and then to another circuit-breaker with its
associated isolators, before being fed to the grid. Each generator in a power
plant has its own transformer, circuit-breaker and associated isolators but the
electricity generated is fed into a common set of busbars.

2.4 Power Station Design

The essential requirements of a power plant design are: reliability, minimum
generation cost, less capital investment, and minimum losses in transmission of
energy. These depend to a large extent on the: simplicity of design, subdivisions
of plant and apparatus, labour saving equipment, extensibility for future capacity
expansion and organization.
The basic requirement of the conventional power plant is decided on the
type, size and other essential specifications of the plant to be constructed.
It is necessary to know the capacity of the plant that will be required for
the immediate development as well as for the period to follow thereafter.
The capacity of the plant for the immediate development (5 to 7 years ahead)
gives the instruction for planning the initial development and the capacity
anticipated during the period of next 10 to 20 years helps to select the site
area sufficiently large for the ultimate development and services, water supply
access and transmission connection to be developed in the most economic
manner for the future requirement.
Power plant design requires wide experience. A satisfactory design of
power plant consists of the following measures:
(i) Selection of site
(ii) Selection of boilers, and their auxiliaries
(iii) Selection of turbines and their auxiliaries
(iv) Selection of condensers
(v) Design of fuel and ash handling system
(vi) Design of cooling system
(vii) Design of piping system to carry steam and water
(viii) Selection of electrical generator
(ix) Design and control of instruments
(x) Design of layout of power station
30 Power Plant Engineering
2.5 Site Selection of Coal Fired Power Plant
The basic principles of site selection or sitting of coal fired thermal power
plant are based on plant requirements and other allied facilities required.
In general, there are three choices for plant location: at the load centre, near
the coal mine, the site to which the coal can be economically delivered by sea
route. The following factors are considered for locating a coal fired power plant.
1. Availability of coal: A 500 MW plant requires about 5000-6000 tonnes
of coal per day. The delivered cost of coal at the generating stations is the
major factor in calculating the total cost of generation per annum and thus,
plant should be located nearer to coal mines. Though, the cost of transmission
system has to be given consideration in locating the pit head plants.
The main areas where coal mines are located in our country are eastern
region, viz. Bihar, Bengal, central region, Singrauli Coalfields, Tamil Nadu,
Neyveli and feeble sources of coal are also located in the rest of the country.
The economic and efficient utilization of high ash content coals (20-40%)
for thermal power generation, calls for special consideration. Firstly, it is
uneconomical to transport this coal over long distances because any transportation
means paying freight and handling charges on the useless ash. The location of
thermal power station burning high ash coals is therefore of great importance
since about 50 to 60% of the cost of generation of electric power is due to
the delivered cost of coal at the generating stations.
2. Load centre and transmission: Plant should be nearer to load centre and
a route must be available for the transmission lines from the site to the nearest
grid system or major load point on the area board system. For transmission,
the use of costly underground cabling instead of overhead lines due to increasing
opposition from the public can have a major effect on the selection of sites
when considered from economic aspect.
3. Availability of land: Generally a 1000 MW fossil fuel fired power plant
will be requiring a 90 to 200 acre site. The sufficient land area for the plant
site should be available at a cheaper rate. The required land area depends
on several factors such as the fuel used and its mode of delivery to the site.
The area is to be provided for the fuel storage, cooling towers, switchyards,
storeyards, workshops, etc.
4. Nature of land: Modern power plants with their heavy structures impose
a heavy load on the sub-soil and hence are to be supported with suitable
foundations. The geology of the site should be reasonable as this affects
the cost of the foundations. The minimum bearing capacity of soil should be
10 N/mm2.
5. Availability of water: The water should be available in sufficient quantity
as well as of good quality. In thermal power plant the treated water is required
for steam generation and the second requirement is for cooling purposes.
 Thermal Power Plant 31
The requirement of water for steam generation in Rankine cycle is of
the order of 3 to 4 tonnes/h/MW and make up quantity is 2 to 3% of the
same. Thus, about 10 tonnes/h of water for steam generation is required in a
100 MW plant. This requirement can be met from a small canal, city supply
system or even through tube wells. The main problem is of quality of water
for steam generation. If the water is very hard, the demineralising cost will be
very high and it will also require a large water treatment plant.
The amount of cooling water required for condensing the steam is nearly
50 kg per kg of steam to be condensed in condenser. A 100 MW thermal power
plant requires approximately 20,000 m3/h cooling water in once through system
(open system) of circulating water. This includes small portion of requirement
for cooling of generator and other machines. Open system is possible only if
perennial rivers, canals, or huge lakes are available. Where the availability
of water is not perennial, the closed circuit cooling system involving cooling
towers is utilized and in such a system only 3% (which consists of 1% as
losses on account of evaporation and 2% for purging the salts or carry away
any impurities) of make up water is required. It may be noted that water from
whatever source may be used, has to be paid for either in the form of direct
charges or pumping charges. The choice of system of cooling to be employed
depends not only upon the availability of water but also on the cost consideration
which are to be compared before final decision.
6. Disposal of effluents: The major effluents in case of thermal power plants
are ash and the flue gases. Coal contains 20-40% ash and the requirement of
large area of waste lands for effluent disposal plays a decisive factor in location.
A typical 100 MW unit will produce about 400 to 450 tonnes of fly ash per
day on full load. The method of disposal of ash has been by converting it into
slurry and pumping the same by means of ash disposal pumps or hydrovaces
to waste lands. Nowadays ash is utilized in cement industries, road making
and filling the depressions.
The disposal of chemically treated water generated in the water treatment
plant is also an effluent which requires attention for disposal. The disposal of
the gases and ash concerns mainly the atmosphere and environment and that
of water is concerned with the effect on marine life of the rivers and canals.
7. Transport facility: In case of thermal power plants the problem of transport
is to be considered mainly from the perspective of fuel, viz. coal economics and
for initial erection of the plant. During feasibility study stage, the possibility
of rail and road connections capable of taking heavy and over-dimensioned
loads of the machines should be considered.
8. Climatic conditions: The tropical climate existing in most parts of our
country needs special attention to the ventilation and cooling arrangements.
Vacuum is reduced or pressure is increased in the condenser due to hot cooling
water. The humid conditions with fluctuating temperature lead to condensation
of moisture in air which results in corrosion of insulation and reduced life.
32 Power Plant Engineering

9. Proximity of airfields: The air safety regulation must be taken into account
before locating the power house. The chimney height (500-600 ft) and boiler
house structure height (200 ft) present obstacles in air navigation particularly
during landing and take off.
10. Fisheries and marine life: The discharge of large volume of hot water
in open cooling system from condenser to the downstream side of river will
affect fish and on such rivers where fisheries are located the plant site may
have to be shifted.
11. Availability of labour: The labour may be skilled or unskilled and the
unskilled labour should be available within a reasonable distance of the site
and at a reasonable rate.
12. Amenities: Some of the considerations kept in mind while locating a
power plant are also the availability of medical, educational and such other
related facilities.

2.6 Boiler
Boiler or steam generator is a device for generating steam for power, processing
or heating purposes. Boilers may be classified on the basis of any of the
following characteristics: use (stationary or mobile), pressure, materials, size,
tube content(fire tube and water tube), tube shape and position, firing, heat
source (waste heat or fuel), fuel, fluid, circulations (natural or forced circulation),
furnace position, furnace type, general shape, trade name and special features.
The various components in a utility boiler (Figure 2.11) for power generation
include: economiser, boiler drum, downcomers, water walls, primary superheater,
final superheater, reheater, burners, and igniters.
Fuel is burned in a confined space under or adjacent to the boiler termed
boiler furnace. The furnace must provide: proper installation, operation and
maintenance of fuel burning equipment; sufficient volume for combustion
requirements and adequate refractory and insulation. Accessibility to the boiler
is from inside the furnace chamber for the maintenance and repair work.
Furnaces are of many types and may be classified in many ways. According
to wall construction the furnace may be classified as solid refractory setting,
air cooled refractory setting, water cooled walls.
Almost all modern power boilers are equipped with water cooled walls
or water walls. The water walls completely cover the interior surfaces of
the furnace providing practically complete elimination of exposed refractory
surface. Water walls usually consist of vertical tubes and are connected at the
top and the bottom to ring headers. These tubes receive water from the boiler
drum by means of downcomers connected between drum and water walls
lower ring header. In a boiler approximately 50 per cent of the heat released
by the combustion of fuel in the furnace is absorbed by the water walls.
 Thermal Power Plant 33
-4-
To IPT
From HPT
► To HPT

8 8 7

regulating station

1.Economiser 6. Planet superheater

2. Boiler drum 7. Final superheater
3. Downcomers 8. Reheater
4. Water walls 9. Burners
5. Primary superheater 10. Ignitors
Figure 2.11 Arrangement of boiler components.

Heat so absorbed by the water walls is used in evaporation of water supplied

to the boiler. Water walls serve as the only means of heating and evaporating
the feed water supplied to the boiler from the economiser. The mixture of
steam and water is discharged from the top of the water wall tubes into the
upper wall ring header and then passes through riser tubes to the boiler drum.
Here the steam is separated and directed to the superheater and the accompanying
water together with the incoming feed water is returned to the water walls
through the downcomers. The water is circulated from the drum through the
water walls and back to the drum either by natural circulation or controlled
(forced) circulation. The natural circulation takes place on the thermo-siphon
principle. The density difference between the water from the downcomers and
the steam water mixture in riser tubes is the driving force. Circulation takes
place at such a rate that the driving force and frictional resistance in water
walls are balanced. As the pressure increases, the difference in density between
water and steam reduces. Thus the hydrostatic head available will not be able
to overcome the frictional resistance for a flow corresponding to the minimum
requirement of cooling of water wall tubes. Therefore natural circulation
is limited to boiler with drum operating pressure around 175 bar. Beyond
180 bar circulation is to be assisted with mechanical pumps to overcome
frictional losses. Beyond the critical pressure, phase transformation is absent
and hence once through system is adopted. However, it has been found that
even at supercritical pressure it is advantageous to recirculate the water through
34 Power Plant Engineering
the furnace tubes at low loads. This protects the furnace tubes and simplifies
the start-up procedure.
Boiler drum is located on the upper front of boiler. It separates the water
from the steam generated in the furnace water walls and reduces the dissolved
solid contents of the steam to below the prescribed limit of 1 ppm. The drum
incorporates the equipments used for purification of steam after being separated
from water. This purification equipment is commonly referred to as the drum
internals. The drum size is primarily determined by the space required to
accommodate the drum internals because the quantity of water contained
is relatively small compared to the total steam output. Drum diameter and
length should be sufficient to provide accessibility for installation, inspection
and servicing of the drum internals. The drum internals may consist of baffle
arrangements, devices which change the direction of flow of steam and water
mixture, separators employing spinning action for removing water from steam
or steam purifiers as washers and screen dryers. There is a considerable change
in the densities of water and steam as the pressure increases towards the critical
point. Thus, with an increase in pressure the separation of water from steam
by simple devices become more difficult. It becomes necessary to use more
efficient apparatus if primary separation is to be achieved in a confined area.

2.6.1 Economiser

The economiser preheats the boiler feed water before it enters the boiler
drum by recovering heat from the flue gases. In economiser, water is heated
to about 30 to 40°C below saturation temperature. The name economiser was
given because earlier the economisers were used mainly to recover the heat
available in exhaust flue gases leaving the boiler and provision of this additional
heating surface increased the efficiency of steam generation, saving in fuel
consumption. In the modern boilers used for power generation feed water
heaters are used to increase the feed water temperature and hence the relative
size of economiser is less than the earlier units. Nowadays the heat available
in exhaust flue gases can be economically recovered by using air preheaters
which are essential for pulverized fuel fired boilers.
Economiser is located in the boiler rear gas pass ahead of air preheaters and
following the primary superheater or reheater in the gas stream. Counterflow
arrangement is normally selected so that heating surface requirement is less
for the same temperature drop in the flue gas. Economiser coils are designed
for horizontal placement which facilitates draining of the coil. The water in the
economiser tubes flows in upward direction and gas in the downward direction.
Water flow is from bottom to top so that steam if any formed during the heat
transfer can move along with water and prevent the lock up steam which will
cause overheating and failure of economiser tube. Tube elements composing
the unit are built up into tiers or banks and these are connected to inlet and
outlet headers. Manholes and adequate access and spacing between banks of
 Thermal Power Plant 35

tubes are provided for inspection and maintenance works. Normally the tube
bank arrangement and steam soot blowers provision at appropriate location
will facilitate efficient on load cleaning. An ash hopper below the economiser
is provided if the flue gas duct is taking a turn from vertical.
Economiser may be of plain tube type or welded fin type. In earlier
days cast iron shrouds were shrunk on mild steel tube for use as economiser.
But modern boiler uses only plain or fin welded design because of easy
supporting in suspended design due to their low weight. Plain tube economisers
have several banks of tubes with either in-line or staggered type formation.
Staggered arrangement induces more turbulence (higher rate of heat transfer
as well as higher draught loss) in the gas than the in-line arrangement. In-line
arrangement may need about 10 to 15% more surface but effectively cleanable
with the help of on load steam soot blowers. Hence selection of in-line or
staggered arrangement depends on the nature of fuel (fouling) and transverse
distance between tube. Economiser can be supported in water or steam cooled
coils which can also be used to support primary superheater or reheater.

2.6.2 Superheater, Reheater, Desuperheater

The superheaters are placed, horizontally, vertically or combined in the boiler

flue passes. The horizontal type superheater is favoured for the primary section
superheater in which the coils or tubes are arranged horizontally. Horizontal tube
is self-draining which has an advantage during lighting up. The superheaters
may be of pendant type, hanging from and supported by their headers.
The superheaters may receive heat by radiation, convection, or combination
of both.
Radiant superheaters absorb heat by direct radiation from the furnace and
are generally located at the top of the furnace. High mass flow of steam through
the radiant superheater is necessary for the minimum tube failure, and this can
be achieved only at the expense of pressure drop. In a radiant superheater as
the steam flow rate increases, the gain in steam temperature drops because the
furnace temperature, and therefore the amount of available heat from radiation,
does not increase as rapidly as the rate of steam flow. Convection superheaters
absorb heat mainly by the convection or flow of hot flue gas around the tubes.
In a purely convection superheater as the steam flow rate increases, the gain
in steam temperature rises because of increase in heat transfer coefficients.
Thus, for the purpose of maintaining constant steam temperature, a combination
of the radiant superheater (falling steam temperature characteristic) and the
convection superheater (rising steam temperature characteristic) is used in most
of the power plants. A combined superheater has the advantage of providing
a constant steam temperature over a very wide range in load.
There are three stages of superheater besides the sidewalls and extended
sidewalls. The first stage consists of horizontal superheater of convection mixed
flow type with upper and lower banks located above economiser assembly
36 Power Plant Engineering
in the rear gas pass. The upper bank terminates into hanger tubes which are
connected to outlet header of the first stage superheater. The second stage
superheater consists of pendant platen which is of radiant parallel flow type.
The third stage superheater pendant spaced is of convection parallel flow type.
The steam coming out from the superheater is at 540°C and 130 bar and is
supplied to H.P. turbine.
Reheater is the part of the boiler which receives steam back from the
turbine after it has expanded to intermediate pressure in the high pressure
section of the turbine. The steam coming out from high pressure turbine is
reheated to a temperature of 540°C in reheater for further expansion in the
turbine. The arrangement and construction of a reheater is similar to that of a
superheater. In large modem boiler plant, the reheat sections are mixed equally
with superheater sections. The reheater is composed of front pendant section
and rear pendant section. The rear pendant section is located above the furnace
arc and the rear water wall and front pendant section is located between the
rear water hanger tubes and the superheater platen section.
A desuperheater is used to reduce the steam temperature by cooling steam to
the extent required. As discussed earlier, the temperature of steam in convection
type superheater rises with an increase in mass flow rate of steam due to
increasing load on the turbine. To obtain some degree of control, at higher
load the temperature of steam is controlled by desuperheater or attemperator.
Desuperheaters are either direct contact or non-contact type.

2.7 Steam Turbine

The steam turbine offers many advantages over reciprocating steam engine,
both thermodynamically and mechanically. From a thermodynamic point of
view, the main advantage of the steam turbine over a reciprocating steam
engine is that in the turbine the steam can be expanded down to a lower back
pressure, thereby making available a greater enthalpy drop. In addition the
internal efficiency of the turbine is high. From the mechanical point of view, the
turbine is ideal because the propelling force is applied directly to the rotating
element of the machine and there are no connecting links such as connecting
rod and crank. If the turbine is correctly designed, it is free from unbalanced
forces. A turbine can be directly coupled to a generator. Due to the absence
of internal lubrication in turbine the exhaust steam is not contaminated with
oil vapour and can be condensed and fed back to the boilers without passing
through filters. A final advantage of the steam turbine is that for the same
size, a turbine can develop many times the power compared to a reciprocating
engine whether steam or oil.
The main parts of a steam turbine (Figure 2.12) are the cylinder and the
rotor. The cylinder (stator) or casing is a steel or cast iron housing usually
divided at the horizontal centreline. The casing contains fixed blades, vanes,
and nozzles that direct steam into the moving blades attached to a disc on the
 Thermal Power Plant 37
Steam in Nozzle
Cas ng
Nozzle Blade B = Blade
Steam in N = Nozzle

lim
11111Iri Wheel
Exhaust
Steam chest
Steam chest
Wheel 111 Diaphragm
Labyrinth seal
NA 11 II
MWIla
Simple impulse turbine Labyrinth packing
Steam in Pressure compounded impulse turbine
Casing
First moving row of blades
Stationary guide vanes

Steam chest
Nozzle Second moving row
of blades
Wheel

Velocity compounded
impulse turbine Reaction turbine
Figure 2.12 Steam turbines.

rotor. Each fixed blade set is located in front of each disc on the rotor and is
mounted in diaphragms or directly in the casing. A disc and diaphragm (fixed
blade row and moving blade row) pair a turbine stage and steam turbines have
many such stages.
In a multiple stage turbine, steam at a high pressure and high temperature
enters the first row of fixed blades or nozzles through an inlet valve or valves.
The fixed blades or nozzles increase the steam velocity and direct the jet of
steam to the first set of moving blades. The moving blades convert the kinetic
energy of the steam into the mechanical energy. The steam leaving the row
of moving blades then enters the next set of fixed blades and strikes the next
row of moving blades. After passing through the last turbine stage, the steam
exhausts into the condenser.
The kinetic energy of the steam changes into mechanical energy through
the impact (impulse) or reaction of the steam against the blades. An impulse
turbine uses the impulse force of the steam jet on the blades to rotate the shaft.
The steam does not expand or pressure of steam remains constant as it flows
through the moving blades. In a simple impulse stage the steam expands as it
passes through the nozzles where its pressure drops and its velocity increases.
38 Power Plant Engineering

A simple impulse turbine (Delaval) is not very efficient because it does not fully
use the velocity of the steam or velocity of steam leaving the moving blades
row is still high. Many impulse turbines are velocity compounded (Curtis)
which means they have two or more sets of moving blades in each stage.
The extra sets of moving blades make use of the high-velocity steam leaving
the first set of moving blades. A row of fixed blades between the moving
blades direct the steam into the next set of blades and there is no pressure
drop in this row of fixed blades. Another type of impulse turbine is a pressure
compounded (Rataue) turbine which consists of two or more simple impulse
stages contained in one casing. The casing contains diaphragms that connect to
nozzles. The pressure drops in each stage as steam expands through the nozzles.
A reaction turbine uses the kickback force of the steam as it leaves the
moving blades. The steam pressure drops and velocity (relative velocity)
increases as it passes through both sets of blades. All reaction turbines are
pressure-compounded turbines.
Many large turbines use both impulse and reaction blading. These
combination turbines have impulse blading at the high pressure end, and
reaction blading at the low pressure end. The blade length and size increases
throughout the turbine to use the expanding steam efficiently. Blade rows
require seals to prevent steam leakage where the pressure drops. Seals for
impulse blading are located between the rotor and diaphragm to stop leakage
past the nozzle. Seals for reaction blading are located at the tips of both the
fixed and moving blades.

2.7.1 Classification of Turbines

Besides the classification based on principle of action (Impulse turbines,

Reaction turbines) of steam, the steam turbines may be classified into different
categories as follows:
1. According to the number of pressure stages: single stage turbines,
multistage impulse and reaction turbines. Single stage turbines are
of small power capacities and mostly used for driving centrifugal
compressors.
2. According to the direction of steam flow: axial turbines in which the
steam flows in a direction parallel to the axis of the turbine; radial
turbines in which the steam flows in a direction perpendicular to the
axis of the turbine.
3. According to the number of cylinders: single cylinder turbines,
multicylinder (double, three, four) turbines. Multicylinder turbines which
have their rotors mounted on one and the same shaft and coupled to
a single generator are known as single shaft turbines; turbines with
separate rotor shafts for each cylinder placed parallel to each other are
known as multi-axial turbines.
 Thermal Power Plant 39
4. According to the method of governing: throttle governing, nozzle
governing, bypass governing
5. According to the steam conditions at inlet to turbines: turbines of
supercritical pressures using steam at pressure of 225 bar and above,
turbines of very high pressures, utilising steam at pressures of 170 bar
and above, high pressure turbines using steam at pressure above
40 bar, medium pressure turbines, using steam at pressure of up to
40 bar and low pressure turbines using steam at pressure of 1.2 to 2 bar.
6. According to the heat drop process: Condensing turbines with
regenerations in which steam at a pressure less than atmospheric pressure
is directed to a condenser. The steam extracted from intermediate stages
is used for feed water heating.
Back pressure turbines in which the exhaust steam from the turbine is
utilized for industrial or heating purposes. Thus, cogeneration (generation
of power and process heat) is possible by modifying the initial steam
pressure and exhaust pressure.
Pass out turbines in which the steam is extracted from the intermediate
stage for heating purpose at desired temperature and pressure.

2.8 Water Treatment

Water treatment in a thermal power plant may be external or internal.
The make-up feed water is treated externally, while condensate is treated
internally.

2.8.1 External Treatment

The purpose of external water treatment is to produce boiler feed water.

Though, in a steam power plant condensate from condenser is reused as a boiler
feed water, but boiler make-up water to the extent of 2% of the total flow rate
is required to replenish the leakage losses through the deaerator, boiler due to
blow down, turbine casing and condenser. The make-up feed water is to be
treated to achieve the following objectives:
1. To prevent scale formation that causes resistance to passage of heat
and flow.
2. Elimination of corrosion.
3. Elimination of priming and foaming problems.
Scale formation is mainly due to the salts of calcium and magnesium.
Corrosion is due to water acidity or alkalinity. Foaming due to salts and organic
impurities in water prevents the free escape of steam bubbles and leads to
priming. Priming is the carry over of small water particles with steam leaving
the boiler and leads to deposition on superheater tubes.
40 Power Plant Engineering
The raw water depending on the source may contain suspended solids and
turbidity, organics, salts of calcium and magnesium, alkalinity, dissolved ions,
dissolved gases, and silica. Water treatment plants used in a thermal power
plant are designed to process the raw water to neutral water very low in
dissolved solids known as demineralized water. For this, the raw water is first
treated in pretreatment section and then demineralized in demineralization
section.

Pretreatment section
In the pretreatment plant chlorine is added to raw water to combat organic
contamination and to prevent biofouling of the equipment. Pretreatment plant
removes the suspended solids such as clay, silt, organic and inorganic matter,
plants and other microscopic organism. The turbidity in raw water may be due
to separable solids and non-separable solids (colloids). The coarse components
such as sand, silt can be removed by sedimentation in tanks. Finer particles
are removed by coagulation and flocculation. The non-separable solids or
colloidal are coagulated by adding chemicals like Al2(SO4)3 in dispersion and
agitated rapidly to obtain uniform distribution of chemical. In flocculation
coagulated particles grow in sizes by attaching to each other, these particles
settle rapidly and may be removed. Flocculation is obtained by gentle and
prolonged mixing.

Demineralization section
The pretreated water may be passed through the beds of graded sand for filtration.
The pretreated water is dechlorinated by passing through the activated carbon
filters which can also absorb organics. The residual chlorine is detrimental to
cation resin to be discussed latter. The removal of hardness or softening of
water may be done by lime soda process, phosphate process, zeolite process
and reverse osmosis process.
In lime soda process, lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 and soda ash
(sodium carbonate Na2CO3) is added to water. This process is usually carried
out at or near the boiling temperature of water because higher temperature
accelerates the necessary reactions. The calcium and magnesium salts are
converted to calcium carbonate CaCO3 and magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
which are insoluble in water and settle to the bottom.
In the phosphate process the calcium and magnesium salts are removed
by using phosphate Na3PO4 and caustic soda NaOH This process is carried
out at a temperature of 100°C or above. The tricalcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2
and magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 are formed and precipitated in resulting
reactions. The lime soda process is cheaper than the phosphate process,
and if hardness of water is more, the lime soda process is used first followed
by phosphate softening.
In zeolite process or ion exchange process hardness of water is removed
by passing it either through a bed of sodium zeolite or hydrogen zeolite.
 Thermal Power Plant 41
The zeolite materials are solid substances of a complex chemical structure.
The zeolite materials react with various ions present in water and replace with
equivalent amount of other ions of like charge.
In sodium zeolite process the sodium of zeolite bed material (compounds
of sodium and aluminium silicate) replaces the calcium and magnesium and
bed material is converted to calcium and magnesium zeolite. Thus, the reaction
replaces the cations (positive ions) from the water. The exhausted bed material
is regenerated by flushing it with sodium chloride. The sodium zeolite softening
is not ideal for the following reasons:
1. Water of low or high pH has a very harmful effect on the zeolites.
2. High temperature of water also has bad effect on bed material.
3. There is no reduction in alkalinity or total solids.
4. There can be silica gain in treated water. The silica in water forms
hard glossy scales on turbine blades which are difficult to remove.
5. The treated water with low content of calcium can be corrosive unless
the pH is raised.
In the hydrogen zeolite process, the calcium, magnesium and sodium
ions are replaced with hydrogen ions of hydrogen zeolite bed material. The
exhausted bed material is regenerated by washing it with acid. The bicarbonate,
sulphate, chloride and nitrate radicals are formed in the reactions and these
anions (negative ions) are converted to their respective acids. Thus, the treated
water from hydrogen zeolite contains anions.
Anion exchanger made of resinous material can remove the anions
present in hydrogen zeolite effluent. In anion exchanger the respective acids
of sulphate, chloride and nitrate radicals are converted to carbonic acid.
Carbonic acid formed is removed by aeration or spraying the acidic water
from the top of a large tower over a large area to liberate the carbon dioxide.
The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by washing it with sodium
carbonate.
The demineralization process is the process of removing dissolved solids in
water by ion exchange. Water in a typical demineralization unit (Figure 2.13)
in a thermal power plant is passed sequentially through a cation exchanger,

Silica
adsorber

Cation Anion exchanger Degasifier Treated water for boiler

exchanger
Figure 2.13 A typical arrangment of deminearalizing system.
42 Power Plant Engineering
an anion exchanger, a degasifier and a silica adsorber. Such sequential
arrangement produces neutral water practically free from dissolved salts.
The acids of sulphate, chloride and nitrate radicals formed in cation exchanger
are converted to carbonic acid in anion exchanger. As discussed earlier, the
carbon dioxide of carbonic acid formed in anion exchanger is removed by
aeration in gasifier. The silica gain in water in cation exchanger is removed
by silica adsorber made of magnesium hydroxide.
The reverse osmosis (RO) process which uses membrane to remove
hardness of water is also gaining more acceptances. The driving force for
the RO process is the application of counterpressure to normal osmotic
pressure.

2.8.2 Internal Treatment

The demineralized water has a good affinity to absorb carbon dioxide and
oxygen, and both are extremely harmful to metal surfaces for their destruction
like corrosion. The water while flowing through the Rankine cycle can pick
up impurities. The removal of dissolved gases is done in deaerator. To have
further minimum corrosion the pH of feed water is to be maintained at around
9.0 for which purpose ammonia in a suitable dose is added to feed water along
with hydrozine. The nuclear reactors generally require a high quality water
and a condensate polishing system is used. Condensate polishing is achieved
by passing the condensate through large demineralizing vessels, which contain
both cation and anion resins.

Deaerator
The presence of dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide in water is
considered harmful because of their corrosive attack on metals, particularly at
elevated temperatures. To prevent the internal corrosion in modern boilers and
associated plant, the boiler feed water should be free as far as possible from
all dissolved gases especially oxygen. These gases are removed in deaerator
(open feed water heater) where feed water is heated by the steam bleed
from turbine stage. Deaerator should remove the oxygen content to the level
0.005 cc/litre. The principle of deaeration is based on Henry's law and
solubility law. According to Henry's law, the mass of gas dissolved at a given
temperature with definite mass of liquid is directly proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas in contact with the liquid. According to the solubility law,
the solubility of gases decreases with increase in solution temperature and/or
decrease in pressure.
The deaerator (Figure 2.14) comprises of two chambers, namely feed storage
tank and deaerating column. The feed storage tank is fabricated from boiler
quality steel plates. The deaerating column is a spray-cum-tray type cylindrical
vessel of horizontal construction. The deaeration column is mounted on the
 Thermal Power Plant 43
02 and CO2 Feed water
t t t from LP FWH
4
Vent condenser

nnnnn AAAAA nnnnn

• •S
Water spray

Tray
Steam bled —0. Deaerating column
from turbine

Feed water to Feed storage

HP FWH tank
BFP

Figure 2.14 Deaerating system or deaerator.

feed storage tank. The feed water is admitted at the top of the deaerating
column and flows downwards through the spray valves and trays in order
to expose maximum water surfaces. Extracted steam enters from the
bottom of the trays and flows in counterdirection of feed water. Steam
while flowing upwards through the trays scrubs and heats the water. The
liberated gases move upwards along with some steam. Steam leaving with
the liberated gases is condensed above the trays by heating the feed water
in a vent condenser. Liberated gases escape to atmosphere from a opening
provided with a number of deflectors to minimize the loss of steam.
The deaerator is placed at the middle of feed water heater system.
The pressure in the deaerator is about 7 bar. In order to avoid cavitation or
flow separation in the boiler feed pump, the deaerator is located at a sufficient
height from the basement where the boiler feed pump is installed.

2.9 Condensing Plant and Circulating Water System

In order to condense steam exiting from the steam turbine, the steam power
plants generally employ surface type condensers comprising large shell and
tube heat exchangers operating under vacuum. The condenser (1) reduces the
exhaust pressure at the last stage blade exit to increase the work output of the
turbine; and (2) recovers the high quality feed water by collecting the condensed
steam and returns it to the boiler. Cooling water circulates from the river or
cooling towers to the condenser tubes by large motor driven pumps. In the
cooling tower the cooling of hot water leaving the condenser is by evaporation
44 Power Plant Engineering

of 3%-6% of the cooling water. Air flow through the cooling tower is due to
either natural draft (hyperbolic towers) or forced draft. When adequate cooling
water is not available, a dry condenser can be used. Dry condenser uses large
fans to move air across a large radiator like heat exchanger to condense the
steam at ambient temperature.
Non-condensable gases and air are removed from the coldest portion of
condenser shell with a vacuum pump or, more frequently, steam jet air ejectors,
which have no moving parts. Steam jet ejectors utilize the kinetic energy
of steam bled from the turbine to suck and compress the gases in order to
discharge to the surrounding. The vacuum created at the nozzle throat draws
air from the condenser shell along with some steam and combined flow gets
compressed while flowing through the diffuser part. The process is usually
achieved in two-stage ejector. The steam from the combined flow is removed
in an inter-cooler condenser and an after-cooler condenser. Cooling water for
these condensers is taken from the hot well prior to its flow through feed
water heaters.

2.9.1 Steam Condenser

Steam condenser may be of the following three types:

1. Direct contact type condenser
2. Surface condenser
3. Evaporative condenser

Direct contact type condensers

In the direct contact type or mixing type or jet condensers (Figure 2.15),
the exhaust steam and cooling water come in direct contact and come out as

U
Non-condensable gases Exhaust steam
to steam jet ejector from turbine
Cooling
Ily
water Cooling water
Baffles I

Cooling water Exhaust steam

„from turbine
Convergent
Ft cones
Exhaust steam ,I,
from turbine Tail pipe H
Diffuser
Cooling Hot Hot Cooling Cooling Hot
pond 1 well well pond pond well

(a) Low level (b) High level (c) Ejector

Figure 2.15 Direct contact type condensers.
 Thermal Power Plant 45

a single stream. Jet condenser requires less space, less maintenance and less
circulating water compared to a surface condenser. Though, the capital cost of
jet condenser is about one-fourth of a surface condenser, the condensate cannot
be used as a boiler feed water unless the cooling water is of the same good
quality. Further, the vacuum in surface condensers is better than jet condensers.
Jet condensers are used in geothermal power plants where no feed water is
required. Jet condensers can be of the following three types:
(a) Low level jet condenser: In this condenser water is sprayed through jets
and it mixes with steam. Low level jet condensers may be of the parallel flow
or counterflow type. In the parallel flow type both cooling water and steam
flow in the downward direction, while in the cotmterflow type the cooling
water flows in the downward direction and the steam to be condensed moves
upward. The air from the condenser is removed at the top by an air pump.
The stream of condensate and cooling water is delivered to the hot well by an
extraction pump. However, pump is generally not required to deliver cooling
water from cooling pond to condenser.
(b) High level jet condenser or barometric condenser: The stream of
condensate and cooling water in a barometric condenser flows through a tube
or tail pipe to the hot well due to gravitational head and no extraction pump
is required. The other end of the tail pipe connected to the condenser shell
is dipped in hot well. The condenser shell is placed at a height of 10.33 m
(barometric pressure in terms of water column) above the hot well as compared
to low level jet condenser. A separate air pump is used to remove the air.
(c) Ejector condenser: The stream of condensate and cooling water in this
condenser is discharged by the ejector effect. Thus, the height of tail pipe is
less than the barometric condenser. In the ejector condenser cooling water flows
through a series of convergent cones where pressure energy is partly converted
into kinetic energy. The high velocity stream of condensate and cooling water
then enters into a diverging cone where the kinetic energy is partly converted
into the pressure energy and a pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure
is achieved so as to discharge the condensate to the hot well.

Surface condensers
In surface condensers (Figure 2.16) there is no direct contact between the
exhaust steam and circulating cooling water, and the condensate can be
re-used in the boiler. For the convenience of cooling and maintenance,
the cooling water flows through the system of tubes inside the condenser shell,
while steam is admitted to the top of shell and condensed on the surface of the
tubes. By allowing the steam to flow over the tubes the deposition of dirt on
the outer surface of tubes can be prevented as well as more volume of steam
can be accommodated. The number of times that the cooling water crosses
any transverse section of the condenser is termed number of passes of the
46 Power Plant Engineering

Exhaust steam Exhaust steam Exhaust steam

from turbine Cooling from turbine from turbine

Cover plate
Tube

Air
and
Undivided steam
Baffle Air
water box cooler
\\ I plate
Air Condensate 4F
Condensate Cooling
water in
(a) Longitudinal (b) Cross-section of (c) Cross-section of
section down flow type central flow type
Figure 2.16 Surface condenser.

condenser. Usually the number of passes in a surface is two and in the two
pass system the cooling water enters at the bottom and leaves at the top and at
the same end. The use of more than two passes increases the water pumping
cost for the same temperature rise of water.
The condensate is extracted from the bottom of the shell by a condensate
extraction pump and sent to hot well or boiler feed water heater. To maintain
the vacuum in the condenser shell, the air and non-dissolved gases are removed
by an air extraction pump. Further the air leakage in condenser also reduces
the heat transfer. Depending upon the position of condensate extraction pump,
the flow of condensate and arrangement of tubes, the surface condensers may
be classified as follows:
(a) Down flow type: In this condenser steam enters at the top and flows
downward. The air is extracted from the bottom at a temperature lower than
the condensate by providing an air cooler section. Air cooler section is a small
bank of tubes separated from the main bank of tubes by a baffle. The cooling
of air reduces the volume of air to be handled and also reduce the amount of
vapour going with the air.
(b) Central flow condenser: In the central flow condenser, the air is extracted
away from the centre of the condenser by placing the suction pipe of air
extraction pump in the centre of the tube nest. Due to this the condensate
flows radially towards the centre of tube nest. Some of the exhaust steam while
moving towards the centre meets the undercooled condensate and preheats it,
thus reducing the undercooling of condensate. The condensate is extracted
from the bottom.

Evaporative condenser
In evaporative condenser steam to be condensed is passed through a series
of tubes and the cooling water falls over these tubes in the form of spray.
 Thermal Power Plant 47

A steam of air flows over the tubes to increase evaporation of cooling water,
which further increases the condensation of steam.

2.9.2 Circulating Water System

The circulating water system supplies cooling water to the condenser for heat
removal or condensing the steam. Depending on the availability, the cooling
water can flow through the condenser in three ways: 1. once through system,
2. closed loop system, and 3. combined system.
In once through system (Figure 2.17) water is taken from lake, river,
or ocean, filtered for removal of impurities and after circulating through the
condenser, it is discharged back to the source. Water is discharged at a sufficient
distance from inlet point in order to avoid the recirculation of hot water.
The temperature of water discharged back to the source should be kept within
a safe limit to prevent the harm to the fish and aquatic life.

Circulating
pump

T+ AT

Figure 2.17 Once through cooling system.

In the closed loop system, the same water is circulated again and again.
The cooling of warm water based on evaporative cooling principle is carried
out by lake spread cooling system or by a wet cooling tower before being
re-used. Substantial amount of water is lost by evaporation and drift in the
process of cooling. This amount is required to be made up by fresh supply.
Closed loop systems are mostly used because the once through system causes
thermal pollution and the availability of huge quantity of water is not guaranteed.
The lake or pond spread cooling system (Figure 2.18) can suitably be adopted
when a natural lake is available or an artificial lake or pond can conveniently
be constructed. This system can be used only if the water supply is ample.
The surface area of such lake even under draw down condition should be
adequate for the required quantum of cooling. Water is pumped or drawn from
one end of the lake or pond to condensers and hot water is discharged at the
other end of the lake at a suitable location so that hot water is not drawn again.
Hot water gets cooled in the reservoir by coming in contact with cooler water
and air and surface evaporation. Extent of cooling of hot water depends on
surface area of water, ambient temperature, water temperature in lake, humidity
48 Power Plant Engineering
From condenser

// aior // soar

I I

444
Nozzles
To condenser
(a) Top view

From
condenser

(b) Front view

Figure 2.18 Pond spread cooling system.

of air and wind velocity. To limit the size of the lake/pond or to increase
cooling, the warm water may be sprayed through nozzles over the pond or
lake. The disadvantage of this system is that large amount of water is carried
away by air at higher wind velocity in addition to evaporative loss.
Wet cooling towers are mostly used in the thermal power plant because
lake or pond spread cooling systems require large surface area and have more
loss of water. The quantity of soluble salts in circulating water will increase
in case of wet cooling towers. Generally arrangements are made to provide
for taking the blow down discharge.

Cooling towers
The cooling towers cool the warm water leaving the condenser to be reused.
The cooling towers are the important components of thermal plants where a
limited supply of water is available. Cooling towers provide flexibility for the
selection of sites for thermal power plants even though capital investment and
running costs are generally on the high side. The cooling towers should be
away from the main and auxiliary buildings, switch-yard and main national
highway. A cooling tower can be either wet type or dry type.
Wet cooling towers: A wet cooling tower commonly termed cooling tower
is a semi-enclosed structure for evaporative cooling of water by contact with
air. Broadly speaking, wet cooling towers are of two types: natural draft
cooling towers and mechanical draft cooling towers. Figure 2.19 shows wet
cooling towers.
 Thermal Power Plant 49
Air outlet

1 '1
Drift
eliminator
Hot
water
inlet

Jill bbN
Air 4—Air
VW,S,ot Uiiiia 1 //// V/ / / / 1

rA Cold water4—
zzzzzzzmw74 outlet litittittitittittitib
(a) Natural draft (b) Mechanical induced draft type
Figure 2.19 Wet cooling towers.

The warm condenser water is allowed to flow from top of the tower to
bottom in the form of showers, while atmospheric air enters the tower through
louvres on bottom sides and flow towards surrounding from the top of tower.
Cooling towers have an arrangement of lattice of perforated trays, baffles,
horizontal slats, etc., for uniform distribution of water and better mixing with
air. The cooling of falling water mainly takes place due to evaporation of some
water (similar to earthen pot) because of intimate mixing of air with water.
The cold water is collected in a basin below the tower. The water is pumped
back from the basin to condenser and make up water is also continuously
added to the basin to replace the water lost by evaporation. Drift eliminators
or separators in the form of baffles of asbestos are provided at the top of the
tower to arrest the water droplet or to reduce the drift losses, where drift is
fine water droplet carried by the air.
The degree of cooling of water in cooling tower depends on relative
humidity and wet bulb temperature of atmospheric air. Wet bulb temperature
is the minimum theoretical temperature to which water can be cooled. The air
exits the cooling tower at higher temperature and relative humidity and there
should not be recirculation of this air through the cooling tower.
In natural draft cooling towers the flow of air through the tower is due
to the pressure difference (similar to chimney draught in boilers) caused by
difference in densities of cold outside air and warm air inside the tower. The
falling warm water gives its heat to the air and air in tower becomes lighter
than the ambient air. This difference in densities is small. Thus, natural draft
cooling towers are tall in order to create the required pressure difference to
maintain the flow and to meet the head losses during flow. The natural draft
cooling tower body is a shell of circular cross section and with a hyperbolic
50 Power Plant Engineering
vertical profile. Therefore, the natural draft cooling towers are termed hyperbolic
natural draft cooling towers. The hyperbolic profile offers superior strength
and the greatest resistance to outside wind loading compared to other profile.
The natural draft cooling towers are hyperbolic RCC structures supported
on RCC columns. Most of the structure is empty shell but the lower portion
contains a cooling stack over which hot water is distributed by RCC channel
or pipe system. The lower portion of shell is open to allow the air to go to
the cooling stack. The lower portion of shell is supported on the RCC columns
which are designed for horizontal load due to wind.
Cooling in the natural draft cooling towers is dependent on dry bulb
temperature and climatic conditions. Natural draft cooling towers are normally
adopted near coastal areas where humidity is generally very high. The capital
cost of natural draft cooling towers is about 60% more than that of mechanical
draft cooling towers. However, the power consumption for running the fan and
frequent maintenance of fan, switchgear etc., are not required.
The mechanical draft wet cooling towers use fan for the flow of air through
the tower. The main advantages of mechanical draft cooling towers are: less
tower height required, low capital cost and required quantity of air flow can
be regulated. Mechanical draft wet cooling towers may be either forced draft
(FD) cooling towers or induced draft (ID) cooling towers. In the forced draft
cooling tower, the fan located at the lower side of the tower blows air through
the tower. In the induced draft cooling towers, the fan is located at the top and
air enters from the openings located at the bottom. These days, it is preferred
to use induced draft cooling towers. Though, the FD fan consumes less power
than the ID fan because FD fan deals with cooler air. The main drawback of
FD cooling towers is that exit velocity of hot air from tower is low which
results in recirculation of hot air into the fan intake. The other disadvantages
of FD cooling towers are: leakage and uniform distribution problem of air due
to high velocity from the fan. In the induced draft cooling towers moist air is
discharged higher in the atmosphere thereby dispersing to a greater distance
from the tower. Recirculation of heated air discharged from cooling towers
can be reduced by spacing cooling towers widely apart.
Dry cooling towers: The dry cooling towers do not use evaporative cooling
principle and cooling of hot fluid (water, steam) flowing through finned tubes is
achieved by atmospheric air. They require more area for cooling and are not as
efficient as wet cooling towers. They are attractive only for those sites where
water is not available in plenty even for the make-up but the fuel sources are
available in nearby areas. Dry cooling towers may be categorized as direct and
indirect. The direct dry cooling tower serves the purpose of condenser. In direct
dry cooling tower the exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed by passing
it through a large number of finned tubes over which air is blown by fan.
The indirect dry cooling tower cools the warm water or any other coolant
leaving the condenser. In case of surface condenser, the exit warm water is
 Thermal Power Plant 51

cooled by passing it through finned tubes. If the condenser is a mixing type,

then the part of the condensate is feed to boiler and the remaining condensate
is air cooled in finned tubes for it to be reused.

2.10 Fuel Handling

A thermal power plant may use coal, oil or gas as the fuel, but the main fuel
used is the coal. Thus, the coal handling elements will be discussed first.

2.10.1 Coal Handling

Mechanical handling is used instead of manual handling because a huge quantity

of coal is required for large thermal power plants. The various sequential steps
involved in coal handling are: coal delivery, unloading, preparation, transfer,
outdoor storage, covered storage, in plant handling, weighing and measuring,
and feeding the coal into furnace. It is not necessary that these steps will be
followed as such in all the plants. Some of the intermediate steps may be
eliminated or rearranged depending upon the type of plants.
(i) Coal delivery: The transportation of coal to power plant may be through
sea, river, rail or road and depends mainly on the location of power plant.
The transportation through the sea route is cheaper than the rail route.
The coal from supply points is delivered by ships or boats to power plants
situated near to sea or river, whereas coal is supplied by rail or trucks to the
power plants which are situated away from sea or river. The transportation of
coal by trucks is used rarely only if the railway facilities are not available.
If rail transport is used, then the coal is brought as close as possible to the
plant by providing railway tracks connected to the railway main lines.
(ii) Unloading: The type of equipment to be used for unloading the coal
received at the power plant depends on the method of coal delivery. If coal is
brought by trucks, there is no need of unloading device. The lift trucks with
scoop are used and these trucks dump the coal to the outdoor storage. If the
coal is brought by railway wagons, ships or boats, the unloading may be done
by car shakers, rotary car dumpers, bridge or tower cranes, grab buckets and
coal accelerators.
(iii) Preparation: The coal delivered to the power plant is in the form of
big lumps and contains moisture. The iron particle in coal may choke the
burners and may increase the wear of equipment. Before feeding the coal to
the furnace it is prepared in proper form. The sizing of coal is achieved by
crushers, breakers, sizers; removal of moisture is done in driers by utilizing
the heat of exhaust flue gases, and separation of iron particle is carried out in
magnetic separators. The coal may be converted into powder form in pulverizer.
52 Power Plant Engineering

(iv) Transfer to dead storage: After preparation, coal is transferred to the

dead storage by means of the belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators,
grab bucket elevators, skip hoists and flight conveyor. Skip hoists and bucket
elevators lift coal vertically, while belts and flights conveyors move coal
horizontally or on inclines. Figure 2.20 shows some devices for coal transfer
or handling of coal.

Coal out

///////// / Grab bucket Coal in

Grab bucket conveyor

Coal in Skip
Screw Bucket elevator

Skip hoist
[Coal out
Shaft
Screw conveyor

Coal in Belt Idler roller ,,AAAAAA Coal in

(Chains

Driving Supports Return Scraper Roller

roller roller Trough Coal out
Belt conveyor Flight conveyor
Figure 2.20 Coal handling devices.

1. Belt conveyor: The belt conveyor is used for hoisting and conveying.
It is successfully used for inclinations up to 20° to the horizontal.
It consists of an endless belt of rubber or canvas moving over a pair of
end drums (rollers) or pulleys and supported at intervals by idler rollers.
The belt conveyor is suitable for the transfer of coal over long distances.
Large quantities of coal can be discharged quickly and continuously by
belt conveyor and power consumption is also low. However, the belt
conveyor is not suitable for transporting to greater heights.
2. Screw conveyor: The screw conveyor consists of an endless helicoid
screw rotating in a trough. The screw while rotating in a trough transfers
the coal from feeding end to the discharge end. The screw conveyor
is suitable, where coal is to be transferred over shorter distance and
space limitation is there. It suffers from the drawbacks that the power
consumption is high and there is considerable wear of screw.
 Thermal Power Plant 53

3. Bucket elevator: As the name the bucket elevator is used for vertical
lift, i.e. loading of coal at bottom and discharging at the top. It consists
of a number of evenly spaced buckets fixed to a chain which moves
over two wheels. The coal is carried by the buckets from the bottom
and discharged at the top.
4. Grab bucket conveyor: The grab bucket conveyor is used with crane.
It is useful for lifting and conveying. The coal lifted by grab buckets
is transferred to overhead bunker or storage. Although the initial cost
of this system is high, the operating cost is less due to less power for
operation and minimum maintenance.
5. Skip hoist: It is best suited for the vertical movement and it is
the oldest and simple st device of elevating coal or ash. It consists
of a vertical or inclined hoistway, a bucket moving between guides
and a cable for hoisting the bucket. The bucket is so pivoted, with
reference to its centre of gravity, as to hold in upright position. A curve
guide is located at the dumping point near the top of the hoistway.
The advantages of the skip hoist are simple construction, low cost
and low operation charges. However, the skip gives a non-continuous
supply of material.
6. Flight conveyor: Flight conveyor is used for horizontal conveying
or inclination with about 35°. It consists of a series of scrapers or
flights bolted to one or two endless chains moving on chain wheels at
two ends. The scrapers move inside a trough of cast iron or steel and
scrap the coal through trough or coal is carried forward by the trough.
The coal is discharged at any required point through suitable opening
in the trough bottom.
It is low in first cost but has large energy consumption and more
wear due to friction and abrasion. This type is specially suited for
transfer of coal when filling of a number of storage bins situated under
the conveyor is required.
(v) Storage of coal: The thermal power plant should have sufficient storage
of coal to meet the requirement during delay or interruption of coal supplies
from coal mines. Also when the prices are low, the coal can be purchased and
stored for future use. If the power plant is situated at longer distance from
the coal mines then the coal required for one month operation of power plant
is usually stored, whereas coal need for about 15 days is stored in case of
power station situated near to coal mines. Storage of coal for longer periods
is not preferred because it blocks the capital and results in deterioration of
the quality of coal. The coal stored has the tendency to combine with oxygen
of air and during this process coal loses some of its heating value, ignition
quality and size. The slow oxidation of coal may under certain conditions heat
the coal to the point of ignition. To avoid burning of coal either the coal pile
is properly ventilated to remove the heat or coal pile is made compact and
completely airtight by sealing the outside surface with asphalt or fine coal.
54 Power Plant Engineering
The outdoor storage is cheaper than the internal storage; hence the tendency
is to store coal mainly in the open area and to provide only a limited amount
of inside storage. The coal received at the power station is stored in dead
storage usually stored outdoors next to the plant. The live storage or boiler
room storage is in coal bunkers or bins and from live storage coal is supplied
to furnace with little or no handling. The dead storage of coal may be in many
forms and some of these are:
1. Stacking the coal in heaps over available open ground areas. The coal
pile top should be given a slope in the direction in which the rain water
may be drained off.
2. Stacking the coal in heaps under cover or in bunkers over available
open ground areas.
3. Allocating special areas and surrounding these with high reinforced
concrete retaining walls.
4. Under water storage. The possibility of slow oxidation and spontaneous
combustion can be completely eliminated by storing the coal under water.
(vi) In plant handling: In plant handling system conveys coal from live
storage to the furnace. In plant handling system may include the equipment
such as belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators, etc., to transfer the
coal. For the simple stoker firing gated chutes or troughs are used to feed the
coal in the desired amount from overhead bunkers to furnace. The pulverized
coal firing requires more number of equipments.
(vii) Coal weighing methods: Weigh lorries, hoppers and automatic scales
are used to weigh the quantity of coal. Coal may be weighed at the unloading
point and at individual stoker or pulverizer. Track or platform scales may be
used for rail, cars and trucks.

2.10.2 Fuel Oil Handling

Fuel oil arrives at the power plant by ship, barge, tank car, or truck and is
usually stored closed to the unloading point. For storing a large quantity of fuel
oil near the plant, tanks of concrete or steel are used. The steel tanks may be
installed above ground or below ground or as semi-buried tanks. Underground
tanks are usually preferred. Storage tanks are provided with necessary fittings
for the safety and flow to the burners.

2.10.3 Fuel Gas Handling

Plant cannot justify storing gas and pipeline system is provided for direct use
based on the availability of natural gas. Many power plants use natural gas on
a cut-off basis. The plant utilizes the natural gas when available at low rate
and stops using gas when the pipelines run at peak flows for other customers.
The plant then burns oil or coal as an alternate fuel.
 Thermal Power Plant 55
2.11 Fuel Firing
Fuel is burnt in furnace which provides supports and enclosure for the burning
equipment. The furnace transfer the heat developed by combustion of fuel to
various heat transfer surfaces of boiler. The combustion in the furnace must
be efficient and controllable. For efficient combustion there should be proper
mixing of fuel and the required amount of air, and fuel should remain in the
furnace for sufficient time. Further, the flame temperature in the furnace should
be high enough to ignite the incoming fuel and air. In other way the efficient
combustion depends on time, temperature and turbulence referred as three T's.
The method of firing the fuel depends on physical form of the fuel.
The initial burning to attain self-ignition temperature of solid fuel in the furnace
is done by oil or gas. Later on input of oil or gas is gradually reduced till
the self-sustaining combustion is established with the main fuel. Solid fuels
such as coal, coke, wood, etc., require a grate to hold the bed of fuel, whereas
burners are used to burn pulverized (powdered) coal, crushed coal, liquid fuels
and gaseous fuels.
The pulverized coal firing is the most common form of coal combustion
and has the capability for much improved efficiency even with full flue gas
desulphurization. The application of atmospheric fluidized bed combustion has
also increased because it permits the efficient combustion of vast deposits of
low-rank fuels such as lignite with reductions in SO2 and NON. The gasification
of coal with combined cycle operation leads to minimum atmospheric (SO2 and
NOR) and solid emissions. With the rapid advances in gas turbine technology,
the coal gasification option is seen as a leading candidate for the new plant
construction within the first half of the 21st century.

2.11.1 Methods of Coal Firing

The combustion of coal, depending on the size of the coal particles, may be
carried out in:
(i) Fuel bed furnaces for coarse coal particles
(ii) Pulverized coal furnaces for powdered fine coal particles
(ii) Cyclone furnaces for crushed coal particles
(iv) Fluidized bed furnaces for crushed small coal particles
The gasification of coal may be done to take the advantages of gaseous
combustion. Majority of thermal power plants utilizes coal and burn the coal
in pulverized form, by fluidized bed combustion and by gasification of coal.

Fuel bed combustion

In the fuel bed combustion the coarse coal particles are hold and fired on a
grate, while the bottom ash falls to the hoppers below the grate. Feeding of
coal to the grate may be manually by shovels. But, this hand firing method
56 Power Plant Engineering

is not suitable for thermal power plants where huge amount of coal is to be
burned efficiently and at a controllable rate. The mechanical firing termed stoker
firing is employed to efficiently burn huge amount of solid coal. Stoker firing
is carried out in stokers. In stoker firing there are two principles of burning or
feeding coal onto the grate. The firing is based on either overfeed principle or
underfeed principle. The main difference between an overfeed and underfeed
stoker is regarding the admission point of air relative to fuel. In an overfeed
stoker, the fuel bed receives fresh coal on its top surface and primary air first
comes in contact with ash, while in an underfeed stoker, the coal is fed from
below the grate and primary air first comes in contact with raw or green coal.
The fuel bed section (Figure 2.21) of stokers based on overfeed principle has
distinct regions of green coal, incandescent coke and ash from top to bottom.
Coal, coke and ash in the fuel bed move in a direction opposite to that of
air and gases. The primary air while moving through the grate openings gets
heated up by cooling the grate. This hot air picks up additional heat energy
while moving through the layer of ash. The hot air then passes through a
layer of incandescent coke. In this region oxygen present in the air reacts
with incandescent coke to form CO2 and water vapours in the air react with
incandescent coke to form CO2, CO and H2. The gases leaving this region of
fuel bed contain gases such as CO2, CO, H2, N2 and H2O. Green coal in the
region above incandescent coke loses moisture, undergoes distillation of volatile
Flame
Secondary air
ww ww- w -w
www w w
14- Green coal

8:2:88, 8 8 81 Incandescent coke

Ash
Grate

Primary air
Figure 2.21 Overfeed fuel bed section.

matter by getting heat from high temperature gases diffusing through this region
from the incandescent region, by conduction from underneath incandescent
region and by radiation from flames at the top. The gases leaving green coal
region of fuel bed contains volatile matter and gases such as CO2, CO, H2,
N2 and H2O. The secondary air in sufficient amount is supplied above the fuel
bed to completely burn the volatile matter and CO. The secondary air at high
speed is fed at right angles to the gases moving upward from the green coal
region to create turbulence for thorough mixing.
The fuel bed section (Figure 2.22) of stokers based on underfeed principle
has distinct regions of ash, incandescent coke and green coal from top to bottom.
Coal, coke and ash in the fuel bed move in the same direction as that of air
and gases. The point of air admission is above the point of coal admission.
 Thermal Power Plant 57

Flame
Ashes ,YY!.- I.
Secondary air
9wgr,,,589, 199' ,2;
ITCIAzr 17 17 v Zip `C/ 4— Incandescent coke
v pk:lat Cl`Q'ovp QZPCI Q'CMQVM
!!:Zr! inea f 3Wei 3 Inr,14- Green coal
I w
la
1NINF llaNINti- Grate
I- A
lei IF
Primary airiTr %
7 Primary air

Figure 2.22 Underfeed fuel bed section.

The coal from hoppers is fed by a screw conveyor or ram at the front of the
furnace into the bottom of horizontal or slightly inclined retorts (vessels of
long neck). The entering raw coal (green coal) gradually pushes the coke in
upward direction on the furnace bed. In underfeed principle the primary air
entering through the holes in the grate first comes in contact with the raw
coal and picks up moisture. Then it passes through the distillation zone where
volatile matter is added. Gases next moves through incandescent coke region
where reactions are similar to overfeed principle and breaking of molecular
structure of volatile matter takes place. The gases produced in incandescent
coke region then pass through a layer of ash. The secondary air is supplied
at the top to burn the combustible gases.
In overfeeding, the volatile matter leaves through the region of raw coal
which is at the stage of loosening moisture. Thus, volatile matter will be at
low temperature and more time is required to completely burn volatile matter
in furnace. The overfeed stokers are suitable for the coals low in volatile
matter. For semi-bituminous and bituminous coals high in volatile matter
and with caking tendency, the stokers based on underfeed principle are best
suited. In underfeed stoker the volatile matter leaving from the green coal
region successively passes through the region of incandescent coke and ash,
and volatile matter is at higher temperature. However, in underfeed stokers
the grate as well as ash is at high temperature.
The stokers may be classified into the following based on the ways of
feeding coal onto the grate.
(a) Overfeed stokers:
(i) Chain grate stoker
(ii) Travelling grate stoker
(iii) Spreader stoker
(b) Underfeed stokers:
(i) Single retort type stoker
(ii) Multiple retort type stoker
The chain grate stoker and travelling grate stoker are also termed conveyor
stoker. Chain grate stoker and travelling grate stoker differ only in grate construction.
58 Power Plant Engineering

Chain grate stoker: A chain grate stoker (Figure 2.23) consists of an endless
chain formed by connecting longitudinal bars or links by transverse pins. Chain
supports the fuel bed and travels over two sprocket wheels, one at the front
and the other at the rear of furnace. The travelling chain receives coal at its
front end through a hopper and carries it into the furnace. A coal gate at the
rear of hopper by raising or lowering the gate regulates the depth of fuel bed.
Adjustable coal gate

Coal

Secondary
air

Ash-±-4 Rear Front sprocket

sprocket Primary air through dampers
Figure 2.23 Chain grate stoker.

The simultaneous adjustment of sprocket wheel speed, fuel bed thickness and air
flow controls the combustion rate so that only ash remains on the grate when
it reaches to rear sprocket wheel. The ash is tipped from the grate as it turns
on the rear sprocket wheel to make the return trip. When the longitudinal bars
pass over the rear sprocket wheel, the movement of sprockets and longitudinal
bars relative to each other helps to dislodge clinkers adhering to grate.
The combustion of volatile matter and gases produced due to coking
of green coal is done efficiently by deflecting them downwards toward
bed by providing a front ignition arch. A rear furnace arch covering the
stoker helps to mix the combustible gases and air to complete burning,
maintain high temperature and reduces the amount of fine particles leaving
with gases. The fuel bed becomes thinner toward the furnace rear and
therefore, reduced quantity of air is required toward the furnace rear.
The undergrate pressure is varied by mean of dampers to control the quantity
of air over grate.
The chain grate stoker is suitable for low ratings because the coal must be
burnt before it reaches the rear of the furnace. Further the coal having high
ash percentage (>20%) is difficult to burn efficiently.
Travelling grate stoker: The travelling grate or bar grate stoker is similar
to chain grate stoker except that it is made up of a series of cast iron bars
 Thermal Power Plant 59

joined together by links to form an endless belt. Its action and operation is
similar to the chain grate stoker.
Spreader stoker: In a spreader stoker (Figure 2.24) the coal from the hopper
is fed onto a feeder, which can be reciprocating ram, endless belt, spiral worm,
etc. Generally feeder is a rotating drum fitted with short blades. The speed of
rotating feeder varies according to the requirement. Feeder takes coal from the

xwerel

Furnace
Feeder Fuel bed
Spreader 1•1
•W 111,

11r
•• 11/ MO' 11•1.
••// 1•1 w//
7.4
-mr ,!,;ff r•••
Air .
715,
'sr mnor

Dumping Primary
grate air
Wind box and ash pit
Figure 2.24 Spreader stoker.

bottom of the hopper and drops onto a rotating spreader below. The spreader is
a distributor which spreads the coal over the furnace bed. The spreader should
distribute the coal evenly over the entire grate area. The spreader consists of a
shaft carrying paddles alternatively inclined to the left and right of the furnace
centre line. Paddles hit the coal particles falling on them and throw into the
furnace. The finer coal particles burn in suspension and coarser particles are
consumed on the grate. The cast iron bars of the grate are connected by links
to a lever, which can be moved back and forth to facilitate the fall of ash.
A wide variety of fuel can be burnt easily by this stoker. There is less
clinker formation because ash is cooled by the incoming air. In this stoker
some part of fuel burns in suspension and fly ash is discharged with flue gases
which require efficient dust collecting equipment. It is necessary to size the
fuel properly for a spreader stoker.
Underfeed stokers: Underfeed stokers may be single retort or multiple retort
stokers. Figure 2.25 shows a single retort stoker. Retort is a trough-shaped long
vessel into which coal is pushed by rams or screws. The cross section of retort
is rectangular and the retort is slightly inclined (10 to 20°) with horizontal.
The distributing ram (pusher) reciprocates back and forth. The system of
distributing rams operating simultaneously with the main ram slowly pushes
the entire coal bed down the length of retort and prevent the rising of coal
60 Power Plant Engineering

Coal hopper Dumping Tuyers

grate

Front wall of the furnace Coal retort

1111
111$14 Extension grate
Ram
4:6
Ash Ash pit Air Ash pit
Air Tuyers pit plenum

Longitudinal section Transverse section

Figure 2.25 Single retort stoker.

near the front end. The length of stroke of pushers can be varied as desired.
The slope of retort with horizontal helps in moving the fuel bed and keep it
slightly agitated to break up clinker formation. Fuel bed is quite thick and it
may be up to 60 cm at the front gate. Coal forms a thick sloping pile over
the whole surface of the grate and carbonization proceeds from above to
downward. The primary air enters the fuel bed through tuyers located above
and to the sides of the coal pile. The primary air to the tuyers is supplied
from the main wind box situated below the stoker. Due to thick fuel bed the
air supplied from the main wind box should be at a higher pressure. At the
rear of the retort the partly burned fuel bed moves on to the extension grate.
A thinner fuel bed on the extension grate requires lower air pressure under it.
The air entering from the main wind box into the extension grate wind box
is regulated by an air damper. The ash from the extension grate moves on to
the tilted ash dumping plate which deposits the ash in ash pit. As sufficient
amount of coal always remains on the grate, this stoker can be used for large
boilers to obtain high rates of combustion.
Increase in burning capacity of single retort stoker cannot be obtained
simply building larger (longer and wider) retort. The width of retort is limited
due to inability to obtain even air distribution from the sides of wide retort.
Thus, multi-retorts are used to increase the burning capacity. The multiple retort
stoker consists of a series of alternate retorts and tuyer boxes for supply of
air. In multiple retort stoker, the retorts are set side by side according to the
width of the furnace. The number of retorts may be 10 to 20.

Pulverized coal firing system

In pulverized coal firing coal is powdered to dust-like size to increase its surface
area. Greater surface area per unit mass of coal permits faster and efficient
combustion because more carbon becomes exposed to heat and oxygen.
The coal is pulverized in the mill where it is ground to a powder form.
This powdered coal is dried and carried with the help of hot and cold (tempering)
 Thermal Power Plant 61
air mixture from the primary air fan through coal pipes to the burners into
furnace. The primary air fan takes atmospheric air, a part of which is sent to
air preheaters for heating while a part goes directly to the mill for temperature
control. If the temperature of hot primary air is very high, then some volatile
matter from powdered coal may distill off leading to a fire hazard.
Atmospheric air from force draft fan is heated in the air preheaters and
sent to the burners into furnace as combustion or secondary air. The amount
of secondary air is about 70% of the total air. Burners make the mixing
of coal, primary air and hot secondary air. High temperature flame in the
furnace heats the entering coal particles to distill off the volatile matters and
coal particles change to minute sponges like masses of fixed carbon and ash.
The volatile matters mix with oxygen of air and burn quickly. Oxygen of air
also reacts with carbon surfaces to liberate heat energy. The maximum amount
of the ash formed due to combustion is carried by the flue gas as fly ash and
some amount falls to the furnace bottom as bottom ash. Efficient dust removal
system such as electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is must with pulverized coal
firing system. Pulverized coal firing is now preferred in coal fired thermal
power plant to stoker because of certain inherent advantages.
Advantages
1. Faster combustion rate is possible because powdered coal has more
exposed surface area.
2. Because of faster combustion reaction, low percentage of excess air is
required to complete the combustion and less fan power is required.
3. Low percentage of excess air and efficient combustion due to thorough
mixing results in high furnace temperature which is favourable for
steam generation at higher temperature or at higher rate.
4. Inferior grade coal can be burnt easily.
5. It can utilize highly preheated air (250 to 420°C) which promotes rapid
combustion as well as reduces the heat carried by the exhaust flue gas.
6. Fly ash is suitable for making bricks.
7. It is free from clinker troubles.
8. Fast response to load changes
9. Higher boiler efficiency
10. It can work alternately with or in combination with gas and oil firing
system.
Disadvantages
1. It requires added investment for pulverizing equipment.
2. Additional power is required to grind the coal.
3. It produces more fly ash (fine dust going with flue gas) which requires
efficient dust removal system like ESP.
4. Due to high flame temperature the conventional types of refractory
lined furnaces are inadequate. It is desirable to provide water cooled
walls for the safety of the furnaces.
62 Power Plant Engineering
5. Large volume of furnaces is required to permit desired heat release
and to withstand high temperature.
Main systems in pulverized coal firing: A pulverized coal firing system must
be capable of operating continuously to meet variable load demands.
It comprises pulverizing, delivery and burning equipment. In pulverized fuel
firing raw coal is supplied to primary crusher for breaking it into the required
feed size of 30 mm or below. The crushed coal is passed through a magnetic
separator to remove tramp iron pieces. The crushed coal is then dried and
stored in bunkers. Flue gas instead of hot air may also be used for drying if
the moisture content in coal is very high. From the coal bunker coal is taken
to pulverizer (pulverizing mill). Various functions performed by pulverizer
are: drying of coal for effective grinding, grinding, separation of desired size
particles, forming proper primary air and coal ratio, and control over these
processes. Hot air passed through the pulverizer not only removes moisture
but also carries finer particles to the burner by separating coarser particles.
Hot air passed through the pulverizer carries the product to the classifier,
from which large particles are returned for further grinding. The adjustment
of hot air temperature and quantity to suit the moisture content of coal and
to convey the required amount of finer particles to the burner is a necessary
function of the pulverizer.
Pulverizing mill: Grinding in the pulverizer is performed by impact, attrition
(abrasion), crushing or combination of these. Impact or hammer mills employ
hammers or beaters mounted on a shaft and moving in a casing at a high speed
of about 225 rpm. The coal is thrown against a breaker plate or paddles and
is broken by the hammering action of the paddles.
In the attrition mill, smooth surface of rollers move in a rotating bowl, and
act as the grinding tool. The bowl mill is widely used for grinding the coal.
This is an intermediate speed pulverizer. The mill consists of a round metallic
table rotated with the help of a motor. There are three large steel rollers which
are spaced 120° apart. When there is no coal, these rollers does not rotate but
when the coal is fed to the table it packs up between roller and the table and
this forces the rollers to rotate. Coal is crushed by the crushing action between
the rollers and rotating table. Adjustments of the rollers with respect to the
grinding action ring ensure proper size of the products.
The crushing mills employ steel balls as the crushing element moving in a
rotating horizontal cylindrical container made of steel. The cylinder is rotated at
18 to 25 rpm. Due to tumbling action, the steel balls strike against coal particles
reducing them to powder by combined impact, attrition and crushing action.
Feeding systems: There are three main feeding systems:
1. Bin or storage or central system
2. Direct firing or unit system
3. Semi-direct firing system
 Thermal Power Plant 63
In bin (storage) or central system, the powder coal from a central pulverizer
is stored in bin or bunker from where powder coal is conveyed to various
burners through separate feeders according to the requirement. In unit or
direct firing system a separate pulverizer unit is provided for each burner and
powder coal is conveyed directly to burner. There is no storage provision of
powder coal in unit system. The semi-direct firing system is a combination of
unit and central systems.
Central system was used in early power plant installations; however,
practically all modern power plants use the unit or direct firing system where
pulverized coal from the mill is supplied directly to the furnace. The lack of
storage of the pulverized coal eliminates a fire hazard.
Bin or storage or central system: In bin system (Figure 2.26), crushed coal
from the raw coal bunker is dried in a dryer where hot air/waste flue gas is
passed through the coal. The dry coal is then transferred to the pulverizing
mill. From the pulverizer mill, the pulverized coal passes through a classifier
or separator which rejects and returns the oversize particles to the mill.
The hot air or flue gas forced through pulverizer mill dries and carries pulverized
coal from the classifier to the cyclone separator. The transporting air or flue
gas is separated from the coal in the cyclone separator. The separated air from
the coal powder is returned to the mill circuit by an exhauster fan. From the
cyclone separator, the pulverized coal is delivered to a bin (bunker). Motor
driven feeder takes coal from bin in metered quantity. The primary air is mixed
with the coal at the feeder and the mixture is supplied to the burner. The bin
system has the following advantages:

Raw coal
Pulverized coal
bunker
bunker

TAI\A‘
Screw conveyor
V Primary air fan
Cold air or Furnace
flue gas Separator

L v Burner
Feeder
A Mill
Hot air or flue gas
Cold (tempering) air —•
•
Forced draft fan
Figure 2.26 Indirect firing or bin system of pulverized coal.
64 Power Plant Engineering

1. Amount of coal and coal to air ratio can be accurately controlled.

2. The mill may be shut-off during the peak load period if auxiliary power
saving is important.
3. Less mill capacity is needed since mills always operate to their full
capacity irrespective of the plant load.
4. The boiler room may be kept clean by housing bin system in a separate
hall outside the boiler room.
However, as mentioned earlier, bin system is not favoured in modern power
plants due to the following disadvantages:
1. Large capital investment due to greater number of auxiliary units, i.e.
feeding equipment, conveyers, storage bins, cyclones, primary air fans etc.
2. Large building space is required for cyclone and other auxiliary units.
3. Higher auxiliary power requirement.
4. Safety arrangement is must to prevent fire hazard of stored pulverized
coal.
Direct firing or unit system: In direct firing or unit system (Figure 2.27) the
pulverizer together with feeder, separator and fan are arranged to form a complete
unit. Each unit supplies primary air and pulverized coal mixture to a burner or a
burner group. The number of units required depends upon the capacity of the boiler.

Air preheated
-111,C°
Forced draft fan

Raw coal
bunker Secondary air -*

Furnace
Primary air and coal
Burner
Cold air o
X Exhaust fan
flue gas Separator

Primary air fan

Mill
Hot air or flue gas Hot air from air preheater and
cold (tempering) air from FD fan
Figure 2.27 Direct firing or unit system of pulverized coal.

In direct firing or unit system crushed coal is fed to the pulverizing mill
at a variable rate governed by the combustion requirements of the boiler and
furnace. Pulverized coal is extracted via classifier by an exhaust fan which
discharges it with hot air to the burners. The secondary air in required amount
is supplied to the burner before coal enters into the furnace.
 Thermal Power Plant 65
This system has lower capital and operating costs, lower space requirements,
more simplicity, more safety and better plant cleanliness. This system allows
direct control of combustion from pulverizer and wide control range is possible
by varying the number of pulverizers/units. However, the disadvantages of
this system are:
1. Coal preparation plant of pulverizer has to operate under fluctuating
conditions according to the boiler demands.
2. Degree of flexibility is less than central system.
3. Strict maintenance of unit is required as there is no reserve pulverized
coal.
Semi-direct firing system: In semi-direct firing system a cyclone separator
between the pulverizer and furnace separates the conveying medium (air, flue
gases) from the pulverized coal. From the cyclone pulverized coal falls by
gravity in a pipeline leading towards burner. The hot air separated from the
cyclone is sucked by the primary air fan and forced through pipeline to convey
coal into furnace through the burner.
Pulverized coal burners: Pulverized coal burners (Figure 2.28) should prepare
two individual flows of primary air-powder coal mixture and secondary air
Primary air and coal

Tangential Secondary
firing air
circle
A'

(a) Tangential burner

Secondary air

Primary air Furnace wall

Mixing zone
♦ Suction of
Scroll for gases to flames
primary air
*Flow path for
Scroll for primary air may
secondary air also be straight
instead of vortex
(b) Two scroll turbulent burner
Figure 2.28 Pulverized coal burners.
66 Power Plant Engineering
for ignition and active burning in the furnace. The tertiary air may also be
admitted in the furnace for efficient combustion with minimum excess air.
Burner should create a turbulent environment for thorough mixing and sucking
hot furnace gases for preheating. Coal air mixture should move away from the
burner at a rate equal to flame front travel in order to prevent flashback into
the burner. Though, it should maintain stable combustion of coal but the flame
velocity and length of the flame produced should not be excessive. Burners
may be classified as follows:
1. Based on the cross section: The pulverized coal burners may
be circular cross section and slot or rectangular cross section type.
In circular burner the primary air and powder coal mixture is delivered
into furnace through a cylindrical tube, and the secondary air is delivered
through a separate tube.
2. Based on method of mixing: Based on the method of mixing of
secondary air, the burner may be straight flow burner and turbulent
burner.
In straight flow burner mixing of primary air-powder coal mixture
and secondary air is external to burner and in the furnace space.
In straight flow burner, primary air-powder coal mixture and secondary
air is blown as parallel jets and their mixing is achieved by properly
arranging a number of such burners on the furnace walls. One such
arrangement of burners is tangential burners. Burners are set in the
furnace corners and directed tangentially to an imaginary circle in the
centre of the furnace.
In the turbulent or vortex burner mixing of primary air-powder
coal mixture and secondary air takes place in the burner itself before
entering the furnace. In the turbulent burner, a vortex motion is imparted
to the primary air-powder coal mixture and also to the secondary air
for uniform mixing of these streams just at the entry to the furnace.
The flame is short and hot, and fuel having high volatile matter can
be burnt easily in the turbulent burner.

Cyclone burners
In cyclone burner crushed coal particles (not pulverized) are burnt in vortex
suspension. Cyclone burner is now widely used to burn inferior quality coal
having high ash and moisture content.
The cyclone (Figure 2.29) is a water-cooled cylinder arranged externally to
the boiler furnace. The diameter of the cylinder is about 2 to 4 m and its length
is 1.2 to 1.3 times its diameter. The axis of the cylinder is slightly inclined with
the horizontal towards the boiler furnace so that molten ash flows through the
molten slag-tap opening to an ash disposal system. The cylinder (cyclone) is
provided with a single scroll type inlet at one end and a gas discharge throat
at the boiler end. The crushed coal (6 mm size or less) along with primary
 Thermal Power Plant 67
Secondary air Secondary air
Primary air and ,, Primary air and
crushed coal Wall of crushed coal
1
r EM wi boiler

r ,_ i\ 7 . : 4—
' Throat
=
ME . _ .- -\ -mac
'
Tertiary A— Slag
air tap-hole
Cyclone cylinder
Tertiary air
Figure 2.29 Cyclone burner.

air at a pressure (1.1 bar) higher than atmospheric is admitted in the cylinder
through the scroll type inlet to create a strong and highly turbulent vortex.
The secondary air at high speed is separately admitted tangentially at the top
of the cyclone, which further imparts centrifugal motion to the coal particles.
A small amount of tertiary air is also admitted at the centre of cyclone.
Extremely high heat release rate due to whirling motion of crushed coal and air,
and the use of preheated air cause high temperatures (2000°C) in the cyclone.
The combustion of coal is completed before the resulting hot gases enter the
boiler furnace. The high temperature in the cyclone melts the ash into a liquid
slag that drains through the slag-tap opening to a slag tank at the furnace bottom.
The cyclone burner has the following advantages:
(i) More than 60% of ash in coal is removed as liquid slag through
the slag tank. Thus, less than 40% ash leaves with flue gases, this
reduces erosion and fouling of boiler surfaces as well as the size of
dust collection equipments.
(ii) Only crushed coal is used and no pulverization is required.
(iii) It can burn low grade coal.
The disadvantages of cyclone burner are higher power requirement by
forced draft fan and formation of relatively more NO„ due to high temperature.

Fluidized bed combustion

Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology in which solid
fuel is burned in suspended state entrained along with limestone and particles
of sand in an upward flow of turbulent air. The use of FBC is increasing
rapidly due to:
(i) possibility of burning fuels which are difficult to burn using other
technologies
(ii) low emission of nitric oxides
(iii) the possibility of removing sulphur in a simple manner by using
limestone as bed material
68 Power Plant Engineering
A fluidized bed has characteristic similar to those of fluid. The turbulent
mixing of gas and solids, and the tumbling action of solids much like a
bubbling fluid in a FBC provide more favourable conditions for chemical
reactions and heat transfer. The FBC provides more consistent and efficient
combustion and can burn wide variety of fuels including low grade fuel and
wastes like colliery tailings.
The FBC system comprises inert particle such as sand through which air
is passed via a distributor plate at the bottom. The fuel bed contains only a
small fraction (1 to 2%) of combustible material. The inert particles (sand)
takes the heat released by combustion and keeps the temperature in the furnace
below that at which ash melts. The temperature in the furnace is controlled in
the range of 800°C to 950°C. The heat from the bed is removed by installing
cooling tubes through which water flows to generate steam. In a FBC unit
dolomite or limestone is added either in fluidized bed or mixed with the coal
in the form of paste. The limestone or dolomite acts as a sorbent and permits
effective capture of sulphur in solid form from flue gases. A low (850°C)
combustion temperature is required to be maintained for sulphur retention or
absorption of sulphur oxides by the lime. The low combustion temperature also
leads to low NO), formation and prevent the ash fusion. Limestone precipitate
out sulphate during combustion and this heated precipitate coming in direct
contact with the cooling tubes allows more efficient heat transfer.
The FBC has some disadvantages such as erosion on the tubes inside the
boiler, uneven temperature distribution caused by clogs on the air inlet of the
bed and long starting time.
The FBC systems can be classified as follows:
1. Atmospheric fluidized bed combustion (AFBC) system.
2. Pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) system.
The pressure of combustion air in AFBC system is atmospheric pressure
while PFBC system operates at elevated pressures to produce a high pressure
flue gas that after cleaning is expanded in a gas turbine. Based on the velocity
of air in the fuel bed, both AFBC and PFBC may be further sub-classified
as bubbling fluidized bed combustion (BFBC) and circulating fluidized bed
combustion (CFBC). The Bubbling FBC designs retain the material near the
bottom of the furnace, while the fast or circulating FBC designs allow bed
material to move upward and then returned near the bottom of the bed after
separation for further combustion.
Principle of fluidized bed combustion: Figure 2.30 shows a bed of particles
over a perforated grid or distributor plate to understand the principle of fluidized
bed combustion. When air is passed at low velocity through a fixed or packed
bed of particles over a perforated grid or distributor plate it simply flows
through the interstitial gap between particles. In this case drag force exerted
by the air on the particles or pressure drop per unit cross sectional area of the
 Thermal Power Plant 69
*at low air velocity the pressure drop or drag force is less than weight of
particles, at critical or minimum fluidization velocity drag force equals to
weight of particle and at terminal velocity force exceeds weight of particle

Particles on 1Z/ CI 1Z/

distributor plate Rise zi
~v v=,P=rG! v `zr
G! 'PG!
g az'
C7r7
Zi GI = ZC/P‘z,
Q‘Z zr c/V ‘zr

Air Air Air

Packed bed at low Bubbling bed at air Fast fluidized bed
air velocity velocity in between at air velocity more
critical velocity and than terminal
terminal velocity velocity of particles
Figure 2.30 Principle of fluidized bed combustion.

bed is less than the weight of the particles per unit cross sectional area of the
bed. In stoker firing coal is burned by keeping such low air velocity and the
particles do not move relative to each other.
If the air velocity is increased gradually, then a stage will arrive at which
the drag force exerted by the air becomes equal to the weight of the particle.
The air velocity at this stage is termed critical velocity or minimum fluidization
velocity. At critical velocity particles are fixed to bed, and fuel/particle bed
is in fixed bed regime. For velocity more than critical velocity the drag force
exerted by the air becomes more than the weight of the particles. Due to
this particles are buoyed up and some particles disengage from the air to fall
back into dense bed. The bed of particles in such state (buoyed up and fall
back of particles) is termed bubbling fluidized bed and particle movement is
like turbulent flow of fluid. The air or gas velocity in bubbling fluidized bed
depending on the particle size is around 1-3 m/s.
The bubbling fluidized bed regime continues with increase in velocity more
than the critical velocity till a stage is reached when particles are entrained
in the air stream. The air velocity at this stage is termed terminal velocity.
This terminal velocity is equal to the terminal velocity of falling particle in a
fluid atmosphere at which drag force becomes equal to weight of particle and
particle fall at constant velocity under the influence of gravity. The maximum
velocity of air for bubbling fluidized bed or to avoid entrainment of particles
should be less than or equal to terminal velocity of smallest particle in the
bed. The bed of particles is in bubbling fluidized bed regime for velocity of
air in between critical velocity and terminal velocity.
For velocity of air more than the terminal velocity the entrained particles are
carried away by the air stream and bed may eventually become empty if further
particles are not added to bed. The bed of particles in such state (entrainment
and carry away of particles) is termed fast or circulating fluidized bed and
particle movement is highly diffused. The air or gas velocity in fast fluidized
70 Power Plant Engineering
bed depending on the particle size is around 5-10 m/s. In a fast fluidized bed
which is also termed circulating fluidized bed, the particles (unburned fuel)
elutriated by the fluidizing gas are recovered in a separator and returned to
the base of the furnace. The time required to burn the fuel is more than the
time required to devolatize it. The mass and size of fuel particle reduces with
progress of combustion, fragmentation due to thermal stresses and attrition.
Thus, these small fine fuel particles are elutriated by the gas and need to be
recovered in the separator.
Circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC): Figure 2.31 shows a
schematic of fast or circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC) system. In
CFBC system the furnace is divided in three distinct zones, namely lower zone,
upper zone and separator zone. In lower zone primary air fluidizes the furnace and
this zone is below the entry of secondary air. Coal and sorbent from fuel
feed section and unburned char from separator zone is received in this zone.
The amount of primary air is about 40-80% of the total required for combustion.
Thus, devolatization of fuel and partial combustion of char take place in this
zone. The lower zone is refractory lined to protect the cooling tubes from
corrosion. The upper zone is taller than the lower zone. In the upper zone
combustion of most of the char particles brought from the lower zone by
secondary air takes place. The gases along with unburned char particles go
around the refractory lined cyclone separator zone where char particles are
separated and fall by gravity in the lower zone.

I flue gases
Cyclone
VI VI

Secondary
combustion •••

4 /7/ .11
Final superheater

Superheater Primary superheater

Secondary w
Upper zone
air Economizer

Secondary air
itowertt
L zone
4]
•If
Air heaters
Water walls II II

VI
VI VI
VW
VI VI VI VW
1/ V/
VI V/ VW V/ To chimney
Fuel and sorbent V/ Vir III V/ V/ VI

Primary air

Figure 2.31 Fast fluidized bed combustion system.

 Thermal Power Plant 71
Pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC): The objective of PFBC is
to generate the high pressure flue gases that after cleaning can be expanded
through a gas turbine. In PFBC (Figure 2.32) air from compressor is supplied
at elevated pressures (12 bar or more) to combustor. The fuel in PFBC is fed
into the bed as a paste through fuel nozzles using piston pumps. Fuel paste is
prepared in mixer and paste is mixture of crushed coal (0-6 mm), limestone
(0-3 mm) and water. Hot pressurized flue gases leaving the bed are cleaned
by cyclones and ceramic filter. The clean-up of the flue gas before entry to
the gas turbines is must to prevent erosion, corrosion and fouling. The cleaned
flue gases then expand in gas turbine. The heat from gas turbine exhaust is
utilized to heat up the boiler feed water in a heat recovery heat exchanger.
PFBC system is used in conjunction with steam turbine as a bottoming unit.
There is growing interest in combining partial gasification with PFBC. Partial
gasification of coal can be carried out and char can be burnt in PFBC to
generate steam. Partial gasification and devolatization of coal is carried easily
in less time as compared to total gasification. The fuel gases from gasifier are
burnt in the combustion chamber of Brayton cycle to take advantage of higher
gas turbine inlet temperature.
Cyclone
4- Pressure vessel
Gas to turbine High pressure gases

Water
Coal and sorben
Steam to turbine
Mixer

Air Fuel slurry pump

Compressor ► Preheating of .1
compressed air
►
Figure 2.32 Pressurized fluidized bed combustion system.

Gasification of coal
One option of growing interest to coal burning utilities is that of coal
gasification in a gasifier. Coal gasification though an old technology is a clean
coal technology and it is important from the point of view of the emission
control. It is easy to obtain a very clean fuel by cleaning the fuel gas instead
of by cleaning the combustion gases due to complete combustion of coal.
Because volume flow rate of fuel gas is less than 1% of exhaust gases due to
complete combustion. Further, it is easier to remove H2S during gasification
than SO2 after combustion. Over 99% of the coal's sulphur is removed before
the gas is burned.
72 Power Plant Engineering

Modern gasification techniques in a gasifier are based on the continuous

generation of producer gas and water gas. On heating coal in the absence of
oxygen or air, coal is carbonized to coke while its volatiles are converted to
a by product gas. The coke on partial combustion yield producer gas which
is mixture of CO and N2. If steam is made to flow in highly hot bed of coke
instead of air then water gas is formed which is a mixture of CO and H2.
The water gas reaction is endothermic reaction and due to this bed gets cooled.
The alternate production of producer gas and water gas can be carried out by
supplying air and oxygen in sequence till the fuel bed exhausts.
A gasifier (Figure 2.33) is a pressure vessel where coal and limestone
are fed and the coal is gasified by continuously supplying air (oxygen) and
steam in the gasifier. Coal is first ground into sand-like powder. The powdered
coal is preheated and dried to reduce caking. The ash and limestone form a
molten slag which is removed from the bottom of the gasifier and synthetic
gas (syngas) is produced by partial oxidization. The syngas is a mixture of
CO, H2 and N2. Depending on the gasification steps, coal gasification results

Product gas to
Coal gas clean up
Water
Coal lock
Product Cyclone
gas
Ash sludge Coal and
limestone
Coal feeder
Grate Distributor plate
4- Oxidant and
Oxidant and
Ash lock Ash lock steam
steam
Ash Ash and gypsum
(a) Fixed bed updraft (b) Fluidized bed

Coal slurry

Oxidant and steam 7 Coal lock

Product
gas
Ash sludge
Water
Steam
Ash lock
Gas cooler
Ash
(c) Entrained flow
Figure 2.33 Gasifiers for gasification of coal.
 Thermal Power Plant 73
into low heating value gas, medium heating value gas and high heating value
gas. However, mainly low heating value gas termed syngas is produced in
gasifiers. To produce medium heating value gas a shift reaction with steam is
used to produce more hydrogen, while to produce high heating value gas a
catalytic (nickel catalyst) methanation at high temperature (1100°C) and pressure
(7 bar) is to be further carried out.
Gasifiers can be operated either at atmospheric pressure or elevated pressure.
Pressurized gasifiers are of interest for combined cycle plants where gas from
gasifier at about 20 bar is to be expanded in gas turbine.

2.12 Ash Handling

Coal contains about 20 to 30% ash and in a coal fired thermal power plant the
ash is produced in huge quantity. Depending on the capacity of power plant,
hundreds of tons of ash may have to be handled every day and mechanical
means are to be used for this. In a coal based thermal power plant, the ash
which is collected at the furnace is termed bottom ash while ash collected from
flue gases by using ash separator equipments (fabric filter, ESP) is termed fly
ash. In a pulverized fuel firing the percentage of fly ash is about 80% and that
of bottom ash is 20%. In case of solid coal firing the percentage of bottom ash
is more. The handling of ash includes its removal from the furnace or flue gas
path (economiser, air preheater), loading on the conveyors and delivered to the
fill or dump from where it can be disposed off. The collected ash is conveyed
to the site of dump using equipment similar to that used for coal handling.
In power plants ash from the dump is usually disposed off by auction to the
contractors for the following uses:
(a) Fly ash can be used for making concrete and pozzolona cement.
This cement can replace the normal cement in concrete by 10 to 30%
depending on the applications. Even the fly ash is used as an ingredient
for the manufacture of cement by the cement industries.
(b) Fly ash can be used for making bricks or building blocks by adding
it to clay.
(c) Bottom ash can be used as load bearing fill material for filling the
trench or during road construction.
The handling of bottom ash is a serious problem because of the following
reasons:
1. Ash coming out of the furnace is hot.
2. Ash is abrasive and wears out the containers.
3. Ash is dusty and irritating to handle.
4. Ash is accompanied by some poisonous gases.
5. Ash has corrosive action.
6. Ash forms clinkers by fusing together in lumps.
74 Power Plant Engineering

It is desirable to water quench the bottom ash before handling, to reduce the
temperature and corrosive action of ash. The quenching of ash prevents clinker
formation and disintegrates large clinker. It reduces the ash to a dustless condition
and the water is used as a seal to prevent uncontrolled air entering the boiler.
The commonly used ash handling systems are as follows:
(a) Hydraulic system: This system is most widely used for bottom ash
handling. Hydraulic system (Figure 2.34) is either low pressure hydraulic
system used for continuous removal of ash or high pressure system which
is used for intermittent ash disposal. The high pressure system is used for
pulverized coal fired boilers where bottom ash is less. In these systems ash
from the furnace grate falls in a sluice trough or channel below the grate and
is carried away to the sumps by water flowing at high velocity. In the sump,
water and ash are separated by using screens. Water is recirculated again for
quenching and ash removal purpose. The separated ash is transferred to the
dump site in wagons, rail, cars or trucks.
Boilers Ash disposal
*Bottom ash from furnace
falls in channel
Water Screen
Sumps (*used
alternatively
Channel or trough for settling out)
carrying water and ash

Pump
Figure 2.34 Plan of Hydraulic ash handling system.

(b) Pneumatic conveyor system: This system is the most widely used for
fly ash handling. This system is suitable to handle fine dusty material such as
fly ash and fine coal. In pneumatic conveyor system (Figure 2.35), ash from
the boiler furnace outlet or flue gas path falls into a crusher where larger ash
particles are crushed to small sizes. The crushed ash from crusher is sucked and
carried away by a high velocity air through a pipeline. The air is then passed
through the primary and secondary separators (dust collectors) where removed
dry ash falls in hoppers. Ash from the hoppers is transported to the point of
delivery. Air leaving the ash separator is passed through filter to remove dust
before exhausting in the atmosphere.
(c) Mechanical ash handling system: Belt conveyors are used for handling
of ash, but the ash is thoroughly quenched before feeding to the conveyor
belt. In this system ash cooled by water falls through a water seal over the
belt conveyor. The ash is continuously carried by the conveyor to the bunker
and ash from the ash bunker is then removed to the dumping site with the
help of trucks.
 Thermal Power Plant 75

Ash from economizer hopper,

air preheater hopper, ESP or
dust collectors Secondary separator

Crushers ni— Filter

Ash intake connections 1C1)4— Exhaust fan

—*Air

Pipe carrying air and ash Primary 4—Ash hooper

separator
To fill area or for sale 4-0 u
Figure 2.35 Pneumatic ash handling system.

(d) Water jetting: In this method a low pressure jet of water coming out
of the quenching nozzle is used to cool the ash. The ash falls into a trough
and is then removed.

2.13 Dust Collection

In coal fired furnaces the exhaust gases leaving the boiler contain solid matter
particles in suspension. The suspended particle may be smoke, dust, fly ash
and soot or cinder. The faulty or incomplete combustion produces smoke
consisting of particles size smaller than 10 µ (1 = 0.001 mm) in diameter.
The suspended particles larger than 1 in diameter are called dust and when
such particles become greater in size than 10 they are called cinders.
The incomplete combustion leads to formation of cinders formed by
agglomeration of carbon particles. The suspended ash particles in between
1 µ and 100 µ are called fly ash.
The exhaust of solid matter particles in atmosphere is not desirable as guided
by environmental regulations. To avoid smoke the coal should be completely
burnt in the furnace. The fly ash must be removed from the gaseous products
of combustion before leaving the chimney, to avoid the atmospheric pollution.
The dust and cinders from the flue gas is removed by commercial dust collectors
which are installed between the boiler outlet and chimney.
The various types of dust collectors are as follows:
1. Mechanical dust collectors
2. Fabric filters and bag houses
3. Electrostatic precipitators

2.13.1 Mechanical Dust Collectors

Mechanical dust collectors can be subdivided into wet and dry types. In wet
type dust collectors, also known as scrubbers, the dust is washed away from
76 Power Plant Engineering

the flue gas by water spray on it. However, the wet type collectors or scrubbers
are rarely used because large amount of water is needed. The basic principle
(refer to Figure 2.36) of dry type mechanical dust collector is based on
changing the velocity of flow either reducing velocity in magnitude or changing
in direction. The density difference of gas and particles causes the heavier
particles to separate due to more gravity force. The heavier particles may be
separated by providing baffles or obstruction in flow path, by increasing the
cross-sectional area of duct through which dust laden gases are passing and by
suddenly changing the direction of flow. By increasing the cross-sectional area
of duct the velocity of gases is reduced and heavier dust particles fall down.
Dry type dust collectors include gravitational, cyclone, louvered and baffle dust
collectors. Two main (dry type) mechanical dust collectors are discussed below.

41 .41 41
Gas Gas 41 41 '11 Gas

Baffles \
/
Dust Dust Dust 11.
Figure 2.36 Basic principle for dust separation.

Cinder catcher: Cinder catcher ordinarily used with stoker firing is used
to remove dust and cinders from the flue gas. It consists of a sheet chamber
having a number of baffles over which the gas is made to flow. The dust laden
gas is made to strike a series of vertical baffles that change its direction and
reduce its velocity. The separated dust and cinders fall to the hopper provided
at the bottom of sheet chamber.
Cyclone separator: As the name implies the cyclone separator utilizes the
centrifugal force created by whirling gas stream to separate the particles from
a gas. Figure 2.37 shows a vertical cyclone separator. The dust laden gas is
entered tangentially to the cyclone and forced to follow the curved geometry
of the cyclone. The gas stream executes several complete turns as it flows
from one end of the separator to the other end. At the bottom of the cyclone
the gas flow reverses to form the inner core that leaves at the top of the
unit. The dust laden gases move along the inner walls by downward vortex
flow while the clean gases leave from an inner core by upward vortex flow.
The centrifugal force (mv2/r) on the particles is quite higher than gravity force
(mg). Thus, the particles in the gas stream move progressively closer to outer
wall, where they collide and collected. The particles then fall down the wall
by gravity and collected at the bottom.
The dust separation efficiency or collection efficiency of cyclone separator
increases with increasing particle sizes, particle density, inlet gas velocity to
 Thermal Power Plant 77
Clean gas

Dirty gas Dirty gas

1110

Outer vortex

Inner vortex

Dust
(a) Front view (b) Top view
Figure 2.37 Cyclone separator.

cyclone, number of turns taken by the gas, body length of the cyclone, and
wall smoothness of cyclone. The dust collection efficiency of cyclone separator
decreases with increasing cyclone diameter, gas inlet area and gas outlet duct
diameter. The pressure drop (power of the fan) increases with decreasing cyclone
diameter and with increasing body length of the cyclone. For good collection
efficiency, multiple numbers of cyclones are used of smaller diameter instead
of large cyclone in a power plant.

2.13.2 Fabric Filters and Bag Houses

Fabric filters made of wool, cotton, nylon, glass fibre, polyester and aromatic
polyamides according to the temperature requirement are used to remove dust
particle from a gas stream. Fabric filters retain particulate matter while the
carrier gas flows out through the voids.
A fabric filter system termed bag house usually contains a large number
of fabric filter elements arranged in parallel rows. A bag house is normally
placed after the air preheater. A power plant bag house might contain several
thousand fabric filter element or bag. A fabric filter element is made in the
form of a hollow cylindrical tube to provide more surface area. The diameter of
fabric filter element ranges from 12 to 35 cm and height may be up to 12.5 m.
The fabric filter elements are of three basic types: reverse-air, shake-deflate,
and pulse-jet units. In the reverse-air fabric filter element the dirty gas flows
from the inside of bag to outside. The fabric filter elements have an open
bottom and closed top. The dust collects on inside surface while the clean gas
leaves the bag. For cleaning the fabric filter element the clean air is forced
through the filter element from outside or in reverse direction by keeping the
filter element offline with dirty gas. The clean air thus passed collapses the
bag and fracture the collected dust cake. When the bag is brought back on
78 Power Plant Engineering

line with dirty gas, it re-inflates and removes the broken dust cake into hopper
place below.
A shake-deflate unit is similar to reverse-air unit, except that to clean the
bag the top end is shaken by a drive linkage.
In pulse-jet unit the gas flow is from outside of the bag to inwards.
The fabric filter element has an open top and closed bottom. For this unit the
flue gas flow rate for the given amount of fabric surface is high compared to
previous two types. Due to compactness this unit is preferred for industrial
boilers. For cleaning, the high pressure air as a blast is passed momentarily
through the open top end of the bag by keeping the unit either offline or online.

2.13.3 Electrostatic Precipitators

The electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is efficient in precipitation of particles

from submicron to large sizes of particles and hence they are preferred to
mechanical dust collectors. The dust separation efficiency or collection efficiency
of ESP's is the order of 99.9%. The electrostatic precipitator is costly but has
low maintenance cost and is widely used in pulverized coal fired power plants
and many other industries.
The ESP (Figure 2.38) consists of a large chamber in which collecting and
discharge electrodes are suspended in a row. The two sets of electrodes are
40-80 kV dc
30 supply, 440 V, 50 Hz
Insulators
ti Clean gas

Rectifier Emitting electrodes

Control High voltage Dirty gas
cabinet transformer
Collecting electrode

Dust
(a) Basic elements
Emitting electrodes
(High voltage wires)

• • • i • • • •
• • • • • • •
Dirty gas • • • • • • • • ► Clean gas
• • • • • • • •
• • •A• • • • •
• • • • • • • •
+
Collecting electrodes Shell
(grounded plates)
(b) Top view
Figure 2.38 Electrostatic precipitator.
 Thermal Power Plant 79
insulated from each other and a high voltage electrostatic field is maintained
between them. The collecting electrodes are electrically grounded and are
made out of parallel steel plates with a special profile through which dust
laden gas flows. The discharge or emitting electrodes are kept in between each
pair of collecting electrodes and are made of thin steel wire of about 2.5 mm
diameter wound to a helical form. The emitting electrodes carry a unidirectional
negatively charged high voltage (between 20 kV and 100 kV) current from
an external dc source. Due to this a blue luminous glow, called a corona,
is produced around emitting electrodes. Electrical forces in corona accelerate
the free electrons present in the gas to form more electrons and positive gas
ions. The positive ions travel to the negatively charged wire electrodes, while
the electrons follow the electrical field toward grounded collecting electrodes.
The velocity of electrons decreases as they move away from corona region
around the emitting wire electrodes and these low velocity electrons are captured
by gas molecules to become negative gas ions. As these negative gas ions
move to the collecting electrodes they collide with the dust particle in the gas
stream and give them negative charge. The negatively charged dust particles
are attracted and collected by the positively charged collecting plates, and they
loose their charge to the ground. However, the electrical resistivity of the dust
particles cause only partial discharging to the ground and dust particles tend to
stick to the collecting plates. For this, the collecting plates at its lower portion
contain shock bars over which rapping hammer hit periodically to dislodge the
collected ash. Further, the ESP is also operated at high temperatures to decrease
the electrical resistivity of the dust particles for easy removal.

Review Questions

1. Dry saturated steam at 50 bar is supplied to steam turbine in a simple

Rankine cycle and pressure in the condenser is maintained at 0.1 bar.
If the power to be developed is 1 MW, the maximum temperature rise
of cooling water in condenser is limited to 10°C and calorific value of
coal used is 20,000 kJ/kg, calculate:
(a) cycle efficiency,
(b) steam consumption,
(c) cooling water flow rate,
(d) coal consumption.
2. Discuss the methods used to increase the thermal efficiency of a steam
power plant.
3. What is the mean temperature of heat addition and what is its effect
on cycle efficiency?
4. Why reheating of steam is necessary in thermal power plant? Discuss.
5. Discuss regenerative feed water heating.
80 Power Plant Engineering
6. Why is one of the feed water heaters always an open heater? Discuss.
7. Write a note on deaerator.
8. What are the advantages of cycles coupled in series?
9. Why has the mercury-steam cycle not gain commercial popularity?
10. Discuss the scope of gas turbine-steam turbine combined cycle plant
in the coming decades.
11. What is the integrated gasification combined cycle plant?
12. Draw flow sheet of a typical 220 MW capacity steam turbine driven
and coal fired thermal power plant.
13. Where are LP and HP feed water heaters located?
14. Discuss the factors considered for the site selection of the thermal
power plant.
15. How will you classify various types of boilers?
16. Write a short note on steam generator used in thermal power plant.
Also enlist its basic component.
17. What are the functions of the steam drum in a water tube boiler?
18. What is a water wall?
19. What are the drum internals?
20. What is a pendant superheater?
21. Where is reheater located?
22. What is the purpose of de-superheater?
23. Write a brief note on steam turbines.
24. What do you mean by priming and foaming?
25. Write a short note on feed water treatment.
26. Discuss the need of feed water treatment in thermal power plant.
Describe a few methods used for this.
27. What are the basic components of a demineralization plant?
28. What is internal treatment of feed water?
29. Write a short note on steam condensers.
30. Why is the temperature rise of cooling water in the condenser restricted?
31. Why is an air cooling section provided in the condensers?
32. What is condenser? Name the different types of condenser. Describe
the operation of
(i) surface condenser and
(ii) jet condenser.
33. What are the different types of cooling towers? Discuss any one.
34. Write a short note on dry and wet types of cooling towers. Explain an
indirect dry cooling tower.
 Thermal Power Plant 81
35. What are the elements of coal handling system in a thermal power
plant? Explain.
36. What is meant by 'overfeed' and 'underfeed' principles of firing coal?
37. Explain the working of:
(a) chain grate stoker
(b) spreader stoker and
(c) multiretort stoker.
38. Discuss the pulverized coal firing system.
39. Describe the various feeding systems used to fire pulverized coal.
40. State the advantages of pulverized fuel firing.
41. Write the function of primary air, secondary air and tempering air.
42. Describe the various types of burners used to burn pulverized coal.
43. Write a short note on cyclone burner.
44. What are the merits and demerits of using cyclone burner over the
other types of burners in a boiler?
45. Why is tertiary air required in a cyclone furnace?
46. What is fluidized bed combustion (FBC) system? Sketch and describe
a fluidized bed combustion system.
47. State the advantages of FBC system.
48. What is the advantage of using limestone or dolomite as the bed
material in a fluidized bed?
49. What is pressurized fluidized bed boiler?
50. What are the fractions of fly ash and bottom ash in a pulverized coal
boiler?
51. Name the various methods of ash handling. Describe the pneumatic
system of ash handling.
52. Why is it essential to quench the ash before handling?
53. What are the uses of fly ash?
54. What are the cyclone separators? Discuss.
55. What is a fabric filter?
56. Explain the operation of an electrostatic precipitator.
57. State the advantages and disadvantages of a steam power station as
compared to hydroelectric power station and nuclear power station.
 CHAPTER 3

Nuclear Power Plant

3.1 Introduction
Nuclear power plant is similar to steam power plant except that there is a
nuclear reactor and a heat exchanger instead of furnace and boiler. The heat
released by splitting of isotopes of radioactive elements such as uranium,
plutonium and thorium having odd mass number is utilized to generate the steam.
The steam is generated either directly in the reactor or in a heat exchanger.
The quality of steam generated is often wet or inferior to the steam generated
in fossil fuel fired power plant. The nuclear power plants may also be based
on Brayton cycle in which compressed gas (CO2 or inert gas) or compressed
air is heated in reactor or heat exchanger and is then expanded in gas
turbine.
The development of nuclear reactors for power production began after
World War II, when engineers and scientists engaged in the development of
the atomic bomb recognized that controlled nuclear fission chain reactions
could provide an excellent source of heat for the production of electricity.
The isotopes of radioactive elements having odd mass number can be readily
fissioned and hence, are termed fissile material. Fertile material is that which
can be converted into a fissile material in a nuclear reactor.
Nuclear power production begins with the mining of uranium. The ore is
processed and converted to a form that can be enriched in the U-235 isotope
so that it can be used efficiently in today's light-water-moderated reactors. The
reactor fuel is then fabricated into appropriate fuel forms for use in nuclear
power plants. The fuel spent (used) can then either be reprocessed or stored
for future disposition.
The ability of nuclear reactors to produce electricity economically and
safely without the generation of greenhouse gases has revitalized the interest
in nuclear power as an alternative energy source. Due to depletion of fossil
fuel reserves, nowadays, more prominence is being given to set up nuclear

82
 Nuclear Power Plant 83
power plants and in near future it may be one of the main sources for power
generation. It is estimated that the world's reserves of uranium and thorium are
respectively 25 million ton and 1 million ton. India is having vast reserves of
thorium. The supply of uranium is also very large, and if it is supplemented
with thorium, the fuel supply is seemingly unlimited. Further the unit cost of
power generation by nuclear power plant is now comparable to or even lower
than the unit cost in coal fired power plants in most parts of the world despite
high capital cost. The strategic importance of nuclear power lies primarily in
the fact that one large nuclear power plant saves more than 50,000 barrels of
oil per day. The combined efforts of many nations to develop secure energy
sources and a diversity of energy options, have resulted in the continuous
development of nuclear power plants to meet future energy needs. However,
we should learn the lesson from the nuclear disaster in Japan due to earthquake.
We should promote the energy conservation activities and the use of renewable
energy resources for our growing energy needs.

3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plant

3.2.1 Advantages

1. The heat released by fission chain reaction of 1 kg of uranium is

equivalent to the heat released by combustion of about 4500 tonnes
of better quality coal. Thus, fuel consumption/demand is less.
2. It requires less space as there is no demand of coal storage, coal
handling system, ash handling system and ash disposal.
3. It produces valuable fissile material, e.g. Th232 can be converted into
U233 in a nuclear reactor.
4. The cost of generation is comparable with fuel fired power plant.
5. The problems associated with environmental pollution, mine safety and
fuel transportation are less severe.
6. Nuclear power is also not as susceptible to fluctuation in fuel costs as
petroleum and natural gas.

3.2.2 Disadvantages

1. Danger of nuclear activity.

2. Health problems of workers may be due to probable exposure of workers
to radioactive emission.
3. Problem of radioactive waste disposal.
4. It can be used as a base load plant only and load factor must be high
for economic operation.
5. It requires more cooling water.
84 Power Plant Engineering
3.3 Site Selection of Nuclear Power Plant
The following factors are considered for the site selection of the nuclear
power plant:
1. For the safety reasons related to probable radiation hazards, the nuclear
power plant must be 15 to 30 km away from a town or densely populated
area.
2. The perennial source of river or adequate quantity of water must be
available for cooling and other purposes. A 400 MW plant requires about
100 million litres of water per hour. The thermodynamic efficiency of
nuclear power plant is less than fuel fired power plant due to wet steam
or inferior quality of steam generated, consequently more heat is to
be rejected in the condenser. Thus, nuclear power plant requires more
than twice the amount of cooling water required in a fuel fired power
plant for the same power output. It is obvious that cooling towers are
also must in nuclear power plant.
3. The foundation must be strong enough to bear the heavy load of reactor
and the other plant machinery. The bearing capacity of the soil must
be greater than 50 tonnes/m2.
4. Similar to other power plants, the nuclear power plants must be nearer to
transmission and load centre in order to reduce the cost of transmission
lines as well as losses during transmission.
5. There should be easy accessibility to the site, i.e. rail and road
transportation should be available for transport of machinery during
construction phase.
6. The radioactive waste either to be buried in the ground or in the deep
sea for disposal should also be considered.
7. Though fuel is not required in large quantity, but it must be available.
Similarly easy availability of coolant, moderators, etc., required for
plant operation must be there.

3.4 Nuclear Physics

The matter is composed of elements or molecules. The smallest part is atom
which comprises relatively heavy, positively charged nucleus and much lighter
electrons revolving in orbits around the nucleus. Protons and neutrons exist in
the nucleus and are termed nucleons. The number of protons which is equal
to the number of electrons is the atomic number 'Z' of the atom. The mass
number or number of nucleons 'A' is the sum of the number of neutrons
`N' and the number of protons. The nuclear symbols are written as zXA or
X(Z, A), where X is the chemical symbol. A few parameters of constituents
of atoms are:
 Nuclear Power Plant 85
Mass of proton = 1.007277 a.m.u.*
Mass of neutron = 1.008665 a.m.u.
Mass of electron = 0.0005486 a.m.u.
Charge of electron = 1.602 x 10-19 Coulomb
*1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) is equal to 1.66 x 10-27 kg
The isotopes are different form of an element having the same atomic
number but with different mass number, e.g. 92U233, 92u234, 92u235, 92u236,
and 92U238 are isotopes of uranium having the atomic number equal to 92.
The other example of isotopes is protium (1H1), deuterium (1H2), and tritium
(1IP), all of which are isotopes of hydrogen. When oxygen combines with
deuterium (1H2), heavy water (D20) is formed. Heavy water is used as
moderator and coolant in heterogeneous nuclear reactor. Tritium (1H3) is formed
in cosmic rays; it decays rapidly and can be formed by the action of neutron
on helium (2He4) nuclei. Isotopes of some elements are unstable and change
or disintegrate spontaneously. This phenomenon is termed radioactive decay.
Some elements are radioactive by nature and some can be rendered radioactive
artificially. The radioactive decay occurs due to the emission of electromagnetic
radiation in the form of a particle, /3 particle and y-rays. The characteristics
of these particles are as follows:
(i) The a particle is similar to 2He4, positively charged, heavy particle,
and its speed is one-tenth of the speed of light and thus, it can travel
only a short distance in air. The a particles are commonly emitted
by heavier nuclei and are accompanied by emission of y radiations.
(ii) The /3 particle is similar to an electron (_10), negatively charged,
lighter particle, and its speed is equal to that of the speed of light
and thus, it can travel more distance in air. The exposure to /3 particle
may cause skin burn and malignant tissue growth. It can be shielded
by thin sheet of metal.
(iii) The y-rays/radiations (originate from nucleus) is similar to X-rays
(originate from atom), and exposure to y-rays causes blood diseases,
undesirable genetic effect and anemia. Thick concrete or lead is
needed for the shielding of y-rays. When a a particle is emitted from
a nucleus, the nucleus becomes unstable and results in the emission
of y-rays.

3.4.1 Energy Mass Relationship

The Einstein equation for the relationship between mass (m) and energy (E)
is given by:
AF = AmC2 (3.1)
where the speed of light C is equal to 3 x 108 m/s. The energy equivalent of
1 kg mass is 9 x 1013 kJ. One a.m.u. mass is equivalent to 1.494 x 10-10 J.
86 Power Plant Engineering

There are many nuclear reactions in which there is an overall decrease in

mass and hence a release of energy. Due to conversion of mass in energy, the
a.m.u. is also expressed in electron-volt (eV). One eV is the energy gained or
acquired by a particle carrying unit charge when it is accelerated by a potential
of one volt. One eV is equal to 1.602 x 10-19 J or 4.44 x 10-26 kWh. Thus,
1 MeV = 1.602 x 10-13 J
1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV

3.4.2 Radioactive Decay

Some isotopes of heavy elements and all isotopes of heavier elements having
atomic number more than or equal to 84 are unstable and emit radiations till a
more stable nucleus is formed. This spontaneous disintegration process is termed
radioactive decay. The rate of radioactive decay varies from element to element,
the property of given isotope, and is independent of its physical condition.
The knowledge of radioactive decay is essential to design the cooling system.
The number of nuclei disintegrating within short time dt is proportional to
the total number of non-disintegrated nuclei N that are present at that instant.
This law is known as the law of radioactive decay. Mathematically,

dN (3.2)
— cc — N
dt
dN
= — AN (3.3)
dt
where the proportionality constant A is the radioactive decay constant, having
different values for different isotopes. The negative sign indicates that N
decreases with time. The above equation on integration can be written as
N = Noe-Af (3.4)
N0 is the number of nuclei present initially or at t = 0.The rate of decay varies
exponentially with time as shown in the Figure 3.1. The rate of decay of an
element is expressed in terms of half-life T which is the time required for half
of the radioactive material present to undergo disintegration. After half-life T,
N becomes N0/2. Thus from the above equation
In 2 0.693
AT =1n 2 or T = = (3.5)
A A
The half-life T may range from fraction of seconds to millions of years.
Starting with N0, half of nuclei decay after one half-life, one-half (No/4) of
the remaining N0/2 decay during the second half-life and so on. The rate of
radioactive disintegration may also be referred in terms of mean lifetime T7n.
It is the average time that elapses from the moment the nucleus is formed to
the moment it disintegrates. Mathematically,
 Nuclear Power Plant 87

Number of parent nuclei

Half-life
NO
Half-life

Time, t
Figure 3.1 Radioactive decay rate.

Ncit —5 Noe-At dt
0 = 0 1
Tin= (3.6)
No No A

The half-life for a few isotopes is given in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Half-life of some isotopes

Isotope Half-life
Carbon (6, 14) 5730 years
Thorium (90, 232) 1.41 x 1010 years
Thorium (90, 233) 22.1 minutes
Plutonium (94, 239) 2.44 x 104 years
Uranium (92, 233) 1.65 x 105 years
Uranium (92, 235) 7.1 x 108 years

It is evident (Table 3.1) that the readily fissionable isotopes 92U233, 92U235
and 94Pu239 have extremely long half lives and they can be stored practically
indefinitely. Though, the natural radioactive disintegration for most of the isotopes
is slow but radioactive disintegration rate can be increased by artificial means.

3.4.3 Mass Defect and Binding Energy

The actual mass of a nucleus (measured by mass spectrography) is less than

the sum of mass of nucleons, i.e. neutron and proton, and this difference is
termed mass defect. For example, helium 2He4 nucleus comprises 2 protons
and 2 neutrons, and its mass is 4.00277 a.m.u., thus the mass defect for helium
is given by:

Mass defect = 2(1.00898 + 1.00759) — 4.00277 = 0.03037 a.m.u. = 28.2 MeV

88 Power Plant Engineering

If particles are brought together quickly to form an atom, a mass equal to

mass defect is suddenly converted into energy (in the form of potential energy)
which holds nucleus together and termed binding energy. On the other hand,
to break a nucleus, energy equal to the binding energy must be supplied.
Thus, the binding energy is the direct measure of stability of an atom. It
acts as a glue which binds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.
The binding energy prevents the coulomb forces of positive charge in nucleus
from tearing it apart. The number of nucleons in helium atom is 4 and binding
energy per nucleon is 7.05. The mass defect or binding energy per nucleon is
different for different elements. The binding energy per nucleon determines the
stability of the atoms. The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the higher is
the stability of the nucleus. Figure 3.2 shows the variation of binding energy
per nucleon with atomic mass number for different elements.

A
238
4
92U
0
7 82
361(1.
8
3L1 r
bT
A
a.)
a.) 3 L J
bA
C.
C.
Z)

50 100 150 200 250

Mass number
Figure 3.2 Variation of binding energy per nucleon with mass number.

It can be seen from Figure 3.2 that binding energy per nucleon first increases
with an increase in atomic mass number and then decreases with an increase
in atomic mass number. The peak value equal to 8.7 MeV corresponds to the
elements adjacent to Fe and Ni in the periodic table. For most of the medium
and heavy nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon lies roughly between 7.5 and
8.7 MeV. The binding energy per nucleon is highest at the centre of periodic
table which means that the most stable elements are in the intermediate atomic
mass range. The elements with atomic mass number in between 40 and 100
are stable since their binding energy per nucleon is the highest. If the lighter
elements are fused together to form more stable elements or heavier elements
split to form more stable elements, release of energy would take place. If two
lighter nuclei such as H2 and He are combined together, then the process is
termed fusion reaction. If a heavier nucleus like uranium is split into two or
more nuclei, then the process is termed fission reaction.
The result of fusion or fission is an increase in the binding energy per
nucleon. The change in binding energy develops kinetic energy and heat which
 Nuclear Power Plant 89

is used to generate the steam directly or heat a coolant. For fusion reactions to
take place, the nuclei must approach each other at high velocity to overcome
their mutual electrostatic repulsion and thus, very high temperature equal to
hundreds of millions of degrees, resulting in plasma, is required to sustain the
fusion chain reaction. Energy is produced in the sun and stars by continuous
fusion reactions in which four nuclei of hydrogen fuse in one nucleus of helium
and release two positrons. The heat produced in these reactions maintains
temperatures of the order of several million degrees to initiate and sustain
succeeding reactions. Presently fusion reaction is only sustained in the sun and
stars, but if it were possible on the earth, the energy problem would have been
sorted out as 1H1 is available in ample quantity. Also more energy is released
in fusion reaction as is evident from the slope of binding energy curve at each
side of the peak point. Presently, only the concept of nuclear fission is used
in nuclear power plants.

3.4.4 Nuclear Reaction, Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fission

Chain Reaction

Both chemical and nuclear reactions are either exothermic or endothermic,

that is, they either release or absorb energy. Atoms are combined or separated
in a chemical reaction and each atom participates as a whole and retains its
identity. The nuclei do not change and only valence electrons are shared or
exchanged in chemical reactions. While in nuclear reactions, the products do
not have the reactant nuclei but some other nuclei.
The target nucleus in a nuclear reaction is generally a heavy element
and projectile may be neutron, proton and a particle. If mass of elements
(reactants) before reaction is not equal to mass of elements (products) after
reaction, then the release or absorption of energy takes place as per mass energy
relationship. The interaction between the target nucleus and projectile may
result in elastic scattering, inelastic scattering and capture or absorption. If a
projectile collides with a target nucleus and the target nucleus is unchanged in
the isotopes composition while the projectile undergoes a change in the direction
of motion, then it is called scattering. If the projectile disappears, then it is
termed capture or absorption. The law of conservation of mass, momentum
and energy hold true for elastic scattering as in hard ball collision. In case
of inelastic scattering, the energy of striking particle is quite large and the
target nucleus is raised to an excited state. The compound nucleus reaches its
ground state by emitting gamma radiation. Thus, the total kinetic energy after
collision decreases in inelastic scattering due to emission of gamma radiation.
If the energy of striking particle is still very large, then it may go near target
nucleus and get trapped in it. The excited target nucleus undergoes radioactive
decay resulting in new element and this reaction is called transmutation.
For example
90 Power Plant Engineering
Ti„ 232 + 1 22.1 min
90" 0n 90Th2" > 9i Pa 233
e0 27 days T T 233 + 0
—1 > 92 ' -1e

Thorium Th(90, 233) has half-life of 22.1 minute and is converted into
Protactinium Pa(91, 233) by emitting a /3 particle. Pa(91, 233) has half-life
of 27 days and is converted into U(92, 233) by emitting a /3 particle. The
above nuclear reaction illustrates how a fertile material is converted into fissile
material. The following nuclear reaction also shows the conversion of 92U238
into 94 Pu 239 which has long life and is a fissile material.
238 + n 1 239 7 23 min
92 u 0 92u 93 Np 239
+ _1 e0 2.3 days
> 94 PU
239 + e°
Fission can be caused by bombarding the target nucleus of fissile material with
high energy a particles, protons, deuterons, X-rays and neutrons. However,
neutrons are preferred to others because neutrons being electrically neutral
do not require high kinetic energy to overcome electrical repulsion from the
positive charged nucleus. Neutrons can strike and fission the positively charged
nucleus at high, moderate, or low speeds. Further, two or three neutrons are
usually released for each neutron absorbed in fission that result in a sustained
reaction or to keep the reaction going on.
In fission, neutron bombardment is an important method and neutron can be
produced by various methods, viz. particle accelerator or generator (cyclotrons),
where neutron beam is produced by speeding up charge particle to bombard
a target nucleus such as lithium, beryllium, etc., by bombarding with y-rays
and by high speed neutron emission as a result of other reaction. For starting
the chain reaction in nuclear reactor, radium (which is highly radioactive) is
mixed with beryllium and placed in the reactor. Radium emits the a particle
which interacts with beryllium to generate the neutron.
4 Be9 + 2 He4
12 i
60 on
Fission reaction (Figure 3.3) is a self-sustaining process, as more neutrons are
produced than required. The only useful fission reactions are those in which
free neutron causes fission of certain isotopes of uranium and plutonium with
odd mass number and even atomic number. Only 92U235occurs in nature while
94 Pu 239 and 92U233 are made artificially and they are fissionable by neutrons
of all energies. Natural uranium contains about 99.282% of 92U238, 0.712% of
92U235 and 0.006% of 92U234. The fraction of 92U235 is very small and 92U234
is found just in traces. The fission reaction can be caused by bombarding a
heavier nucleus of 92U235 with either a fast or slow neutron. When a neutron
strikes and is captured by target nucleus 92U235, the resulting reaction termed
(n, y) reaction is
92 /J235 + 0 n1 236 + 7
92 u
 Nuclear Power Plant 91
Fission fragment (Xenon nucleus)
inl ',Neutron
U-235 nucleus U-236,--,
nucleus
-,
• ,/ •
/ • \ ') Neutron
1 .-.
,,_)—•,,\ ,' ....
`I , trays
Neutron . , -
.,__.... ‘. i
_ ) Neutron
. .-
n1 .. 1
Fission fragment (Strontium nucleus)
Figure 3.3 Fission reaction.

The compound nucleus 92U236 is in excited state, which then undergoes fission
only if the excitation energy is sufficiently large. If the excitation energy is not
sufficiently large, the nucleus may not undergo fission, and such non-fission
reaction occurs about 16% of the time in all neutron absorption by 92U235.
Fission of 92U236 immediately results in
235 ▪ i 96 iao 20n1
92u on 38sr 54xe
The immediate (prompt) products of a fission reaction, such as Xe144 and Sr94
are called fission fragments. The two fission fragments in the above equation are
radioactive and therefore, undergo several stages of /3 decay accompanied with
y-rays until a stable product is formed in each case. These fission fragments
and their decay products are called fission products. There are many fission
reactions which release different amounts of energy. One possible reaction is
235 ▪ oni 56 Ba1 " + 36 Kr97 + 2 0 n1
92u
The mass balance of this reaction is

235.0439 +1.00867 > 138.9061+ 96.9212 + 2 x 1.00867

The mass of products on the right-hand side is 0.2080 less than the left-hand
side, which is equivalent to 193.6 MeV. The same figure roughly applies to
fission of U-233 and Pu-239. This amount of energy is prompt and some more
energy is released due to decay of fission fragments and non-fission capture
of excess neutrons. The total energy produced per fission reaction, therefore,
is greater than the prompt energy and is about 200 MeV. The fission produces
two or rarely three fission fragments moving at high velocity, two or three
neutron (on an average 2.47) including prompt neutron and delayed neutron
due to further decay of fission fragments, and considerable radiant energy.
The kinetic energy of fission fragments is about 165 MeV (84%), kinetic
energy of neutron is about 5 MeV (2.5%), radioactive decay energy which
includes the /3 particle, y-rays and neutron capture is about 21 MeV (10.5%),
and y-rays from fission products is about 6 MeV (3%). The kinetic energy of
fission fragments as they collide and radiant energy are ultimately converted
into heat in the surrounding material.
92 Power Plant Engineering

As fission of one U-235 nucleus produces about 200 MeV, the number of
fission needed per second to produce 1 Watt heat energy is
1
= 3.1 x 101°
200 x1.602 x 10-13
Also the complete fission of 1 g of U-235 nuclei produces
Avogadro constant (6.023 x 1023 )
Mass of U-235 isotopes (235.0439) x 200 MeV = 0.984 MW-day
Thus, a reactor burning 1 g of fissionable material U-235 generates nearly
1 MW-day of energy termed fuel burn up. This figure applies if the fuel was
entirely composed of fissionable nuclei and all of them undergo fission. Reactor
fuel, however, contains other non fissionable isotopes of uranium, plutonium,
or thorium. Even the complete fission of fissionable isotopes is impossible
because of the accumulation of fission products that capture neutrons and
eventually stop the chain reaction. Because of incomplete fission and owing
to metallurgical reasons, such as the inability of the fuel material to operate
at high temperatures or to retain gaseous fission products (such as Xe and
Kr) in its structure except for limited periods of time, the burn up values are
much lower than this figure. They are, however, increased somewhat by the
fission of some fissionable nuclei, which are converted from fertile nuclei in
nuclear reaction.
To sustain the chain reaction one neutron ejected from the previous reaction
must fission the U-235 nucleus. However, neutrons are also captured by nucleus
other than fissile material. Neutrons are captured by fertile material in the fuel,
structural material, coolant, and moderator and so on. The chain reaction may
stop when only a small percentage, often less than 1% of the fissionable material,
in the fuel has been consumed and the probability of consumption of fissionable
material depends on fuel enrichment. In natural uranium fraction of U-235 is less,
thus a great deal of mineral processing is required in extraction of fissionable
material from ore for fuel enrichment that increases the cost of fuel. Further to
sustain the chain reaction the neutron must be prevented to leak from the core
(fuel element) by keeping the surface to volume ratio of the core smaller.

3.5 Classification of Nuclear Reactors

A nuclear reactor is like a furnace in which heat is produced due to nuclear
fission chain reaction and that heat is utilized for some useful purpose.
The nuclear reactors can be classified as follows:

3.5.1 On the Basis of Neutron Energy

Depending upon the speed or kinetic energy of the neutrons at the time they
are absorbed by the fissile material, the reactors are classified as follows.
 Nuclear Power Plant 93

Thermal reactors
In these reactors moderator slows down the fast neutrons and these slow/
thermal neutrons are then utilized for the fission. Thermal neutrons have the
longest neutron lifetime and thus these reactors are easier to control. Further
these reactors require relatively low fuel loading and natural uranium can be
used in such reactors or enrichment required is less. The ratio of moderator
to fuel volume is about 50:80 for graphite moderated, 50:100 for heavy water
moderated and 50:85 for light water moderated. Therefore, the reactor core of
thermal reactor is much larger than the fast reactor and it is harder to shield
due to more volume; though, cooling problem is simple. It is impossible to
breed such reactors with any fuel except U-233.

Fast reactors
In such reactors no moderator is used and fission is caused by fast neutrons.
Though fuel enrichment is must in such reactors but more fertile material can
be converted into fissile material. Fast fission process results in high breeding
ratio. Hence, it is possible to build a breeder reactor with any fuel. Fast reactor
is small, compact and easier to shield. Fast reactor can employ any structural
material in the core because the absorption cross section of all materials is
small for fast neutrons. However, the fast neutron can cause radiation damage
(embrittlement, swelling) of structural material in the core. Control is difficult
due to short life of neutrons.
For the same power, the core of a fast reactor is smaller than thermal reactor
due to high concentration of fissile material and the absence of moderator.
In order to minimize the temperature drop fuel rods are in the form of pins.
Further, a coolant with better heat removal property is required to minimize
the temperature drop. Due to moderating nature of water, it cannot be used
as a coolant in fast breeder reactor. The best coolants in fast breeder reactor
are liquid metals such as sodium.

Intermediate reactors
In such reactors most of the fission reactions are caused by neutrons in course
of their slowing down.

3.5.2 On the Basis of Fertile Material

The nuclear reactor besides generating heat by fission also converts the fertile
material into fissile material. The excess neutron from fission reaction can be
used to produce new fissile material atoms in the reactor by activating the fertile
material. Th-232 and U-238, if paced in the core of reactor, can be converted
respectively into U-233 and Pu-239 and this process is termed conversion or
breeding. The production of fissile material is expressed in terms of a reactor
parameter termed breeding ratio. The breeding ratio or conversion ratio r is
94 Power Plant Engineering
defined as the ratio of number of secondary fuel atoms formed to the number
of consumed primary fuel atoms. Mathematically,
number of new fuel atoms formed by consumption of fertile material
r=
number of original fuel atoms consumed due to fission
The reactor based on the fertile material and breeding ratio may be categorized
as follows.
Burner reactor
In such reactor recovery of converted fertile material into fissile material is
not important. The breeding ratio is much less than unity.

Converter reactor

If the fissionable material produced is equal to or less than the fissile material
consumed, the reactor is called converter reactor. The breeding ratio is low
and less than unity in such reactors. Mostly in such reactor the fertile material
is converted into a fissile material different from the fissile material originally
placed in the core. If natural uranium is used as a fuel then U-238 is converted
into Pu-239, which is different from U-235.

Breeder reactor
The breeding ratio is more than unity in breeder reactor. In breeder reactor,
the fertile material is converted into a fissile material originally placed in the
core and the rate of conversion of fertile material is more than the rate of
consumption of fissile material. The combination of fertile material and fissile
material in fuel of this reactor may be Th-232 and U-233, U-238 and Pu-239.
If natural uranium is used as a fuel, then Th-232 is converted into U-233,
which is also an isotope of uranium. The breeding of U-233 from Th-232
is possible in both thermal as well as in fast reactors, while the breeding of
Pu-239 is not possible in thermal reactors.

3.5.3 On the Basis of Core Composition

Based on the geometry of fuel element and moderator arrangement, the reactors
can be classified as follows.

Heterogeneous reactor
The heterogeneous reactor system is a widely used reactor. In heterogeneous
reactor system, the fuel element is in the form of rods or plates in the matrix
of moderator and the free neutrons have to face a heterogeneous medium.
This system is easier to construct.

Homogeneous reactor
The fuel is homogeneously dispersed in the moderator in such reactors.
 Nuclear Power Plant 95
The free neutrons find themselves in a homogeneous medium like slurry of
uranium salt or UO2. The advantages of this reactor are better heat transfer
and the reactor fuel can be added or reprocessed during its operation.

3.5.4 On the Basis of Type of Fuel

The fuel may be natural uranium, enriched uranium, combinations of 90Th232

and 92U233, and 92U238 and 94Pu239.

3.5.5 On the Basis of Coolant

The coolant may be gas, H2O, D20, Na and hydrocarbons.

3.5.6 On the Basis of Moderator

The moderator may be graphite, H2O, and D20.

3.5.7 On the Basis of Method of Cooling

The methods of cooling may be direct or indirect. In the direct cooling, the
fuel is in liquid form and also acts as a coolant, while in indirect cooling a
coolant different from fuel is used.

3.5.8 On the Basis of State of Fuel

The state of the fuel is mostly in solid state but it can be in liquid state. The
UO2 can be used in slurry form either in water or liquid metal cooled reactor.

3.6 Main Parts of a Heterogeneous Nuclear Reactor

The schematic diagram of a heterogeneous nuclear reactor in which fuel elements
are in the form of rods or pellets is shown in Figure 3.4. The descriptions of
various parts of this reactor are as follows.
Control rods
Concrete shielding

Pressure vessel
Coolant out
Reflector
Moderator
Fuel rods

Coolant in

Figure 3.4 Heterogeneous nuclear reactor.

96 Power Plant Engineering
3.6.1 Core

The core consists of nuclear fuel elements which are in the form of rods or
pellets of fissile and fertile materials. Space is provided between individual
rods for the coolant to flow. Core may be diluted with non-fissionable material
for better control of reaction or to reduce the damage from fission product
poisoning. U-235 is the only naturally available fissile material, hence it is
also termed primary fuel. Other fissile materials U-233 and Pu-239 are called
secondary fuel and these are artificially produced from fertile materials Th-232
and U-238 respectively.
The natural uranium contains small fraction of U-235. Fuel of a nuclear
reactor should contain sufficient fraction of fissile material to sustain a fission
chain reaction as neutrons produced from the preceding reaction may leak
through the reactor core or are captured by the fertile material. In thermal
reactor natural uranium is enriched with U-235 by 2.5 to 3.5%; while in fast
reactor this enrichment is from 15 to 20%.
The fuel rods are clad in thin sheath of stainless steel, beryllium, magnesium,
zirconium and aluminium to provide resistance against oxidation and corrosion,
retention of radioactivity and for structural support. Cladding also prevents the
contamination of the coolant by fission products. Zircaloy (an alloy of zirconium)
is the best cladding material and used in pressurized water reactor and boiling
water reactor. Magnox (alloy of magnesium) is used in gas (CO2) cooled
reactor. Fuel element cladding should possess the following properties: ability
to withstand high temperature within the reactor, high thermal conductivity for
the dissipation of heat, sufficient strength to withstand the effect of radiations,
and high corrosion resistance.
Nuclear fuel should be inexpensive to fabricate. It should be resistant
to radiation damage and should be able to operate at high temperatures.
The nuclear fuel may be natural uranium, uranium oxide (UO2) and uranium
carbide (UC). The properties of these fuels are discussed below:
(i) Natural uranium: It melts at 1129°C and gets corroded in the presence
of water. It changes the phase from a to /3 when temperature becomes
more than 660°C. The /3 phase is soft and fragile. The maximum
operating temperature of natural uranium is 660°C due to swelling of
fuel element and the subsequent flow passage clog because of phase
change.
(ii) Uranium oxide (UO2): It is a brittle ceramic powder and is produced
in the form of fuel pellets by sintering. Uranium oxide is more stable,
can be used for higher temperatures because it has no problem of
phase change and being an oxide it is more corrosion resistant than
natural uranium. Further it is compatible with most of the coolants.
However, it has low thermal conductivity, more brittle than natural
uranium and requires enrichment.
 Nuclear Power Plant 97
(iii) Uranium carbide (UC): It is a black ceramic used in the form of
pellets. The melting point temperature of UC is 2350°C. It is more
stable, has good thermal conductivity and has no problem of phase
change.
Special attention must be paid to reprocess the spent up (burnt) fuel elements
and the unconsumed fuel for economical operation of a nuclear power plant.
They should be handled carefully because they are intensively radioactive and
emit some neutron and gamma rays.

3.6.2 Moderator

Neutrons produced from the fission process are ejected at one-twentieth of

the speed of light and are termed fast neutrons. These fast neutrons have
more probability of being captured by fertile material U-238 and are far less
effective in causing the fission of U-235. U-238 absorbs the fast neutron to
such an extent that the neutrons produced are absorbed before they can reach
a U-235 nucleus. Further, fast neutrons try to escape from the reactor core.
To increase the chances of fission of U-235 (fissile material), either slow
neutrons also called thermal neutrons are required or percentage of U-235 is
increased in the fuel. Thus, to improve the utilization of these fast neutrons
generated from the previous fission reaction, their speed is reduced by
using moderator for the next fission reaction in thermal reactor. Lower velocity
of neutrons provides better opportunity for the fission of U-235 without
enrichment. The absorption properties of U-238 are very much reduced
when slow neutrons are used. However, if proportion of U-235 is increased
to more than 10%, the above absorption effect can be overcome and a chain
reaction is possible and such reactor is termed fast reactor where no moderator
is used. Fast reactors using enriched uranium do not require moderator. But
enriched uranium is costly due to high cost of processing U-235 from natural
uranium.
Moderator reduces the high speed (equal to 1.5 x 107 m/s) of fast neutron
to the corresponding speed (equal to 2200 m/s) of molecules in gas at N.T.P.
Moderator is dispersed between fuel assemblies. The function of moderators
depends on the law of mechanics and neutrons are slowed down as a result of
elastic collision. If a neutron collides with a nucleus of equal mass it will loose
all its energy and comes to standstill. If it collides with a nucleus of heavier
mass there will be little change in its velocity and velocity will be reversed.
The speed of neutrons is reduced by colliding them with the nuclei of other
material which is lighter, does not capture the neutrons but scatters them.
Each such collision causes loss of energy, and the speed of the fast moving
neutrons is reduced. The best moderating materials are of low mass number
and with no or little tendency to capture neutrons. Graphite, light water (H2O),
heavy water (D20) and beryllium are generally used as moderator. Though gases
such as hydrogen, helium have low atomic mass but due to lower density they
98 Power Plant Engineering
result in lesser number of collisions and thus are unsuitable as a moderator.
There is large concentration of hydrogen in light water and heavy water, that
is why they are used as a moderator. A moderator should process high thermal
conductivity, should be available in large quantities, and should have high
melting point in case of solid moderators and low melting point in case of
liquid moderators. Solid moderators should have good strength, resistance to
corrosion, machinability and should be stable under heat and radiation. A brief
discussion on light water (H2O), heavy water (D20), graphite and beryllium is
given below:
(i) Light water: It is cheap. Hydrogen nuclei are the most effective in
reducing the speed of neutron. However, it captures the neutron to
such an extent that the reactor may be subcritical with natural uranium.
Thus, the light water reactor must use enriched uranium.
(ii) Heavy water: It is the most effective and has a very little tendency
to capture neutrons. Its cost is high and is about Z 500 per litre.
But the cost of heavy water is offset by natural uranium as a
fuel. Heavy water is present in light water in the ratio of 1:6700.
On electrolysis of water, the light water decomposes into H2 and 02
quicker than D20. By repeated electrolysis of H2O, the heavy water
of high purity can be obtained.
(iii) Graphite: It is not as good as heavy water. The critical mass of the
fuel required is large with graphite. Being a solid it can withstand higher
temperatures. It becomes brittle and distort due to radiation damage.
It is used as a moderator in liquid metal cooled and gas cooled reactors.
(iv) Beryllium: It is the best metallic moderator. However, it is expensive
and difficult to machine.

3.6.3 Control Rods

A nuclear reactor contains fuel sufficient to operate a large power plant for
some months/years, whereas the fuel to the furnace of a fossil fuel fired thermal
power plant is fed continuously. The heat energy in the furnace is controlled
by regulating the fuel feed, and the combustion air. In nuclear reactor fission
of U-235 by one neutron produces three neutrons and these neutrons generated
in the previous reaction are utilized in further fission reactions. Thus, the
number of neutrons or neutron flux in the reactor core may go on increasing
or multiplying. If some neutrons are not absorbed or captured by a material
other than fissile material, then the energy produced in the reactor due to fission
of nuclear fuel during chain reaction is so much that the reactor may become
atomic bomb as fuel is already there in the reactor. Thus, we should have some
means to control the number of neutrons by absorbing them. Some substances
absorb neutrons and stop their further action. Such substances, termed absorber,
are used for controlling the chain reaction or maintaining the multiplication
factor slightly more than unity. The multiplication factor K is defined as
 Nuclear Power Plant 99

number of neutrons causing fission in any generation

K= (3.7)
number of neutrons caused fission in preceeding generation
If K is much greater than unity, the reactor becomes supercritical or atom
bomb. If K is less than unity, the reactor becomes subcritical and fission stops.
The value of K in nuclear reactor is maintained equal to 1.04 and maintaining
the value of K is the most difficult problem in nuclear reactor control.
The chain reaction is controlled by means of control rods made of
absorber material. Control rods may be of boron, cadmium, silver and indium.
These control rods may be moved in and out of the holes in the reactor
core assembly by using rack and pinion mechanism. Their insertion absorbs
more neutrons and the number of neutron varies to maintain the value of K.
Control rods are moved in or out either manually or automatically by control
devices. To ensure even distribution of neutron flux, the number of control rods
is more than 100. There are three types of control rods: shut off rods which are
kept out and are used for emergency, coarse regulation rods and fine regulation
rods. Coarse and fine regulation rods are used for continuous regulation.
In the fast breeder reactor, U-238 also acts as an absorber.
Control rods should have adequate heat transfer properties, should be stable
under heat and radiation, should be sufficient strong and corrosion resistant.

3.6.4 Reflector

Reflector surrounds the reactor core within the thermal shielding and it bounces
back the fast neutrons that escape from the core. The returned neutrons
can then cause more fission and improve the neutron economy of the reactor.
The neutrons produced during the fission process are absorbed by the fuel rods
and partly absorbed by the moderator, coolant and structural material. The
neutrons left unabsorbed try to escape the reactor core and will be lost. The
reflector lowers the neutron leakage, improves the neutron flux distribution of
a reactor core and also reduces the critical fuel mass required. The reflector
must be a medium of low neutron absorption and high neutron scattering
cross section. Generally the reflector is made up of graphite and beryllium.
In thermal reactor the same material serves as both moderator and reflector
while in the fast breeder reactor the reflector must be of high mass number
to avoid the slowing down of the neutron. The core may be surrounded by a
blanket of U-238 or depleted natural uranium. In some reactors stainless steel
neutron reflector surrounds the fertile blanket.

3.6.5 Coolant

Coolant while circulating through and around the reactor core passages absorbs
large amount of heat produced due to fission of the nuclear fuel. Coolant may
be gas (CO2, H2, He, Air), light water, heavy water, liquid metals such as
100 Power Plant Engineering

sodium or mixture of sodium and potassium and organic fluids. Hydrogen is

not favourable as a coolant due to possible explosive hazards because of high
temperature in reactor.
The desirable properties in the coolant are: fluidity for high heat transfer
coefficient, low neutron absorption, low melting point, high boiling point, stable
under thermal condition, non-corrosive, greater density and higher specific heat
for low pumping power requirement.
Water is a good coolant as it has desirable properties to a great extent
and is available in ample quantity. But due to its low boiling point (100°C at
atmospheric pressure), it is to be kept under high pressure to keep it in the
liquid state for better heat transfer.
Sodium is used as a coolant in fast breeder reactor because water cannot be
used due to its moderating effect on neutrons. Sodium has a mass number of
23 and thus, it is not an effective moderator. It can be used at high temperature
at less pressure due to its high normal boiling point temperature (885°C).
Also the heat transfer characteristic of sodium is superior to water, CO2, etc.
However, the exposure of sodium to oxygen in air or water must be prevented
and temperature everywhere in the reactor system must be maintained more
than 97.5°C to avoid solidification and flow passage blockage. The sodium also
captures neutron and get converted into radioactive isotope Na-24. The product
Na-24 emits .rays as it decays and so constitutes a potential radiation hazard.
14.8 hours
Na23 + on1 nar 24 24
> 12 Mg +
0
-1 e +
Therefore, the heat is transferred from hot radioactive sodium leaving the
core to the non-radioactive sodium in a well shielded heat exchanger, and
then steam is produced in the another heat exchanger by using the heat of
non-radioactive sodium.
When graphite is used as a moderator, the coolant may be sodium or gas.
Helium offers excellent possibilities as a gas coolant and is being used in
high pressure and temperature gas cooled reactors. Helium is inert, stable and
also produces the opportunity to develop gas turbines in closed loop. Another
advantage of helium is in the production of high pressure and temperature steam.
The coolant directly or indirectly transfers heat produced due to fission to
the feed water in three ways which are as follows:
(i) Single cycle: Boiling water reactor employing light water as a coolant
uses this system. In this system coolant which is light water leaves
the reactor in the form of steam.
(ii) Double cycle: Pressurized water reactor employing heavy water as
a coolant uses this system. In this system coolant transfers the heat
to the feed water in a heat exchanger or steam generator.
(iii) Triple cycle: This system is used in sodium cooled, graphite
moderated thermal reactor, as well as in sodium cooled fast breeder
reactor. In this system primary coolant sodium after circulating through
 Nuclear Power Plant 101

the reactor transfers the heat to the secondary coolant Na-K alloy in
an intermediate heat exchanger. The heat energy of Na-K alloy is
transferred to the feed water in the steam generator or second heat
exchanger.

3.6.6 Radiation Shielding

Radiation shielding is necessary in order to protect the walls of the reactor

from radiation damage and the operating personnel from the harmful effects of
radiation exposure. During fission of nuclear fuel, alpha particles, beta particles,
deadly gamma rays and neutrons are produced. Out of these, neutrons and
gamma rays are of main significance because thin sheet of metals is sufficient
to stop the alpha and beta particles.
The internal shielding known as thermal shielding is provided through
thin steel lining while the external shielding known as biological shielding is
made of thick layers (1.8 to 2.4 m) of lead or concrete. For power producing
reactors, a thermal shield of 7 cm thick steel surrounded by 3 m thick concrete
is used. Though reflector is used to bounce back the fast neutrons to reactor
core, the water in concrete slows down fast neutrons. Iron and barium are
mixed in concrete to attenuate the y-rays.
For further safety or to prevent the escape of radioactive material, a
containment structure usually a steel or concrete vessel surrounding nuclear
reactor and sealed completely is employed.

3.6.7 Reactor Vessel

It is a strong walled pressure vessel housing the core of the power reactor,
moderator, reflector, thermal shielding and control rods. The reactor vessel
may have to withstand pressures up to 210 bar. The reactor vessel provides
the entrance and exit for the coolant and also for the flow of coolant through
and around the reactor core. There are holes at the top of the vessel through
which the control rods pass. The reactor core is generally placed at the bottom
of the vessel.

3.7 Basic Reactor Systems

The basic types of reactors are based on among the several combinations of
fuel, coolant and moderator. The world's first large-scale nuclear power plant
was a pressurized water reactor (PWR) nuclear power plant at the shipping
port atomic power station in Pennsylvania, whose operation began in 1957.
The first commercial size boiling water reactor (BWR) began its operation in
1960. Today, nuclear power plants are operating in 33 countries. There are
more than 440 individual nuclear power reactors operating throughout the
world and more than half of these nuclear reactors are PWRs.
102 Power Plant Engineering

There are six types of reactors, namely PWR, BWR, pressurized heavy
water reactor (PHWR) also known as CANDU reactor, gas cooled reactor,
graphite moderated light water reactor and liquid metal cooled fast breeder
reactor which are currently used for electricity generation throughout the world.
Although other reactor concepts have been successfully operated, the PWR
and the BWR reactor designs have dominated the commercial nuclear power
market. The few basic reactors are discussed below.

3.7.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Pressurized water reactor (PWR) is a light water moderated and cooled

thermal reactor. It uses slightly enriched uranium as a fuel. PWR as shown in
Figure 3.5 consists of a reactor core that is contained within a steel pressure
vessel. The nuclear fuel in the core consists of uranium dioxide fuel pellets
or rods that are held together in fuel assemblies. The cladding is either
of stainless steel or zircaloy. There are 200-300 rods in an assembly and
100-200 fuel assemblies in the reactor core. The rods are arranged vertically
and contain 80-100 tonnes of enriched uranium. In a typical fuel assembly
there are 24 guide tubes for control rods.

Steam to turbine -

Rankine cycle block

Water from condenser

Pump
Concrete containment structure

Figure 3.5 Schematic of a typical pressurized water reactor.

Boiling of water is suppressed in the core by keeping the pressure of water

high. The maximum possible temperature of coolant in PWR is 374°C which
is critical temperature of water, and the pressure required is 221 bar. Further,
the coolant pressure must be more than the saturation pressure in order to
prevent boiling. As a margin of safety against the high pressure for the reactor
pressure vessel, the coolant temperature is kept about 315°C and the saturation
pressure corresponding to this temperature is 105.5 bar. The pressure of coolant
is maintained about 155 bar. The high pressure coolant water enters just above
the core and flows down through the annular region between the core barrel
 Nuclear Power Plant 103
and the pressure vessel. At the bottom, water reverses its direction and flows
upward through the core. The steel pressure vessel must be about 20 to 25
cm thick to bear such high pressure. The pressure of coolant is maintained
by means of a pressurizer connected between the reactor vessel and the steam
generator in the primary loop or coolant loop through which coolant water
is circulating. Small changes in the volume of incompressible coolant water
due to changes in the coolant temperatures may cause severe or oscillatory
pressure changes. The coolant temperatures may change either because of load
variation or sudden nuclear reactivity insertions. Pressurizer which is essentially
a boiler is a large cylindrical tank containing about 60% of water and 40%
of steam and the temperature of water in the tank is maintained constant by
controlled electric heating.
The pressurized coolant water while circulating through the reactor core
takes the heat from reactor and this coolant at 315°C is circulated to the heat
exchanger or steam generators to generate steam. The steam generator isolates
the radioactive reactor cooling water from the steam that turns the turbine
generator. The steam generator is a tube and shell type of heat exchanger
with the heated high pressure coolant water circulating through the tubes. The
pressure vessel containing the reactor core and the steam generators are located
in the reactor containment structure. The quality of steam produced in steam
generator is mostly wet and this steam to be supplied to turbine is superheated
in a fuel fired heat exchanger in order to improve the Rankine cycle efficiency.

3.7.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

The boiling water reactor (BWR) represents the second largest number of
reactors used for generating electricity. It uses enriched uranium (1.9 to 2.6%)
as a fuel and the light water act as coolant, moderator, neutron reflector as
well as working fluid for Rankine cycle. The BWR as shown in Figure 3.6
consists of a reactor core located in a reactor vessel that is cooled by circulating
light water. The core of a BWR consists of about 800 fuel assemblies and
each assembly typically contains an 8 by 8 array of fuel rods. The cooling
water is heated to 285°C, 70 bar in the reactor vessel and the generated steam
is sent directly to the turbine. There is no secondary loop as is in the PWR.
The steam leaving the turbine is condensed in a condenser and returned to
the reactor vessel. The reactor vessel is contained in the reactor building.
The control elements in a BWR have a cruciform cross-section and there are
about 180 control rods The control rods are inserted from the bottom of the
core rather than the top as in other rectors. This is convenient because the
space above is occupied by steam water separators. The saturated water that
separates from the steam in steam separator flows downward within the reactor
or externally outside the reactor. The separated water mixes with the returned
condensate and this coolant water then flows through the core either naturally
due to density difference or by a pump.
104 Power Plant Engineering

Steam water separator

Steam to turbine
Steam
=3 =0
Water
Pump Rankine cycle
block

4—
Water from condenser
Core
Pump Concrete containment
Control rods structure
Steel pressure
vessel
Figure 3.6 Schematic of a typical boiling water reactor.

3.7.3 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) or CANDU Reactor

The pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) also called Canadian-Deuterium-

Uranium (CANDU) reactor was developed in Canada in the 1950s. It uses
heavy water as a moderator, coolant and neutron reflector like a PWR, but
the coolant heavy water is kept separate from the moderator heavy water in
this reactor. Though heavy water is costly but it is an excellent moderator and
permits the use of natural uranium as fuel. Reactors of this type have a good
neutron economy which results in high breeding ratio. Further fuel cost is less
due to high fuel burn up.
The CANDU reactor is shown in Figure 3.7. It consists of a large horizontal
cylindrical tank of steel called calandria containing the heavy water moderator.
The length and diameter of calandria are, respectively, about 6 m and 8 m.
The calandria is penetrated horizontally by some 380 zircaloy pressure tubes that
contain the reactor fuel assemblies. Pressure tubes are designed to withstand a
high internal pressure of coolant which is passed through these pressure tubes
and around the fuel element to remove the heat of fission. Pressurized heavy
water is heated to 290°C. As in the PWR, this heated pressurized water is
circulated to a steam generator where light water is boiled, thereby forming
the steam at 40 bar, 250°C which is used to drive the turbine generators.
The pressure tube design allows the isolation of one or more pressure tubes
and this reactor can be refueled, i.e. the fuel can be removed and replaced,
while the reactor is in operation. The moderator heavy water in the calandria
is also circulated and heat is recovered from it. The moderator in the calandria
is kept at low pressure and low temperature which increases its effectiveness
in slowing down the neutrons.
 Nuclear Power Plant 105

Rankine cycle
block

Water from
condenser

4— Concrete
containment
structure

Figure 3.7 Schematic of a typical pressurized heavy water reactor (CANDU reactor).

3.7.4 Gas Cooled Reactor

Gas cooled reactors may be thermal reactor similar to PWR but these reactors
are graphite moderated and cooled by a gas either He or CO2. The gas cooled
reactor system may also be based on fast neutrons. The gas cooled fast reactor
system (GFR) uses helium as the primary coolant and graphite as moderator.
With U-233/Th-232, the GFR functions as a thermal breeder reactor.
Figure 3.8 shows the configuration of a helium cooled reactor system.
Helium is chemically inert, has good heat transfer characteristic and low neutron
absorption. Because of very high melting point temperature of graphite, it is
designed to operate at relatively high helium outlet temperatures, making it
a good candidate for the high efficiency production of electricity by a direct

Steam pressure Concrete containment

vessel structure
Hot helium to gas turbine

Brayton cycle
block

ICR4— Compressor

Core 4— 4
Control rods Helium from heat sink

Figure 3.8 Schematic of a gas cooled fast reactor.

106 Power Plant Engineering

Brayton cycle. Helium gas at high temperature from the reactor outlet enters
in a gas turbine. A reference plant has been designed to produce 288 MWe
using the direct Brayton cycle with a reactor outlet temperature of 850°C and
pressure of about 50 bar.
In a typical gas (CO2) cooled and graphite moderated reactor design, the
CO2 coolant at a pressure of 16 bar is circulated through the reactor core and
then to a steam generator. The reactor and the steam generators are located
in a concrete pressure vessel. The steam is used to turn the turbine generator
to produce electricity, as with the other reactor designs. Fuel used is natural
uranium, clad with an alloy of magnesium.

3.7.5 Sodium Cooled Reactor

Figure 3.9 shows a sodium cooled reactor. Sodium as a coolant can be used
in thermal as well as fast reactors. Intermediate heat exchangers are must
with sodium as a coolant as has been discussed earlier in coolant section of
a heterogeneous reactor system. It requires less pressurization in core due to
higher normal boiling point of sodium and requires less expensive pressure
vessel. It has an advantage of higher heat transfer as coolant sodium is a liquid
metal. Sodium graphite reactor (SGR) is sodium cooled and graphite moderated
reactor. It uses slightly enriched uranium.

Concrete containment structure

Control
rods Intermediate
Steam generator
heat exchanger
Na NaK Steam to turbine

cd Rankine cycle
ct
g •
O 0
block
• 0
0-1 a.) Pump 2

•
4
Water from condenser
Pump Pump
Steel pressure
vessel

Figure 3.9 Schematic of a typical sodium cooled reactor.

Sodium cooled fast breeder rector in which there is no moderator is designed

to create new fissile material. The fuel rods in the active core region consist
of mixture of U-238 and Pu-239. The active core region is surrounded by a
blanket of U-238 which captures the neutrons leaked from the core and thus,
produces additional fissile material. Sodium cooled fast breeder reactors are also
able to use both U-238 and U-235 as reactor fuel, thus making use of all the
uranium. About 50% of U-238 in sodium cooled FBR could be converted in
 Nuclear Power Plant 107

Pu-239 in a period of 30 years. U-238 is also used as a control rod material.

Neutron shielding is provided by boron or graphite.

3.7.6 Light Water Graphite Moderated Reactor

In the light water graphite moderated reactors, the fuel is contained in vertical
pressure tubes where the cooling water is allowed to boil at 290°C and the
resulting steam is circulated to the turbine generator system as it is in a BWR.

3.7.7 Homogeneous Reactor

Homogeneous reactor employs a two region core with a central region containing
a solution of uranyl sulphate in heavy water and the blanket region of slurry
of thorium oxide in heavy water. Both the solution and the slurry are pumped
to different heat exchangers where steam is generated.

3.8 Fuel Cycle

The process of fuel material from the uranium or thorium mine through
processing and reactor operation until it becomes waste is called the fuel
cycle. The fuel cycle (Figure 3.10) includes mining from uranium and thorium
resources, enrichment, reactor fuel use, spent fuel storage, nuclear materials
transportation, and reprocessing. Fuel cycles are classified as open or closed. In
the open fuel cycle, also called the once-through cycle, the uranium fuel after
being used is disposed off as waste and there is no reprocessing of the fuel.
In the closed cycle the fuel after leaving the reactor is reprocessed for reuse
to improve the overall fuel utilization. The uranium and plutonium removed
from reactors are reprocessed and used again in reactors as fuel. In the open
cycle, the fuel is introduced into the reactor for one to two years. It is then
removed and placed into long-term storage for eventual disposal. The benefits
of the closed cycle have not been fully realized because there has only been
a limited use of the separated plutonium.

Uranium mines Conversion to Conversion to

UF6 Enrichment
and mills fuel

Recovered uranium Plutonium

Reactor

Reprocessing

Waste storage I By-products

C

Figure 3.10 Nuclear fuel cycle.

108 Power Plant Engineering

3.8.1 Fuel Preparation

Uranium is found chemically combined as an oxide (U308 or UO2) and never

as a pure metal because it is a chemically reactive element. The natural UO2
is used in reactors that do not require enriched uranium as fuel such as the
CANDU reactor. In some cases the reaction does not take place with natural
uranium containing only 0.7% of U-235. In such cases, it becomes essential
to use uranium containing higher content of U-235. This is called U-235
concentration or uranium enrichment. For enrichment first the impure U308
is converted through a series of chemical processing steps to uranium hexa-
fluoride (UF6). UF6 is a solid at room temperature but converts to its gaseous
form at moderate temperature levels. The gaseous UF6 is suitable for use in
the enrichment process. UF6 is very corrosive and reacts readily with water.
It is transported in large cylinders in the solid state. Nowadays, only two
processes, viz. gaseous diffusion and gas centrifugation are used commercially
for enrichment. The various methods of uranium enrichment are as follows.

Electromagnetic method
This process uses a magnetic field to separate the U-235 from the U-238.
This method is based on the fact that when ions moving at equal velocities along
a straight line in the same direction are passed through a magnetic field, they
are acted upon by forces perpendicular to the direction of ion movement and the
field. As the ions are accelerated and turned, they move along circumferences
of different radii because of the difference in their masses.
Neutral atoms of a gaseous uranium compound are ionised with the help
of ion bombardment by feeding the compound into the ion source. The ions
produced come out in the form of narrow beam after passing through a number
of silos. This ionised beam first enters the acceleration chamber and then
enters a separation chamber where a magnetic field is applied. Due to this
magnetic field the ions of different masses move along different circumferences.
The electromagnetic isotope separation process was used to separate the U-235
used in the first atomic bomb. Multiple stages were required and the process
was very difficult to run efficiently; it was therefore soon abandoned.

Gaseous diffusion method

This method is based on the principle that the diffusion or penetration of
molecules of a gas with a given molecular weight through a porous barrier
is quicker than the molecules of a heavier gas. Non-saturated UF6 is used for
gaseous diffusion. The molecular weight of U235 F6 is equal to 349 and is less
than molecular weight (352) of U238 F6. The diffusing molecules have small
difference in mass. In the gaseous diffusion process, UF6 is pumped through
a series of porous walls or membranes that allow more of the light U-235 to
pass through, because the lighter U-235 particles travel faster than the heavier
U-238 particles. This process continues through a series of membranes with the
 Nuclear Power Plant 109

concentration of U-235 increasing each time. For commercial reactor fuel, the
process continues until the U-235 concentration is 3%-5%. The slower U-238
particles are left behind and collect as a product having a reduced concentration
of U-235 and are commonly referred to as depleted uranium. This process
is very expensive to operate because it uses a very large amount of energy.
The commercial enrichment is carried out in large gaseous diffusion plants in
the U.S., Russia, the U.K., France, China, and Argentina.

Thermal diffusion method

In this method a column consisting of two concentric pipes is used and
temperature of one of the pipes is kept high and that of other is kept low.
Liquid UF6 is filled in the space between the two pipes. Due to difference in
temperature, liquid rises along the hot wall and falls along the cold wall and
thermal diffusion takes place in the column. The light U235 F6 molecules are
concentrated at the hot wall and high concentration of U236 F6 is obtained in
the upper part of the column.

Centrifugation method
This method is based on the fact that when a mixture of two gases with
different molecular weights is made to move at a high speed in a centrifuge,
the heavier gas is obtained near the periphery. In the centrifuge enrichment
process, the gaseous UF6 is placed in a high speed centrifuge. The spinning
action forces the heavier U-238 particles to the outside while the lighter U-235
particles remain closer to the centre. Many stages of separation in cascade
arrangement are required to obtain the enrichment of U-235 in the range of
3% to 5%. The centrifuge process uses only about 2% of the energy required
by gaseous diffusion.

3.8.2 Fuel Fabrication, Reprocessing, Spent Fuel Storage and

Transportation and Nuclear Waste

The enriched UF6 is converted to UO2 and pressed into cylindrical ceramic
pellets. The pellets are sintered, heated to high temperature, and inserted in the
fuel cladding tubes. The tubes are sealed to form fuel rods that are assembled
into fuel assemblies.
The energy available from the fission of uranium is 1 MW/g of uranium
or 1000 GW/tonne. A typical 1000 MWe reactor will use about 27 tonnes of
UO2 each year because the actual amount of uranium burned is only 3%-5%.
The unused energy available from the spent fuel, if it could be completely
burned, is over 95%. During the operation of the reactor, some of the U-238
is converted to plutonium, which also contributes to the thermal energy of
the reactor. For the advanced fuel used in reactors about 80% of the energy
available from the uranium remains in the spent fuel. Thus, the spent fuel has
high energy content which obviously arises a question regarding reprocessing.
110 Power Plant Engineering

Earlier reactors were operated solely for the production of plutonium for use in
weapons. The fuels from the production reactors were reprocessed to recover
the plutonium. The most common process was the PUREX process. This is
the process that is used today by countries that reprocess power reactor fuels.
The purpose of reprocessing is to recover the uranium and plutonium in the
spent fuel. The spent fuel is disposed off as waste in the once through fuel
cycle. While, in the closed cycle, the spent fuel is reprocessed and the remaining
uranium and the plutonium are recovered.
The spent fuel is routinely discharged from operating reactors and is moved
to the spent fuel storage pool that is an integral part of the reactor facility.
The pools are actively cooled by circulating cooling water. Reactors are built
with storage pools that will hold fuel from many years of operation till the
storage pools are full to the capacity. After this the spent fuel is transferred
to dry storage in large metal or concrete storage facilities which are passively
cooled by the air circulating around them.
The spent fuel is transported in large containers made of cast iron or steel
and designed to withstand severe accidents, including fires, impacts, immersion,
pressure, heat and cold. Containers are shielded by lead for safe handling of
the highly radioactive fuel. The large containers can weigh up to 110 tonnes
and hold about 6 tonnes of the spent fuel.
Radioactive wastes are produced throughout the reactor fuel cycle. Because
these materials are radioactive, they decay with time. Each radioactive isotope
has a half life, and eventually decays to a stable non-radioactive form.
The process of managing radioactive waste involves the protection of people
from the effects of radiation.

3.9 Importance of Nuclear Power Development in

Indian Context
Any discussion on the importance of nuclear power remains incomplete without
discussing the competitive technology such as thermal power and hydropower.

3.9.1 Thermal Power

The fossil fuels in the form of coal, oil or gas are important and the major
source of power generation. Unfortunately, the oil and gas resources are very
much limited in India. It is not desirable to use oil for power generation, as
India has to import it. The known resources of coal in India are unevenly
distributed and localized in West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and
Andhra Pradesh, which requires the development of transportation facilities.
The location of hydel power plants is mostly determined by the natural
topography available and location of thermal plants is decided by the location
of coal mines or transportation facilities available if the power plant is to be
 Nuclear Power Plant 111

located far from coal mines. The coal deposits are rich and ample in India,
though poor compared with other countries. These coal deposits are going
to deplete very soon, therefore, it is also not possible to depend wholly on
coal based thermal power development. Coal remains economically attractive
because of large accessible coal resources; however, this advantage could be
changed if a charge is imposed on carbon emissions.

3.9.2 Hydropower

The hydropower being a non-conventional, renewable and perennial source

of energy plays an important role in the power generation. Hydropower was
once the dominant source of electrical energy in the world but its use has
decreased because relatively less expensive fuel was easily available. With the
increased fuel cost and environmental criteria associated with fuel use, interest in
hydropower is being revived. The development of hydropower systems as a back
up for thermal power plants has significant advantages. The flexible operation
of hydraulic turbines makes them suitable for peak load operation. Therefore,
the development of hydropower is not only economical, but it also solves the
major problem of peak load. India's power potential from hydel source as per
the estimate is 41500 MW. There is sufficient scope to develop hydel source
of power in future to meet the increasing power demands because only 16%
has been developed for its present hydel capacity. The availability of water
resources in abundance and their fairly even distribution in the overall economy
has enhanced the development of hydroelectric plant in India. The other factors
responsible in the favour of hydropower are indigenous technological skill,
material and cheap labour. Reduced costs associated with standardization of
the major equipment makes it feasible to develop small hydro projects ranging
from 10 to 1500 kW. India is yet to start in the field of micro hydro projects,
which is one major way for solving the present power problem.
The major drawback is that it operates at the mercy of nature.
The development of hydroelectric projects requires relatively longer time for
its hydrological, topographical and geological investigations. The major hydel
potential is available in the northern region and even if all the hydel potential
is developed, it will not be possible to meet the growing demand. Therefore,
it is necessary to supplement the hydel potentials with other resources.

3.9.3 Importance of Nuclear Power

For nuclear power plant any site can be selected paying due consideration
to safety and load. Nuclear power generation in India is an attractive option
in places remote from coal mines and water power sites particularly in those
states which are far away from coal resources and poor in hydel potential.
The initial investment and capital cost of a nuclear power plant is higher as
compared to a thermal power plant. But the cost of transport and handling
112 Power Plant Engineering
of coal for a thermal power plant is much higher than the cost of nuclear
fuel. Costs for nuclear-based electricity generation have been dropping over
the last decade because of reductions in nuclear fuel cost, operating cost, and
maintenance cost. Because the capital cost of nuclear plants contributes more
to the cost of electricity, the impact of changes in fuel cost, operation cost, and
maintenance cost on the cost of electricity generation is less. Keeping in view
the depletion of fossil fuel reserves and transportation of such fuels over long
distances, nuclear power plants can take an important place in the development
of power potentials. Further nuclear power is an attractive energy option to
diversify the energy mix in the face of rising fossil fuel costs.
The present power situation in India is aggravating and going to be
aggravated in future as the demand is increasing at rapid rate due to large-
scale industrialization and increased agricultural activity. There are major power
shortages in almost all states of the country leading to failure of industries and
loss of production. Very careful analysis of the problem and proper planning
and execution is necessary to solve the power crisis in our country. The future
planning for the power development in order to achieve the required growth
should include mix of hydel, thermal and nuclear power for the optimum
exploitation of available resources.
Uranium is present in the earth's crust to the extent of four parts per
million. It has been estimated that the amount of uranium in the earth's crust
to a depth of 12 miles is of the order of 100 trillion tonnes. Thorium, which
is composed of only one isotope, thorium-232, is abundant more than three
times compared to uranium. The major countries with reserves of uranium in
order of importance are Australia, the United States, Russia, Canada, South
Africa, and Nigeria. Deposits of uranium in India have been located in Bihar
and Rajasthan. The countries with major thorium deposits are India, Brazil,
and the United States. Thorium is abundant in India, estimated at 500,000
tonnes. But the commercial use of thorium is tied up with the development of
fast breeder reactor. With the utilization of breeder reactors, there is enough
uranium and thorium to provide electrical power for the next thousand years at
current rates of usage. The U-238 can be blended with highly enriched uranium
or plutonium to make fuel for nuclear power plants or to breed plutonium in
fast breeder reactor.
The major hurdle in the development of nuclear power in India is the
lack of technical facility and foreign exchange required to purchase the main
component of nuclear power plant.

3.10 Review of the Nuclear Power Programme

Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is responsible for
designing, constructing, commissioning and operating all nuclear power plants in
the country. NPCIL is a public sector enterprise under the administrative control
of the department of atomic energy, Government of India. The objectives of
 Nuclear Power Plant 113
NPCIL are operating the atomic power stations and implementing the atomic
power projects for the generation of electricity in pursuance of the schemes
and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act,
1962. When the country's atomic energy programme was launched, a three-
stage nuclear energy programme to use the available uranium and vast thorium
resources was planned as follows:
1. The first stage was to use the natural uranium based pressurized heavy
water reactors (PHWRs), to produce electricity, and plutonium as a
by-product.
2. The second stage was expected to be based on fast breeder reactors
(FBRs). FBRs will use plutonium as a fuel, which in addition to
generating electricity will produce more plutonium from U-238 kept as
blanket. It will also yield U-233 from thorium kept as blanket material.
3. The third stage reactors based on fast as well as thermal reactors which
will use U-233 as a fuel and thorium as blanket material to produce
more U-233 than consumed for fuelling additional breeder reactors.
The nuclear power plant units in India (for latest details, visit the website
www.npcil.nic.in) under operation and under construction are given in Tables
3.2 and 3.3 respectively. At present the total installed capacity of operational
unit of nuclear power plant in the country is 4560 MW. The operational and
under construction units of nuclear power plants are at following seven locations:
Tarapur near Mumbai in Maharashtra, Rawatbhata near Kota in Rajasthan;
Kalpakkam near Chennai in Tamil Nadu, Narora near Bulandshahr in Uttar
Pradesh, Kakrapar near Surat in Gujarat, Kaiga in Karnataka, Kundakulam in
Tamil Nadu. Except for the first two units at Tarapur which are of the BWR
type, all other reactor units are of the PHWR type. A PHWR uses natural
uranium as a fuel with heavy water as moderator and coolant. A PHWR has
a greater yield of plutonium because of excellent neutron economy attained
by heavy water as moderator. The use of natural uranium helps to reduce the
investment in fuel as natural uranium is easily available in India. Work on a
prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR) is also expected to be taken up in the
near future.

Table 3.2 Nuclear power plant units in India under operation

Plant location Unit Reactor type Capacity Year of commercial
(MWe) operation
Tarapur atomic power 1 BWR 160 1969
station (TAPS) , 2 BWR 160 1969
Maharashtra 3 PHWR 540 2006
4 PHWR 540 2005

(Contd.)
114 Power Plant Engineering

Table 3.2 Nuclear power plant units in India under operation (Contd.)

Plant location Unit Reactor type Capacity Year of commercial

(MWe) operation
Rajasthan atomic 1 PHWR 100 1973
power station (RAPS), 2 PHWR 200 1981
Rajasthan 3 PHWR 220 2000
4 PHWR 220 2000
5 PHWR 220 2010
6 PHWR 220 2010
Madras atomic power 1 PHWR 220 1984
station (MAPS), 2 PHWR 220 1986
Tamil Nadu
Kaiga generating 1 PHWR 220 2000
station, Karnataka 2 PHWR 220 2000
3 PHWR 220 2007
Narora atomic power 1 PHWR 220 1991
station (NAPS), 2 PHWR 220 1992
Uttar Pradesh
Kakrapar atomic 1 PHWR 220 1993
power station (KAPS), 2 PHWR 220 1995
Gujarat

Table 3.3 Nuclear power plant units in India under construction

Plant location Unit Reactor type Capacity Expected date of
(MWe) commercial
operation
Kundakulam atomic 1 VVER-1000, 1000 Dec., 2010
power project, 2 (PWR)
Tirunelveli-Kattabom- VVER-1000, 1000 June, 2011
man, Tamil Nadu (PWR)
Kaiga generating 4 PHWR 220 August, 2010
station
Kakrapar atomic 3 PHWR 700 June, 2015
power station 4 PHWR 700 Dec., 2015
Rajasthan atomic 7 PHWR 700 June, 2016
power station 8 PHWR 700 Dec., 2016

Review Questions

1. Discuss the factors considered for the site selection of nuclear power
plant.
2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plant.
 Nuclear Power Plant 115
3. What is a.m.u.?
4. Define mass defect and binding energy.
5. Write a short note on binding energy.
6. What is radioactive decay?
7. What do naturally occurring radioisotopes emit?
8. Explain the difference between chemical and nuclear reactions.
9. Explain a fission chain reaction with an example.
10. What are fission fragments and fission products?
11. What are prompt neutron and delayed neutron?
12. What are fast neutron and thermal neutron?
13. Write a short note on fertile and fissionable material.
14. Explain a heterogeneous nuclear reactor system with neat sketch, stating
function of each component.
15. Write the classification of nuclear reactors.
16. What is a chain reaction? How is it controlled?
17. State the properties of control rods.
18. With a neat sketch, explain the working of pressurized heavy water
reactor.
19. What is the purpose of pressurizer in a PWR?
20. With a neat sketch, explain the working of CANDU reactor. What is
calendria?
21. With a neat sketch, explain the working of boiling water reactor.
22. Explain the principle of operation of a sodium graphite reactor.
23. Write a short note on fast breeder reactor.
24. Write a short note on moderator.
25. Describe the cladding in nuclear reactors. Describe the properties of
three cladding materials.
26. Write a short note on reflector in nuclear reactor.
27. Why uranium oxide is preferred to uranium as a fuel?
28. Write a short note on radioactivity hazards.
29. Describe a homogeneous reactor.
30. What is meant by uranium enrichment? Describe some methods of
uranium enrichment.
31. Compare nuclear power plant with thermal and hydroelectric power
plants.
32. Discuss the factors which go in favour of nuclear power plant as
compared to the other types of power plants.
33. Write a brief note on India's nuclear power programme.
 CHAPTER4

Hydroelectric Power Plant

4.1 Introduction
Hydropower is a renewable, economic and non-polluting source of energy.
Hydroelectric power plant converts the hydraulic energy of water into electrical
energy. The level of any place is higher than sea level, thus rain water falling
over the earth's surface possesses potential energy relative to sea or ocean
and flows towards sea. This datum (potential) energy (head) of rain water
available at appreciable vertical height is converted into mechanical energy by
allowing the water to flow through the hydraulic turbine runner. The mechanical
energy is then utilized to run an electric generator coupled to the turbine shaft.
The electrical power developed in this manner is given as:
P = nomgh = nopQgh (4.1)
where P is the hydraulic power in Watts, m is the mass flow rate in kg/s, Q
is the flow rate or discharge in m3/s, g is 9.81 m/s2 (the acceleration due to
gravity), p is the water density, 1000 kg/m3, h is the potential head available
in metre and no is the overall efficiency of conversion of potential energy
into electrical energy. Thus, for hydroelectric power plant the water should be
available in large quantity (Q) and at higher elevation (h).
Hydroelectric power plants are generally multi-purpose projects developed
for controlling the floods in the rivers, storage of irrigation water and storage
of the drinking water supply besides generation of power. Since independence,
a substantial growth in hydropower has occurred with the commissioning of
a large multi-purpose project such as Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC),
Bhakra Nangal, Nagarjuna Sagar and so on. Though it takes about 10 years for
developing a large size hydro project from planning to commission, hydroelectric
power plants are the best choice for meeting the peak demand and improving
the reliability of power system. Hydroelectric projects have long useful life
extending over 50 years and help in opening of avenues for the development
of remote and backward areas.

116
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 117
Hydroelectric power plant is an important power plant next to the thermal
power plant. Nearly 20 per cent of the total power requirement of the world
is met by hydroelectric power plants. India is rich in hydropower potential and
ranks fifth in the world in terms of usable potential. The hydropower potential
in India is distributed across six major river systems, namely the Indus, the
Brahmaputra, the Ganga, the central Indian river systems, and the east and
west flowing river systems of south India. The Indus, Brahmaputra and Ganga
together account for nearly 80% of the total potential.
India has an assessed hydropower potential of about 84,000 MW at 60%
load factor and out of this only about 20% has been developed so far. Thus
hydropower is one of the potential sources for meeting the growing energy
needs of the country and for ensuring the country's energy security. The total
installed generating capacity in India by thermal (coal, gas and liquid fuel),
hydro, nuclear, and renewable based generation as of 31 March, 2006 was nearly
125,000 MW. The share of hydropower is about 32,325 MW with hydropower
constituting about 26% of the total installed generating capacity. The various
factors such as the scarcity of adequately investigated projects, environmental
concerns, resettlement and rehabilitation issues, land acquisition problems,
regulatory issues, long clearance and approval procedures, the lack of competent
and resourceful contractors, and in some cases, interstate issues and law and
order problems have contributed to the slow pace of hydropower development.
However, considering the large potential and the intrinsic characteristics of
hydropower in promoting the country's energy security and flexibility in system
operation, it is necessary to accelerate the hydropower development.
The energy resources of India are unevenly distributed with bulk of the
hydro resources in the northern and north-eastern part, and fossil fuel resources
in the central and western parts. Optimal utilization of these resources is ensured,
through regional power grids and inter-regional interconnections. A judicial
mix of hydropower in the energy portfolio contributes to energy security and
also increased flexibility in grid operation. If a hydroelectric power plant is
used independently, then it may suffer seasonal variation of power output due
to the variation of water flow available or requires a large capacity storage
reservoir to meet the variable load demand, which adds to the cost. It will be
uneconomical if the maximum capacity of the plant is based on the minimum
water flow available. There will be a great wastage of water over the dam for
greater part of the year. Thus, the hydroelectric power is used in conjunction
with thermal power in an interconnected system for economy and cost saving.
The hydro—thermal mix is optimized to achieve the minimum cost of power
generation, which may be 30% of hydro-70% of thermal or 35% of hydro-65%
of thermal. During the monsoon months the hydropower plant of the system
shares maximum load and carries the base load as long as there is plenty of
water stored in the reservoir, while thermal power plant takes the peak load.
When water availability is low, the thermal power plant takes the base load
and the hydropower plant meets the peak load.
118 Power Plant Engineering

4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of

Hydroelectric Power Plant
4.2.1 Advantages

The hydroelectric power plants have the following advantages which make
them suitable for large interconnected electric system:
1. It is totally renewable and non-polluting and can also provide a
more stable price regime over a long period of time as no fuel is
required.
2. There is no ash disposal problem as in a thermal power plant.
The hydropower does not produce any greenhouse effect and the problem
of emission of polluting gases and the particulates to the atmosphere
does not exist.
3. The development of hydropower projects is also in many cases associated
with flood control, irrigation, drinking water, navigation and tourism
benefits. The water after passing through turbines is utilized for irrigation
of farms and drinking purpose for people in the vicinity.
4. It has inherent capability for quick starting, stopping, load variations,
etc., and is thus ideally suited for meeting the peak load demand.
The plant can be run up and synchronized in a few minutes. While in
a thermal or nuclear power plants, the steam turbine is put on turning
gear for about two days during start-up and shutdown.
5. Due to its quick starting and stopping, the hydropower can be used
as the ideal spinning reserve in a system mix of thermal, hydro and
nuclear power stations.
6. The running costs of hydropower plants are very low as compared to
thermal or nuclear power plants, besides the cost of fuel is nil. Further,
the generation cost is not only inflation free but it also reduces with
time.
7. The plant is highly reliable and its maintenance and operation charges
are very low. The plant requires less reserve capacity and has no standby
losses.
8. Modern hydraulic turbines give high efficiency over a considerable
range of load, which helps in improving the system efficiency.
9. The life expectancy of hydropower equipment is about 50 years or
more, while the effective life of thermal or nuclear plant equipment is
about 30 years.
10. The hydroelectric power plants do not require highly skilled workers.
The manpower requirement is also low.
11. The pumped storage hydroelectric power plants can play an important
role in meeting the peak demand and also in improving the grid stability
and load factor of thermal power stations.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 119

4.2.2 Disadvantages

The major disadvantages or barriers/concerns in the development of hydropower

projects are as follows:
1. The capital cost of the hydroelectric power plants is very high. The
annual interest of this capital cost is a large part of the annual cost of
hydroelectric power plants.
2. Preparation of detailed project reports for hydroelectric power plants takes
relatively longer period than for thermal power plants because reliable
hydrological, geological, seismological and environmental studies have to
be carried out for a longer period. Thus the hydroelectric power plants
take much longer time in design and execution. The gestation period
of hydroelectric power plants may extend from ten to fifteen years.
3. These plants are usually located in the hilly areas and plant site is
difficult to access. Further such plants are often far away from the load
centre which results in long and costly transmission lines besides more
transmission losses.
4. Power generation is dependent on the nature, i.e. rainfall or quantity
of water available. The output of a hydroelectric power plant is never
constant because the rate of water flow to a river depends on monsoons
and it is difficult to predict and control monsoons.
5. A large number of hydropower projects having common river systems
between adjoining states are held up on account of interstate aspects.
6. Large storage-based hydroelectric power plants have environmental
impact and rehabilitation issues. The important concerns in hydroelectric
projects are: (a) rehabilitation of project affected people, (b) deforestation,
(c) likely submergence of archaeological, religious and historical
monuments, (d) protection of flora, fauna, forests, and wildlife,
(e) degradation of catchment area, and (f) disaster potential in the
event of earthquakes, reservoir-induced seismicity, surplusing of
reservoirs, etc.

4.3 Site Selection of Hydroelectric Power Plant

Essential characteristics for a suitable site to make the plant comparatively
economical are large catchment areas, steep gradient to area, high average
rainfall and a favourable place like good system of natural storage lakes at
high altitudes for constructing the storage or reservoir. For this purpose, the
geological, geographical and meteorological conditions of a site need to be
carefully investigated. The following factors should be considered while selecting
the site for hydroelectric power plant.
1. Availability of water: To know the available energy from a given
stream or river, the discharge flowing and its variation with time
120 Power Plant Engineering
over a number of years must be known. The design and capacity
of the hydroelectric power plant greatly depends on the amount of
water available at the site. The estimates of the average quantity,
maximum and minimum quality of water available at the proposed
site should be made available to decide need and capacity for storage,
the plant capacity, size of the headwords and dam to be built with
adequate spillway and to set up the interconnected peak load thermal
plant.
2. Water storage: There is a wide variation in rainfall throughout the
year; hence, to have a uniform power output, water storage is needed
so that excess flow at certain times may be stored to make it available
at the times of low flow. The storage capacity can be estimated with
the help of mass curve. To select the site of the dam, a careful study
should be made of the geology and topography of the catchment area
to see if the natural foundations could be found.
3. Available water head: A large quantity of water at a sufficient head
should be available in order to generate the desired quantity of power.
The level of water in the reservoir for a proposed plant should always
be within limits throughout the year. For a given output, the quantity of
water required to be supplied to the turbines reduces with an increase
in effective head.
4. Access to site: A good access and transport facilities to the site of
the plant is always a desirable factor. The inaccessible site or terrain
will impede the movement of men and material.
5. Distance from load centre: Mostly the electric power generated in
a hydroelectric power plant has to be transmitted to some considerable
distance from the site of plant. Hence, the routes and the distances
for transmission of electric power should be carefully considered to
reduce the cost of erection of transmission lines and their maintenance.
The cost of transmission lines and the transmission losses will be
reduced, if the site is close to the load centre.
6. Geological investigation: The dam constructed at the site should have
large catchment area to store water at high head. The foundation rocks
of the masonry dam and the other structures must be firm, stable,
impervious and strong enough to withstand the stresses in the structure
and the thrust of water when the reservoir is full. The area must
be free from earthquake. The land of the site should be cheap and
rocky.
7. Water pollution: The water should be of good quality; otherwise, it
may corrode and damage the plant structure and machinery.
8. Sedimentation: Silting must be small as it reduces the capacity of
the reservoir due to deposition of sediments. Silting from the forest
covered area is small.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 121

4.4 Hydrology
The generation of electrical energy from falling water is only a small process
in heat power cycle known as hydrological cycle which utilizes solar energy.
Hydrology is the science that deals with the processes governing depletion and
replenishment of water resource over and within the earth's surface. It deals
with the occurrence, distribution and movement of water over and under the
surface of earth. The knowledge of hydrology at a certain site is necessary
to design the irrigation and flood control works, power projects, water supply
schemes, navigation works, etc.
Most of the earth's water sources such as river, lake, ocean, groundwater,
etc., obtain their water from rain; while rainwater itself is derived from the
evaporation from these sources. Hydrological cycle is the process by which
the moisture from the surface of water bodies covering the earth's surface is
transferred to the atmosphere as vapour and back to the water bodies again
by precipitation. The evaporation of water takes place from the different water
bodies. The water vapour in atmosphere goes up and forms clouds on cooling.
Further cooling makes the clouds to condense and fall down in the form of
rain, snow, dew, frost, hail or sleet, etc., known as precipitation. A major part
of the precipitation occurs in the form of rain, a minor part of the precipitation
occurs in the form of snow and the other forms of the precipitation are very
small. The distribution of precipitation may be grouped in direct evaporation,
absorption and transpiration by vegetation, seepage, storage and direct surface
runoff, eventually forming rivers. The major portion (about two-third) of this
precipitation which reaches the land surface is returned to the atmosphere by
evaporation from water surfaces, soil and vegetation and through transpiration
by plants. The remaining precipitation returns ultimately to the sea or ocean
through surface or underground channels. This completes the hydrological cycle.
In India the largest amount of precipitation (75% or more) falls as rain
during the monsoons, whereas moderate amounts of precipitation (25% or less)
mainly as snow during the winter season.

4.4.1 Runoff and Measurement of Runoff

Rainfall is, first of all, intercepted by buildings, trees and other objects which
prevent it from reaching the ground. This quantity is called rainfall interception
and is generally very small. The water which is intercepted by the objects
evaporates back to the atmosphere as vapour. When the rainfall rate exceeds
the interception rate, rain water starts reaching the ground. This ground rain
water first moistens the soil and then infiltrates into the subsoil according to
the infiltration capacity of soil. If rainfall intensity is more, then excess ground
rain water gets collected into the innumerable small and large depressions
existing in the area. This quantity stored in depressions is termed depression
storage which latter on evaporates, infiltrates into soil and used by vegetation.
122 Power Plant Engineering
With further increase in rainfall intensity, the excess rainfall which initially
accumulates on the ground as surface detention then flows as overland flow
before entering a stream. The water that reaches the stream in this manner is
called surface runoff.
The amount of rainfall which makes its way towards streams, rivers,
lakes or ocean from the earth's land surface is termed runoff. Runoff occurs
if the rate of precipitation exceeds the rate at which water infiltrates in the
ground and depressions are filled on the ground. Runoff includes surface
runoff and groundwater flow that has seeped into the stream. The part of the
precipitation absorbed by the soil and percolated into ground may ultimately
reach the catchment area through the underground channels. Though, runoff
also includes direct precipitation over the river stream but it is negligible.
The terms discharge, stream flow and runoff are generally used to mean one
and the same thing. The runoff for the rainfall over a certain area during a
given period can be represented by the following equation:
Runoff = precipitation — interception — depression storage — infiltration (4.2)
The main contributing factor for runoff is rainfall. Light rainfall aid to the
growth of vegetation but do not contribute to stream flow. Intensity of rainfall,
season, topography of catchment area, meteorology, and geology of area largely
determine the runoff. The precipitation that falls on hills and mountains in the
form of snow melts during warmer weather as runoff and converges to form
streams can also be used for power generation. The unit of runoff is m3/s
or day-second metre. One day-second metre is the discharge collected in the
catchment area at the rate of 1 m3/s for one day. Thus,
One day-second metre = 1 x 24 x 3600 = 86400 m3/day
The runoff can also be expressed in cms of water on the drainage area feeding
the river site for a stated period, or km2-cm of water per unit of time.
Runoff is useful for power generation. By runoff data we can evaluate
the minimum annual energy output, average annual energy output, additional
energy and increase in plant capacity by using a reservoir, capacity of reservoir
and necessary spillway capacity. The runoff or stream flow can be determined
with the help of three methods:
(i) Rainfall records: Rainfall is measured in terms of vertical depth
(centimetres) of water over a given area and over a given period. Any open
receptacle or vessel with vertical sides can be used as a measuring device or
rain gauge for measuring rainfall. The runoff depends on rainfall but there
is no direct relationship. The variation of runoff in a given site depends on
geological, geographical and topological features of the drainage area feeding the
river as well as intensity of rainfall. The runoff can be estimated from rainfall
records by multiplying the rainfall with runoff coefficient for the drainage area.
Runoff = rainfall x runoff coefficient (4.3)
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 123

However, this is not an accurate method of measuring runoff since the

estimation of runoff coefficient cannot be very accurate. The runoff coefficient
takes into account the various losses (evaporation, percolation, etc.) and depends
upon the nature of the catchment area. The value of runoff coefficient is high
for area having concrete pavement and is low for forests and farms.
(ii) Empirical relations: Empirical relations to determine the stream flow can
be developed based on past data. Empirical relations relate only to a particular
site and cannot be relied upon for general use.
(iii) Actual measurement: For reliable estimate we should know variation
of runoff over a long period of years because runoff is a function of time.
Direct measurement by stream gauging at a given site for a long period is the
only precise method of evaluation of stream flow. Notches, weirs and flumes are
used for measurement of flow in open channels besides velocity area method
and certain other methods. The velocity area method is a direct method of
calculating discharge in a stream by measuring its velocity and area of flow.
The entire stream cross-section is divided into a number of parts. The flow
is measured by selecting a channel of fixed cross-section and measuring the
water velocity at regular intervals, at enough points in the cross-section for
different water levels. For this, overhead car moving on the cable or a boat
is used and the velocity of flow can be measured by dipping current meter in
water. The total flow for each stage is calculated by integrating the velocities
over the cross-section or by summation of product of area of each part and
velocity of flow through it for all parts of cross-section.

4.4.2 Hydrograph and Flow Duration Curve

The graphical representation of data gives quick and easy information instead
of tabular representation. Table 4.1 shows the runoff data for a stream/river
and these data are also represented graphically in the form of hydrograph and
flow duration curve in Figures 4.1 and 4.2.

Table 4.1 Runoff in Mm3 per month and cumulative runoff of a river
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Runoff 140 27 35 26 16 48 212 180 116 92 67 37
Cumulative 140 167 202 228 244 292 504 684 800 892 959 996
runoff

A hydrograph (Figure 4.1) indicates the variation of runoff or flow rate

with the passage of time. Runoff is plotted on ordinate and time on abscissa.
The time may be in hours, days, weeks or months. It shows the flow available
at a particular time and extreme conditions of flow. The area under hydrograph
gives the total volume of flow.
124 Power Plant Engineering

-
200 -

150- Hydrograph
E
•-
E 100 •-

50 -
• -
•-
•-
0 I III II I !III f
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (month)
Figure 4.1 Annual hydrograph of a typical river.
To obtain the flow duration curve, the runoff data are arranged in increasing
order. The lengths or fractions of time during which certain flows are available
are determined as shown in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Runoff in Mm3 per month and fraction of time

Runoff per month Total number of months during Percentage of
(Millions of cubic metre) which flow is available time
16 12 100.00
26 11 91.67
27 10 83.33
35 9 75.00
37 8 66.67
48 7 58.33
67 6 50.00
92 5 41.67
116 4 33.33
140 3 25.00
180 2 16.67

A flow duration curve (Figure 4.2) shows the relation between flow and
fraction of time (length of time duration) during which it is available. The flow
is plotted on ordinate and fraction of time on abscissa. The minimum runoff
Qmin would be the flow available for 100% of time. Perennial river shows a
finite value of flow available for 100% of time while for intermittent river
Qmin would be zero.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 125

200- 1-I

Flow duration curve

Flow demand line

D I E
F
50-

C
Amin B
0 I I I I I I I I I I A
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
25% 50% 75% 100%
Number of months (% of time)
Figure 4.2 Flow duration curve of a typical river.

The flow duration curve can be used for preliminary studies of a hydro
project, comparison of streams, the evaluation of low level flows and for design
of drainage systems and in flood control studies. A flow duration curve is a
very useful tool in ascertaining the development of water power. The area under
this curve gives the total quantity of runoff during that period. The power that
can be produced can also be obtained from flow duration curve because by
knowing the head of discharge we can calculate the power. By changing the
ordinate to power (kW) instead of discharge (m3/s) in flow duration curve,
the power duration curve can be obtained or the flow duration curve can be
converted to a power duration curve with some other scale on the same graph.
Thus, the area under the flow duration curve also represents the average yield
(power output) from the stream or hydroelectric power project.
It can be noted in Figure 4.2 that the area OABC represents the firm yield
of water or power, often termed primary power. Firm yield of water or primary
power is the power corresponding to the flow rate Qffun available for 100% of
time. If there is no storage then the plant capacity is mostly based on Qm,,, and
in that case power developed would be equal to primary power. If storage is
provided then plant can use flow higher than Qmin and the additional output
available at higher water flows is called secondary power. If a demand flow
rate of Qd (67 Mm3 per month) is required for all the times, then the natural
flow is sufficient to meet the flow demand Qd for 50% of time or 6 months in
the year. In the absence of any storage, area BCDE represents the secondary
power that would be available from the river, provided that the plant capacity
is based on the demand flow rate Qd. Also in the absence of storage the plant
will be operated under load than its rated capacity. As indicated by the area
126 Power Plant Engineering

under the flow demand line DEF that it would be possible to meet this uniform
demand flow rate for all the time only if storage equal to area BEF is provided
using the excess water having the area equal to DEGH.

4.4.3 Storage Capacity and Mass Curve

The required storage capacity of the reservoir may be determined from the
inflow/runoff data and outflow/demand rate. The rate at which water is required
for the use in a power plant is termed the demand rate. The demand rate may
be different from the average inflow rate, and the demand rate may be constant
or variable. The amount of water that can be supplied from the reservoir in a
specified interval of time is termed yield of reservoir. The yield in the critical
dry period is called safe yield.
In order to determine or decide the required storage capacity of a reservoir,
the inflow data for a large number of years (up to 30 years) is required.
The storage capacity of the reservoir may be determined using mass curve
as explained latter or by following the computational procedure explained
as follows. The calculation has been done for runoff data given in Table 4.1
and the average monthly demand rate to utilize whole water. The average
monthly demand rate at which water can be withdrawn to avoid any wastage
is given by:
total inflow in the year
Average monthly demand rate =
12
summation of monthly discharges
12
996
= = 83 Mm3
12
Now the storage capacity of the reservoir for this average monthly demand/
outflow rate can be determined by carrying out the computation as shown in
Table 4.3.
The consecutive cumulative deficit must be supplied by the reservoir,
in order to meet the requirement or to fulfil the deficit, while consecutive
cumulative surplus must be stored in the reservoir in order to avoid wastage.
The highest value in column (6) and (7) is 268 Mm3, which is the required
storage capacity to meet the demand without wastage.
In order to decide the minimum initial storage required in the reservoir,
the net water available in the reservoir has been calculated in the column
(8). There should not be no negative storage in the reservoir in order to meet
the demand with the given inflows and outflows, and in the limiting case the
maximum negative storage in the reservoir should be equal to zero. Thus,
the minimum initial storage (in the January) in the reservoir should be
206 Mm3.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 127

Table 4.3 Determination of storage capacity of reservoir

Month Monthly Monthly Monthly Monthly Cumulative Cumulative Net water
inflow* outflow* deficit in surplus in deficit in surplus in available in
reservoir reservoir reservoir reservoir reservoir
1 140 83 57 57 +57
2 27 83 56 —
3 35 83 48
4 26 83 57 ►263 —206
5 16 83 67
6 48 83 35
7 212 83 129
8 180 83 97 +62
► 268
9 116 83 33
10 92 83 9_
11 67 83 16 62 0 (Zero)
12 37 83 46
* flow is in Mm3

Mass curve
A mass curve is a plot of cumulative/accumulated flow versus time.
The ordinate of mass curve at time T indicates the total or cumulative volume
of flow between times t = 0 and t = T. The ordinate V is the area under
hydrograph from the initial time t = 0 to any time T. The mass curve is obtained
by plotting cumulative volume (V) of flow as ordinate and time (t) as abscissa.
Thus, the ordinate V at any time T depends on the flow rate Q and is given by
t=T
V dt = S Q dt (4.4)
t=o
The above equation can also be written as
dV
(4.5)
dt
Thus the slope of a mass curve at any time indicates the rate of inflow Q at
that time. Figure 4.3 shows a mass curve for a typical river for which flow
data is given in Table 4.1. Computed values of accumulated flow are also given
in Table 4.1. It is evident that a mass curve is always a rising curve because
Q is always positive. A mass curve is horizontal when there is no inflow.
A mass curve rises steeply during the period of flood or high rate of flow.
Relatively dry period are indicated as concave depressions on the mass curve.
The use of the mass curve is to compute the capacity of the reservoir
required to produce a certain dependable flow from the fluctuating discharge
of a river with the help of a reservoir. To determine the capacity of reservoir,
the mass curve is prepared from the records of mean monthly flow of a stream.
The variation of flow during each month is not considered. Though, cumulative
128 Power Plant Engineering

daily flows, instead of mean monthly flows, will give a more accurate mass
curve, but this involves an excessive amount of work.
In order to evaluate the reservoir capacity for a specified demand/yield
from the mass curve, the mass curve and the demand curve are prepared
on the same plot. The demand curve is a plot of cumulative demand with
time. The demand curve representing a uniform rate is a straight line having
the slope equal to the demand rate. Figure 4.3 also shows the demand
curve corresponding to the average monthly demand rate equal to 83 Mm3.
The slope of the straight line joining the end points of the mass curve represents
the average flow over the total period.
00-
1000-
3
900-
Tangent
800 - B3
700- 3
A3B3 = 62 Mm
D,
600 — 2

500 -
400 — 3
= 206 Mm
Demand curve
300 -
A2
E 200 - Mass curve
100- A,13, = 57 Mm3
-' B1
0 I I I I I I I I I I I r
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (month)
Figure 4.3 Mass curve of a typical river.

If during a particular period, the slope of the mass curve is greater than
that of the demand line, it means more water is flowing into the reservoir
than is being utilized, so the level of water in the reservoir will be increasing
during that period and vice versa. It can be seen from this curve (Figure 4.3)
that from the initial time 0 to A l the slope of the inflow mass curve is more
than that of the demand curve, indicating that the inflow is more than the
outflow, and the reservoir is filling. At C1, the reservoir level is the same as at
0. After C1 and up to A2, the slope of the demand curve is steeper than that
of the mass curve, and as such, the level of water in the reservoir reduces.
The vertical intercept A2B2 represents the storage required to fulfil the demand
corresponding to the duration between point 0 and point A2. After A2 and up
to C2, the slope of the mass curve is more than that of the demand curve, and
as such, the level of water in the reservoir is rising. At C2, the reservoir level
is the same as at 0. After C2 and up to A3, the level of water in the reservoir
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 129

is still rising, and the cumulative inflow is more than that of the cumulative
demand. The vertical intercept A3B3 represents the storage required to avoid
the wastage of water. Thus, the total minimum storage capacity to meet the
demand will be given by the sum of vertical intercepts A2B2 and A3B3, which
is equal to 268 Mm3.
Alternatively, the tangent to the mass curve is drawn from the high point
(vertex/ apex) A2 of the mass curve and parallel to demand curve. The maximum
departure of this tangent from the mass curve is the required storage capacity.
If two straight lines are drawn parallel to demand line and tangent to the
mass curve respectively, at the lowest tangent point and the highest tangent
point, then the vertical intercept between these two tangents represents the
storage volume required to permit continuous release of water at this average
discharge rate over the entire period.
The general procedure to estimate the reservoir capacity for a specified
demand/yield from the mass curve is as follows. From the vertices (apices)
of the mass curve draw tangents parallel to the demand curve, and measure
the vertical intercepts between the tangent and the mass curve. The vertical
intercepts indicate the volume by which inflow falls short of demand and the
maximum vertical intercepts is the reservoir capacity. It should be clear that
the vertical distance between successive tangents represents water wasted over
the spillway if it is assumed that reservoir is full at high point or vertices.
The spillway must have sufficient capacity to discharge the flood volume.
The mass curve may also be used to determine the maximum possible
uniform rate of flow which may be obtained from a given storage capacity.
To determine the safe yield, prepare the mass curve and draw various demand
curves. From the vertices of the mass curve draw tangents in such a way that
their maximum departure from the mass curve does not exceed the specified
reservoir capacity. Measure the slope of each tangent and the slope of the
flattest demand line is the firm yield.

4.4.4 Storage and Pondage

The natural flow rate of a stream varies with season. During rainy season the
stream carries a huge quantity of water as compared to other times of the
year when the quantity of water carried by it is considerably less. However,
the demand for flow to develop power according to the requirement never
corresponds to such variation of the natural flow of the stream. To meet the
variable power demand at a given time the flow of water is regulated by some
arrangement in the form of storage and pondage of water.
Storage increases the capacity of a river over an extended period of
6 months to as much as 2 years. Storage may be defined as impounding of
a considerable amount of excess flow during season of surplus flow for use
in dry season. For this a storage reservoir at a suitable site is built on the
upstream of the stream by constructing a dam across the stream.
130 Power Plant Engineering

Pondage may be defined as a regulation body of water in the form of a

relatively small pond or small reservoir provided nearer to the plant. When
there is considerable distance between the storage reservoir and plant, a pondage
is needed directly at the plant to regulate the flow with sufficient accuracy.
Pondage increases the capacity of a river over a short time, such as a week.
Pondage stores the water during the low load period and supplies it during
peak load period. It also caters for short-term functions which may be due
to sudden changes in the inflow of water, say by breaches in the conveyance
channel. In the case of diversion plant the pondage is required to be created
at the end of canal in the form of forebay reservoir.

4.5 Essential Features of A Hydroelectric Power Plant

Figure 4.4 shows the simplified flow sheet of a typical storage reservoir type
hydroelectric power plant. The essential elements of such a plant are the
following.
1. Catchment area
2. Reservoir
3. Dam and intake house
4. Inlet waterway
5. Powerhouse
6. Tail race or outlet waterway

Reservoir

Alternator
Sluice gate or valve Inlet valve

Tail race
—1— Dam
Inlet waterways
Turbine
(canal, conduit, penstock, etc.)

Catchment area
Figure 4.4 Top view of a hydroelectric power plant.

4.5.1 Catchment Area

The catchment area of a hydroelectric power plant is the whole area behind
the dam, draining into a stream or river across which the dam has been built.
The characteristic of the catchment area includes its size, shape, surface,
orientation, altitude, topography and geology. The runoff of water from the
catchment area is more if the catchment area is large, the slope of catchment
area is steep, and the altitude of catchment area is high.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 131

4.5.2 Reservoir

The whole of the water available from the catchment area is collected and
stored in a reservoir behind the dam. The purpose of storage of water in the
reservoir is to get a uniform power output throughout the year. Storage during
times of surplus for the subsequent use in times of scarcity is fundamental to
the efficient use of water resource. Water stored is not only used for power
generation, but also for irrigation, flood control, water supply and navigation.
A reservoir may be natural such as a lake on a mountain or artificially
built by constructing a dam across a river. Water held in upstream reservoir is
called storage, whereas water behind the dam at the plant is called pondage,
which has been already discussed.

4.5.3 Dam and Intake House

Dam and intake house include dam, spillways, intake systems and valves.

Dam
A dam is a structure or obstruction built across a river to provide the head of
water and to create storage. The cost of dam is about 25% of the total cost;
hence, it must be economical as well as safe. A dam must be able to resist the
hydrostatic pressure force exerted by upstream water as well as back water,
uplift and silt pressure. The dam foundation must provide dam stability under
different forces and must support its weight. Foundation must be impervious
to prevent seepage. Failure of dam is a catastrophe and hence a dam has to
satisfy tests of stability during the high floods and shock loads in case of an
earthquake. The site for the dam has to be the one where the river valley has
a neck formation. Selection of site also depends on the geology, sociological
factors such as submergence of the area and associated displacement of the
people, accessibility of materials by transport, economics and safety. Dams
may be classified into the following ways:

(i) Based on function: Based on their functions, dams can be classified into
storage dam, diversion dam and detention dam. The main purpose of storage
dam is to store water and use it subsequently as and when required for various
uses. The purpose of diversion dam is to divert the flow in another direction
by raising the water level. Such dam may not have large storage capacity. The
purpose of detention dam is to store flood water.

(ii) Based on shape: Based on the shape, there can be trapezoidal section
or arch dam to suit the structural function.
(iii) Based on hydraulic design: Based on hydraulic design, dams can be of
overflow type which allows water to flow over it, and the non-overflow type
in which water is not allowed to flow over the top of the dam.
132 Power Plant Engineering

(iv) Based on constructional material: Dam can be constructed of earth,

rock pieces, stone masonry, concrete, RCC and even of timber and rubber.
On the basis of materials of construction, dam may be classified as:
(A) Fill dam
(B) Masonry dam
The topography of the site and foundation consideration mainly governs the
type of dam. For narrow deep gorge the concrete or masonry dam is suitable
while for a wide valley fill dam is best suited.
(A) Fill dam: The fill dam or embankment dam (Figure 4.5) is constructed
by large volume of earth or rock available at the site. The cost of fill dam
is less than a masonry dam because the fill material (earth or rock) is easily
available at the site. The fill dam needs over 10 times more material than
that required for masonry dam. Fill dams are longer in span as compared to
height. The dams are built for larger heights, up to about 100 m. Such dams
are quite suitable for a previous foundation because the wide base makes a long
seepage path. To protect the dam from the wave erosion, a protecting coat of
rock, concrete or planking must be laid at the water line. The other exposed
surfaces should be covered with grass or vegetation to protect the dam from
rainfall erosion. The fill dams require supplementary spillway. However, these
dams are best for seismic area (such as wooden houses) as fill dams fit best in
natural surroundings. Fill dams are commonly built with an impervious core
of concrete. Depending on the fill material used, the fill dam may be classified
as earth fill and rock fill.
Concrete core wall
Stone pitching

Head water level

Earth, sand,
rock, gravel

Grass, vegetation-*

Bed rock
Figure 4.5 Cross-section of a fill dam.

(a) Earth fill: The fill material in earth fill dam is clay silt and sand.
It is suitable for small project of up to 70 m in height. The base of
earth fill dam is long in comparison to height and the side slopes are
flatter. The advantages of earth fill dams are that they are cheaper,
become stronger with life and can be quickly constructed on any
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 133
foundation. However, it has some disadvantages such as more seepage
losses, damage from erosion by water overtopping the dam or seeping
through it, not suitable for heavy rainfall area and requires supplementary
spillway.
(b) Rock fill: The fill material in rock fill dam is loose rock of all sizes.
It is used in hilly regions where rock is easily available. It is midway
between earth fill and gravity dam. Rock fill dam has a trapezoidal
shape with a wide base, having impervious membrane to reduce seepage.
It has high resistance to earthquake because of its flexible character.
(B) Masonry or concrete dam: Masonry or concrete dams are suitable for
big height, have more strength, and are more stable as compared to fill dams.
Spillway can be used in these dams. Nowadays masonry dam is completely
replaced by concrete dam because the concrete dam can be built faster with
better quality control. These dams are of three major classes: solid gravity dam,
buttress dam and the arched dam, where water thrust is resisted by gravity,
buttresses and arch action respectively.
(a) Solid gravity dam: Solid gravity dams are constructed either in stone
masonry or in concrete. Figure 4.6 shows the cross-section of a solid
gravity dam. Solid gravity dam is solid throughout its length except for
the joints in the structure to allow for the expansion and contraction
with change in temperature. Solid gravity dams are bulky, they require
more material and their cost is more. The stability of these dams is
by the virtue of their weight. In stable dams the resultant of all forces
acting on the dam must intersect at some point within the middle third
of the base line. The water pressure P and the weight of the dam W
are the principal forces acting on this dam. The resultant R intersects
the base at the required middle third. The friction between the dam
and foundation balances the component that causes sliding.
Head water level

Tail water level

--------

Figure 4.6 Cross-section of a solid gravity dam.

(b) Buttress dam: The buttress or hollow gravity or deck dam (Figure 4.7)
consists of an inclined flat slab (deck) supported by sloping buttresses
134 Power Plant Engineering

Deck

Buttress

Figure 4.7 Buttress dam with flat deck.

of triangular shape at regular intervals. The large vertical downward

component of hydrostatic pressure force on inclined flat deck due
to water pressure provides stability against overturning or sliding.
The force on the deck is transmitted to foundation through buttresses
which act in the manner of columns. Though this dam requires
less material, but it is less resistant to sliding and requires extra
reinforcement.
(c) Arched dam: Arch dam (Figure 4.8) is curved in plan with convex
face on upstream side. An arch dam is preferable where a narrow
canyon width (narrow opening between hills) and steep stops of solid
rocks, which support the dam against the water pressure, are available.
The water thrust is taken by arch action and arch is in compression.
The arch dam has all forces acting perpendicular to the surface so
that they tend to compress the material in the arch. It can be anchored
well and the water pressure against the arch will be carried by less
concrete than with a straight gravity type. This dam has the inherent
stability against sliding.

Figure 4.8 Arched dam.

Spillways
Spillway is a safety device for the dam and provides passage for the flood
water without raising reservoir level to avoid damage to dam. Spillway may
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 135
be a part of dam or separated at a suitable place near the dam. The dam is
subjected to hydrostatic pressure force and stability of the dam structure is
endangered when the water level in the reservoir rises. When the reservoir is
full, the level of water is up to full reservoir level (FRL) and at this instant
the excess water must be discharged by spillways, conduits piercing the
dam and the tunnels passing through the dam. If inflow increases because of
flood, then the reservoir level increases due to hydraulic jump and is termed
maximum water level (MWL). The difference of MWL and FRL is flood lift
and the reservoir level should never cross MWL for the safety of the dam.
The capacity of spillway when the reservoir reaches MWL should be equal to inflow.
The water flowing down from the spillways to the river on the downstream
has high kinetic energy. Due to this high kinetic energy, scour to the river-
bed may threaten the stability of the dam and arrangements for suppressing
the high energy water at the downstream toe of the spillways are also done.
The following are the various types of spillways.
1. Free overfall spillway: In the free overfall spillway (Figure 4.9), the water
freely drops down from the crest. The crest may be extended in the form of an
overhanging lip to direct small discharges away from the face of the overfall
section. Depending on the discharge and the height of the fall, the scour to the
river-bed to form a deep plunge pool may occur for unprotected stream-beds.
Upper nappe

Lower
nappe

Overfall spillway Ungated overflow spillway Gated overflow spillway

Figure 4.9 Overfall and overflow spillways.

2. Overflow spillway: The overflow type spillway is also called ogee or

solid gravity spillway. It has a crest shaped in the form of an ogee or S-shape.
As the name indicates in this spillway (Figure 4.9) water spills and flows over
the crest of the dam in the form of a rolling sheet of water. The upper curve
of the ogee is made to conform closely to the profile of the lower nappe of a
ventilated sheet of water falling from a sharp crested weir.
The overflow spillway may be gated to increase the storage capacity for
short duration or non-gated. The crest of the dam forms FRL for the non-gated
overflow spillway. It is simple in design, low in cost and suitable for concrete
and masonry dams (gravity and buttress dams).
136 Power Plant Engineering

3. Chute or through spillway: It is used in fill dams where overflow is not

possible. This type of spillway (Figure 4.10) is through the abutment of dam
and the water after crossing over the crest flows through the channels (troughs)
made of concrete called chute. Water from chutes meet river downstream of
the dam. It is also suitable when the valley is too narrow to accommodate the
overflow spillway in the body of the dam.

en channel of concrete blocks

Figure 4.10 Chute or through spillway.

4. Shaft spillway: Shaft spillway (Figure 4.11) also termed morning glory
spillway. It has shape of vertical funnel connected with a right angled pipe
extending through the dam. Water drops through the funnel and vertical
pipe and then flows through a horizontal pipe passing through the dam.
The provision for the trash rack is done in the funnel to prevent clogging.
It is suitable for narrow gorges and fill dams.
Inlet funnel

Conical transition

Cylindrical shaft

Bend Spillway outlet

Figure 4.11 Shaft spillway.

5. Siphon spillway: It is only suitable for gravity dams. Figure 4.12 shows
a siphon spillway. It is based on siphon action. The crest is fixed at FRL and

Air vent 4TH Crown

MWL.
Crest
Inlet or mouth Hood

Reservoi

Figure 4.12 Siphon spillway.

 Hydroelectric Power Plant 137
when the water rises above FRL, the air entrapped in the hood is driven out
by incoming water and this process is called priming. The siphon action starts
after space in the hood gets filled with water and water spills over the crest
like flow through orifice or mouthpiece. The flow of water continues till the
water level fall up to mouth of the hood and at this instant air from the air
vent is sucked to break the siphon action; thus, preserve the excess water.
6. Side channel spillway: In side channel spillway water is allowed to
flow from the side of dam crest. Side channel spillway like chute spillway
(Figure 4.13) is used in the narrow valley where required crest length is not
available or in fill dams where the flood water is not desired to flow over
the dam. When there is no room to provide chute spillway, the side channel
spillway is used. In side channel spillway the water being carried over the crest
passes in a channel parallel to the crest of dam. The side channel is mostly
of trapezoidal section.
River upstream

Spillway crest

Side channel

Dam crest

River downstream—

Figure 4.13 Side channel spillway.

7. Saddle spillway: A saddle spillway is used when conditions are not

favourable for overflow, chute, and side channel spillways. In saddle spillway
(Figure 4.14), some natural depression or saddle on the periphery of the
reservoir basin away from the dam is used as the spillway with the bottom of
the depression being at the reservoir level.
Top of dam Saddle spillway site

Profile of the basin Full reservoir level

along its periphery

Figure 4.14 Saddle spillway.

138 Power Plant Engineering

Intake systems and valves

The intake includes the head works which are the structures at the intake of
conduits, tunnels or flumes. These structures are booms, trash racks or screens,
sluices and gates or valves. Booms consist of logs tied end to end and form
a floating chain. Booms prevent the ice and floating logs from going into the
intake and divert them to a bypass chute. Trash rack or screen is made of steel
bars and is fitted directly at the intake to prevent the debris from going into
the intake. Debris cleaning devices are also fitted on the trash racks.
The gates and valves are used for controlling the flow rate of water entering
the intake. The modern dams use the following crest gates to control the
flow rate: vertical lift gate or plain sliding gate, traintor or radial gates, sluice
gates, wheeled gates, rolling gates, drum gates, etc. Vertical lift gate is used to
control the flow rate over the crest for smaller dams and it is lifted by means
of hoisting cables. The radial gate is used as a spillway gate but may be used
as an intake gate. It is a segment of cylinder so it is named traintor, and it is
pivoted on trunions and is operated by using hoist. Rolling gate consists of
a cylindrical drum which is toothed. The toothed drum rolls on a rack when
force is applied by means of hoisting cable. The track of rack is inclined.
The drum gate is a hollow cylindrical segment which can fit in the recess
provided in the top of the spillway.
Interior gate or sluice valves are also used to regulate the flow rate.
These valves are generally placed at the downstream of the sluice. The various
types of sluice valves are rotary, spherical, butterfly or needle valves. Butterfly
valve has a circular lens shaped disc having diameter equal to pipeline.
For moderate heads butterfly valves are preferred while for high head needle valves
are used. These valves are not only used as intake gates for penstocks but also they
are often used before the turbine to facilitate the inspection without dewatering
the whole penstock line. An air vent should be placed immediately below the
gate and connected to the top of the penstock and taken to a level above the head
race water. When the head gates are closed and the water is drawn off through
the turbines, air will enter into the penstock through the air vent and prevent the
penstock vacuum which otherwise may cause collapsing of the pipe.

4.5.4 Inlet Waterway

Head race or inlet waterway leads water from the reservoir to a turbine.
Inlet waterways are the passages through which the water is conveyed from
the dam to the turbines. These include canals, tunnels, penstocks, flumes and
forebays and also surge tanks. Canals and flumes are open conduit, while
tunnels, pipeline and penstock are closed conduit. The penstocks are the pressure
conduit, while canals and flumes are non-pressure conduits.
Canal: A canal is an open waterway excavated in natural ground following
its contour.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 139
Forebay: The water carried by power canal is distributed to various penstocks
leading to the turbine through the forebay. A forebay is created by widening
the power canal in the form of small basin or reservoir. A forebay may also be
constructed by erecting a dam across flowing channel. It acts as a regulating
reservoir similar to surge tank.
Tunnel: A tunnel is a closed channel excavated through an obstruction such
as a ridge of higher land where pipeline or canal cannot be used due to
topography. Tunnel provides a direct and short route and is made by cutting
mountain. Tunnels are generally of circular cross-section tunnel or horse shoe
tunnel. Horse shoe tunnel has the advantage of arch action. A concrete or steel
liner in the pressure tunnel is provided to improve the strength of tunnel material,
to prevent leakages and to improve the surface finish for less frictional
head loss.
Flume: A flume is used when it becomes difficult or expensive to construct
a canal either in a more rocky area or a topographical terrain or depression.
It is an artificial open channel made of wood, metal, concrete or masonry.
It is erected on a surface above the ground supported on a trestle. A trestle is
a supporting structure consisting of frameworks of timber or steel similar to
the structure used in table to support table top.
Penstock: Penstock is a pipe of large diameter made of steel, r.c.c., asbestos
cement, cast steel. The penstock may be buried or covered and exposed above
the ground. Maintenance is easy if it is exposed. A penstock supplies water
under pressure from the forebay to the turbine. When the power plant is
nearer to dam the penstock may be embedded in the dam itself, otherwise it
connects forebay or surge tank to the turbine. When the distance between the
forebay and the powerhouse is short, a separate penstock for each turbine is
preferred, while for moderate heads and long distance, a single penstock is used
to feed two or more turbines. Valve is provided in the penstock for inspection
of turbine without dewatering it. Anchor blocks of concrete are provided to
prevent movement of penstock due to dynamic force at horizontal or vertical
bends. The provision is also made for the flexible coupling and expansion joint

Surge tank

The surge tank relieves water hammer effect in the conduit or penstock and
acts as a storage reservoir which stores water during low load and quickly
supplies extra water during high load on turbine. The forebay also fulfils the
objectives similar to surge tank, and both are also known as balancing reservoir.
In case of canal or open channel, forebay serve the purpose of surge tank,
while for long pipeline or penstock, surge tank is used. In case of medium
head and low head power plants where the powerhouse is located within the
short distance of the head works, surge tank is not necessary. Thus for runoff
river type power plants and medium head scheme no surge tank is needed.
140 Power Plant Engineering

Surge tanks are required for high and medium head plants where water is
taken to the powerhouse through tunnels and long penstocks.
Note: Water hammer effect is the sudden rise in pressure in the closed
conduit or penstock due to the sudden decrease in flow of water to the turbine.
The rate of flow of water striking the runner is reduced by governor in order
to maintain the constant speed of the runner when the load on the generator
decreases. But the sudden reduction of the rate offlow in the penstock results in
change in linear momentum offlowing water. The change in momentum offlowing
water may cause excessive inertia pressure in the pipeline which is proportional to
length ofpipeline or penstock and velocity offlow. This excessive inertia pressure
is rapidly destroyed by the rise of the water in the surge tank, otherwise it may
damage or burst the conduit or penstock. The devices, namely deflector and the
relief valve, are also provided to avoid the sudden reduction of the rate offlow in
the penstock. The deflector in impulse turbine deflects the jet ofwater and prevents
it to strike the runner buckets. The relief valve in reaction turbine by passes the
excessflow directly to the tail race without passing through the runner. But neither
of these devices is of any help when the load on the generator increases and the
turbine is in need of more water. Thus, in order to fulfil both the above objectives
(storage to quickly supplies extra water and relieve water hammer), in addition
to the deflector or the relief valve, certain other devices such as surge tank and
forebay are provided.
An ordinary surge tank is a cylindrical open topped small reservoir in
which the water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings. A typical
arrangement of the surge tank is shown in Figure 4.15. The upper lip of
the surge tank is kept well above the maximum water level in the supply
reservoir. It is interposed between the powerhouse and high pressure penstocks
on one side and low pressure tunnels and the reservoir on the other side.
The surge tank protects the low pressure conduit system from high internal
pressures whenever there is load reduction. The surge tank helps to design the
entire pressure conduits on the upstream side of surge tanks for low pressure,
while the penstocks between the surge tank and the powerhouse need to be

Reservoir water level

........................................
B,
..... .......................................

........... ........
........ A,
...................
===
C,
Surge tank-0-
Hydraulic
gradient line

Figure 4.15 A typical arrangement of the simple surge tank.

 Hydroelectric Power Plant 141
designed to resist high water hammer pressures. Therefore, a surge tank is
always located as close as possible to the powerhouse, to reduce the length of
penstock. The best location usually would be the point where the flat sloping
conduits and the steep sloping penstock meet. For such location the surge tank
is rested directly on a concrete foundation and the penstock is connected with
the tank bottom through a suitable orifice. If the natural ground level at the
surge tank site is not high enough, then surge tank is supported on a tower
and the penstock is connected to surge tank by a riser pipe.
The water surface in the surge tank is lower than the reservoir surface due
to the head loss (major as well as minor) in the pipe connecting the reservoir
and surge tank. There are no velocity variations in the pipeline when the
load on the turbine is normal and steady, and the normal pressure gradient is
OAA1. During the low load on the turbine, the excess water flowing towards
the turbine is stored in the tank in the space between the levels A and B
and a rising pressure gradient ABB1 develops. The resulting reduction in the
difference in elevations of water surface in the surge tank and reservoir surface
reduces the velocity of flow in the pipeline. Thus, the discharge is reduced as
required by the turbine.
When the load on the turbine increases, the flow rate requirement of water
entering the runner also increases. The increased demand of water by the
turbine is partly met by the water stored in the surge tank and level of water
falls from A to C in the surge tank (Figure 4.15). Due to fall in water level
in the surge tank, a falling pressure gradient OCCi is developed. The resulting
increase in the difference in elevations of water surface in the surge tank and
reservoir surface increases the velocity of flow in the pipeline corresponding
to the increased demand by the turbine.
There are various types of surge tanks (Figure 4.16) and the following
main types of surge tanks are described here.

Internal
riser I
— Restricted Ports —Li—
Large opening 14_1 orifice

(a) Simple cylindrical type (b) Restricted orifice type (c) Differential type

Upper gallery

Lower gallery

(d) Expansion chamber type (e) Conical type

Figure 4.16 Various types of surge tanks.
142 Power Plant Engineering
(i) Simple cylindrical surge tank: The simple cylindrical surge tank as
described previously is cylindrical in shape, and it is connected with the
conduit through an orifice, having an area as large as that of the conduit itself.
The gradual rise or fall of water level in the surge tank with the decrease
or increase in the load induces the decelerating or accelerating head in the
conduit which adjusts the velocity of flow accordingly. The simple surge tank
is not suitable for medium and large head plants on account of bigger size and
sluggish hydraulic action. It is suitable for slow gradual changes in the load.
(ii) Restricted orifice or throttled surge tank: Restricted orifice or throttled
surge tank has an orifice of considerably smaller diameter than the simple
surge tank. The orifice introduces a throttling section involving considerable
frictional losses and thus, good dampening action by the surge tank. Unlike
the simple surge tank the retarding or accelerating head is not created due to
the rise or fall of water surface in the tank. The retarding or accelerating head
is due to the loss of head through the orifice. The restricted orifice creates an
appreciable friction loss when the water is flowing to or from the tank and
builds up quickly a retarding or accelerating head in the conduit. The surge
tank with large size orifice will have a negligible loss of head and will act as
the simple surge tank. While a surge tank having an infinitely small orifice
will not reduce the water hammer effect at all. Thus, the size of the orifice
is adopted in such a way that for the full rejection of load by the turbine,
the retarding head is of the order of final rise of water level in the tank.
This type of surge tank adjusts the flow quickly by developing the accelerating or
decelerating head, and requires less volume of water to store. The disadvantages,
however, is that it allows some water hammer effect in the upstream conduit.
(iii) Differential surge tank: Differential surge tank has an internal riser
which is smaller in diameter than the connection to the conduit. The central
internal riser pipe has small annular openings (ports) at its lower end which
communicate with the tank. With load variation the water level first rises or
falls in the internal riser, which quickly establishes the retarding or accelerating
heads respectively. Meanwhile the flow into or out of the tank takes place
through the annular ports, slowly raising or lowering the water level in the
tank. Thus, the accelerating or decelerating head developed is independent of
the storage. In this surge tank, the head building function is achieved through
the internal riser pipe, while the storage function is achieved through the
outer tank.
(iv) Expansion chamber or gallery type surge tank: This type of surge
tank consists of a tank provided with additional storage galleries commonly
known as expansion chambers at the down surge level and the up surge level.
These lower gallery and upper gallery restrict the down surge and up surge
effectively. The upper gallery or expansion chamber absorbs the rising surges
while lower gallery provides reserve storage of water.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 143

4.5.5 Powerhouse

The powerhouse is a building in which the turbines, alternators and the auxiliary
plant are housed. The layout of powerhouse should be such that adequate
space is provided around the equipment for convenient dismantling and repair.

4.5.6 Tail Race or Outlet Waterway

Tail race way or outlet waterway is a passage for discharging the water
leaving the turbines into the river. For the pumped storage plant, the water
from the tail race can be pumped back into the original reservoir. The outlet
waterway carries water away from the turbine while the head race way or
inlet waterway leads water to a turbine. The reaction turbine utilizes a draft tube.
One end of draft tube is connected to runner exit, while another end is submerged
under all conditions in tail race water.

Draft tube
The draft tube is an integral element of reaction turbines. It creates the negative
pressure at the exit to the runner and permits the installation of turbine above
the tail race without loss of head. The inspection and maintenance of the
turbine is easier by installing the turbine above the tail race. The draft tube
by diffuser action converts the major portion of the kinetic energy at runner
outlet or at inlet to draft tube into pressure energy at exit to draft tube, which
would otherwise go waste as an exit loss. The draft tube can be a simple
conical tube, Moody's spreading tube or an elbow tube.

4.6 Classification of Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric power plants can be classified into the following ways:

1. According to the water flow regulation
(i) Runoff river plant with and without pondage
(ii) Hydroelectric plant with storage reservoirs
(iii) Pumped storage plants
2. According to the availability of head
(i) High head power plants
(ii) Medium head power plants
(iii) Low head power plants.
3. According to the power plant capacity
(i) Mini and micro hydel plant
(ii) Medium capacity hydel plant
144 Power Plant Engineering

(iii) High capacity hydel plant

(iv) Super capacity hydel plant
4. According to the nature of load
(i) Base load plants
(ii) Peak load plants
Let us discuss them one by one.

4.6.1 According to the Water Flow Regulation

(i) Runoff river plants with or without pondage: Runoff river plants
(Figure 4.17) can be either with pondage or without pondage. A runoff river
plant without pondage has no control over river flow and utilizes the water
as it runs through the river. Such a plant works according to the daily nature
of flow and power generated depends on the quantity of flow available in the
river. These plants usually supply peak load. During floods, the tail race water
level may become excessive rendering the plant inoperative due to decrease
in effective head.
Powerhouse
Canal Forebay
Head gate

Figure 4.17 Runoff river plants.

In runoff river plant with pondage, a small storage reservoir or pond is built.
The pond can store a few hours' supply of water to the plant, when the river
flow exceeds the amount required by the plant. The pondage or stored water
is used in generating power during the hours when the demand is in excess
of the flow of the river at the moment. A runoff river plant with pondage may
supply base load or peak load power. At times of high water flow it may be
base loaded and during dry seasons it may be peak loaded.
The purpose of the dam in such plants other than storage is diversion of
water for irrigation and to maintain certain level of water for navigation. Head
available in such plants is generally low but the quantity of water available
is appreciable. High head plant utilizing water fall may also belong to this
category. The capacity of these plants is based on the minimum flow available.
(ii) Hydroelectric plant with storage reservoirs: These plants are
multipurpose plant and are most common in India. These plants have reservoir
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 145
of fairly large capacity which usually provide the sufficient storage to carry
over from rainy season to dry season and sometimes from one year to another.
During the rainy season surplus water is stored in reservoir for use during
the other seasons to supplement the flow of the river whenever the flow in
the river falls below a specified minimum value. Thus, the power production
during the dry season is not affected.
(iii) Pumped storage plants: Pumped storage plant (Figure 4.18) supplies
the sudden peak load in combination with the base load power plants such
as hydroelectric and thermal power plants and pump all or a portion of their
own water supply. The pumped storage plant consists of a tail water pond and
Upper reservoir

To turbine-generator
Motor/generator —0. /2r
rom motor-pump
Lower reservoir

Pump/turbine

Figure 4.18 Pumped storage plant.

a head water pond connected through a penstock. During peak load hours, the
water from head water pond is passed through the turbine to develop power
and exit water from the turbine is stored in the tail race pond. During off-peak
hours, some of the surplus electric energy being generated by the base load
plant or excess electricity from the grid is utilized to pump the water from
tail water pond into the head water pond. Thus, the excess electricity available
during off-peak hours is converted and stored in the form of potential energy
of water in head water pond. During times of peak load, this potential energy
will be released by allowing the water to flow from the head water pond
through the water turbine of the pumped storage plant. About 70% of power
used in pumping is recovered. Some water may evaporate from the head water
pond resulting in the reduction in the stored energy or there might be runoff
through the soil.
In the earlier pumped storage plants, there were separate motor driven
pumps and turbine driven generators. Nowadays machines used are reversible
and the same machine can be operated as a motor or a generator and similarly
as a pump or a turbine. The latest design is to use a Deriaz turbine (Francis
turbine having adjustable moving blade angle) which is just the reverse of
centrifugal pump. When the water flows through it from the head water pond,
146 Power Plant Engineering

it will act as a turbine and rotate the generator. When rotated in the reverse
direction by means of an electric motor, it will act as a pump to discharge the
water from the tail water pond to the head water pond.
It is always economical to run the thermal power plants all the time at
full plant capacity factor. Pumped storage plants can effectively regulate the
energy availability during the day by pumping up water into the reservoir
during off-peak hours when there is surplus energy in the grid and generating
power from this stored water when needed during peak hours. They can also
quickly reverse their mode of operation from pumping to generating and vice
versa. Thus pumped storage plants can play an important role in meeting the
peak demand at low cost and also in improving the grid stability and load
factor of thermal power stations.

4.6.2 According to the Availability of Head

The hydroelectric power plants cannot be classified directly on the basis of

head alone as there is no clear line of demarcation between a high head
and a medium head or between medium head and low head. However, the
hydroelectric power plant can be classified on the basis of head roughly in
the following manner:
(i) High head power plants: Figure 4.19 shows a typical high head power
plant. These plants work under a head of 100 m and above. High head power
plant is essentially a storage type plant. Water is stored in lakes or high
mountains during rainy season or when snow melts. The water is taken from
the reservoir through tunnels which distribute the water to penstocks through
which the water is supplied to the turbines. Alternately, the water from the
reservoir can be taken to a forebay by means of tunnels, canals and then from
the forebay the water is distributed to the penstocks. When it is not possible to
build forebays, surge tanks are provided before the powerhouse and after the
tunnel from the head works. Trash racks are fitted at the inlets of the tunnels
to prevent the foreign matter from going into the tunnels. The electrically
Head race Trash rack
Surge tank

Reservoir Valve house

Tunnel

Penstock

Powerhouse Tail race

Figure 4.19 A typical high head power plant.

 Hydroelectric Power Plant 147
driven butterfly valves or the sluice type valves control the flow of water in
the penstocks. After passing through the turbines, the water is discharged to
the tail race. Pelton turbine is suitable for high head plants.
(ii) Medium head power plants: These plants operate under heads varying
from 30 m to 100 m. In these plants, the river water is usually tapped off to
a forebay on one bank of the river. The water from the forebay is conveyed
to the turbines through penstocks. The forebay before penstock acts as a water
reservoir like a surge tank. Francis turbine is suitable for medium head plants.
(iii) Low head power plants: These plants operate for heads up to 50 m.
These power plants are also known as canal power plants. A dam is built across
a river and the water is diverted into a canal from the river at the dam. Canal
conveys the water into a forebay from where the water is allowed to flow
through turbines. The water leaving the turbine is discharged into the river
further downstream through a tail race. Head gates are fitted to control the flow
in the canal at the mouth of the canal. Water is made to flow through screens
or trash-racks before it enters the turbines from the forebay. The surplus water
due to increased flow in the river or due to decrease of load on the plant is
made to flow over the top of the dam or by a waste weir constructed along
the forebay. Francis turbine or Kaplan turbine is used for power generation.

4.6.3 According to the Power Plant Capacity

(i) Mini and micro hydel plant: The mini hydel plants operate within
5 m 20 head and their power generation capacity is about 1 MW and 5 MW,
while micro hydel plants are still smaller and operate under a head of less
than 5 m and generate power between 0.1 MW and 1 MW. The potential
energy source in India in this category is around 20,000 MW. The small hydro
plants have least environmental impacts and would be ideally suited for rural
electrification particularly in remote hilly areas for achieving the target of
100% village electrification. More emphasis is now being given to setup such
plants in hilly terrain.
(ii) Medium capacity hydel plant: The capacity of these plants is in between
5 MW and 100 MW.
(iii) High capacity hydel plant: The capacity of the high capacity hydel
plants is in between 100 MW and 1000 MW.
(iv) Super capacity hydel plant: The capacity of the super capacity hydel
plants is above 1000 MW.

4.6.4 According to the Nature of Load

(i) Base load plants: These plants are required to generate and supply constant
power to the grid. They run continuously and are mostly remote controlled.
148 Power Plant Engineering
(ii) Peak load plants: They only work during certain hours of a day when the
load is more than the average. Thermal power plants work with hydroelectric
power plants in tandem to meet the base load and peak load during various
seasons.

4.7 Hydraulic Turbines

A hydraulic turbine is a mechanical device that converts the potential energy
associated with a difference in water elevation (head) into mechanical energy
which in turn, rotates the electric generator coupled to it to produce electrical
energy. Modern hydraulic turbines are the result of many years of gradual
development and have undergone many technological advances in diverse areas
such as fluid mechanics, metallurgy and mechanical engineering. Economic
incentives have resulted in the development of very large units (exceeding
800 MW in capacity) with efficiencies that are sometimes in excess of 95%.
The present trend is towards bigger and bigger turbines because not only the
hydraulic efficiency improves with size but it is also, in general, economical to
use the bigger size. However, the turbine size and the number are judiciously
chosen to give optimum working conditions as well as economy. The selection
of a big size unit will heavily slash the total generating capacity of the
plant in case of failure of such unit. On the other hand, the selection of too
small size unit will be uneconomical on account of more number of units
required.
The emphasis on the design and manufacture of very large turbines is
shifting to the production of smaller units for mini-hydro projects, especially
in developed nations, where much of the potential for developing large base
load plants has been realized. At the same time, the escalation in the cost of
energy has made many smaller sites economically feasible and has greatly
expanded the market for smaller turbines.

4.7.1 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Mostly turbines are named after their originator, however, depending on various
factors hydraulic turbines may be classified in the following manner:
(a) According to principle of operation
(b) According to head and quantity of water available
(c) According to direction of flow of water
(d) According to axis of the turbine shaft
(e) According to specific speed

According to principle of operation

According to the principle of operation, turbines are classified as impulse and
reaction turbines depending on the mode of energy conversion of potential
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 149
energy of water into shaft work. In an impulse turbine, the available head is
converted to kinetic energy before entering the runner; the power available is
extracted from the flow at approximately atmospheric pressure. In a reaction
turbine the pressure and the velocity decrease from inlet to outlet of the runner.
The entire flow passage from the turbine inlet to the discharge at the tail water
must be completely filled in reaction turbines as pressure drop takes place in
the rotating passages of the reaction turbine. At the entrance to the runner of
reaction turbine, only a part of potential energy is converted into kinetic energy
and the remaining is in the form of pressure energy. The velocity head at the
inlet to the reaction turbine runner is typically less than 50% of the total head
available. Reaction turbines are also called pressure turbine.
Impulse turbines: Modern impulse units are generally of the Pelton type.
Pelton wheels/turbines are used for very high heads up to 2000 m, and are
restricted to relatively high head applications more than 200 m. In a Pelton
turbine all the available head of water is converted into kinetic energy in one
or more number of nozzles. In most of the Pelton wheel plants, single jet with
horizontal shaft is used. The number of the jets adopted depends upon the
specific speed required. One or more jets of water impinge tangentially on a
wheel containing regularly spaced double hemispherical shaped curved buckets.
The jet of Pelton turbine strikes the splitter edge of the bucket, bifurcates and
is discharged at either side. The change in linear momentum of jet results in
a tangential force on the bucket, which rotates the shaft. All kinetic energy of
jet leaving the runner bucket is lost. During this action, the water is in contact
with air all the time and the water leaving the bucket falls freely through the
discharge passages into the tail water. Because the runner operates at nearly
atmospheric pressure and the head represented by the elevation of the turbine
above tail water cannot be utilized due to negligible velocity of the jet leaving
the bucket, a draft tube is generally not used. In principle, a draft tube could be
used; however, this requires the runner to operate in air under reduced pressure.
Further the Pelton turbine is a high head device and loss in available head
by installing the turbine above tail water is relatively unimportant. Attempts
at operating an impulse turbine with a draft tube have not met with much
success.
The Pelton turbine is a low specific speed turbine. Specific speed can be
increased by the addition of extra nozzles. Most Pelton turbines are mounted
on a horizontal axis; although, newer vertical axis units have been developed
for the provision of more number of nozzles. Because of physical constraints
on orderly outflow from the unit, the number of nozzles is generally limited
to six or less. The power output of the Pelton wheel is controlled by varying
the nozzle discharge by means of an automatically adjusted needle shaped
spear valve, whereas guide vanes or wicket gates control the power output of
a reaction turbine. Jet deflectors or breaking nozzles are provided to stop the
turbine in case of emergency or shut down. Additional power can be obtained
150 Power Plant Engineering
by connecting two Pelton wheels to a single generator or by using multiple
nozzles. Because the needle valve can throttle the flow while maintaining
essentially constant jet velocity, the relative velocities at entrance and exit
remain unchanged, producing nearly constant efficiency over a wide range of
power output. The maximum hydraulic efficiency of any impulse turbine is
achieved when the velocity of the bucket at the centre line of the jet is nearly
equal to half the jet velocity. Thus, to produce certain power at maximum
efficiency, the diameter of the jet depends on mean diameter of the runner.
There is a limit to the diameter of the jet which can be applied to any impulse
turbine runner without seriously reducing the efficiency. The ratio of mean
diameter of the runner to the diameter of the jet for Pelton wheel is about 10:1.
This ratio can be reduced up to 4.5:1 in a modern Turgo impulse turbine.
In the Turgo impulse turbine, the jet is set at an angle to face the runner and
flow through the space between the buckets is like the Delaval steam turbine.
The specific speed of Turgo impulse turbine is in between that of the Pelton
wheel and Francis turbine.
Reaction turbines: In reaction turbines, the flow of water from the head race
water to the tail race water takes place in an air tight closed conduit system.
Francis, Deriaz (adjustable moving blade type and a cross of Kaplan and
Francis turbines), Propeller, Kaplan (adjustable moving blade type Propeller
turbine), bulb, and tubular turbines belong to this category. Reaction turbines
are classified according to the variation in flow direction through the runner.
In radial and mixed flow runners, the flow exits at a radius different from the
radius at the inlet. If the flow exits the runner with only radial and tangential
velocity components, it is a radial flow machine. The flow exits a mixed flow
runner with radial as well as axial velocity components.
In Francis turbine, the water enters into a spiral casing with a relatively low
velocity, passes through adjustable guide vanes located around the circumference
of the runner and flows radially inwards through the runner and finally discharges
into a draft tube sealed below the tail water level. The guide vanes around the
runner regulate the water flowing through the turbine by gradually decreasing
area of flow for all gate openings, so that no eddies are formed, and efficiency
does not suffer much even at part load conditions. Francis turbines are of the
radial and mixed-flow type, depending on the designed specific speed. The flow
through the runner changes from radially inward to nearly axial as the specific
speed requirement of the runner is increased to accommodate higher flow rate.
Also the size of the runner decreases with an increase in specific speed for
the same power. The Francis turbines are most preferred for medium heads.
The Deriaz turbine can also be used for heads up to 200 m and is particularly
suitable as a reversible machine in pumped storage plant. Francis turbines are
not able to compete in performance with the Pelton wheels above 500 m head
due to leakage problem across the valves as well as seal clearances between
the runner and the casing. The higher heads mean higher pressures and hence
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 151
greater leakages. More leakages across the seals may decrease the efficiency of
Francis turbines where water flows under pressure while in the Pelton wheel
runner is essentially at atmospheric pressure.
Axial flow propeller turbines are generally of the fixed blade propeller
or Kaplan (adjustable runner blade) variety. The classical propeller turbine
is a vertical-axis machine with a scroll case and an adjustable radial guide
vanes or wicket gate configuration that is very similar to the flow inlet for a
Francis turbine. The propeller runner may be considered as a development of
a Francis type in which the number of blades is greatly reduced. It is axial
flow turbine having a small number of blades from three to six as compared
to about 23 of Francis turbine and about 10 of Deriaz turbine. The flow enters
radially inward and makes a right angle turn before entering the runner in an
axial direction. The fixed blade propeller type turbine has high efficiency at
full load but its efficiency rapidly drops with decrease in load. The efficiency
of the unit is hardly 50% at 40% of full load at part load operation. The use
of propeller turbine is limited to the installations where the units run at full
load conditions at all times. The use of propeller turbine is further limited to
low head installations of 5 to 10 m. The Kaplan turbine has adjustable runner
blades and adjustable wicket gates. The control system is designed so that the
variation in blade angle is coupled with the wicket gate setting in a manner
that achieves the best overall efficiency over a wide range of flow rates.
The blades are rotated to the most efficient angle by a hydraulic servo-motor.
A cam on the governor is used to change the blade angle with the gate position.
The capital and maintenance costs of Kaplan turbine is much higher than
fixed blade propeller type units operated at a point of maximum efficiency.
Thus, for a low head and large capacity hydroelectric power plant requiring
a number of turbine units, it is always advisable to install Kaplan turbine for
only one or two units and remaining are of fixed blade propeller type runners.
With this combination, the propeller turbines are operated at the point of
maximum efficiency and Kaplan turbines take the required variations in
load. The specific speed of Propeller or Kaplan lies in the range of 400
to 1500 so that the speed of the rotor is much higher than that of Francis
turbine for the same output and head. Kaplan turbine develops more power
under the same head and for the same size as that of Francis turbine.
The cavitation is more serious problem in Kaplan than Francis turbine because
of high velocity of water associated with large flow flowing through Kaplan
turbine. In general as the specific speed of the runner increases, the chances
of cavitation increases due to reduced pressure at the throat of draft tube
associated with more exit velocity of water.
Some modern designs take the full advantage of the axial flow runner; these
include the tubular or bulb and Straflo types. The flow enters and exits the
turbine with minor changes in direction. The tubular type can be fixed propeller,
semi-Kaplan, or fully adjustable. An externally mounted generator is driven by
a shaft that extends through the flow passage upstream or downstream of the
152 Power Plant Engineering

runner. The bulb turbine was originally designed as a high output, low head
unit. In large units, the generator is housed within the bulb and is driven by
a variable pitch propeller at the trailing end of the bulb. The bulb turbine is
suitable for tidal power plants.

According to the head and quantity of water available

The difference in elevation of water surface between head race water and tail
race water of the turbine is the gross head under which the turbine acts. Based
on the range of gross head, the turbines may be classified as low, medium,
high and very high head, turbine. Table 4.4 shows the range of head for this
classification and selection of suitable turbine.
Table 4.4 Classification and selection of turbine based on head
Head Low head Medium head High head Very high head
range 2-15 m 16-70 m 71-500 m above 500 m
Suitable turbine Bulb, Kaplan Kaplan, Francis Francis, Pelton Pelton

Deriaz turbines are also used for heads up to 300 m, however, their use
is restricted for pumped storage plants where the turbine also has to work as
a pump.
Depending on the flow, the available turbines can also be classified as
low discharge and high discharge turbines. To accommodate more flow,
the runner should be axial flow type. In general high head turbine is low
discharge turbine, e.g. Pelton turbine, while low head turbine is high discharge
turbine, e.g. Kaplan turbine. Francis turbine is suitable for intermediate head
and discharge.
According to the direction of flow of water
The flow direction through the runner of the turbine may be tangential (Pelton),
radial (Francis), and axial (Propeller, Kaplan) with respect to the wheel.
The flow may be mixed flow (modern Francis) in which inlet to runner is
radial and exit from runner is in axial direction. If the flow is neither parallel
to the axis, nor perpendicular to it but is in an angular direction with respect
to the axis, it may be called diagonal flow (Deriaz).
According to the axis of the turbines shaft
Turbine shaft can be either vertical or horizontal. Single jet Pelton turbines
have horizontal shaft, whereas the other turbines have vertical shaft.
According to the specific speed
The turbine is a big machine and thus, before constructing the actual prototype
of turbine, some tests are made on the model of the actual prototype. In order
to predict the behaviour of prototype based on the model test results, the help
of principle of similarities and dimensional analysis is taken. The Buckingham's
pi theorem of dimensional analysis results in a non-dimensional pi term
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 153
which includes important variables, viz, speed, power and head of the turbine.
This pi term is called non-dimensional specific speed of turbine and is denoted
by N.. It is given by

P
N—
Vp (4.6)
NS; =
(gH)"4
where N is the angular speed of runner, P is the power output of the turbine,
H is the net head, p is the density of water or working fluid and g is the
gravitational acceleration. Because in the above relation p and g are constants,
a dimensional form termed specific speed is mostly used for performance
comparison. This specific speed of turbine Ns is given by

N NIT
Ns = (H) 5/4 (4.7)

For unit power and unit head Ns is equal to N. Thus, the specific speed Ns of
turbines is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine which produces unit
power under unit head. The value of Ns depends on the system of measurement.
In M.K.S. system, the power is expressed in H.P. and head in metres. The total
range of specific speed in M.K.S. system for the hydraulic turbines is from
4 to 1200. There is a range of specific speeds for suitability and selection of
each type of turbine. The classification of turbines based on the specific speed
in M.K.S unit is tabulated in Table 4.5. There will not be much variation in
calculated values of specific speed by substituting the power in H.P. or kW,
because one H.P. is equal to 0.736 kW. Thus, the range of specific speed given
in Table 4.5 may also be used for the calculation in S.I. unit.

Table 4.5 Classification and selection of turbine on the basis of specific speed
Type of turbine Specific speed (M.K.S.)
Slow Medium Fast
Impulse (Pelton) 4-10 10-25 25-60
Radial and mixed flow reaction 60-150 150-250 250-400
(Francis and Deriaz)
Axial flow (Propeller and Kaplan) 300-450 450-700 700-1200

The Pelton wheel with single nozzle is used if the specific speed is in the
range 10-30, while for further higher specific speed up to 60 multi jet Pelton
wheel is preferred. The power is directly proportional to the number of jet in a
multi jet Pelton wheel. Therefore, the specific speed of multi jet Pelton wheel
can be determined by multiplying the specific speed of single jet Pelton wheel
with a factor jz, where n is the number of jets. Thus, the specific speed of
a given Pelton wheel can be increased by using multi jet arrangement.
154 Power Plant Engineering

4.8 Selection of Turbines

The hydraulic turbine is always selected to match the specific conditions
under which it has to operate and attain the maximum possible efficiency.
The choice of a suitable hydraulic turbine depends upon available head,
power to be developed as per flow available and speed at which it has to run.
For selection of suitable turbine, the characteristic features of common turbines
based on experience are given in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 Features of various turbines

Type of Head Specific speed Maximum Maximum RPM
runner (m) (M.K.S.) capacity wheel diameter
(MW) (m)
Pelton 100-2000 4-70 250 5.5 75-1000
Francis 30-550 60-400 720 10.0 93-1000
Kaplan 2-70 300-1100 225 10.0 70-600

Though the choice of turbine is a matter of extensive experience,

the following factors have to be considered for the selection of the right type
of hydraulic turbine.
1. Available head: The selection of turbines based on available head can be
done on the basis of range of head mentioned in Table 4.4. The range of head
given in Table 4.4 is not rigid and may change marginally if other conditions
dominate to achieve economy.
2. Specific speed: The relation for specific speed indicates that when the
available head is high for the given speed and power output, a low specific
speed machine such as impulse turbine is required. On the other hand, propeller
turbines with high specific speed are required for low heads. The selection of
turbine on the basis of specific speed can be done from the range of specific
speed mentioned in Table 4.5. Impulse turbines are efficient over a relatively
narrow range of specific speed, whereas Francis and propeller turbines have
a wider useful range. In practice it may be possible to vary the specific speed
through a considerable range of values for given values of head and power
by changing the rotational speed of runner and number of turbine units.
Suppose the available head is 200 m and power developed is 18000 H.P. in
a single turbine unit at 500 R.P.M., then the specific speed of the runner is
given by

NJN T 5 00,118000
Ns = 514 Ns = = 89.19
(H) (200) 5' 4
Now if the same power is developed in four turbine units, then the required
specific speed is given by
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 155

118000
500\
Ns = 4 = 44.59
(200)5' 4
The above calculations indicate that the required power can be developed
either with one Francis turbine or four Felton turbines. Thus, the turbine may
be selected as per the specific speed between certain limits, as neither a very
low nor a very high rotational speed is desirable.
For hydraulic turbines, the optimum performance is a function of tangential
velocity of runner dependent on given head. The high rotational speed of runner
means smaller size of turbines, generator and powerhouse and is therefore more
economical. It is better and common practice to choose high specific speed
runner which results in high rotational speed of runner. It is usually desirable
to reduce the overall equipment and civil construction costs by using high
specific speed runners. High specific speed is essential when the available head
is low and the power output is high. For low head and high power output,
the low specific speed runner results in the very low rotational speed that will
be uneconomical. The low specific speed results in the relatively large diameter
of the wheel in proportion to the power developed so that the bearing friction
and windage losses tend to become too large.
Impulse turbine: Impulse turbine is selected only if head is high. There is
no need of choosing high specific speed runner when the available head is
sufficiently large because even with low specific speed, high rotational speeds can
be attained. Further, a very high rotational speed leads to more centrifugal stress
in the runner of impulse turbine due to large runner diameter in comparison to
reaction turbines. Thus, the specific speed for maximum efficiency of impulse
turbine is about 20.
Reaction turbine: The practical specific speed range for reaction turbines is
much broader than for impulse wheels. However, the determination of optimum
specific speed in a reaction turbine is more complicated than for an impulse
unit due to the wider range of variables that control the basic operation of the
reaction turbine. For small values of specific speed of reaction runner, the leakage
loss is more as the leakage area through the clearance spaces becomes greater
and the hydraulic friction through small blade passages is larger. These factors
tend to reduce the efficiency as small values of specific speed are selected for
reaction runner. However, at higher specific speed, a substantial percentage of
the available total energy is in the form of kinetic energy leaving the runner.
Though, the friction and leakage losses are reduced with an increase in specific
speed but the discharge losses increase rapidly and the net effect of further
increase in specific speed is to decrease the efficiency. To recover the kinetic
energy leaving the runner efficiently, considerable emphasis should be placed
on the draft tube design with cavitation free performance. A major factor in
the overall design of modern reaction turbines is the draft tube. However,
156 Power Plant Engineering
for minimum total loss (leakage, friction and discharge) and to avoid cavitation
it is always preferable to select the reaction turbines of medium specific speed.
There is no cavitation problem in impulse turbines. There is a considerable
variation in the specific speed of runners (impulse as well as reaction) which
can be used for given conditions of head and power provided that the height
of the reaction turbine runner above tail race level is such that there is no
danger of cavitation.
3. Performance characteristics: An important consideration for the selection
of turbine is that whether the turbine is required to operate over a wide range
of load. The two basic types of turbines (Impulse and reaction turbines) tend
to operate at peak efficiency over different ranges of specific speed, due to
geometric and operational differences. Higher peak efficiencies have been
attained with reaction turbines than with Pelton wheels.
• The efficiency of the Pelton wheel is not dependent on its size like
reaction turbine. Hence the Pelton wheel may have higher peak efficiency
than the reaction turbine for smaller powers.
• Francis and propeller turbines are suitable for full load or rated load
only while Pelton turbine and adjustable blade type Kaplan and Deriaz
runner are suitable for the full load as well as part load operation.
Pelton wheels tend to operate efficiently over a wide range of power loading
because of their nozzle design. In case of reaction machines that have fixed
geometry, such as Francis and propeller turbines, efficiency can vary widely
with load. However, Kaplan and Deriaz turbines can maintain high efficiency
over a wide range of operating conditions. The decision of whether to select a
simple configuration with a relatively peak efficiency curve or incur the added
expense of installing a more complex machine with a broad efficiency curve
will depend on the expected operation of the plant and other economic factors.
Either type of unit can be designed for good efficiency due to the overlap in
the range of application of various types in this range, but other factors, such
as generator speed and cavitation, may dictate the final selection.
Impulse turbines: For maximum utilization of net head available at the nozzle
inlet, the flow leaving the turbine is essentially at zero velocity. Under ideal
conditions, this occurs when the peripheral speed of the wheel is one-half
of the jet velocity. The maximum efficiency occurs at fixed peripheral speed
because of fixed net head, jet velocity remains constant under varying flow
conditions. In case of Pelton wheel, only the jet diameter through which the
water flows is reduced by the governing mechanism when the load on the
turbine is reduced below full load. The velocity diagrams at inlet and outlet
remain practically unaltered in shape at all loads except for very low and very
high loads. Thus the absolute velocity at inlet does not change and discharge
loss remains the same. Therefore, the part load efficiency curve is more flat
in case of Pelton turbine.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 157
Reaction turbines: The pivoted guide vanes control the magnitude and direction
of the inlet flow in reaction turbines. Because of a fixed relationship among blade
angle, inlet velocity, and peripheral speed for shock-free entry, this requirement
cannot be completely satisfied at partial flow without the ability to vary blade
angle. This is the distinction between the efficiency of fixed-propeller turbine
and Francis turbine at partial loads and the fully adjustable Kaplan design. The
optimum hydraulic efficiency of the runner would occur when angle made by
exit absolute velocity with tangential direction is equal to 90°, i.e. no whirl
component of velocity at exit. However, the overall efficiency of the turbine
is dependent on the optimum performance of the draft tube as well, which
occurs with a little swirl in the flow. Thus, the best overall efficiency occurs
with this angle equal to 75° for high specific speed turbines.
4. Rotational speed and speed regulation In all modern hydraulic power
plants, the turbines are directly coupled to the generator to reduce the
transmission losses. However, this arrangement of coupling narrows down the
range of the speed to be used for the prime-mover. In order to generate the
power at constant frequency (50 or 60 cycles/s), the generator has to operate
at its synchronous speed. It is always preferable to use high synchronous
speed for generator because the number of the poles (typically in multiples of
4) required would be reduced with an increase in synchronous speed and the
generator size gets reduced. Therefore, the value of the specific speed adopted
for the turbine should be such that it will give required synchronous speed
of the generator. As discussed earlier, the problems associated with the high
speed turbines are the danger of cavitation and the higher centrifugal forces
acting on the turbine parts which require robust construction.
The consideration must be taken into account to regulate the speed of
a turbine with variation in load to generate power at constant frequency. To
keep the speed of turbine constant is an important and complicated problem.
The magnitude of the problem varies with size; type of machine and installation;
type of electrical load; and whether the plant is tied into an electrical grid.
Regulation of speed is normally accomplished through flow control. Response
time of the governor must be carefully selected, because rapid closing time
can lead to excessive pressures in the penstock. Impulse turbines are more
easily controlled because the jet can be deflected or an auxiliary jet can by
pass flow from the power producing jet without changing the flow rate in the
penstock. This permits long delay times for adjusting the flow rate to the new
power conditions.
The run away or no load speed is also an important design consideration
for all rotating parts, including the generator. The run away speed is higher
than the design speed by factors as high as 2.6.
5. Cavitation and turbine setting: The factor that must be considered prior
to turbine selection is the installation of the turbine with respect to tail water
elevation. To save the cost of excavation for draft tube, it is better to install the
158 Power Plant Engineering

turbine as above the tail race water as possible but at the same time cavitation
should not occur. The susceptibility for cavitation to occur is a function of the
installation and the turbine design. Hydraulic turbines are subject to pitting,
loss in efficiency, and unstable operation due to cavitation. For a given head
a high speed runner must be set lower, i.e. closer to tail water or even below
the tail water than a low speed turbine runner.
6. Size and number of units: For economy it is better to go for bigger capacity
turbine unit as discussed earlier in the classification of turbines. However, at the
same time the number of turbine unit must be sufficient so that some turbine
units are still in operation in case of break down or maintenance.
7. Overall cost: The overall cost should be less.

Solved Examples

EXAMPLE 4.1 The runoff data of a river at a particular site for twelve
months is tabulated as given below:

Month Runoff (Mm3) per month Month Runoff (Mm3) per month
January 40 July 90
February 30 August 120
March 25 September 130
April 15 October 80
May 00 November 50
June 60 December 40

(a) Draw the hydrograph and find the mean flow.

(b) Draw the flow duration curve.
(c) Determine the power developed if the head available is 100 m, the
whole water is utilized and the overall efficiency of power generation
is 80 per cent. Assume each month of 30 days.
Solution The hydrograph for the given data is shown in Figure E4.1(a).
The mean or average flow is
40 + 30 + 25 +15 + 0 + 60 + 90 +120 +130 + 80 + 50 + 40
Mean flow =
12
680
= — = 56.67 Mm3/month
12
To obtain the flow duration curve, the determination of length or fraction of
time during which certain flows are available is shown in Table E4.1.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 159
140 -

120 -

a 100 -

E
60 -
Hydrograph _
z
40 -

20 -

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (month)
Figure E4.1(a) Hydrograph.

Table E4.1 Determination of length of time

Runoff (Mm3) Total number of months Percentage of time
per month during which flow is
available
0 12 100.00
15 11 91.67
25 10 83.33
30 9 75.00
40 8 66.67
50 6 50.00
60 5 41.67
80 4 33.33
90 3 25.00
120 2 16.67
130 1 8.33

The flow duration curve for the given data is shown in Figure E4.1(b).
The power developed is

P = pQg1-1110

56.67 x 106
=1000 x x9.81x100 x 0.8
30 x 24 x 3600
=17.158 MW
160 Power Plant Engineering

140 -

120 -

100 -
?
80 -
Flow duration curve
60 -

=z 40 -
20 -

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fraction of time (%)
Figure E4.1(b) Flow duration curve.

EXAMPLE 4.2 The runoff data of two rivers for twelve months is tabulated
as given below:

Month Runoff (Mm3 per month)

River A River B
January 45 55
February 35 50
March 30 65
April 25 90
May 20 110
June 160 100
July 185 90
August 180 90
September 110 80
October 80 60
November 55 65
December 50 60

The head available for river A is 80 m and for B is 82 m.

(a) Using the above data determine which river is more suitable for storage
type hydroelectric plant. Assume the overall efficiency of generation
is the same for both sites.
(b) If a runoff river plant is to be established, then select the proper river
for the same. The minimum quantity of water must be available for
85% of the total year for runoff plant.
(c) At what percentage of time the runoff rate of both the sites is the same?
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 161
Solution
(a) The mean or average flow per month QA for river A is
45 + 35 + 30 + 25 + 20 +160 +185 +180 +110 + 80 + 55 + 50
QA=
12
975
= = 81.25 Mm 3 /month
12
The mean or average flow per month QB for river B is
55 + 50 + 65 + 90 +110 +100 + 90 + 90 + 80 + 60 + 65 + 60
QB =
12
91
= — = 76.25 Mm3/month
1 25
The ratio of power developed by rivers A and B is given by
PA (pQgHrio ) A = QA H A = 81.25 x 80 =1.039
PB (pQgHrio ) B QB H B 76.25 x 82
The power developed by river A is more than river B and hence, river
A is more suitable for storage type hydroelectric plant.
(b) The determination of length or fraction of time during which certain
flows are available is shown in Table E4.2.

Table E4.2 Determination of length of time

River A River B
Runoff Number Percentage Runoff Number Percentage
(Mm3) of months of time (Mm3) of months of time
per month availability per month availability
20 12 100.00 50 12 100.00
25 11 91.67 55 11 91.67
30 10 83.33 60 10 83.33
35 9 75.00 65 8 66.67
45 8 66.67 80 6 50.00
50 7 58.33 90 5 41.67
55 6 50.00 100 2 16.67
80 5 41.67 110 1 8.33
110 4 33.33
160 3 25.00
180 2 16.67
185 1 8.33

Figure E4.2 shows the flow duration curves for both rivers.
It is marked and seen from Figure E4.2 that the flow available for
85% of time in a year from river A is about 29 Mm3 per month
162 Power Plant Engineering

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
Fraction of time (%)
Figure E4.2 Flow duration curves for rivers A and B.

and from river B is about 59 Mm3 per month. The ratio of power
developed by rivers A and B in this case is given by
PA Q AH A = 29 x 80 0.479
PB QB H B 59 X82
Therefore, river B is more suitable than river A for runoff river power
plant.
(c) It can be seen from Figure E4.2 that the percentage of time at which
runoff rate of both the sites is the same is the intersection point C of
flow duration curves for both rivers. It can be seen that at about 38%
of time the runoff rate of both the sites is the same and the runoff is
about 92 Mm3 per month.
EXAMPLE 4.3 The annual runoff in terms of depth over the catchment area
of 1680 km2 of a reservoir is tabulated as given below:
Year 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
Runoff (cm) 98 143 168 95 96 153 110 131

Draw the mass inflow curve. What is the average yield from the catchment
area? What should be the storage capacity of the reservoir to utilize the source
fully? Mark the filling and emptying periods on the mass curve.
Solution:
The annual runoff in terms of volume is calculated by
Annual runoff in Mm3 = annual runoff in m x catchment area in m2/106.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 163
Table E4.3(a) shows the computed values of annual and cumulative runoff
in Mm3.
Table E4.3(a) Annual and cumulative runoff
Year 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
Runoff (cm) 98 143 168 95 96 153 110 131
Runoff
1646.4 2402.4 2822.4 1596 1612.8 2570.4 1848 2200.8
(Mm3)
Cumulative
1646.4 4048.8 6871.2 8467.2 10080 12650.4 14498.4 16699.2
runoff (Mm3)

The mass curve as shown in Figure E4.3(a) is plotted by using the cumulative
runoff of the corresponding year.

18000

16000 3
AE = 1050 Mm
3
14000 CF = 966 Mm
Mass curve
12000 Line parallel to
demand line
10000 through B

8000

6000
Demand line
4000 208 7.4 x 2

2000
A
0
1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
Year
Figure E4.3(a) Mass curve.

The average annual yield of the catchment area is given by

total cumulative inflow 16699.2

Average annual yield = = 2087.4 Mm3
time span 8
In order to utilize the whole water, there should not be any wastage/spilling
over of water, and for this the yearly demand should be equal to the average
annual yield. Figure E4.3(a) also shows the demand line. To determine the
storage capacity, a line is drawn from the high point B of the mass curve and
parallel to the demand line of 2087.4 Mm3 per year. Physically, the reservoir
will be empty at points A and C, and full at B. The required storage capacity
164 Power Plant Engineering

is equal to the maximum departure of this line from the mass curve or should
be greater than AE and CF.
Thus, the required storage capacity is AE = 1050 Mm3.
In order to mark the emptying and filling periods on the reservoir, the
mass curve as well as the demand line is extended back up to the origin, i.e.
beginning as shown in Figure E4.3(b).
18000
AA, =441 Mm3
16000
CC, = 609 Mm3
14000

12000

10000

8000
C
6000 Demand line 1

4000 B
Mass curve
2000

00
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969
Year
Figure E4.3(b)

It can be seen that from the beginning in the year 1962 to the end of 1962
or from point 0 to A the slope of demand line is more than the slope of mass
curve and the level of water in the reservoir is reducing. From point A to B
the slope of demand line is less than the slope of mass curve and the reservoir
is filling. It can be seen that from point 0 to point A the cumulative outflow
is more than the cumulative inflow, and at point B the cumulative outflow is
equal to the cumulative inflow. The same concept can be applied to the points
B, C, D, E, F, G, and H. the reservoir capacity can also be determined from
this graph and it is sum of AA1 and CC1. The AA1 is maximum cumulative
withdrawal from the reservoir and CC1 is the maximum that should be stored
(not to be spilled) in reservoir.
An analytical solution to the problem is worked out as shown in
Table E4.3(b).
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 165
Table E4.3(b) Analytical solution
Year Yearly Yearly Yearly Yearly Consecutive Consecutive
inflow* outflow* deficit in surplus in cumulative cumulative
reservoir reservoir deficit in surplus in
reservoir reservoir
1962 1646.4 2087.4 441 441
1963 2402.4 2087.4 315 1050
1964 2822.4 2087.4 735
1965 1596 2087.4 491.4 966
1966 1612.8 2087.4 474.6
1967 2570.4 2087.4 483 483
1968 1848 2087.4 239.4 239.4
1969 2200.8 2087.4 113.4 113.4
*flow is in Mm3

Out of all the values of columns (6) and (7), the maximum value is
1050 Mm3, which represents the minimum storage capacity required to
accommodate this consecutive surplus water entering during the years 1963
and 1964.
EXAMPLE 4.4 The runoff data in Mm3 per month of a river at a particular
site for each successive month is tabulated as given below:
1.5 2.1 3 8.4 13 13 7.7 2.9 2.5 2.3 1.9 1.7

Determine the minimum capacity of a reservoir required to allow the above

volume of water to be drawn off at a uniform rate assuming that there is no
loss of water over the spillway.
Solution
Table E4.4 shows the values of monthly and cumulative runoff in Mm3.

Table E4.4 Monthly and cumulative runoff

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Runoff 1.5 2.1 3 8.4 13 13 7.7 2.9 2.5 2.3 1.9 1.7
Cumulative
runoff 1.5 3.6 6.6 15 28 41 48.7 51.6 54.1 56.4 58.3 60

total cumulative inflow 60

Average monthly yield - = 5 Mm 3
12 12
The monthly demand should be equal to the average monthly yield so
that there is no loss of water over the spillway. The mass curve as shown in
Figure E4.4 is plotted by using the cumulative runoff of the corresponding
month. Figure E4.4 also shows the demand line.
To determine the storage capacity, a line is drawn from the high point A of
the mass curve parallel to the demand line of 5 Mm3 per month. The required
166 Power Plant Engineering

70 -

60 -
'
Line parallel to demand ,/
line through /
,
50 - 1
3 /// /1'
BC = 22.1 Mm / /

40 ,'/ Demand line to mark

,' the filling or emptying
0 / /E, of reservoir
30 - C

Demand line
20 -/
D
10-
Mass curve
I I I I I I I I I I I

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month
Figure E4.4 Mass curve and demand line.

storage capacity is equal to the maximum departure of this line from the mass
curve which is BC = 22.1 Mm3.
Physically, the reservoir will be empty at point B and the difference between
cumulative outflow and cumulative inflow is BD = 8.4 Mm3, and full at A and the
difference between cumulative inflow and cumulative outflow is AE = 13.7 Mm3.
EXAMPLE 4.5 The runoff data of a river at a particular site for twelve
months is tabulated as given below:
Month Flow per month Month Flow per month
(Mm3) (Mm3)
January 60 July 110
February 30 August 25
March 25 September 20
April 20 October 100
May 08 November 90
June 07 December 50

(a) Determine the required reservoir capacity and spillway capacity for
the uniform flow of 25 Mm3 per month throughout the year.
(b) Determine the average flow capacity if the whole water is used and
the required capacity of reservoir for this condition.
Solution
Table E4.5 shows the values of monthly and cumulative runoff in Mm3.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 167
Table E4.5 Monthly and cumulative runoff
Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Runoff 60 30 25 20 8 7 110 25 20 100 90 50
Cumulative
runoff 60 90 115 135 143 150 260 285 305 405 495 545

The mass curve as shown in Figure E4.5 is plotted by using the cumulative
runoff of the corresponding month. Figure E4.5 also shows the demand lines
corresponding to uniform flow of 25 Mm3 per month and the average flow.
total cumulative inflow 545
Average monthly yield = = 12 = 45.416 Mm3
12

600 Slope of demand line ac = 25.00 Mm3/month

Slope of demand line ad = 45.42 Mm3/month
E
BB1 = 40.0 Mm3
500
DD, = 5.0 Mm3
CC1 = 45.0 Mm3 E3
EE, = 160.0 Mm3 E2
400 EE2 = 137.1 Mm3 E1

ME
300
Line parallel to ad

200

B
100 a
Demand lines
Mass curve

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Month
Figure E4.5 Mass curve.

(a) Reservoir capacity and spillway capacity for the uniform flow of 25 Mm3
per month: In this case excess water from the reservoir has to be wasted/
spilled through the spillway because the average monthly yield or flow (45.416
Mm3 per month) is greater than the requirement, i.e. 25 Mm3 per month.
To determine the storage capacity, lines are drawn from the high points
A and C of the mass curve parallel to demand line ac having slope equal to
25 Mm3 per month. Physically, if we assume that reservoir is full at A, then
the reservoir will be empty at point B and again full at point F where tangent
168 Power Plant Engineering

through A to mass curve and parallel to demand line ac intersects the mass
curve. The volume equals to ordinate BB1 should be supplied from the reservoir.
From point F to point C, the inflow is more than the requirement. Thus, volume
equals to ordinate CC1 should be discharged through the spillway. The reservoir
will be empty during the period between C and D. The tangent through C to
mass curve and parallel to demand line ac intersects the mass curve at G. The
deficit volume equals to DD1 should be supplied by the reservoir. From point
G to point E, the inflow is more than the requirement. Thus, volume equals to
ordinate EE1 should be discharged through the spillway. The required storage
capacity is equal to the maximum departure of tangent lines from the mass
curve, i.e. the maximum of BB1 or DD1.
Storage capacity = BB1 = 40 Mm3
The required spillway capacity is the maximum of CC1 and EE1.
Spillway capacity = EE1 = 160 Mm3
(b) Reservoir capacity for the average flow of 45.416 Mm3 per month: For
this case there should not be any wastage of water through the spillway and
tangent lines parallel to demand line should not intersect the mass curve.
To determine the storage capacity, tangent lines are drawn from the turning
points B and D of the mass curve, parallel to the demand line ad having slope
equal to 45.416 Mm3 per month. The required storage capacity is equal to the
maximum departure of these tangent lines from the mass curve.
Storage capacity = EE2 = 137.1 Mm3
EXAMPLE 4.6 The runoff data in Mm3 per month of a river at a particular
site for each successive month during a lean year is tabulated as given below:
140 27 35 26 16 48 212 180 116 92 67 37
What is the maximum uniform demand that can be met? What is the
capacity of reservoir required to meet this uniform demand? What is the minimum
initial storage necessary? When does the reservoir become empty?
Solution
For solution refer to Section 4.4.3.
EXAMPLE 4.7 The weekly flow data at a particular site for twelve weeks
is tabulated as given below:
Week Weekly flow Week Weekly flow
(mils) (mils)
1 3500 7 900
2 2500 8 2400
3 2600 9 4000
4 1500 10 2800
5 1200 11 1500
6 60 12 900
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 169
Draw the mass curve. Determine the necessary capacity of reservoir and
the possible rate of available flow after the reservoir had been built.
Solution For each week flow is given in m3/s and the total flow in a week
is calculated after multiplying by 7 x 24 x 3600/106
Table E4.7 shows the values of weekly and cumulative runoff in Mm3.

Table E4.7 Weekly and cumulative runoff

Month Weekly flow (m3/s) Weekly runoff Cumulative runoff
1 3500 2116.80 2116.8
2 2500 1512.00 3628.8
3 2600 1572.48 5201.28
4 1500 907.20 6108.48
5 1200 725.76 6834.24
6 60 36.29 6870.528
7 900 544.32 7414.848
8 2400 1451.52 8866.368
9 4000 2419.20 11285.57
10 2800 1693.44 12979.01
11 1500 907.20 13886.21
12 900 544.32 14430.53

The mass curve as shown in Figure E4.7 is plotted by using the cumulative
runoff of the corresponding week.

16000 - Slope of tangent line ab = 500 Mm3/month

3
BBI = 800 Mm D
14000 -

12000 -

E 10000

8000 B1
z
A B
6000 -

4000 - Mass curve

2000

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Week
Figure E4.7 Mass curve.
170 Power Plant Engineering

In order to evaluate the reservoir capacity, the tangent line ab is drawn

to the mass curve from high point A. It is evident that from point A to point
B, the inflow is less than the demand corresponding to tangent line. If we
assume that the reservoir is full at A, then it must be able to fulfil the deficit.
The deficit or maximum vertical ordinate is equal to 800 Mm3 and this is
the necessary capacity of the reservoir. If water is not to be wasted, then the
capacity of the reservoir should be more than 800 Mm3.
The possible rate of available flow based on the capacity of the reservoir
equal to 800 Mm3 is equal to the slope of the tangent line ab. The slope of
the tangent line ab is 800 Mm3 per month.
EXAMPLE 4.8 The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:

Head = 25 m
Discharge = 400 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 88%
Frequency of generation = 50 Hz
Number of poles = 24
The generator is directly coupled to turbine. Calculate the least number of
turbines required if (a) Francis turbine is used with a specific speed of 300,
and (b) a Kaplan turbine with a specific speed of 750 is used.
Solution The total power PT that can be developed is
PT = nopQgH = 0.88 x 1000 x 400 x 9.81 x 25 x 10-3 = 86328 kW
The generator is directly coupled to turbine. The speed of turbine or the
speed of generator is
f 50
N =120— =120 x — = 250 rpm
24
(a) Francis turbine: From the specific speed relation

250,FP
NS = (H)514 300 =
(25)5/4
The power developed from a single Francis turbine unit is
P = 4499.99 kW
total power 86328
Number of turbines = =19.18
power from a turbine 4499.99
Thus, the number of Francis turbines should be 20.
(b) Kaplan turbine

250J
750 = P = 28125 kW
(25)"4
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 171

total power 86328

Number of turbines — = = 3.06
power from a turbine 28125
The number of Kaplan turbines should be 4, if specific speed is not to
exceed 750. Otherwise, the number of Kaplan turbines may be taken as 3.
The number of Kaplan turbines required is less than the number of Francis
turbines because Kaplan turbine allows more flow through it due to axial flow
design.
EXAMPLE 4.9 While estimating the availablepower at hydropower station,
the following data are collected:

Catchment area = 70 km2

Runoff = 70%
Average annual rainfall = 120 cm
Available head = 250 m
Determine the available power, if the overall efficiency including penstock,
turbine and generator efficiencies is 70 per cent. If the load factor is 0.5,
suggest a suitable turbine and the number of turbines. The speed of turbine
runner should be maintained below 250 rpm.
Solution The amount of water available per year
120
= 70 x106 X 100 x 0.7 = 58.8 x106 1113 /year

The average flow of water available per second

58.8 x106
Q= =1.864 m3/s
365 x 24 x 3600
The average power that can be developed

Pay — pQgH = 0.70 x1000 x1.864 x 9.81 x 250 x 10-3 = 3200.94 kW

The maximum power that is to be developed

Pay = 3200.94
6401.88 kW
pmax load factor 0.5
The capacity of turbines should be based on the maximum power that is
to be developed. The Francis or Pelton turbine may be selected because head
available is high. But the available flow rate is low; hence, Pelton turbine is
selected. Also, from the specific speed relation

Ns =
NJ Ns =
250V6401 88
: = 20.12
(H)''' (250)5/'
Thus, one Pelton turbine with single jet may be selected.
172 Power Plant Engineering

EXAMPLE 4.10 In a hydroelectric plant, water is available at the rate of

175 m3/s under a head of 18 m. The turbines run at a speed of 150 rpm with
overall efficiency of 82%. Determine the number of turbines required if they
have the maximum specific speed of 460.
Solution The total power PT that can be developed is
PT =rio pQgH = 0.82 x1000 x175 x 9.81 x18 x10-3 = 25339.23 kW
The Kaplan or Francis turbine may be selected because head available is
low. But the available flow rate as well as specific speed is high; hence, Kaplan
turbine may be selected. From the specific speed relation
NVT3 150J
NQ (H)5/ 460 =
(1 8)5/4
The power developed from a single turbine unit is
P =12927.49 kW
total power 25339.23
Number of turbines = =1.96
power from a turbine 12927.49
Thus, the number of Kaplan turbines should be 2.
If we select three turbines, then the specific speed of the turbines is

Ns =
NJ Ns =
150V25339.23/3
— 371.82
(H)514 (18)5/4
Thus, three Francis turbines may be selected because by selecting three
turbines the specific speed is in the desirable range of Francis turbines.
EXAMPLE 4.11 The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:

Head = 150 m
Catchment area = 2000 km2
Average annual rainfall = 145 cm
Turbine efficiency = 85%
Generator efficiency = 90%
Percolation and evaporation losses = 20%
Determine the power developed, and suggest the type of turbine to be used
if the runner speed is to be kept below 240 rpm.
Solution The amount of water available per year
145
= 2000 x106 x 100
— x (1 — 0.2) = 2320 x106 m3/year

The average flow of water available per second

2320x106
Q= = 73.566 m3 /s
365 x 24 x 3600
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 173
The average power that can be developed

Pav rlo pQgH = 0.85 x 0.90 x1000 x 73.567 x 9.81 x150 x10-3
= 82813.87 kW
The Francis or Pelton turbine may be selected because head available as
well as flow rate available is high. From the specific speed relation

240V82813.87
Ns = Ns = =131.56
(H)5/4 (150)5/4
The range of the specific speed for the Francis turbine is from 60 to 400.
Thus, either one or two Francis turbines may be selected.
The number of Pelton turbines should be more so that the specific speed
is in the desirable range. Let the number of Pelton turbines selected be 10,
then from the specific speed relation

240V82814.188/10
Ns = = 41.60
(150)5/4
Thus, 10 Pelton turbines with more than one jet may also be selected.
EXAMPLE 4.12 The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:
Head = 400 m
Discharge = 4.5 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 82%
Specific speed = 60
Determine the power developed, the type of turbine and the speed of the
turbine.
Solution The total power P that can be developed is
P = rbpQgH = 0.82 x1000 x 4.5 x 9.81 x 400 x10-3 =14479.56 kW
The Pelton turbine is selected because head available is high while flow
rate available as well as specific speed is low.
From the specific speed relation

N, —
NJ 60 =
NV14479.56
(H)514.
(400)5/4
The speed of the turbine is
N = 891.9 rpm
EXAMPLE 4.13 The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant site:
Head = 7.5 m
Runoff = 30 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 85%
174 Power Plant Engineering

(a) Is it feasible to develop this power by two turbines with rpm of 50

and the specific speed of turbine not greater than 150?
(b) What type of runner will be used?
(c) What is the diameter of runner if the speed ratio is 0.85?
Solution The total power PT that can be developed is
PT = no pQgh = 0.88 x1000 x 30 x 9.81 x 7.5 x10-3 =1942.38 kW
From the specific speed relation
50V1942.38/2
N, = 514 Ns = 5/4 =125.45
(H) (7.5)
It is feasible to develop power by two turbines because specific speed is
less than 150.
Though head is low, the Francis turbine should be selected because specific
speed is in the desirable range of Francis turbine.
The speed ratio is
u irDN
= 0.85
V 60\12x9.81x H
irDx 50
=0.85 D= 3.938 m
60V2 x 9.81 x 7.5
EXAMPLE 4.14 A hydroelectric plant site is capable of developing 80 MW. If
the turbine has to work under a head of 29.25 m and at a speed of 166.7 rpm,
find the number of turbine units required.
Solution If we select single turbine unit, then the specific speed for single
turbine unit is
NJ 166.7V80000
Ns = 514 Ns = in = 693.14
(H) (29.25)5''
The Kaplan or Francis turbine may be selected because head available is
low. We can select one or more than one Kaplan turbine, while the number
of Francis turbine should be more. Let us select Kaplan turbine with specific
speed of not less than 300, then
166.7J
300 < P 14986 kW
(29.25)5/4
total power 80 x 103
Number of Kaplan turbines = = 5.33
power from a turbine 14986
Thus, the number of Kaplan turbines should be 5 or less because the
power developed from a Kaplan turbine unit should be more than 14986 kW.
It is evident from the above calculation that if we select Francis turbine
with the specific speed of less than 300, then the number of Francis turbines
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 175
should be 6 or more because the power developed from a Francis turbine unit
should be less than 14986 kW.
EXAMPLE 4.15 A hydroelectric plant produces 20 MW under a head of
20 m. If the overall efficiency of the plant is 72%, determine the type of
turbine and the synchronous speed of generator.
Solution

P =rio pQgH 20 x103 = 0.72 x1000 x Q x 9.81 x 20 x10-3

Q =141.57 m3 /s
The Kaplan turbine is selected because head available is low and flow
rate is high. Let us select two units of Kaplan turbine for the reliability in
operation. The capacity of each turbine is 10 MW. By assuming the specific
speed equal to 350 for Kaplan turbine, we have

Nj10000
350 = N =148.03 rpm
(20)5/4
If the generator is directly coupled to turbine, then synchronous speed of
generator is given by
120f 120x50
N= 148.03= P = 40.53

Thus, if the number of poles is taken equal to 40, then the speed of generator is
120f 120 x 50
N= =150 rpm
p 40
EXAMPLE 4.16: The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:
Head = 400 m
Discharge = 4.5 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 82%
Specific speed = 60
Determine the power developed, the type of turbine and the speed of the
turbine.
Solution The total power P that can be developed is

P = rio pQgH = 0.82 x1000 x 4.5 x 9.81 x 400 x10-3 =14479.56 kW

The Pelton turbine with multi jet (4 jets) is selected because head available
is high and the specific speed is 60. Let us select two units of Pelton turbine
for the reliability in operation. From the specific speed relation

V14479.56/2
60 = N = 630.71 rpm
JN(400)5/4
176 Power Plant Engineering

Review Questions

1. Discuss the factors which should be considered while selecting a site

for hydroelectric plant.
2. Enlist the advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric plant.
3. What are the demerits of hydropower plant?
4. Write a note on hydropower development in India.
5. Discuss the advantages of combined operation of hydroelectric and
thermal power plants.
6. Define runoff. List the factors which affect the runoff.
7. Write a brief note on hydrograph and flow duration curve.
8. What is the utility of flow duration curve?
9. What is a mass curve? How is the reservoir capacity determined with
the help of a mass curve?
10. What does the slope of the mass curve at a point indicate?
11. Distinguish between storage and pondage.
12. Describe the important components of a high head hydropower plant.
13. State the function of a dam. How are dams classified? Briefly describe
a few important types of dams.
14. What is spillway? What are the different types of spillways used in
practice?
15. State the purpose of surge tank. Why is it important in a hydroelectric
plant?
16. What is forebay?
17. Explain a few types of surge tanks.
18. When and why are surge tanks and forebays provided?
19. Discuss the terms: penstock, canal, flume and tunnel.
20. What is the function of draft tube?
21. Give the classification of hydroelectric power plant.
22. Write a brief note on pumped storage plant.
23. Give the classification of hydraulic turbines.
24. Discuss the differences between Pelton, Francis and Kaplan turbines.
25. What do you understand by the term specific speed of a water turbine?
26. How is the type of turbine selected for a hydroelectric power plant?
27. What factors are mainly considered in selecting a prime mover for
(a) runoff river plant, (b) storage plant, and (c) pumped storage plant?
28. What are the advantages and disadvantages of very high specific speed
turbine runners?
29. What are the advantages of Pelton turbine for very high heads?
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 177

Numerical Problems

1. The runoff data of two rivers for twelve months is tabulated as given
below:
Month Runoff per month Month Runoff per month
(Mm3) (Mm3)
River A River B River A River B
January 55 45 July 180 100
February 45 55 August 170 90
March 30 75 September 130 80
April 35 95 October 90 80
May 25 130 November 55 75
June 150 140 December 60 55

The head available for river A is 100 m and for B is 90 m.

(a) Using the above data determine which river is more suitable for
the storage type hydroelectric plant? Assume the overall efficiency
of generation is the same for both sites.
(b) If a runoff river plant is to be established, then select the proper
river for the same. The minimum quantity of water must be available
for 75% of the total year for runoff plant.
(c) At what percentage of time the runoff rate of both the sites is the
same?
2. The runoff data of a river at a particular site for twelve months is
tabulated as given below:
Month Runoff per Month Runoff per
month (Mm3) month (Mm3)
January 60 July 100
February 50 August 140
March 35 September 140
April 25 October 90
May 10 November 50
June 70 December 45

(a) Draw the hydrograph and find the mean flow.

(b) Draw the flow duration curve.
(c) Find the power developed if the head available is 120 m, the whole
water is utilized and the overall efficiency of power generation is
85 per cent. Assume each month of 30 days.
3. The runoff data in Mm3 per month of a river at a particular site for
each successive month is tabulated as given below:
1.8 2.4 3.9 10 15 17 9 4 3.5 2.4 1.8 1.8
178 Power Plant Engineering

Determine the minimum capacity of a reservoir required to allow the

above volume of water to be drawn off at a uniform rate assuming
that there is no loss of water over the spillway.
4. The annual runoff in terms of depth over the catchment area of 2000 km2
of a reservoir is tabulated as given below:
Year 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
Runoff (cm) 100 150 170 105 110 160 130 140
Draw the mass inflow curve. What is the average yield from the catchment
area? What should be the storage capacity of the reservoir to utilize the
source fully? Mark the filling and emptying periods on the mass curve.
5. The runoff data in Mm3 per month of a river at a particular site for
each successive month during a lean year is tabulated as given below:
150 37 40 36 20 55 210 190 120 95 70 40
What is the maximum uniform demand that can be met? What is the
capacity of reservoir required to meet this uniform demand? What is
the minimum initial storage necessary? When does the reservoir become
empty?
6. The runoff data of a river at a particular site for twelve months is
tabulated as given below:
Month Flow per month Month Flow per month
(Mm3) (Mm3)
January 70 July 100
February 35 August 45
March 30 September 30
April 28 October 90
May 12 November 80
June 10 December 60
(a) Determine the required reservoir capacity and spillway capacity
for the uniform flow of 25 Mm3 per month throughout the year.
(b) Determine the average flow capacity if the whole water is used
and the required capacity of reservoir for this condition.
7. The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:
Head = 180 m
Catchment area = 200 km2
Average annual rainfall = 145 cm
Turbine efficiency = 85%
Generator efficiency = 90%
Percolation and evaporation losses = 25%
Determine the power developed, and suggest the type of turbine to be
used if the runner speed is to be kept below 240 rpm.
 Hydroelectric Power Plant 179
8. The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:
Head = 35 m
Discharge = 300 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 88%
Frequency of generation = 50 Hz
Number of poles = 24
The generator is directly coupled to turbine. Calculate the least number
of turbines required if (a) Francis turbine is used with a specific speed
of 350, and (b) a Kaplan turbine with a specific speed of 650 is used.
9. A hydroelectric plant site is capable of developing 80 MW. If the
turbine has to work under a head of 30 m and at a speed of 250 rpm,
find the number of turbine units required.
10. While estimating the available power at hydro power station, the
following data are collected:
Catchment area = 100 km2
Runoff = 72%
Average annual rainfall = 140 cm
Available head = 220 m
Find the available power, if the overall efficiency, including penstock,
turbine and generator efficiencies, is 70%. If the load factor is 0.5,
suggest a suitable turbine and the number of turbines. The speed of
turbine runner should be maintained below 250 rpm.
11. The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:
Head = 400 m
Discharge = 4.5 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 82%
Specific speed = 60
Determine the power developed, the type of turbine and the speed of
the turbine.
12. The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant site:
Head = 7.5 m
Runoff = 30 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 85%
(a) Is it feasible to develop this power by two turbines with rpm of
50 and the specific speed of turbine not greater than 150?
(b) What type of runner will be used?
13. The following data relates to a hydroelectric power plant:
Head = 300 m
Discharge = 3.5 m3/s
Turbine efficiency = 80%
Specific speed = 50
Determine the power developed, the type of turbine and the speed of
the turbine.
 CHAPTER5

Diesel Engine Power Plant

5.1 Introduction
The diesel engine power plant generates the electrical energy with the help of
diesel engine which drives the generator. This power plant is generally compact
and can be installed where it is required. The capacity of diesel engine power
plant may range from a few kW to 50 MW or more. The capacity augmentation
may be done by installing more diesel engine power plant modules.
Diesel engine is more efficient than any other heat engine of comparable
size and it uses fuel that is cheaper than petrol. Diesel engines are used in
rail road locomotives, road building and farm machinery, electric generator
for small supply units, etc.
The conventional power plants (thermal, nuclear, and hydroelectric) are
attractive under certain conditions and are rivals to diesel engine power plants.
Gas turbine power plant is also superior to diesel engine power plant where
fuel is very cheap.

5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

The diesel engine power plant has some advantages and disadvantages as
listed below:

5.2.1 Advantages

1. It is easy to design and install diesel engine power plant.

2. Layout of diesel engine power plant is quite simple.
3. It can be commissioned in less time.
4. It can be started and stopped quickly.
5. It does not require warming period and standby losses are less.
6. It can respond to varying loads without any difficulty.
7. The cooling water requirement is less.
180
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 181

8. For small capacity, it is more efficient as compared to steam power

plant.
9. Efficiency at part load is higher.
10. It can be installed near the load centre.
11. Low initial cost.
12. There is no ash handling problem.
13. Smaller storage is needed for the fuel.
14. Less supervision is required.

5.2.2 Disadvantages

1. Higher generation cost per kW.

2. High operating cost since in India diesel is costly.
3. High maintenance and lubrication cost.
4. The life of diesel engine power plant is less.
5. The efficiency deteriorates with life.
6. It does not work efficiently under prolonged overload conditions.
7. Noise problem.
8. Diesel engine power plant cannot be of big capacity.
9. Emission of harmful gases and waste.

5.3 Applications of Diesel Engine Power Plant

Diesel engine power plants due to some inherent advantages are suitable for
localities where fuel cost is low, oil is cheaper than coal, water supply is limited
and loads to be handled are of small capacity. The diesel engine power plants
are mainly used for the following purposes:
(a) Diesel engine power plants are used as emergency standby generating
plants for small supply authorities or industries. Diesel engine power
plants normally remain idle and are run only when there is failure of
the electricity from the other central stations.
(b) Diesel engine power plants are also used in combination with thermal
or hydroelectric power plants as peak load units because they can be
started and stopped quickly.
(c) Diesel engine power plants are used for supplying power for temporary
or emergency purposes such as supplying power to large civil
engineering works. For this plant is mounted on trailers and can be
moved to place of requirement.
(d) Diesel engine power plant can be used to supply power in a remote
rural area, where power from main grid is not available.
(e) Industrial concerns where power requirement is small, say of the order
of 500 kW, diesel engine power plants become more economical due
to their higher overall efficiency.
182 Power Plant Engineering
5.4 Review of Internal Combustion Engines
The field of internal combustion engines (IC engines) is very broad and space
limitations do not permit detailed coverage. However, a brief review is provided
in this section.

5.4.1 Classification of IC Engines

IC engines may be classified according to thermodynamic cycle of operation or

method of ignition (Otto cycle or spark ignition engine, diesel cycle or compression
ignition engine, dual or combined cycle engine), number of strokes to complete
the cycle of operation (four stroke, two stroke), number of cylinders (single
cylinder, multi cylinder for large power requirement), cylinder arrangement
(inline, V-type, opposed piston engine, radial engine), cooling system (air cooled
engine, water cooled engine); intake type (naturally aspirated, turbocharged or
supercharged), and fueling system (injected, carbureted). Open cycle gas turbine
plant and rotary Wankel engine also fall in the category of IC engines.
The two most common types of reciprocating IC engine in current use are: the
spark ignition (SI) or petrol and the compression ignition (CI) or diesel engines.
Basic SI and CI engines have not fundamentally changed since the early 1900s.
However, significant improvements in longevity, thermal efficiency, and emissions
during the past decade took place due to major advances in the areas of materials,
manufacturing processes, electronic controls, and computer-aided design.
The following processes are to be completed for completion of one
combustion cycle or working cycle in an IC engine: suction or intake of air
or charge (mixture of air and fuel) in the cylinder, compression of air or
charge, combustion of fuel, expansion of burnt gases, and exhaust of burnt
gases out of the cylinder. These processes can be completed either in four
strokes or in two strokes of the piston. In four stroke engine, one combustion
cycle or working cycle is completed in two revolutions of the crankshaft and
thus four strokes of the piston. These four strokes of the piston are termed
the suction or intake, compression, expansion or power, and exhaust strokes.
In two stroke engine, one combustion cycle or working is completed in one
revolution of the crankshaft and thus two strokes of the piston. Working is
completed by essentially overlapping the power and exhaust functions during
downward/outward stroke and the suction and compression processes during
upward/inward stroke.

5.4.2 Four Stroke SI Engine

Figure 5.1 shows a cross section schematic of a four stroke SI engine or petrol
engine. Intake and exhaust valves control the flow of charge and exhaust
gases into and out of the cylinder. During the suction stroke, the intake valve
opens and the piston moves from top dead centre (TDC) to bottom dead
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 183
Spark plug
Inlet valve Exhaust valve
Inlet manifold +— Exhaust manifold
Jr
Air t z--i roducts

Fuel Cylinder

Piston
Gudgeon pin

Connecting rod
Cylinder block

Crankshaft
Crankpin
Crankcase
Crank Sump
Figure 5.1 Schematic of a four stroke SI engine.

centre (BDC). The piston sucks a fresh combustible charge into the cylinder
supplied from a carburetor, a single throttle body fuel injector, or by individual
fuel injectors mounted above the intake manifold of each cylinder. During the
compression stroke, the intake valve closes and with the movement of piston
from BDC to TDC the charge is compressed. An ignition system supplies
a spark inducing high voltage to the spark plug typically before TDC to
initiate combustion. Theoretically, the charge burns instantaneously. The rapid,
premixed, homogeneous combustion process causes a sharp increase in cylinder
temperature and pressure that pushes the piston to move from TDC to BDC
for producing power. Just at the end of power stoke (near BDC), the exhaust
valve opens and the high pressure burnt gases come out of the cylinder so
that pressure inside the cylinder drops rapidly (theoretically instantaneously) to
near atmospheric. During the exhaust stroke, the piston moves from BDC to
TDC and expels out the remaining exhaust gases. At TDC, the exhaust valve
closes and the intake valve opens to repeat the cycle again.

5.4.3 Two Stroke SI Engine

Figure 5.2 shows a cross section schematic of a two stroke SI engine or petrol
engine. A two stroke engine has ports instead of valves. Ports are opening
in the cylinder wall, which are covered or uncovered by piston. During the
movement of piston from BDC to TDC, the piston first covers the transfer port
and then the exhaust port. Beyond this point, the fresh charge is compressed
and ignited near TDC. Also during this stroke the negative pressure created
in the crankcase below the piston sucks in a fresh charge of fuel air mixture
184 Power Plant Engineering

44- Spark plug

Deflector
Exhaust port
Transfer port t

Spring loaded
inlet valve Crankcase

Exhaust blowdown Scavenging

Figure 5.2 Schematic of a two stroke SI engine.

either through an inlet port which is now uncovered or a one-way valve. Burnt
gases resulting from ignition pushes the piston to move from TDC to BDC
for producing power as well as to pressurize the mixture in the crankcase.
During this power stroke the piston first uncovers the exhaust port and the
high pressure burnt gases exit to atmosphere. As the piston reaches near BDC,
the transfer port is uncovered and the pressurized mixture from the crankcase
flows into the cylinder to repeat the cycle. Lubrication in two stroke engine
is accomplished by mixing oil with the fuel because the crankcase is part of
the induction system and it does not contain oil.
There will be a certain degree of mixing of the fresh charge with the
combustion products remaining in the cylinder and some loss of fresh charge
through the exhaust port because near the BDC both the exhaust port and transfer
port are uncovered simultaneously for some time. The efficiency is reduced due
to loss of fresh charge through the exhaust port. This loss is controlled to some
extent by providing a crown shape to piston top. The efficiency is also less due
to inefficient combustion caused by dilution of fresh charge with exhaust gases.
A two stroke engine is smaller and lighter than four stroke engine of equal
output because a two stroke engine produces theoretically twice the power
of a four stroke engine for the same rpm. However, a two stroke engine has
lower fuel efficiency and higher exhaust emissions. It is not possible to design
such engines which can meet the current emission norms such as EURO II
and III. Due to this, the use of two stroke SI engines is restricted to small
motorcycles, and small equipment.

5.4.4 Compression Ignition or Diesel Engine

The basic mechanism of CI or diesel engine is similar to the SI engine. CI

engine can be two stroke or four stroke engine. The basic valve and piston
motions for the four stroke CI engine are similar to the four stroke SI engine.
Similarly, the covering and uncovering of ports by piston and piston motions
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 185

for the two stroke CI engine are similar to the two stroke SI engine.
In CI engine, only air is sucked and compressed during intake and compression
processes. Compression ratios are typically much higher (14 to 22) for CI engines
as compared to SI engines (6 to 8) to achieve the high air temperatures required
for auto ignition of fuel. For auto ignition the minimum compression ratio of 12
is required. At the end of compression process, the fuel (diesel) is injected in the
form of fine spray into the compressed air with the help of fuel injector. The fuels
used must have favourable auto ignition qualities. The auto ignition of the fuel
takes place due to the high temperature and pressure of the cylinder air resulting
from the higher compression ratio of compression process.
Though, the efficiency of the engine increases with the increase in
compression ratio but the maximum pressure inside the cylinder is also
higher for higher compression ratio and due to this diesel engine is heavier in
construction than SI engine. The CI engines are to be operated with excess air
(air fuel ratio more than stoichiometric ratio) for better mixing of fuel with air
within the combustion chamber or cylinder and to reduce exhaust emissions.
Thus, diesel engine is bigger than SI engine for the same power.
Two stroke CI engines do not suffer the same emission and efficiency
shortcomings as do older crankcase scavenged two stroke SI engines, because
in CI engine during intake process only air is sucked and fuel is injected
directly after compression process or just prior to piston reaches at TDC. Two
stroke CI engines are available for high power requirement applications such
as locomotive and ship propulsion and electric power generation systems.
Though, diesel is the predominant fuel for CI engines, but they can be
designed to operate on a variety of other fuels, such as natural gas, biogas,
and even coal slurries.

5.4.5 Combustion in CI Engine

The combustion of fuel in SI or petrol engine is very rapid and for theoretical
analysis the heat addition process is considered at constant volume. While, the
combustion of fuel in CI or diesel engine is a prolonged process because fuel
is supplied over a large part of the power stroke and for theoretical analysis
the heat addition process is considered at constant pressure. In modern high
speed diesel engine, the fuel injection is well advanced (before TDC) and the
larger amount of fuel is burnt at constant volume. Thus, the ideal cycle for
the CI or diesel engine is dual cycle.
In diesel engine, the diesel does not burn instantaneously upon injection
and some time is necessary for fuel vaporization and fuel air mixing. The time
period between the start of fuel injection and the occurrence of auto ignition
is termed the ignition delay period. During this period there is no pressure
rise within the cylinder. The ignition delay period comprises physical delay
and chemical delay. The physical delay is the time required for mixing of fuel
with air, and the chemical delay is the time in which mixture by molecular
186 Power Plant Engineering

interaction is ready for combustion. The ignition delay period must be shorter
because long ignition delay period results in objectionable diesel knock when
the large amount of accumulated diesel auto ignites. During knocking or
detonation, the pressure in the cylinder increases at a very rapid rate which
results in rough engine operation. In CI or diesel engine, the knocking or
detonation takes place at the beginning of combustion. In case of SI engine,
the knocking or detonation takes place at the end of combustion.
The property of ignition delay of CI engine fuels is measured in terms
of cetane number. Cetane (C16 H34) having good ignition quality is assigned a
rating of 100 cetane number, while alpha-methyl naphthalene (C11H10) having
poor ignition quality is assigned a rating of zero cetane number. To assign the
cetane number to a fuel, its ignition delay is matched with the ignition delay
of mixture of cetane and alpha-methyl naphthalene.
The ignition delay can be reduced by adding small amount of compounds
such as ethyl nitrate, amyl thionitrite and others in fuel. The ignition delay also
depends on engine variables such as compression ratio, inlet air temperature,
coolant temperature and engine speed. The higher temperature of compressed
air leads to shorter ignition delay period. The ignition delay period can be
expressed in terms of absolute time or in terms of crank angle rotation. The
ignition delay period in terms of crank angle rotation increases with an increase
in engine speed. Though, the ignition delay period in terms of absolute time
may reduce with an increase in engine speed due to less heat loss and high
temperature of compressed air.

5.4.6 CI Engine Combustion Chambers

Combustion chambers and fuel injection systems must be designed to avoid

long ignition delay periods. Based on the combustion chamber design, the diesel
engines may be classified as direct injection (DI) engines or indirect injection
(IDI) engines. In DI engines, the fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber, while in IDI engines, fuel is injected into the pre-chamber.
The combustion chamber (Figure 5.3) of DI engines consists of a bowl shape
formed in the top of the piston. The injector tip generally has four to eight holes
Injector Injector

Piston Piston
4— Cylinder 4— Cylinder
(a) Quiescent bowl (b) Toroidal bowl
Figure 5.3 Combustion chambers of DI engine.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 187
to form multiple spray cones in bowl shape combustion chamber. The bowl shape
combustion chamber may be quiescent or toroidal bowl combustion chamber. The
quiescent bowl combustion chamber has a large diameter shallow bowl shape that
produces low swirl and low turbulence of the air during compression. The mixing
of the fuel and air relies primarily on the energy or pressure of the injected fuel
to cause air entrainment in the spray cone and diffusion of vaporized fuel into
the air. The toroidal bowl combustion chamber is designed to produce air swirl
for better fuel air mixing. The swirl velocity component which is normal to the
fuel spray direction promotes mixing in the regions between the individual spray
cones. DI combustion chamber is not well suited for high speed engines because
less time is available for proper mixing and combustion.
The combustion chamber (Figure 5.4) or cylinder of IDI engines incorporates
a pre-chamber in the cylinder head. The pre-chamber promotes rapid mixing of
fuel and air and shortens the ignition delay period. An orderly vortex motion
within the pre-chamber is created by the rush of air into the chamber during
compression. The fuel is sprayed into the pre-chamber through a single-hole
nozzle. The drawback of the IDI engines is poor cold start characteristics due
to high heat transfer rates from the compressed air to the chamber wall that
result from the high turbulence levels in the pre-chamber. Pre-chambers generally
include a lining of ceramic material to increase the surface temperature to
promote fuel evaporation. Glow plugs are often installed in each pre-chamber to
heat the air to improve cold starting. Higher compression ratios (typically 18-24)
are also used for IDI engines to improve cold starting. IDI engines are less
efficient than larger, slower, DI engines due to decreased mechanical efficiency
resulting from higher friction forces associated with higher compression ratio.
The use of IDI engines is generally restricted to high speed automotive engines.
Due to lower compression ratios in two stroke CI engines, these are generally
of the DI type because of more cold start problem in IDI.

Injector

Glow plug
su.
AMMZSMI

$10 0 #
#
O #
PP Piston
# 4 #
am Cylinder 4
Figure 5.4 Combustion chamber of IDI engine.

A textbook on internal combustion engines may be consulted for more

detailed treatment and further information on IC engines.
188 Power Plant Engineering

5.5 Components of a Diesel Engine Power Plant

The essential components of a diesel electric power plant are shown in
Figure 5.5. The diesel engine power plant comprises of the following elements:

1. Diesel engine
2. Air intake system
3. Exhaust system
4. Fuel system
(i) Individual pump and injection system
(ii) Unit injection system
(iii) Common rail injection system
(iv) Distributor system
5. Cooling system
(i) Natural circulation (Thermosiphon) system
(ii) Forced circulation system
6. Lubricating system
(i) Mist lubrication system
(ii) Wet sump lubrication system: splash, pressure feed, splash and
pressure
(iii) Dry sump lubrication system
7. Engine starting system
(i) Compressed air system
(ii) Electrical starting system
(iii) Auxiliary engine starting system

Day 74— Air Silencer Surge

tank filter Exhaust tank
• Air
Diesel engine —*--T
Water
Fuel Fuel filter r Fuel pump Water
•
,
Fuel overflow

.• 1.1 4-1 and injector

Air for starting Generator
Air 0— Oil Cooling
tank Oil2r tower
Air "pump Water
•
compressor
Pump Filter
Lubricating •
oil tank . Filter
Water
Oil pump Water
Fuel tank cooler 4 , pump
Water
Figure 5.5 Schematic of a diesel electric power plant.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 189
5.5.1 Diesel Engine

It is the prime mover of the plant and is directly coupled to generator. It may
be a two stroke or a four stroke engine, naturally aspirated or supercharged,
single cylinder or multi cylinder, air cooled engine or water cooled engine. The
two stroke CI engine is also favoured for diesel engine power plant, though it
has lower efficiency in comparison to four stroke CI engine.

5.5.2 Air Intake System

Air intake system supplies the required quantity of air for combustion. Generally,
a large diesel engine requires about 4 to 8 m3 of air per kWh. Air intake system
includes air filter, ducts and supercharger/turbocharger if fitted. The purpose of
the filter is to remove dust and other suspended impurities from air as these
otherwise may cause the wear and tear of the engine. The filters should be
cleaned periodically. The filters may be of dry type or oil bath type. The dry
type filter is made of cloth, felt, glass wool, etc. In oil bath type filter, the
air is passed through a pool of oil so that the particles of dust get removed.
Supercharger is generally driven by the engine itself, while turbocharger derives
the energy from the engine exhaust. Supercharger or turbocharger increases
the volumetric efficiency and power output of the engine.
The air intake may be located outside the plant building and near the
ground in the open space. There should be minimum pressure loss in the air
intake system for higher efficiency.

5.5.3 Exhaust System

The exhaust system discharges the engine exhaust to the atmosphere and outside
the main plant building. Exhaust should be exhausted well above the ground
level in order to reduce the air pollution at breathing level. A typical exhaust
system is shown in Figure 5.6. The engine exhaust manifold is connected to

Roof Gases

Exhaust Silencer
manifold

Expansion
Diesel engine joint

Figure 5.6 Exhaust system of diesel electric power plant.

190 Power Plant Engineering
the exhaust pipe which is provided with a silencer or muffler. The purpose of
silencer is to reduce pressure in exhaust pipe and to reduce exhaust noise to
a tolerable degree. The exhaust stack usually stands on the silencer top. The
exhaust pipe should have a flexible exhaust pipe to isolate the exhaust system
from the vibrations of engine and to take up the effects of thermal expansion.
The temperature of the exhaust gases from the diesel engine under full
load conditions may be of the order of 400°C and there is scope of waste
heat recovery. A provision may be made to extract the heat from exhaust by
heating the fuel oil or air supplied to the engine. With the recovery of heat
from hot jacket water and exhaust gases and its use either for heating oil or
buildings in cold weather increases the efficiency of energy use. The heat
of the exhaust gases can also be recovered by generating the steam at low
pressure for process heating.

5.5.4 Fuel System

Fuel system includes bulk storage tank, storage tank for daily consumption,
pipelines with pump, and fuel injection system. Fuel oil is delivered at the plant
site by truck, by oil tanker and by railway wagons. Fuel oil is unloaded and stored
in the bulk storage or main tank situated outdoors for the sake of safety. For daily
consumption, the fuel oil from this main fuel tank is pumped through a filter to the
small storage tank called engine day tank. In order to reduce the pumping power,
the viscosity of fuel oil is reduced by heating with the help of coils carrying hot
water or steam. The capacity of the day tank should be at least equal to 8 hours
requirement of the plant. If the day tank is located above the engine level, then
the fuel oil flows by gravity to the injection pump otherwise fuel oil is delivered
to the injection pump by a transfer pump driven from the engine shaft.
The fuel injection system injects the fuel inside the engine cylinder. It is
the most vital component in the working of CI engines and engine performance
greatly depends on it. The fuel injection system should filter the fuel, meter the
correct amount of fuel to be admitted, control the time of injection, raise the
fuel pressure to the level required for atomization and distribute the atomized
fuel properly in the combustion chamber. The fuel is injected in the cylinder
of CI engine under pressure ranging from 120 to 200 bar. The fuel injection
system may be air injection system, solid or air less injection system.
Early diesel engines used air injection system where compressed air at
about 70 bar was used to atomize as well as to inject the fuel oil. This system
can use fuels of high viscosity and results in good mixing of air with the fuel.
However, this system is now rarely used because it requires an expensive
multi-stage compressor and engine becomes bulky.
In solid or air less injection system, the fuel oil is forced to flow through
spray nozzles with the help of fuel pump at a pressure above 100 bar. The
governing is done by controlling the operation of the fuel pump. Figure 5.7
shows a typical arrangement of various components for the solid injection
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 191
Pressure relief valve

Plunger feed pump

Coarse filter
Figure 5.7 Arrangement of components for the solid injection system.

system used in CI engine. The solid injection system mainly comprises fuel
tank, fuel feed pump to supply the fuel from the fuel tank to the injection
system, injection pump to meter and pressurize the fuel, injector to properly
distribute the pressurized fuel in the cylinder in atomized form, governor and
fuel filters. Fuel from fuel tank via coarse filter is sucked by plunger feed
pump and delivered with slightly high pressure to fuel pump via fine filter.
Fuel pump pressurizes (above 100 bar) the fuel oil and forces it to flow in the
cylinder through injector. Excess fuel from the injector is returned to fine filter.
A pressure relief valve is also provided for the safety of the system. Based
on the manner of operation and control of the components, the solid injection
system may be classified as follows:
(i) Individual pump injection system
(ii) Unit injection system
(iii) Common rail injection system
(iv) Distributor system
(i) Individual pump injection system: In this system (Figure 5.8), each cylinder
is provided with separate injection pump and injector. The pump itself meters
the fuel and controls the injection timing. The delivery valve in the nozzle
is actuated by fuel oil pressure. The amount of injected fuel depends on the
effective stroke of the plunger.

Injector

HP line

LP pump

Fuel in

Figure 5.8 Individual pump in ection system.

192 Power Plant Engineering

(ii) Unit injector system: In this system (Figure 5.9), the pump and the
injector nozzle are combined in one housing. The pump-cum-injector unit is
termed unit injector and one such unit injector is used for one cylinder. The
whole process of fuel metering, pressurizing, timing and injection take place
in a pump-cum-injector unit. A rocker arm actuates the plunger to inject the
fuel inside the cylinder. The amount of injected fuel depends on the effective
stroke of the plunger.
Injectors with HP pump

11116
LP line

LP pump

MEIN&
Return
Figure 5.9 Unit injector system.

(iii) Common rail injection system: Figure 5.10 shows a typical common
rail injection system. In this system a single pump supplies the fuel oil under
high pressure to a fuel header or common rail. Fuel header or common rail
supplies fuel to all injector valves of the multi-cylinder engine. At the proper
time a valve operated by means of push rod and rocker arm allows the fuel
to enter the engine cylinder through the nozzle. By varying the length of the
push rod stroke, the amount of fuel entering the engine is controlled.
Spring loaded
spray valve
Fuel lines to
Pressure other cylinder
relief and Control
timing High pressure
lever relief valve
valve Injector

HP line
Pump drive
shaft
Fuel from HP pump
day tank ■
Controlled pressure pump Fuel in
Figure 5.10 Common rail injection system.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 193
(iv) Distributor system: In the distributor system (Figure 5.11), the fuel
pump meters, pressurizes, and times the fuel. The pump supplies the fuel to
a rotating distributor at the correct time and in proper amount. The fuel from
distributor is distributed to cylinders in correct firing order by cam operated
poppet valves which open to admit the fuel to nozzles.
Nozzles

_EL ( _ High
N Metering
pressure Distributor and pressure
fuel block pump
Control rod
Pump Cam
01 Low
°pressure
fuel Primary pump
Distributor
Figure 5.11 Distributor system.

Electronic control in diesel injection system: The conventional mechanical

control systems cannot precisely control the parameters related to the injection
process, such as timing, rate of injection, end of injection, quantity of fuel,
etc. Hence different types of injection systems with electronic control have
been developed. With the use of electronic control, the injection rate with time
can be varied which is difficult to achieve accurately by mechanical control
system. With the variable injection rate a small quantity of fuel is first injected
and the main injection is done after the ignition delay and burning of initially
injected fuel.
Fuel feed pump: Fuel feed pump is spring loaded plunger type. The plunger
is actuated through a push rod from the camshaft.
Injection pump: The injection pump may be of jerk type pump or distributor
type pump. The jerk type pump consists of a plunger reciprocating inside a
barrel. The plunger is driven by a camshaft.
Fuel injector: Fuel injector assembly consists of a needle valve, a compression
spring, a nozzle and an injector body. The nozzle may be single hole nozzle,
multi hole nozzle, pintle nozzle and pintaux nozzle.

5.5.5 Cooling System

The purpose of cooling system is to keep the temperature of cylinder material

(cylinder head, cylinder and piston) within the safe limit. The peak gas
temperature during the combustion process in the cylinder of an internal
combustion engine may be as high as 2750°C. In the absence of cooling, the
194 Power Plant Engineering

cylinder and associated parts will tend to attain the average temperature of
gas which may be of the order of 1500°C. The maximum metal temperature
for the inside of the cylinder is limited to much lower values than the gas
temperature due to the following reasons:
1. During the combustion period, the regions of the combustion chamber
wall that are contacted by the high temperature gases generally experience
the higher heat flux. Local thermal stresses can develop due to uneven
expansion of various parts, to cause fatigue cracking. For water cooled
engines the temperature of cylinder material must be less than 400°C
for cast iron and 300°C for aluminium alloy. For air cooled engines,
the temperature of cylinder material must be further low.
2. The lubricating oil deteriorates very rapidly if the lubricating oil side
surface temperature of the cylinder wall exceeds the temperature range
160°C-180°C. At higher temperature, the lubricating oil film may
disintegrate and damage the piston and cylinder surfaces. Piston seizure
due to the failure of lubrication is quite common.
3. The volumetric efficiency and power output of the engines decrease
with an increase in cylinder and head temperature.
4. The high temperature hot spots in the cylinder of SI engine may lead
to knock and pre-ignition problems.
Small engines may be air cooled, but large engines are cooled with the help
of water or liquid. In air cooled engines, the fins (extended surfaces) are provided
(casted) on the cylinder to increase the heat transfer surface area. Air movement
relative to mobile engine may be used as in case of a motor cycle engine or air
may be blown with the help of blower or fan driven by the engine.
Big engines are always water or liquid (coolant) cooled. The coolant may
be used in place of water for better heat transfer. The engine cylinder and its
head are enclosed in a jacket through which water or coolant flows and becomes
heated by carrying away the heat from the cylinder. The hot water or coolant
leaving the jacket is then cooled by rejecting heat to the surrounding air and
cooled water or coolant is again recirculated in the jacket. It is necessary to
control the temperature of water or coolant leaving the cylinder jacket because
the temperature of lubricating oil depends on it. If the temperature of lubricating
oil is low, then it will not spread properly between cylinder and piston and if
the temperature of lubricating oil is high, then it will deteriorate.
The liquid cooling system can be further classified as:
(i) Natural circulation (Thermosiphon) system
(ii) Forced circulation system
(i) Natural circulation (Thermosiphon) system: Thermosiphon system
(Figure 5.12) is closed one and it consists of water jacket, radiator and a fan.
In natural circulation or thermosiphon system, water circulates naturally because
of the difference in density of water at different temperatures.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 195
Upper tank
Upper hose
connection
4— Radiator core
Air

Fan
Cylinder water jacket Lower hose
connection
Lower tank

Figure 5.12 Thermosiphon cooling system.

Radiator (Figure 5.13) consists of an upper header tank and a lower header
tank. The upper header tank is connected to the jacket water outlet by a rubber
hose pipe and the lower header tank is connected by another rubber hose pipe
to the jacket inlet. The header tanks are connected by number of vertical finned
tubes circular or elliptical in cross section.

Tube

4— Hot water 0 0
0 0 0 0
from jacket 0
0 o 0 o)0 )0
0 (I 0
0 0 (0 0 0 0
Upper 0 0 0 0 0
header tank 0 0 0 0 0 0

Air flow
(b) Top view

Water flow Tube Fins

IMINIMMEIMMINWI
Lower header 1E1E1E1E1E1E1M=
4 INIIMIIMINIIMINIMININ
tank
Cold water IMINIMIMINIMININI
to jacket
(a) Side view (c) Front v ew
Figure 5.13 Radiator construction.

In thermosiphon system, top header tank of radiator is kept above the

level of water in the jacket. When the water in the cylinder jacket is heated,
its density decreases and it flows to upper header tank of radiator. The water,
while moving downward in the radiator tubes, is cooled with the help of air
passing over the radiator tubes either by ram effect or by fan or jointly. Cooled
water from the bottom header tank of the radiator goes to cylinder jacket to
196 Power Plant Engineering

maintain circulation. The rate of circulation of water is slow and insufficient

for big installations. Thus, pump is used to circulate water at faster rate in
forced circulation system.
(ii) Forced circulation system: Forced circulation cooling system (Figure 5.14)
is mostly used in medium and large size installations. In this system, a
centrifugal pump driven by engine supplies cold water at faster rate to cylinder
jacket. A thermostat may also be provided in the hot water line (upper hose
connection) leaving the cylinder jacket. The function of thermostat is to prevent
the circulation of water below a certain temperature (about 85°C) in order to
protect the engine from overcooling.
Thermostat
4
Spray pond, or Hot water out
Engine
cooling tower, or Pump jacket
radiator

Cold water in
Figure 5.14 Forced circulation cooling system.

The hot water leaving the cylinder jacket may be cooled in a radiator, spray
pond or cooling towers and recirculated again. For the smaller plants, the water
may be cooled in radiator while for the bigger plant, the hot water is cooled
in a cooling tower. The evaporation of water into steam may be allowed in
cylinder jacket to take the advantage of high latent heat of vaporization. Higher
water pressure (1.5 to 2 bar) may be maintained in the radiator to increase the
heat transfer rate and such system is termed pressure cooling system. If the
plenty of water is available, then the hot water leaving the engine is discharged
in the stream and such system is called direct or non-return cooling system,
otherwise it is cooled in cooling towers for recirculation.

5.5.6 Lubricating System

Lubrication is essential to reduce friction and wear of rubbing parts of the
engine. By reducing friction between rubbing parts of the engine, the frictional
energy loss is decreased and life of the engine is increased. The substance
called lubricant should be introduced between the rubbing surfaces in order
to decrease the frictional force between them by preventing metal to metal
contact. Besides reducing friction and wear of rubbing parts, the lubrication
also performs one or several of the following functions:
1. It provides sealing action. The lubricating oil in space adjoining the
piston rings and cylinder liner maintains an effective seal and prevents
the leakage of high pressure gases from the cylinder into the crankcase.
2. It cleans the surface by carrying away the carbon and metal particles
caused by wear.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 197
3. It absorbs shock between bearings and other parts and consequently
reduces noise. It ensures smooth running of parts.
4. It cools the surfaces by carrying away heat generated due to friction.
To perform the above functions a lubricant should possess the following
properties:
(i) Suitable viscosity
(ii) It should not change its state with the change in temperature.
(iii) It should maintain a continuous film between the rubbing surfaces.
(iv) It should be free from corrosive acids.
(v) It should be free from dust, moisture, metallic chips, etc.
Lubricant may be liquid or solid. Liquid lubricants such as mineral oils
or fatty oils are most commonly used. Graphite and white lead are the solid
lubricants. Semi-solid lubricants or greases as they are often called are made
from mineral oils and fatty oils. The lubricating oil gets heated because of
friction of moving parts and should be cooled before recirculation. Lubricating
oil is required to be changed after it becomes unfit for performing the lubricating
needs. Due to economic consideration, reclaiming of lubricating oil for reuse
is done by settling, filtering and chemical treatment.
In IC engines there are many surfaces in contact with each other and
these should be lubricated to reduce friction. The various parts of an engine
requiring lubrication are:
(a) Piston and cylinder
(b) Piston rings and cylinder walls
(c) Crankshaft bearings
(d) Crank pin and big end bearing of connecting rod
(e) Gudgeon pin and small end bearing of connecting rod
(f) Camshaft and camshaft bearings, timing gears
(g) Valve mechanism and rocker arms
The various lubrication system used for IC engines may be classified as:
(i) Mist lubrication system
(ii) Wet sump lubrication system
(iii) Dry sump lubrication system
(i) Mist lubrication system: This system is used for two stroke engines
which employ crank case compression because crank case lubrication is not
suitable for these engines. These engines are lubricated by adding 2 to 3 per
cent lubricating oil in the fuel tank. The fuel is vaporized; and the lubricating
oil changes in the form of mist. The lubricating oil that impinges on the crank
case walls lubricates the main and connecting rod bearings, and the rest of
the oil in the form of mist goes in the cylinder during charging periods and
lubricates the piston, piston rings and the cylinder. This system is simple and
198 Power Plant Engineering

low in cost. However, due to the burning of lubricating oil, it causes heavy
exhaust smoke and several other effects.
(ii) Wet sump lubrication system: The wet sump lubrication system employs
a large capacity oil pan or sump at the bottom of crank case, from which the
lubricating oil is delivered to various parts of the engine. After serving the
purpose the lubricating oil then gradually returns to the sump by gravity. There
can be three varieties in the wet sump lubrication system as discussed below.
Splash system: This system (Figure 5.15) is used for small four strokes,
stationary engines. In this system, a splasher or dipper is provided to big end
cap of each connecting rod. splash troughs/oil troughs are also located under
big end cap of each connecting rod. The lubricating oil is charged into the
sump at bottom of the engine crankcase and maintained at predetermined level.
An oil pump takes oil from sump and delivers to all splash troughs through a
filter. Splash troughs are provided with overflows to keep the oil at constant
level. At every revolution of crankshaft when the connecting rod is in the
lowest position, splasher or dipper just dip into oil troughs and thus directs
the oil through holes in the caps to the big end bearings. Due to splash of
oil it reaches the lower portion of the cylinder walls, piston pins, piston rings
and other parts requiring lubrication. Excess oil eventually drips back to the
oil sump where it is cooled by the air flowing around.
Oil pressure gauge

Piston Camshaft
faf
.

10 11 1'0
I) Connecting rod Main bearing
.ibearingi4
I/
fiv
/II

Main bearing
II
../ Oil troughs
Lower oil pan
Oil pump

// 1/1/////////////11/1//////////VV\

Oil strainer
Figure 5.15 Splash type wet sump lubrication system.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 199
Splash system is not suitable for engines operating at high bearing pressures
and high rubbing speeds.
Pressure feed system: In this system (Figure 5.16), oil from oil sump is
pumped under pressure (1.5 to 4 bar) by means of a gear pump and forced
through filter to all main bearings of the crankshaft and camshaft. Holes drilled
through the main crankshaft bearing journals, transfer oil to the big end bearings.
From the big end bearing, oil reaches small end bearings through hole drilled
in connecting rod. The cylinder wall, piston, and piston rings are lubricated
by oil spray around the piston pin and the main and connected rod bearings.
A pressure relief valve is provided on the delivery side of gear pump to prevent
excessive pressure. A pressure gauge is also provided to check the circulation
of oil to the various parts. This system finds favour from most of the engine
manufacturers as it allows high bearing pressure and high rubbing speeds.
Pressure gauge
Piston —01
Connecting Camshaft
rod
T1,
[ EZ
Timing gears Crankshaft
_

6
Header
line

Oil filter — Strainer

Oil pump
Oil pan

Figure 5.16 Pressure feed type wet sump lubrication system.

Splash and pressure system: This system is a combination of splash and

pressure feed systems. In this system, lubricating oil is drawn from the lower
portion of the sump located in the base of crank chamber through a filter and
is delivered under pressure by means of a gear pump to the main and camshaft
bearings. Oil under pressure is also supplied to pipes which direct oil against the
dipper on the big end cap of each connecting rod. Thus, the big end bearings
are lubricated by splash or spray of oil thrown by dipper. The system is less
costly in comparison to the pressure system. It enables higher bearing loads
and engine speeds to be employed as compared to the splash system.
(iii) Dry sump lubrication system: Dry sump lubrication system is generally
adopted for high capacity engines. In this system (Figure 5.17) the lubricating
oil dripped from the cylinders and bearings is prevented from accumulating in
200 Power Plant Engineering

Vent

Oil cooler Pressure relief

valve
To bearing 4— „........
Supply tank
Oil pump 4.,a1
Engine crankcase

Dry sump ui Filter bypass

pressure relief
• valve
Filter
Strainer
Scavenging
pump
Figure 5.17 Dry sump lubrication system.

the base or sump of the engine. For this the capacity of the scavenging pump
is greater than the oil pump. The oil from the sump is carried to a separate
storage tank external to the engine cylinder block through filter with the help
of scavenging pump. A bypass valve is provided in between scavenging pump
and storage tank which permits the flow of oil if the filter is clogged. An oil
pump sucks oil from the external storage tank, and circulates under pressure
through oil cooler to the various bearings of the engine. The oil cooler removes
heat from oil with the help of water or air as a cooling medium.

5.5.7 Engine Starting System

Due to high compression ratio, even a small diesel engine is difficult to start
by hand cranking. The three common methods of starting the diesel engine
are as follows:
(i) Compressed air system: This system is used for medium and large
capacity engines. In this system compressed air at about 20 bar, supplied from
a compressed air tank, is admitted to a few of the engine cylinders making them
work like reciprocating air motors to rotate the engine crankshaft. Remaining
cylinders suck air; fuel is injected and ignited in the normal way causing the
engine to start. Gradually engine gain momentum and remaining cylinders also
start developing power.
(ii) Electrical starting system: This system has a storage battery (12 to 36
volts) which supplies power to an electric motor. Electric motor rotates the
engine flywheel by engagement of gears and as soon as the engine is started,
the electric motor disengages automatically. A small engine driven generator
may also be used to supply power to electric motor.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 201
(iii) Auxiliary engine starting system: This system has a small petrol engine
connected to the main engine through clutch and gear arrangement. The small
petrol engine is first started either by hand cranking or by a self-starter motor
and then engaged through the clutch to the main engine to crank it. The clutch
disengages automatically as soon as the main engine is started.

5.6 Layout of Diesel Engine Power Plant

General layout of diesel engine power plant is shown in Figure 5.18. Generally
the units are placed in parallel lines. Some space is always provided for
further expansion. Also sufficient space should be provided around the units
for maintenance. The engine and alternator is placed on a large concrete block
which may be reinforced, if necessary. Storage of fuel for power plant is always
provided outside the main building and it may be located underground. Provision
must be made so that engine vibrations are not transmitted to the building
or surrounding structure. Proper ventilation is also provided in power plant.
The air intakes as well as exhaust silencer are located outside the plant building.
Cooling arrangement for the water required for cylinder jacket may be located
outside and near the plant building.

Storage and
shop Space for future expansion

Washroom Unit no. 3

Switchboard Unit no. 2

Oil storage tanks
Office Unit no. 1
Air compressor
Hall

Front entrance
Figure 5.18 General layout of diesel engine power plant units.

5.7 Diesel Engine Power Plant Operation

For best operating performance of the diesel engine throughout the life span,
the manufacturer's recommendations should be strictly followed. For good
performance, the following points should be taken care of:
1. The engine should be run periodically even when not required to be
used. The engine should not be kept idle for more than 7 days.
2. The lubrication system should work effectively and the engine oil
should be of the correct specifications.
202 Power Plant Engineering

3. The temperature of cooling water should be maintained within the

prescribed range. The cooling water should be treated and should be
free from suspended impurities. In cold climatic regions, if the engine
is kept idle then cooling water should be drained out.
4. Air filters, oil filters and fuel filters should be periodically cleaned or
replaced.
5. Periodic watch and analysis of engine exhaust should be made. The loss
of compression resulting from wearing of moving parts or overloading
causes inadequate combustion or black smoke in the exhaust.
If several diesel engines of different sizes are working together and sharing
load, then they should carry the same percentage of their full load capacity
for economic operation.

5.8 Intake Pressurization-Supercharging and Turbocharging

The power developed by an IC engine depends directly upon the amount of

air (or mixture) inhaled (during suction process) and consumed by the engine.
The amount of air inhaled by the engine or breathing capacity of the engine
is expressed quantitatively by the term volumetric efficiency. The volumetric
efficiency is defined as the ratio of volume of air inhaled corresponding to
ambient conditions to the swept volume of the cylinder. In normal suction
process the air or charge is inhaled in the swept volume of the cylinder at a
pressure slightly less than atmospheric. The air (or mixture) during suction
process in the IC engine may be supplied at a pressure about 0.2 to 1.4 bar
more than atmospheric pressure by pressurizing the intake air (or mixture) by
means of a compressor, in order to increase the specific power output of SI
and CI engines.
Figure 5.19 compares pressurized intake and naturally aspirated, air standard
Otto cycles having the same compression ratio.
•

4'

6 -- --
l', 5

Volume
Figure 5.19 Air standard Otto cycles for pressurized intake and naturally aspirated.
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 203

It is evident that the work output for the pressurized intake cycle (sum
of area 12341 and area 56715) is greater than that for the naturally aspirated
cycle (area 1'2'3'4'1'). Thus, the mere process of intake pressurization results in
increased work output per cycle. The total work output is further more due to
more mass of air involved. Increasing the intake or suction pressure increases
the density and thus, the amount of air inhaled by the engine. Increasing the
air consumption per working cycle by intake pressurization allows an increase
in the volumetric efficiency, burning of more fuel, and power developed above
that obtained by normal aspiration for the same engine size. Therefore, it is
desirable that an IC engine should inhale the maximum possible amount of
air per working cycle by intake pressurization.
In a SI engine, intake pressurization may lead to detonation because
increasing the intake pressure increases the temperature. Therefore, the fuel
used must have better anti-knock characteristics and provision for the cooling
the compressed charge should be made by means of an intercooler between the
compressor and the cylinder intake. The intake pressurization in SI engines is
mainly used for high output drag racing engines and for large aircraft piston
engines to provide high specific output at takeoff and to improve power output
at high altitudes.
The intake pressurization is preferred for most of the CI engines. In a CI
engine, the increase in pressure and temperature of the intake air by intake
pressurization reduces ignition delay, lowers the rate of pressure rise in lesser
duration of fuel spray, results in better combustion of fuel and high expansion
ratio. Other associated benefits are increased reliability, durability and less fuel
consumption.
There are two methods of intake air pressurization: supercharging and
turbocharging. Supercharging generally refers to the use of compressors that
are mechanically driven from the engine crankshaft, while turbocharging refers
to compressors driven by a turbine, which produces energy from the engine
exhaust stream. Power required for supercharging or turbocharging is derived
from the engine and thereby reduces some of the gain in power developed
through supercharging or turbocharging.

5.8.1 Supercharging

Supercharging is done by means of positive displacement type (piston cylinder

type, vane blower, roots blower) compressors/superchargers and the rotodynamic
type (centrifugal or axial compressor) superchargers. Positive displacement
superchargers (Figure 5.20) are capable of producing higher boost pressures
than rotodynamic type superchargers. The superchargers are driven from the
engine crankshaft usually by means of gear drive, belt drive, and chain drive at
a speed 2-3 times the engine speed. The piston cylinder type is used for large
and slow speed stationary engines, but its use is limited because it is bulky
and more expensive than the rotary type (vane blower, roots blower) blowers.
204 Power Plant Engineering

Vane
Inlet
port
Casing Outlet
port

Rotor
Reciprocating Vane blower Root blower
compressor
Figure 5.20 Positive displacement type superchargers.

Roots blowers may be classified as: (1) straight double lobe; (2) straight triple
lobe; and (3) helix triple lobe. The helix triple lobe type runs more quietly than
the others and is generally recommended. The centrifugal type blower is best
suited for applications in which power and volumetric efficiency improvement
are required at high engine speed, e.g. with aircraft engines because of its high
capacity and small weight and size. Axial flow compressor is seldom used to
supercharge the engines.
Because superchargers are directly driven from the engine output shaft,
no inherent lag in the rate of pressure increase with engine speed is present,
as is typically the case with turbochargers.

5.8.2 Turbocharging

Turbocharging is widely used in automotive and truck applications of four

stroke CI engines and to improve scavenging of two stroke CI engines. Charge
cooling by means of an intercooler between the compressor and the cylinder
intake is effective in reducing NO„ emissions and improving the power output
of turbocharged diesel engines.
Turbocharging is generally done by a centrifugal compressor directly
coupled to a gas turbine. Gas turbine develops energy, necessary to drive the
compressor, from the pressure and kinetic energy of engine exhaust gases. On
the basis of main energy in engine exhaust gases, there are three methods of
turbocharging: the constant pressure; the pulse; and the pulse converter.
In the constant pressure method the exhaust pressure is maintained at a
nearly constant level above the atmospheric pressure. Some engine power is lost
because of the increased back pressure in the exhaust manifold. The exhaust
manifold is made large enough to damp out the pressure fluctuations caused
by the unsteady flow characteristic of the engine exhaust process.
In the pulse turbocharging method, gas turbine utilizes the kinetic energy of
exhaust gases generated by the blow down process, which otherwise going to
be a waste. To have kinetic energy in exhaust gases during blow down, small
exhaust lines from the cylinders are grouped together in a common manifold
to receive the exhaust. The turbine efficiency is not good because the pressure
 Diesel Engine Power Plant 205
at the turbine inlet fluctuates. However, the engine output is more as a result
of the lower exhaust back pressure relative to the constant pressure method.
The pulse converter method represents a compromise between the previous
two techniques. In the pulse converter method, the kinetic energy in the blow
down gases is converted into pressure by utilizing one or more diffusers. Thus,
the pulse converter method is a compromise between the constant pressure
and the pulse method.

5.9 Emissions Control

A brief discussion on harmful products of combustion and how to control these
is given in Chapter 1. This section briefly discusses the control of emission
from CI engines by modifications in engine design and fuel. In IC engines, the
lean mixture combustion results in low UHC and CO production but causes
high levels of NO emission; while rich mixture combustion to reduce NOx
emission results in increased CO and UHC emission. Engine modifications that
have been implemented to reduce emissions from CI engines are:
1. the modifications to the combustion chamber shape to match the air
swirl pattern and fuel spray pattern for better mixing and complete
combustion.
2. higher injection pressure for better atomization to reduce soot and UHC.
3. precise injection timing with electronic control.
4. use of exhaust gas recirculation.

Review Questions
1. Write the advantages and disadvantages of a diesel engine power plant.
2. Write the applications of a diesel engine power plant.
3. Discuss the working of four stroke and two stroke petrol engines.
4. Discuss the working of four stroke and two stroke diesel engines.
5. What is ignition delay in CI engine?
6. Why excess air is always used in CI engines?
7. Define cetane number of a fuel.
8. Write a brief note on combustion chambers of CI engine.
9. Draw a neat sketch of a diesel engine power plant showing all the
important components.
10. Write a brief note on layout of diesel engine power plant.
11. What is the purpose of silencer?
12. Write a note on exhaust system of diesel engine power plant.
13. Write a note on fuel system of diesel engine power plant.
206 Power Plant Engineering

14. What are the requirements of a fuel injection system?

15. Name and explain various types of fuel injection systems.
16. What is solid injection? Briefly explain different types of solid injection
system.
17. What are the advantages of electronic control in fuel injection systems?
18. Explain the operation of a fuel pump.
19. Write a note on lubrication system of diesel engine power plant.
20. Discuss the wet sump lubrication system.
21. What do you mean by mist lubrication system?
22. Discuss the dry sump lubrication system.
23. Discuss the methods to start diesel engine.
24. Write a detailed note on cooling system of diesel engine power plant.
25. Write a short note on intake air pressurization.
26. Why intake air pressurization is more beneficial in a CI engine compared
to an SI engine?
27. What is the difference between supercharging and turbocharging?
28. What are the advantages of intake air pressurization?
29. Write notes on supercharging and turbocharging systems.
 CHAPTER 6

Gas Turbine Power Plant

6.1 Gas Turbine Power Plant

Gas turbines are used in electrical power generation, propulsion, and compressor
and pump drives. The favourable power output to weight ratio of gas turbines
makes them well suited for transport applications such as aircraft propulsion,
marine power plants, etc. Gas turbine (GT) power plants tend to be lighter
and more compact than the steam turbine based power plants. In a GT power
plant, power is generated by expanding high temperature and pressure gas
(air, inert gas or burnt gases) through the several rings of fixed and moving
blades of a gas turbine. A gas turbine resembles a steam turbine. The most
efficient power generation systems in commercial service are combined gas
turbine—steam turbine power plants with power to fuel energy efficiencies of
more than 54% based on higher heating value basis.
In a GT power plant, the working gas is compressed continuously to a high
pressure (4 to 10 bar) in a compressor. Compressor is driven by gas turbine
and compressor shaft is coupled to the turbine shaft. A centrifugal or an axial
compressor is employed because large volume of the working gas is required
to be handled. The temperature of the compressed working gas leaving the
compressor is increased by adding heat, either directly in a combustion chamber
if it is air or indirectly in a heat exchanger. GT power plant can utilize oil,
natural gas, coal gas, producer gas, and pulverized coal as a fuel for heat
addition. Based on heat addition (directly or indirectly), the GT power plant
may be classified into open cycle GT power plant and closed cycle GT power
plant as shown in Figure 6.1.

207
208 Power Plant Engineering

Combustion Combustion
Combustion chamber
gases out gases in

Compressor

Fresh air Exhaust to

surrounding Coolant in Coolant out
(a) Open cycle GT power plant (b) Closed cycle GT power plant
Figure 6.1 GT power plant.

6.2 Comparison between Open and Closed Cycle Gas

Turbine Power Plants
6.2.1 Open Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant

The open cycle GT power plant (Figure 6.1(a)) is used most commonly in
majority of GT power plant. In the open cycle GT power plant, atmospheric
air is continuously drawn into the compressor and is compressed to a high
pressure. The compressed air then enters a combustion chamber or combustor,
where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs at constant pressure. The
heated gases coming out of combustion chamber are then expanded in the gas
turbine to produce mechanical work. The part of the mechanical work produced
by the turbine is utilized in driving the compressor and the other accessories,
and the remaining is used for power generation. The gases leaving the turbine
are exhausted to the surrounding. The working gas is air in the open cycle GT
power plant, because air is available freely in nature.

6.2.2 Closed Cycle Gas Turbine Power Plant

In the closed cycle GT power plant (Figure 6.1(b)), the working gas (air or
any other suitable gas such as helium, argon, carbon dioxide, etc.) coming out
from compressor is indirectly heated at constant pressure in a heat exchanger
by an external heat source. The external heat source may be a gas cooled
nuclear reactor or flue gases resulting from the combustion chamber/furnace.
The high temperature and high pressure working gas coming out from the
heat exchanger is expanded through the gas turbine. The working gas leaving
the turbine after expansion is cooled in a heat exchanger with the help of
surrounding, and supplied to the compressor to repeat the cycle of operation.
The gases other than air such as argon, CO2, helium, etc., having more
desirable properties can be used for improved performance. Performance of
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 209

the gas turbine depends on ratio of specific heats (0 of the working gas which
depends on the nature of gas. An increase in y from 1.4 to 1.67 (for argon)
can bring about a large increase in output per kg of working gas circulated.
The thermal efficiency of GT power plant increases as the pressure ratio (R p)
increases. Higher pressure ratio is possible with the closed cycle GT power
plant for the same maximum and minimum temperature limits.

6.2.3 Advantages of Closed Cycle over Open Cycle Gas

Turbine Power Plants

1. In case of the open cycle gas turbine power plants, the compressor
sucks atmospheric air. With the closed cycle gas turbine power plants,
the circulating gas can operate continuously under high pressure. The
higher density of circulating gas and the better heat transfer coefficient
due to the continuous higher pressure lead to the smaller plant size for
a given output. However, the advantage of this can be taken only to
a limited extent as big heat exchangers are required.
2. The turbines blades are not exposed to the product of combustion as
the combustion of fuel is carried out externally. The life of the plant
is more and plant maintains the efficiency of the plant throughout its
life because compressor and turbine are kept free from the corrosion
and abrasion effects of products of combustion. Further, cheaper and
inferior fuel can be used.
3. The maintenance cost is low and reliability is high due to longer useful
life.
4. The gas entering the compressor does not require filtration which is a
severe problem in the open cycle gas turbine plant.

6.2.4 Disadvantages of Closed Cycle over Open Cycle Gas

Turbine Power Plants

1. The advantage of efficient internal combustion as in the open cycle is

eliminated.
2. Due to indirect heating, the closed cycle requires very big heat exchangers
for the heat addition to the working gas, and system becomes complicated
and costly.
3. Considerable quantity of cooling water in the closed cycle is required
for pre-cooling the turbine exhausts before it enters the compressor.
4. Regenerator or heat exchangers have to be sufficiently strong and
high quality material is required due to higher internal pressures. This
increases the cost of the plant.
5. The response to the load variations is poor compared to the open cycle
plant.
210 Power Plant Engineering

The closed cycle is to be preferred over the open cycle where the inferior
fuel is to be used and cooling water is available in ample quantity at the
proposed site of the plant. However, the closed cycle gas turbine plants have
not yet been used for centralized electricity production. This is mainly due to
the big size of heat exchangers. However, for a gas cooled nuclear reactor,
the closed cycle GT power plant is a promising option.

6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine Power Plant

6.3.1 Advantages

1. It is quick in starting and stopping. Once the turbine is brought up to

the rated speed by the starting motor and the fuel is ignited, the gas
turbine will be accelerated from cold start to full load without warm
up time. That is why a GT power plant is also used as a peak load
power plant.
2. It has fast response to load changes.
3. The weight of the plant per kW output is less. More power output
to weight ratio of gas turbines makes them well suited for transport
applications such as aircraft propulsion, marine power plants, etc. Further
for a given capacity, floor space required for installation is less.
4. The GT power plants are available in standard sizes and the capital
cost per kW is less.
5. Less installation time is required and installation cost is much less
compared to a thermal (steam) power plant. The plant comes from the
supplier to the site, almost fully assembled.
6. The gas turbines operate at temperatures (1000 to 1200°C) above the
limit of turbine materials by using blades and vanes with complex
internal cooling passages. Thus, the thermal efficiency is high.
7. Further higher efficiency is achieved by operating GT power plant
in combined cycle mode with steam power plant. Besides the higher
efficiency, this combined plant also has low investment costs, operating
flexibility, and low environmental impact.
8. Almost any hydrocarbon fuel, from high octane gasoline to heavy diesel
oil and pulverized coal, can be used.
9. A gas turbine power plant (open cycle) does not require much cooling
water. Therefore, the plant can be installed where water is not available
in ample quantity.

6.3.2 Disadvantages

1. The part load efficiency of the open cycle GT power plant (which is
used mostly) decreases rapidly because the considerable percentage of
power developed by the turbine is used to drive the compressor.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 211

2. GT power plant is sensitive to the component efficiency; particularly

that of the compressor.
3. GT power plant is sensitive to the changes in the ambient condition.
4. The open cycle GT power plant has high air flow rate in order to limit
the maximum GT inlet temperature. Therefore, it results in increased
loss of heat in the exhaust gases if waste heat is not utilized.
5. The open cycle GT power plant requires air and gas filters of very
high quality to prevent erosion and corrosion of turbine blades.

6.4 Comparison between Gas Turbine and SI and CI Engines

6.4.1 Advantages of Gas Turbine over SI and CI Engines

1. High mechanical efficiency.

2. Balancing is perfect due to the absence of reciprocating mass.
3. For larger capacity, unit cost is low.
4. Weight per unit power output is low.
5. Can be operated with wide variety of fuel.
6. Maintenance is less and lubrication is simple.
7. Operating pressure is low.
8. Silent in operation.

6.4.2 Disadvantages of Gas Turbine over SI and CI Engines

1. Low thermal efficiency.

2. Temperature at inlet to turbine is limited.
3. Blade cooling is complicated.
4. It is difficult to start gas turbine.

6.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of Gas Turbine Power Plant

An idealization used in the study of open cycle GT power plants (mostly used)
is that of an air standard analysis in which the complexities of the combustion
process and the change of composition during combustion are not considered.
In an air standard analysis of open cycle GT power plants, it is assumed that
the working fluid is air which behaves as an ideal gas and the temperature
rise that would be brought about by combustion is achieved by a heat transfer
from an external source. Thus, in idealizing the actual cycle, combustion of
open cycle GT is replaced by constant pressure heat addition, and the cycle
is completed by the assumption that the exhaust to ambient pressure could be
followed by a zero pressure loss cooling to inlet conditions. The numerical
values calculated on the basis of air standard analysis may provide only
qualitative indications of power plant performance. The air standard analysis
212 Power Plant Engineering

carried out for open cycle GT power plants is also applicable to closed cycle
GT power plants by considering the relevant properties of working gas. The
basic air standard or thermodynamic cycle on which the gas turbine is based
is the Brayton or Joule cycle. The working medium in Brayton cycle may be
air or other gas. However, in the following sections Brayton cycle has been
discussed by considering air as a working medium.

6.5.1 Brayton Cycle

The Brayton or Joule cycle (like Rankine cycle) consists of two isentropic and
two reversible isobaric processes.
In a simple Brayton cycle as shown in Figure 6.2, the air is first compressed
(process 1-2) isentropically in a compressor and the compressed air is heated

T A

Figure 6.2 Flow and T-S diagrams of Brayton cycle.

(process 2-3) at constant pressure. The heated high pressure air is expanded
(process 3-4) isentropically in a gas turbine and from the air leaving the turbine,
heat is rejected (process 4-1) at constant pressure to the surrounding. The analysis
of the cycle (by considering that reader is acquainted with thermodynamics
and standard notations) is as follows:
Process 1-2: T2 /T1 = (P21 P)Y -117 = (R p ))/ 1 , Q1 _ 2 = 0, W1_2 = MaC
pa
(T1 — T2 )
=— WC

Process 2-3: P2 = P3 , Q2 _3 = M a C p a (T3 — T2 ) = Qs = M f CV, W2_3 = 0

Process 3-4: T3/T4 = (P3/P4 )Y-1/Y = ( RP) Y-117, Q3 4 = 0, W3 _ 4 = M a C pa (T3 — T4 )
= WT
Process 4-1: P4 = - P1 , 0 = mac p a (71 T4) = QR W4-1 = °
Cyclic process 12341: IQ = Q1-2 + Q2-3 + Q3-4 + Q4-1
= W1-2 + W2-3 + W3-4 + W4-1
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 213

where Rp is the pressure ratio, Qs and QR are heat supplied and heat rejected
respectively, WT and We are work developed by the turbine and work required
by the compressor respectively. ma is the mass flow rate of air, mf is the mass
of fuel consumed per unit time and CV is the calorific value of fuel. The
efficiency of simple Brayton cycle can be calculated as

Wnet
=
WT — WC QR = 1 CP a (T4 T1) 1 (T4 T1)
11 = f,

V S QS QS C p
a ( T3 — T2 ) (T3 — T2 )

(T4 T))
—TI 1 (6.1)
=1 — 1—
(T4R ep7-1)4 — TiR (7-017 ) le r -1) I y
p P
The net work output of the simple Brayton cycle is given by

Wnet =WT Wc = macp a (T3 T4) — mac p a (T2 — T)

= rna C p T4 (R(11-1)/ — 1) — MaC p T1 (R(pY-1)17 — 1) (6.2)
a a

It is evident from Eq. 6.2 that a large portion of the work developed by the
turbine is required to drive the compressor. A gas turbine compressor requires
about 40 to 80% of the work developed by gas turbines, while the pump work
in a steam power plant is only 1 or 2% of the work developed by steam turbines
because the specific volume of the gas flowing through the compressor is many
times greater than that of the water passing through the pump.
The net work developed by the Brayton cycle is less due to internal
irreversibility. There is always some irreversibility (friction, heat loss) in the
components of a GT power plant. The irreversibility in the compressor and
turbine is considered by defining the terms compressor efficiency ric and turbine
efficiency lir as given below:
T2 — TI T3 — T4,
rIC = m m and rIT =
T3 —T4

If we consider the irreversibility in the compressor and turbine then

We = macp a (T2, — T1 ), Qs = mac p a (T3 — T2,),WT = mac p a (T3 — T4,),
QR = M a C p a (T4, — T1 ) and Wnet = MaC p (T3 T4, ) MaC p (T2, T1 )
a a

Due to irreversibility the work developed by the turbine decreases and

the work required by the compressor increases. Thus, highly efficient turbine
and compressor are required if an appreciable amount of net work is to be
developed by the plant.

6.5.2 Effect of Pressure Ratio on Performance of Brayton Cycle

It is evident from Eq. (6.1) and Figure 6.3 that as the pressure ratio increases,
the efficiency of the cycle also increases and becomes asymptotic.
214 Power Plant Engineering

0.6-
0.5 —
t), 0.4-

0.2-
0.1-
0 I I I I I I I
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Pressure ratio Rp
Figure 6.3 Variation of cycle efficiency with pressure ratio.

The temperature of the air leaving the compressor also increases with an
increase in pressure ratio. The amount of heat that can be supplied to the air
is reduced because there is a limit imposed by metallurgical considerations
on the maximum allowed temperature (about 1300°C) at the turbine inlet.
Therefore, the effect of pressure ratio on thermal efficiency should be considered
by restricting the turbine inlet temperature to the maximum allowable
temperature.
In order to logically understand the effect of pressure ratio, a T-S diagram of
the simple Brayton cycle with an upper temperature limit, set by metallurgical
conditions is illustrated in Figure 6.4 for cycles of low, medium, and high
pressure ratios.

TA 3" 3'

Tmin
►S

Figure 6.4 Effect of pressure ratio on Brayton cycle.

It is seen that the low pressure ratio cycle 1-2-3-4-1 requires a large
heat addition, which leads to a low efficiency. The high pressure ratio cycle
1-2"-3"-4"-1 has turbine power output barely greater than the compressor
power requirement, thereby leading to low net output. The high pressure ratio
cycle also requires less heat addition and it approaches the Carnot cycle. At
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 215

intermediate pressure ratios, the turbine power output is substantially higher

than the compressor power requirement, and the heat addition is modest in
comparison with the difference between the turbine and compressor works.
If Tmax is the maximum practical temperature at inlet to turbine fixed
by the material or metallurgical consideration and Tnni, is the atmospheric
temperature, then the optimum pressure ratio for maximum efficiency (Carnot
value), is given by
1 Tmin Tmax \ )1/(7-1)
11=1 =1 — (R p ) max = (6.3)
R(7-1)/7 Tmax Tmin

However, the net work output of the Brayton cycle corresponding to

optimum pressure ratio for Carnot efficiency ((Rp)max) is zero, which is proved
as follows. The temperatures after compression and expansion processes for
optimum pressure ratio for maximum efficiency are:
T „ \ y /y Tmax
2 = )max) —I = T2 = Tmax = T3
Tmin P Tmin

Tm a x
= ((R p)max)Y-1/7 = 7'n" T4 = Tmin = T1
i4 Tmin
i.e. at optimum pressure ratio for maximum efficiency, the compression and
expansion processes are on the same line. Thus, the net work output for this
optimum pressure ratio is zero, which is also shown below:

Wnet = Ma C p a (T3 — T4) — Ma C p a (T2 T1)

= M aC p a (T. — Tmin) — mac p a (Tmax — Tmin) = 0

It can also be concluded that as the pressure ratio approaches optimum

pressure ratio for the maximum efficiency, the turbine power output also
approaches to the compressor power requirement. Thus, the net work output of
the cycle approaches to zero. Accordingly, to develop a given power output a
larger mass flow rate would be required if the Brayton cycle is operated near
the optimum pressure ratio (Rp)max, and this might dictate a larger system. For
a smaller weight of the gas turbine plant, it is desirable to operate it near the
pressure ratio that gives maximum work output, and not the pressure ratio for
the maximum thermal efficiency.
The work output, Eq. (6.2), for given temperature restrictions of T. and
Tmin, can be written as

Wnet = macp a (T3 — T4) — mac p a (T2 — Tl )

1 \
= M a C p a T. 1 mac p a Tmm (Rp(Y-1)1 — 1) (6.4)
R(7-017
P
Figure 6.5 shows the variation of net work output with pressure ratio for
the given values of maximum and minimum temperatures.
216 Power Plant Engineering

woe,

1 (Rp)opt (Rp)max

Pressure ratio (Rp)

Figure 6.5 Variation of net work output with pressure ratio.

Wnet is zero at Rp equal to one, increases with an increase in Rp, reaches

maximum and then decreases with further increase in Rp till it becomes zero
at Rp equal to (Rp)m . Thus, there is a particular value of pressure ratio at
which the work output becomes maximum for the given values of maximum
and minimum temperatures. The optimum pressure ratio for the maximum net
work output is obtained by differentiating Wnet with respect to Rp and putting
dWnet ldRp equal to zero. On solving, we get

/T \ Y/2(7-1)
max = [(Rp )max ]1/2 (6.5)
(Rp )opt =
Tmin

For the optimum pressure ratio (Rp)opt

2 Tmax
= ((1?„)Opt)Y-117 = T2 = NiTmax Tmin
T Tmin
min v

Tmax = )opt )7_1/y = ITmax T4 = VTmax Tmin = T2

T4 Timm

i.e. the temperature after expansion is equal to the temperature after compression.
If the compressor and turbine efficiencies are considered, then result
obtained for the optimum pressure ratio for the maximum net work output is
T y/2(y-1)
ax
(Rp)opt = 1lC1lT
Tmin
It can be seen from Eqs. (6.3) and (6.5) that the optimum pressure
ratios (for both the maximum efficiency and the maximum net work output)
increase as the achievable turbine inlet temperature increases. Due to economic
considerations for the lowest equipment cost/size, the industrial gas turbines
are typically designed to operate near the point of maximum net work output.
The gas turbines are designed with two criteria into consideration: achieving
the lowest cost for peak load based on the simple cycle configuration and
achieving the highest efficiency in combined cycle configuration for base load use.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 217

The optimum pressure ratios for these two system configurations are very close
and are nearly equal to optimum pressure ratio for the maximum net work output.

6.5.3 Refinements/Modifications in Simple Brayton Cycle

The refinements/modifications in the simple Brayton cycle in the form of

intercooling, regeneration, reheating are incorporated to improve the performance.
But the GT power plant incorporating these refinements will become complex
in contrast to the simple open cycle plant. These modifications/ refinements
and their effects are discussed below.
1. Regeneration: The exhaust temperature of gas leaving the gas turbine is
well above the ambient temperature, and a lot of heat energy goes waste in the
exhaust gases if not recovered. An increase in efficiency cannot be expected
only through the increased temperature of the gases at inlet to turbine because
the exhaust temperature of gases leaving the gas turbine also increases with
an increase in temperature of the gases at inlet to turbine.
The heat energy of exhaust gas can be utilized by using a counterflow heat
exchanger called regenerator or recuperator, which preheats the air leaving
the compressor and before entering the combustion chamber. This process
of preheating the compressed air with the help of turbine exhaust is called
regeneration and this reduces the amount of fuel that must be burned in the
combustion chamber. The schematic diagram and T-S diagram of a Brayton
cycle modified to include a regenerator are shown in Figure 6.6.
Regenerator
6
Exhaust to TA
surrounding
2

Fresh air from surrounding S

Figure 6.6 Schematic and T-S diagrams of Brayton cycle with regenerator.

In regenerator, the turbine exhaust gas is cooled from state 4 to state 6,

while the air leaving the compressor is heated from state 2 to state 5. The net
work output per unit of mass flow is not changed, and the heat is supplied
to increase the air temperature from state 5 to state 3 with regeneration. For
Brayton cycle with regeneration:
Wnet = macp a (T3 — Ta) macp a (T2 TO, QS = M aC p a (T3 — T5), and
Wnet
11=
C
Pa
(T —
3
T5 )
218 Power Plant Engineering

Since the heat supplied is reduced, the thermal efficiency increases.

However, if the pressure ratio is more than the optimum pressure ratio for
the maximum net work output, then the temperature of turbine exhaust gas is
less than the temperature of the air leaving the compressor and obviously no
advantage is to be gained by using regenerator.
Ideally, the temperature of air leaving the compressor can be increased up
to the temperature of gas leaving the turbine in a counterflow heat exchanger
having infinite area. Actually, the temperature T5 of the compressed air leaving
the regenerator is less than the temperature T4 of the incoming turbine exhaust
and to consider this a term regenerator effectiveness (E) is defined as follows.
Actual temperature rise of air T5 — T2
E_ —
Maximum possible temperature rise of air T4 — T2
The values of regenerator effectiveness typically range from 60 to 80%.
Higher effectiveness requires more heat transfer area or bulky, heavy and costly
regenerator. More heat transfer area also causes significant frictional pressure losses
for flow through the regenerator, which may bring about a decrease in efficiency.
The decision to use a regenerator is also based on economic consideration.
2. Intercooling: Intercooling is done to reduce the compressor work but
it alone reduces the thermal efficiency of Brayton cycle. The work required
to compress a gas is minimum if compression is carried out isothermally.
Isothermal compression is not feasible in a rotodynamic compressor used in
the gas turbine power plant. The compression is carried out in stages when
the pressure ratio is high, and in order to reduce the work of compression
the intercooling of compressed air is done between stages. The air leaving
the first stage compressor is cooled in an intercooler and supplied to the
second stage of compressor and so on. Usually 2 to 3 stages of compression
are used. Figure 6.7 shows the schematic diagram and T-S diagram of a two
stage intercooled Brayton cycle with perfect intercooling, i.e. air is cooled to
initial temperature.
Combustion
chamber

Intercooler

Fresh air 7
from
surrounding Exhaust to
surrounding
Figure 6.7 Schematic and T-S diagrams of Brayton cycle with intercooler.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 219
The compressor work We for this perfect intercooling case is sum of first
stage compressor work Wc,/ and second stage compressor work Wc,H. The
We given by

WC = WC,I + W CII = MaC p a ( T2 — T1) + MaC p a (T4 — T3)

(( \(7-1)17 \ 1i \(7-1)1y \
P, P2
=ma c p a T1 —1 — ma C p a T1 —1
0. P1 / 1 SAP; / 1

where p, is the intermediate pressure. The minimum work of compression is

obtained by differentiating Wc with respect to p, and putting dWcIdpi equal
to zero. On solving, we get
= PiP2
Thus, for the minimum work of compression, the intermediate pressure is
geometric mean of final and initial pressures.
It is evident from the T-S diagram that by staging the compression process,
heat supplied in the combustion chamber increases. The cycle efficiency
decreases because mean temperature of heat addition decreases, which can also
be concluded from T-S diagram in which small cycle 1-2-3-4-5-1 is added to
the basic cycle 1-5-6-7-1.
The cycle efficiency with intercooling increases only if the regeneration
is also employed. The intercooling combined with regeneration permits more
heat recovery from the turbine exhaust gas.
3. Reheating: Reheating increases work developed by the turbine but it alone
reduces the efficiency of Brayton cycle. In order to increase the work of turbine,
the expansion is carried out in stages and reheating of working gas is done
in-between stages. The working gas leaving the first stage turbine is heated in
a reheater and supplied to the second stage of turbine and so on. Usually 2 to
3 stages of turbines are used. Here a stage does not mean the fixed blade row
and moving blade row of a turbine. Figure 6.8 shows the schematic diagram
and T-S diagram of a Brayton cycle in which expansion is carried out in two
turbines with reheating to the same maximum temperature.
Combustion chamber T•
Reheater

1
6
Fresh air from
surrounding Exhaust to
surrounding
Figure 6.8 Schematic and T-S diagrams of Brayton cycle with reheater.
220 Power Plant Engineering

The work developed by the turbine WT is sum of first stage turbine work
WTI and second stage turbine work WTH. The WT in terms of intermediate
pressure p, is given by

WT =WT,1 +WT,11 = Mac p a (T3 T4 ) + MaC

pa
(T5 —T6 )
\ (7-1)/Y \ \(7-1)/y
Pi
= macp a T3 1 - — M aC p
a
T3 1 - n
\ P2
Similar to the previous case of intercooling, it can be derived that for the
maximum work the optimum reheat pressure is geometric mean of initial and
final pressures.
The work developed by the turbine increases because constant pressure lines
on T-S diagram diverge. It is evident from the T-S diagram that by reheating,
the total heat supplied (in the combustion chamber and reheater) increases.
The cycle efficiency decreases because mean temperature of heat addition
decreases. It can also be concluded from diagram in which small cycle
3-4-5-6-7-3 is added to the basic cycle 1-2-3-7-1. The cycle efficiency with
reheating increases only if the regeneration is also employed. With reheating the
turbine exhaust has more potential for heat recovery and reheating combined
with regeneration permits more heat recovery from the turbine exhaust gas.
For efficiency improvement, the gas turbine exhaust which is at higher
temperature due to reheating may be used for additional power generation by
using combined cycle power plant.
It can be concluded from the previous discussion that the incorporation
of intercooling, regeneration and reheating altogether in the Brayton cycle
improves the performance. Figure 6.9 shows the schematic diagram and T-S
diagram of a Brayton cycle in which all these modifications are incorporated.
10 Regenerator
A

To surrounding
Intercooler

10

Fresh air from

surrounding S

Figure 6.9 Schematic and T-S diagrams of Brayton cycle with intercooler, regenerator
and reheater.

6.6 Components of Gas Turbine Power Plant

The basic components of a GT power plant are compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine and heat exchangers and these are discussed as follows:
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 221

6.6.1 Compressor

Only a centrifugal compressor or an axial compressor (both rotodynamic) can

be used with a GT power plant because:
(a) the high flow rate of air through gas turbine is required.
(b) the pressure ratio (about 4 to 6) is moderate.
(c) compressor is to be directly coupled to high speed rotating turbine
shaft.

Centrifugal compressor
A centrifugal compressor (Figure 6.10) consists of an impeller (rotating
component) and a device termed diffuser (stationary component) which converts
kinetic energy into pressure energy. Before entry to the blade of impeller, the
air is deflected by some angle termed prewhirl, with the help of fixed inlet
guide vane. Air is sucked into impeller eye, whirled round at high speed by
the vanes on the impeller disc and thrown out of it by centrifugal force at
high velocity. The static pressure of air increases from eye to the tip of the
impeller due to centripetal acceleration. The kinetic energy of air leaving the
impeller is converted into pressure energy in a diffuser which is a stationary
passage surrounding the impeller. Diffuser comprises of two portions, namely
vaneless diffuser and vanned diffuser. The vaneless portion of diffuser is

Width of diffuser channel

Vaneless space
—.114111111111111V 90° bend taking air to
.\\\ combustion chambers

Diffuser throat
Mean radius
of diffuser throat
hroat l!
Impeller reye
Alk4A111111
Front sectional view

Depth of
diffuser

(b) Sing e eye impeller (c) Double eye impleller (d) Two stage compressor
Figure 6.10 Schematic of a centrifugal compressor.
222 Power Plant Engineering

the clearance space between impeller and vanned diffuser, and it converts
some kinetic energy into pressure energy and provides smooth entry of air to
vanned diffuser. About half of the total pressure rise takes place in impeller
and the remaining in the diffuser. Impeller may have single inlet or double
inlet. In double inlet, air is drawn on both sides and axial thrust is neutral.
The impeller blade may be radial for low weight or backward curved blade
for higher efficiency.
The pressure ratio of 4:1 is possible in a single stage centrifugal compressor.
For further higher pressure ratios, two or more impellers operating in series and
on the same shaft are provided in a single casing. The efficiency of centrifugal
compressor reduces with an increase in number of impellers operating in series.
The centrifugal compressors are cheaper to manufacture, robust in
construction and have a wide operating range. However, for higher pressure
ratios the axial compressor is more efficient.

Axial compressor
An Axial compressor (Figure 6.11), similar to an axial flow turbine, consists
of several stages (5 to 14 or more) of moving blade row on rotor shaft and
fixed blade row on stator or casing. A row of stationary guide/fixed blade is
provided at the beginning of the first stage in order to ensure smooth entry of
air to the first moving blade row.
Stator
Fixed blades

Moving blades

Inlet guide vanes

Figure 6.11 Axial flow compressor.

The air flows along the axis of the rotor. The rotor or moving blade row
imparts kinetic energy to the axially flowing air and some part of this energy is
converted into pressure in moving blade passages. The air at increased velocity
and pressure from moving blade row enters the fixed blade row, which converts
velocity (kinetic energy) into pressure and also directs the air to moving blade
row of the next stage. The moving blade passages/channels as well as fixed
blade channels act as a diffuser.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 223

A stage is designed in such a manner that half pressure rise takes place
in moving blade row and half in fixed blade row. All the stages are designed
for equal temperature rise. The pressure ratio in a stage is about 1.1 to 1.3
and the number of stages required depends on the overall pressure ratio. The
blades are of aerofoil shape to avoid flow separation because the flow is in
the adverse pressure gradient.
Axial compressors are normally used for larger industrial and marine gas
turbine units. Though, axial compressor is heavier but it has higher efficiency
than the centrifugal compressor. The efficiency of axial flow compressors drops
rapidly with changes in airflow and rotational speed. Thus, axial compressor
is not preferred for part load operations.

6.6.2 Combustion Chamber

The combustion in an open cycle GT power plant is generally carried out in

a large cylindrical can type combustion chamber. Air from compressor enters
at one end of cylindrical can and resulting hot gas exits from another end
to enter in the turbine. Fuel is injected nearer the air inlet end of cylindrical
can with the help of nozzle. Initially combustion is started by electrical spark
and then flame is stabilized to sustain combustion. The requirements of a gas
turbine combustion chamber are:
(i)high efficiency of combustion.
(ii)minimum possible pressure loss/drop.
(iii)capable of handling large volume of air required.
(iv) good flame stability in high velocity of gases.
(v) it should be able to operate for wide range of air to fuel ratio varying
from 50:1 to 200:1.
(vi) adequate cooling of combustion gases by mixing with cold air in
order to limit the temperature at inlet to turbine.
(vii) carbon deposit should be absent to increase the life of combustion
chamber.
The combustion in the gas turbine differs from the combustion in diesel
engines because the gas turbine is a continuous flow system. In case of open cycle
GT power plant, a huge volume of air is inhaled continuously because to limit the
temperature at inlet to turbine high air—fuel ratio ranging from 60:1 to 120:1 is
used. High rate of flow results in high velocities at various points and combustion
chamber must be capable to sustain the combustion in high velocity of gases such
as 180 to 250 m/s. Flame stabilization in order to sustain combustion is a vital
problem of overcoming high velocity of air inside the gas turbine combustion
chamber having limited cross sectional area. Instability of flame results in rough
running with consequent effect on life of combustion chamber.
There are in general four methods by which a stable flame is obtained in a
furnace or a combustion chamber and incoming air fuel mixture is heated above
224 Power Plant Engineering

the ignition temperature at which combustion proceeds. These methods are:

gaseous conduction suitable for very low velocity, compression or preheating
the mixture as in diesel engines, radiation from the subsequent flame as in
open hearth furnace and recirculation.
Recirculation is used in gas turbine combustion chamber. A stable continuous
flame can be maintained inside the furnace/combustion chamber when the
stream velocity and fuel burning velocity are equal. Due to low burning
velocities for most of the fuels, flame stabilization in gas turbine combustion
chamber is achieved by creating a pilot or recirculated zone in the main flow
to establish a stable flame. In other words, the pressure gradient is created to
cause a local reversal of flow along the axis of combustion chamber so that
the flame is directed back on the jet of fuel. This flow reversal is created by
bluff body method and swirl flow method.
Figure 6.12 (a) and (b) show cylindrical can type combustion chambers,
respectively, using the swirl flow method for flame stabilization and the bluff
body method for flame stabilization.

Fuel Can Tertiary zone

Inner sleeve

-Th.ThTh
"Li 0
Air from ;>,c."-A= 1=1 )
compressor "Cr To turbine
' 0 0

Swirl
vanes Primary Secondary Ports
zone zone
(a) Combustion chamber with swirl flow flame stabilizer
Bluff body Fuel Can Tertiary zone
flame holder Inner sleeve

MMTh
Air from
compressor To turbine

Perforated
metal cone Primary Secondary
zone Ports
zone
(b) Combustion chamber with bluff body flame stabilizer
Figure 6.12 Can type combustion chambers.
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 225

These combustion chambers differ only in the way adopted for flame
stabilization. The combustion chamber is a cylindrical shell with an inner
sleeve which has ports or slots along the length. The air from compressor is
introduced along the length of the combustion chamber through these ports.
The total air is supplied along the length of the combustion chamber. The fuel
is sprayed through a nozzle fitted at the beginning of the combustion chamber.
• In case of swirl flow combustion chamber air around the burner is fed
through a swirler or swirl vanes and the fuel is injected downstream
into the air flow. The swirler produces a vortex motion creating a low
pressure zone along the axis of combustion chamber to cause reversal
of flow for flame stabilization.
• In case of bluff body combustion chamber fuel is injected upstream into
the air flow. A sheet metal cone and perforated plate ensure the mixing
of fuel and air. The low pressure zone created by the bluff body (nozzle
itself) at downstream side causes the reversal of flow along the axis of
combustion chamber for flame stabilization.
In order to understand the combustion process, the combustion chamber
across its length is divided into three zones. These three zones are primary
zone, secondary zone and tertiary zone. Though, there is no line of demarcation
between these zones. In the primary zone about 15 to 20% of the total air
is fed around the jet of fuel and resulting rich mixture burns continuously in
the primary zone to produce high temperature gases. Hot gases flow along
the axis of combustion chamber. About 30% of the total air is supplied in the
secondary zone to complete the combustion. The secondary air not only helps to
complete the combustion but also helps to cool the flame tube. The secondary
air must be admitted at right points in the combustion chamber because if too
much cold air is injected at a point then the flame may chill locally or rate
of reaction is reduced. The remaining compressed air is mixed with hot gases
in the tertiary zone to cool the gases so that resulting temperature is safe to
the turbine blade materials.
Because of high air—fuel ratio the hot gases entering HPT has high percentage
of oxygen and therefore, if reheating is done then additional fuel can be burnt
in reheater without needing further air or oxygen.

6.6.3 Gas Turbine

Gas turbine resembles an axial flow steam turbine (refer to Chapter 2). The main
requirements of the gas turbines are: light weight, high efficiency, reliability in
operation and long working life. The gas turbines operate at temperature higher
than steam turbine and above the limit of the turbine materials. The cooling of
the gas turbine blades is essential because it is continuously subjected to high
temperature gases. For cooling the blades and vanes have complex internal cooling
passages thorough which up to 20% of the compressor discharge air is directed.
226 Power Plant Engineering

The blade material should withstand the high temperature and high centrifugal
stress, should have low creep rate, should have high resistance to fatigue and
should have resistance to oxidation, corrosion and erosion. Stainless steel alloys
and 8-20 nickel —chromium alloy (Nimonic alloy) are used for blade material.

6.6.4 Heat Exchangers

Intercooler and regenerators are the heat exchangers used in the gas turbine
power plant.
Intercooler: The intercooler cools the hot air under compression with the
help of cooling water or air.
Regenerator: The regenerator heats the compressed air with the help of hot
exhaust gases from the turbine.

6.7 Combined Cycle Power Plants

It has been discussed (refer to Chapter 2) that the overall efficiency of
thermodynamic cycles coupled in series is high, even the individual cycle
efficiencies are low. The higher overall efficiency of thermodynamic cycles
coupled in series results in the following associated advantages:
1. Less fuel consumption.
2. Less fuel cost.
3. Less environmental pollution.
4. Less heat rejection to the surrounding or reduced quantity of cooling
water required.
The thermodynamic cycles coupled in series may be either based on binary
vapour power cycles such as mercury water or combined cycles employing
different thermodynamic cycles. The power plants based on combined cycle
may utilize MHD generator, thermionic converter, thermoelectric generator and
gas turbine power plant as a topping cycle/unit while the steam power plant
as a bottoming cycle/unit.

6.7.1 Gas Turbine-Steam Turbine Combined Power Plant

In a gas turbine-steam turbine combined power plant, the heat energy of gas
turbine exhaust is utilized to generate the steam to drive the steam turbine.
Majority of newer thermal power plants are gas turbine-steam turbine combined
power plant in order to achieve the higher overall efficiency of fuel to electricity
conversion. Besides having the advantages associated with higher efficiency,
the gas turbine-steam turbine combined power plant has the specific advantage
of phased installation. A GT power plant at a location can be quickly installed
initially to generate power, while the steam power plant is under construction.
On the completion of steam power plant, the heat energy of gas turbine exhaust
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 227
is utilized to generate the steam. Even in future the gas turbine can be operated
on coal by installing a coal gasification unit. The recent trend is to re-powering
(conversion of older power plant) the existing steam turbine power plant into
gas turbine-steam turbine power plant.
The gas turbines can operate at temperatures ranging from 1000 to 1300°C by
using blades and vanes with complex internal cooling passages. The temperature
of exhaust gas from the turbine is also high if the temperature of gas at inlet
is high. The temperature of exhaust gas from a gas turbine is about 500°C to
600°C for an inlet temperature of 1200°C and pressure ratio from 10 to 14.
The high temperature exhaust gas from a gas turbine can be utilized by using
regenerator and other modification in GT power plant as discussed previously.
The regenerator is bulky and requires huge capital. The high temperature exhaust
gas from a gas turbine can be utilized more economically to generate steam
in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). The generated steam can be used
to generate additional power with a steam turbine. In case of regenerator the
heat transfer is from gas to air, while in a HRSG the heat transfer is from
gas to water and steam involving phase change. The HRSG will be smaller
than regenerator because of the higher heat transfer coefficient. The GT power
plant incorporating all modifications (intercooler, reheater and regenerator) does
not necessarily give the best overall efficiency and thus, modifications in GT
power plant are not suitable for combined cycle power plant.
In other words the gas turbine-steam turbine combined cycle power plant
is a better option for power generation instead of modifying GT power plant.
In a typical gas turbine-steam turbine combined plant, about 2/3 of total power
is produced by the gas turbine and 1/3 is produced by the steam turbine. There
may be the following types of gas turbine-steam turbine combined power plant:
(a) Combined cycle power plant with single pressure steam cycle: Figure 6.13
shows a typical arrangement of components of a combined cycle power plant
with single pressure steam cycle.
Fuel

Fresh air

Optional supplementary
firing arrangement
BD = boiler drum, C = compressor, CC = combustion chamber, EC = economizer,
EV = evaporator, FWH = feed water heater, GT = gas turbine,
HRSG = heat recovery steam generator, P = pump, SH = superheater, ST = steam turbine,
Figure 6.13 A typical combined cycle power plant with single pressure steam cycle.
228 Power Plant Engineering

The GT power plant is simple cycle without modifications and high

temperature exhaust gas from gas turbine is utilized to generate steam in a
HRSG. The generated steam is then used to generate power from a steam
turbine power plant.
Supplementary firing can also be used in order to produce steam at higher
pressure and temperature in HRSG for improvement in efficiency of Rankine
cycle and increase in steam turbine output. The supplementary firing is the
burning of additional fuel in gas turbine exhaust. To limit the maximum gas
temperature at inlet to gas turbine, high air fuel ratio (50:1 to 100:1) is used in
gas turbine and due to this the gas turbine exhaust contains oxygen in which
additional fuel may be burned.
(b) Combined cycle power plant with dual pressure steam cycle: There is
always some irreversibility (exergy loss) during heat transfer from hot exhaust
gas to water-steam in HRSG. More heat can be extracted if steam is generated
at low pressure and temperature, but available energy of such low pressure
steam will be low or there will be more irreversibility during heat transfer in
HRSG. Actually, there is an optimum pressure of steam generation for less
irreversibility during heat transfer in HRSG if steam is generated at single
pressure level. For minimum irreversibility, the difference in temperatures of
hot exhaust gas and water-steam should be small at all locations of heat transfer
area. The temperature difference between hot exhaust gas side and water-steam
side can be made small if steam is generated at different pressure levels. Thus,
steam generation at multiple pressure levels reduces irreversibility or increase
the amount of work that can be produced.
Figure 6.14 shows a typical arrangement of components of a combined
cycle power plant with dual pressure steam cycle.
Low pressure drum

High pressure drum EV 4

—0Fleaerator
♦'Wv SH Low pressure steam
CC
C GT EV

SH
L
Fresh air ST ST Condenser
HRSG

Supplementary firing
Figure 6.14 A typical combined cycle power plant with dual pressure steam cycle.

The GT power plant is simple cycle without modifications and high

temperature exhaust gas from gas turbine is utilized to generate steam at
different pressure levels in a HRSG. The high pressure steam (at about 80 bar,
520°C) generated in HRSG is supplied to high pressure turbine and the low
 Gas Turbine Power Plant 229

pressure steam (at about 7 bar, 200°C) generated in HRSG is supplied to low
pressure turbine along with the steam exiting from the high pressure turbine.
By using supplementary firing high pressure steam can be generated at higher
pressure and temperature (84 bar, 520°C) in HRSG.
(c) Steam injection into gas turbine: Conceptually steam injected gas turbine
system (Figure 6.15) is equivalent to a combined cycle concept except that steam
is expanded together with the gas in the same turbine instead of a separate turbine.

Fresh air
Figure 6.15 A steam injection GT power plant.

In steam injected gas turbine system, the steam is generated in HRSG at a

pressure higher than the compressor discharge pressure. The steam generated in
HRSG is also introduced into the gas turbine combustion chamber. Additional
fuel is required by the combustion chamber because the steam from the HRSG
is also to be heated to the combustion chamber discharge temperature. The
steam gas mixture leaving the combustion chamber then passes into the turbine,
where the augmented mass flow increases the power produced by the turbine.
The steam injection in combustion chamber reduces NO), formation by
lowering the flame temperature and this method has also been used in some
plants. However, as per the study reports available, there is no specific economic
advantage of this method.
(d) Coal based combined cycle power plant: Coal can be utilized in combined
cycle power plant by using fluidized bed combustion and coal gasification. The
coal based combined cycle power plants are:
1. Pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC) power plant
2. Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant
These two power plants have been discussed in Chapter 2. The temperature
in fluidized bed combustion is limited to about 850°C for effective retention of
sulphur and to prevent ash fusion. The temperature at inlet to gas turbine can
be kept higher than 850°C in integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC)
by burning fuel gas produced by gasification.
(e) Combined cycle power plant for cogeneration: Simultaneous generation of
power and meeting the heat energy requirement is termed cogeneration. There
230 Power Plant Engineering

are many industries where power is required to drive the plant machinery, and
saturated steam is required for heating purposes. Whenever both power and
process heat are required, then to gain thermodynamic advantage a thermal
power plant can be used to produce power as well as to fulfill the process heat
or process steam requirement. A back pressure steam turbine is used instead of
a condensing turbine or steam from intermediate stage of the turbine is bleed
for process heat requirement. More thermodynamic advantage will be gained
if a combined cycle power plant is utilized for cogeneration.

Review Questions

1. Write the working of a gas turbine power plant.

2. Write the advantages and disadvantages of a gas turbine power plant.
3. Why is power generation by gas turbines attractive?
4. Draw a flow sheet of a simple open cycle gas turbine plant.
5. Compare the open cycle and the closed cycle gas turbine power plants.
6. Derive an expression for efficiency of Brayton cycle, and discuss the
effect of pressure ratio on efficiency and work output.
7. Derive an expression for optimum pressure ratio for maximum net work
output of Brayton cycle considering turbine and compressor efficiencies.
8. Why gas turbines are designed to operate near the optimum pressure
ratio for maximum net work output? Discuss.
9. What is regeneration? Discuss.
10. How reheating can improve the thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle?
Discuss.
11. What is intercooling? Discuss.
12. Write a detailed note on compressors used in a GT power plant.
13. Explain the working of a centrifugal compressor.
14. Explain the working of an axial compressor. Compare its merits and
demerits with a centrifugal compressor.
15. Write a brief note on combustion chambers of a GT power plant.
16. How are blades of a gas turbine cooled?
17. Write a brief note on constructional materials used for GT power plant
components.
18. Discuss the combined operation of steam and gas turbine power plants.
19. Write a note on gas turbine-steam turbine power plants with dual
pressure steam cycle.
20. What is the purpose of steam injection in gas turbine power plant?
21. Discuss PFBC and IGCC power plant.
22. What is cogeneration?
 CHAPTER 7

Power Station Economics

7.1 Introduction
Economy is one of the main principles for the design of engineering systems.
The power plant should supply power to the consumer at the minimum
possible cost per kWh. The cost of power for a consumer includes the costs of
generation, the cost of transmission and distribution, and miscellaneous costs
such as building rentals, administrative expenses, overhead of establishment,
taxes and return or profit on the investment. Power generation economics
is important in controlling total power costs to the consumer. The cost of
power generation is a major factor of the total power costs to the consumer.
The cost of power generation is made up of fixed cost and operating cost.
The fixed cost includes interest on capital investment, taxes, insurance,
depreciation and management cost. While, the operating cost consists of cost
of fuel, labour, water, repairs, maintenance and supervision.
The economics of generation and distribution of power depends on several
design and operational factors. An understanding of these factors is helpful in
the selection of type of power plant and better power plant management for
the reduction of cost of power.

7.2 Cost Analysis

As stated earlier the cost of power generation includes fixed cost and
operating or running cost. The fixed cost depends upon the capital investment
for the power plant construction while the operating cost is a variable factor
which depends predominantly on the amount of energy generated. Usually
the minimum overall cost of power generation per kWh is an important
decisive factor in power plant selection and design. The power generation
cost per unit (one unit means one kWh) calculated on an annual basis is
given by:

231
232 Power Plant Engineering

total annual cost (c)

Generation cost per unit —
total amount of unit supplied per annum (kWh net )
(7.1)

The total amount of unit supplied per annum is obtained by deducting the power
consumption by the plant auxiliaries from the total amount of unit generated
(kWhgen) by the power plant. The total amount of unit generated by the power
plant can be calculated as follows:
Total amount of unit generated (kWhgen) = average load x 8760
= installed capacity x capacity factor x 8760 (7.2)
where 8760 = 24 x 365 is the number of hours per year.
The total annual cost (Cr) in a power plant can be calculated as:
Ct = fixed cost + operating cost = (I + D + T)CC + (W + R + M) + Cf
(7.3)
The first bracketed term in Eq. (7.3) represents the fixed cost. I, D and T are
respectively the rate of interest, rate of depreciation, and rate of taxes and
insurance on capital investment or construction cost or capital cost Cc. Often,
the rates of interest, depreciation, and taxes and insurance are taken together
and expressed as a percentage of the capital cost. W is the wages and salaries,
R is the expenditure incurred on repairs and maintenance, M is the other
miscellaneous expenditure and Cf is the fuel cost. The fuel cost for thermal
power plant is directly dependent on the amount of electricity generated.
It is evident that for the minimum generation cost the total annual cost
should be less and the power plant must generate power to its fullest capacity.

7.2.1 Fixed Cost

As the name indicates the fixed cost does not depend on the utilization or
operation of the power plant. It depends on the initial cost or construction
cost or capital investment in the installation of complete plant. For example,
the interest on the capital invested will have to be paid by the organization
whether the plant is in operation or not. The fixed cost of power generation
includes the initial cost, interest, taxes, insurance and depreciation. The fixed
cost is calculated by
Fixed cost = (I + D + T)CC (7.4)
It is evident that the fixed cost is not equal to the initial cost, and in order to
calculate the fixed cost per annum, the initial cost is distributed to plant life span.
(i) Construction cost: The construction cost or initial cost or capital investment
of a power plant is the expenditure incurred from planning phase to complete
installation of the power plant. It covers expenses for planning and design,
 Power Station Economics 233
cost of land, expenses for rail or road connection to the plant site, expenses
for construction of building and machinery foundations, cost of the equipment,
expenses for erection and testing of equipment, and overhead charges, which
includes the transportation cost, stores and storekeeping charges, interest paid
during construction, etc.
The plant construction cost or investment cost is usually expressed on the
basis of kW capacity installed. In all types of power plants there is an economy
of scale, i.e. the construction cost per kW reduces with size. However, this
effect varies with the type of power plant and construction cost per kW does
not reduce proportionately.
(ii) Interest: All enterprises need investment of money and this money
may be obtained as a loan, through bonds and shares or from owners of
personal funds. The interest is the cost of money use, to the borrower. It is
the difference between the money returned and the money borrowed. Even if
the owner invests his own capital, the charge of interest is necessary to cover
the income that he would have derived from it through fixed deposit with a
bank or an alternative investment. The interest may be charged at a simple
rate expressed as a percentage per annum or may be compounded. The interest
rate depends on financial condition at the time of construction and source of
funding. Because of inflation or the decrease in the value of money with time,
the funding agency may charge higher interest rate.
Amortization is the periodic repayment of the principal amount as a uniform
annual expense.
(iii) Depreciation: It is imperative that devices or equipments deteriorate
and become obsolete with age. Thus, the value of equipment decreases every
year and the equipment will have a certain period of useful life. Depreciation
accounts for the decrease in value of equipment due to deterioration and
obsolescence. Annual depreciation amount is the amount set aside each year,
so that at the end of useful life of equipment, the owner may be able to set up
or purchase new equipment with the amount thus deposited and accumulated.
Depreciation is determined by life expectancy or useful life of equipment.
Availability of better and efficient equipments makes it imperative to replace
the old equipment earlier than its useful life is spent. The actual life span of the
equipment has, therefore, to be taken as shorter than what would be normally
expected out of it. For the purpose of calculating depreciation, the service life
of thermal, nuclear and hydel power plants may be taken respectively as 30,
30, and 40 years.
The following methods are used to calculate the depreciation cost:
(a) Straight line method
(b) Sinking fund method
(c) Percentage method
However, the straight line method and the sinking fund method are
commonly used.
234 Power Plant Engineering

(a) Straight line method: It is the simplest and commonly used method.
This method is based on the assumption that depreciation occurs every year
according to a straight line law. In the straight line method, the life of the
equipment and the residual or salvage value of the equipment are estimated.
The salvage value of the equipment is the value at which the equipment can
be sold when it is unserviceable and not in use. The annual depreciation A
saved is uniform throughout the life of the equipment and neglects any interest
in this method. Mathematically, the annual depreciation A or the amount to be
set aside is calculated by the following expression:
A=(P — S)
n
where P is the principal sum (capital cost of the equipment), S is the salvage
value or residual value of equipment at the end of n years and n is the probable
duration of useful life of equipment in years.
(b) Sinking fund method: This method is based on the conception that the
annual uniform depreciation A will also earn compound interest and this interest
will accumulate at the end of life of the equipment. The total amount collected
by annual uniform depreciation A plus the interest earned throughout the life
of the equipment should be equal to the original value of the equipment minus
its salvage value. In this method, the annual amount to be set aside is less
than that calculated by the straight line method. If A is the amount set aside
or deposited at the end of the first year and r is the rate of compound interest,
then after (n — 1) years or the end of useful life this amount will be worth
A(1 on-i

Similarly, the amount set aside or deposited at the end of second year, after
(n — 2) years or at the end of useful life, will be worth
A(1 + on-2
The amount set aside or deposited at the end of nth year or at the end of
useful life will be worth only A.
Thus, at the end of nth year or at the end of useful life, the worth of all
amounts deposited will be
A(1 + en-1
) A(1 + on2 + A(1 + r) + A
= A + A(1 + r) + • •• + A(1 + On-2 + A(1 on-i
This is a geometric progression with a common ratio of (1 + r). The original
value of the equipment minus its salvage value should be equal to the sum of
this geometric progression. Therefore,
[(1+ r)" —11
P—S=A

The annual depreciation A by the sinking fund method is calculated by the

following expression:
 Power Station Economics 235

r (7.5)
A =(P — S)
(1+ r)" —11
(c) Percentage method: In this method a certain percentage of the value of
equipment is set aside each year. The deterioration in the value of equipment
for successive years is also taken into account and the amount of depreciation
is calculated upon the actual residual value for each year. Thus, depreciation
amount reduces for successive years.
(iv) Taxes: Taxes are paid to various agencies such as municipality, the state
government, and the central government. Taxes may be based on the value
of capital invested or on the amount of sale or on both. There are numerous
forms of taxes such as property tax, income tax, sales tax, social security
tax, unemployment tax, etc. Some taxes such as property tax depend entirely
upon the magnitude of the capital invested; others such as sales tax on the
volume of business, and others on a combination of the magnitude of the
capital invested and the amount of sale. Taxes that are a function of capital
investment only should be included in the fixed cost; other taxes should be
charged to operating costs.
(v) Insurance: Insurance is the amount paid by advance regular payments to
secure compensation in the event of loss or damage to property, life, a person,
etc. The premium rates or charges for insurance differ for different types of
policies, such as fire, floods, storms, earthquakes, workman compensations,
etc. Insurance is usually carried by conventional insurance companies.
An enterprise may often be self insured if it is very large and has its properties
scattered over a considerable region. In such case the enterprise periodically
keeps some amount aside out of its earnings similar to depreciation. However,
such insurance fund should not be confused with a depreciation fund.

7.2.2 Operating Cost

The operating or running cost is a variable factor dependent mainly on the

amount of energy generated. It includes fuel cost, operating labour cost,
maintenance cost, supplies, supervision, operating taxes, etc. Some of these
costs remain constant as long as the plant is in active operation or is held
in readiness to produce energy. It cannot be expressed as a percentage of
capital investment because it depends on various factors. However, the plant
load factor predominantly affects the operating cost. The operating cost and
its contributing factors also vary with the type of power plant. In a thermal
power plant the major contributing factor in total operating cost is the cost
of fuel, which may be about 75% of total operating cost. In a nuclear power
plant fuel costs are lower but operation and maintenance cost is much more
than a conventional thermal plant. The operating cost of hydroelectric plant
is considerably less due to the absence of fuel cost.
236 Power Plant Engineering
(i) Fuel: In case of thermal power plant, a major part of the operating cost
is on fuel, which may be coal, oil, and natural gas. The fuel cost depends on
the unit price of fuel, the amount of energy generated and the efficiency of the
plant. The unit price of fuel includes not only its price at the site of purchase
but its transportation and handling costs also. The cost of ash handling must
be included in estimating the fuel cost for coal fired thermal power plant.
Air pollution control may also sometimes add to the cost. In a nuclear power
plant, the fuel cost includes cost of the fissile material consumed and credit
for the fissile material produced from the fertile material.
(ii) Labour: In a power plant, the labour and operators are required for
various activities and operations. In case of automatic power plant, the labour
cost is reduced to a great extent. However, it cannot be completely eliminated
because still some manpower will be required for manual attention, periodic
inspection, etc. The labour cost decreases with an increase in the capacity of
the power plant. The nuclear power plants require highly skilled persons as
well as more expenditure on employee health, safety and insurance.
(iii) Maintenance cost: Preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance
are required for proper functioning and to avoid plant breakdown. A good
plan of maintenance also avoids the necessity of too many stand-by units. The
expenditure incurred for the maintenance is charged under the maintenance
cost and sometimes an arbitrary percentage is assumed as maintenance cost.
Maintenance cost depends on the type of power plant and for conventional
power plant, it decreases in the following order: nuclear power plant, thermal
power plant and hydroelectric power plant.
(iv) Supplies: The items which are not included in the categories of fuel or
maintenance are charged to supplies account. Supplies usually cover items such
as water for plant and general use, lubricating oil, water treatment chemicals,
paints, tools, and wiping clothes.
(v) Supervision: Supervising staff is needed to exercise control over the
operating staff for better plant operation. The salary of supervising staff is
included in this head. The supervising staff includes the general manger,
manager, engineer, chemist, supervisors, stores in charge, purchase officer, etc.
(vi) Operating taxes: As stated earlier, the taxes that are a function of capital
investment only are included in the fixed cost; while the other taxes should
be charged to the operating cost. The operating taxes include the income tax,
sales tax and social security and employee's security, etc. These taxes depend
upon the magnitude of output.

7.3 Terms and Definitions Related to Electrical Load

Relations of some terms are given in Table 7.1. The discussion on the main
terms and factors are as follows:
 Power Station Economics 237
Table 7.1 Relations of terms relevant to electrical load
S.No. Terms
maximum demand
1 Demand factor —
connected load

sum of the individual consumers maximum demands

2 Diversity factor —
simultaneous maximum demand of the total
group of consumers
average load
3 Load factor —
peak or maximum load
energy consumed during a time duration
maximum load x time duration

duration during which the plant is in actual service

4 Plant operating factor —
total duration of the period of time considered
5 Utility or utilization factor
maximum demand of a plant
rated capacity of the plant
maximum demand of a plant average load
average load rated capacity of the plant
capacity factor
load factor
1 load factor
6 Reserve factor =
utilization factor capacity factor

average load
7 Plant capacity factor* —
rating or capacity of the plant
actual kWh produced
maximum possible energy that might have
produced during the same period

8 Annual plant capacity factor — annual kWh produced

plant capacity (kW) x 8760

actual kWh produced

9 Plant use factor* —
plant capacity (kW) x actual number of hours of
plant operation

annual kWh produced

10 Annual plant use factor —
plant capacity (kW) x actual number of hours of
plant operation
*If the plant operates continuously, then plant capacity factor is equal to the plant
use factor.
238 Power Plant Engineering
1. Connected load: It is the sum of the rated capacity of all devices belonging
to a group of various consumers consuming electrical energy supplied by a
power plant or grid.

2. Maximum demand: Generally all electrical energy consuming devices

belonging to a group of various consumers are not in operation at a given time.
The demand of power is the sum of the energy requirements of those devices
which are in actual operation at a given time. Thus, the total electrical power
demand of a group of various consumers varies with hours of the day, week,
month, etc. The maximum demand is the maximum electrical power requirement
of the group of various consumers connected to a power plant or grid. The
maximum demand of the group of various consumers would be equal to the
connected load if all the devices run to their fullest extent simultaneously. The
maximum demand determines the size of the plant and its cost.
3. Demand factor: The demand factor is the ratio of the maximum demand
to the connected load. The maximum demand of a consumer is always less than
the connected load since all the appliances will not be in operation at the same
time. Thus, the demand factor is always less than unity. The demand factor
depends upon the nature and activities of the consumer or group of consumers.
4. Diversity factor: It is a fact that the maximum demands of the individual
consumers from a group of consumers will rarely occur at one time. Diversity
or non-uniformity exists between individual maximum demands. It is also
desired that consumers in a group of consumers should be diversified or should
be of different varieties so that each consumer will have his own maximum
demand at different time. The ratio of the sum of the individual maximum
demands to the maximum demand of the total group is known as diversity
factor. It is always greater than unity. High diversity factor is desirable to
reduce simultaneous maximum demand on the plant which in turn reduces the
installed capacity of the plant and consequently a lower capital investment.
Higher diversity factor improves the overall load factor thereby reducing the
per unit generation cost.
5. Load curve: It is a curve (Figure 7.1) showing the variation of load or
power consumption with time. The time considered may be in hours, days,
weeks, months or years depending upon the requirements of load analysis.
The area under a load curve gives the energy consumed for that duration
and this area divided by the duration of the curve gives the average load.
From the load curve one can get the maximum load, the number of unit
consumed, the average load and the load factor.
If a load curve is drawn on hourly basis for one day, then this curve is
called daily load curve or chronological load curve. A power plant supplies the
power to a group of consumers which utilizes power for variety of purposes
such as domestic, industrial, agricultural, public transport, etc. The load demand
on a power plant is governed by the requirement of group of consumers which
 Power Station Economics 239

kWmax I Peak load

-s4
O Intermediate load -
kWmm

Base load

Time Time, hrs

Load curve Load duration curve
Figure 7.1 Load and load duration curves.

varies within wide limits. Thus, daily load curve differs from day to day and
season to season.
6. Load duration curve: The load duration curve (Figure 7.1) is obtained
from load curve data by arranging the loads in descending order of magnitude.
Also the total duration for which a particular load demand or more than
this demand exists on the power plant is determined from load curve data.
The minimum load demand will be for 100% of specified time period or
almost the entire duration. Load duration curve is the curve plotted between
load and the time duration within a specified period, during which the load
equals or exceeds the values shown. The abscissa of any point, on load duration
curve, shows the total duration of specified time period during which the load
exceeds the value denoted by its ordinate. From the yearly load duration curve
we can decide the size of plant, installed capacity, reserve capacity and the
number of generating units. The area under the load duration curve represents
the total energy supplied by the power plant units during the year. The yearly
load duration curve provides the information about the base load and peak
load on the system. With the help of the load duration curve and for
economical operation, the power plant can be categorized based on the nature
of the load as follows:
(i) Base load power plant: The base load in the load duration curve
is the minimum load or demand which is supplied 100% of time.
The base load power plant supplies the base load of the load duration
curve (Figure 7.1) and it is heavily loaded. For such plants, a high
capital cost is permissible if low operating cost can be maintained.
(ii) Peak load power plant: Strictly speaking, the highest instantaneous
value of the demand is known as the maximum demand or peak load.
However, the peak load power plant caters for the portion of the load
which is, generally, in excess of 4/3 times the average load. This portion
is shown as peak load in the load duration curve (Figure 7.1) and such
peak load is required for about 15% of the time or relatively a few hours
per year. For peak load power plant, the capital cost should be minimum,
240 Power Plant Engineering
while the operating cost is not of major importance. The gas turbine
power plants, diesel engine power plants and hydroelectric power
plants are used for peak load due to their quick starting.
(iii) Intermediate load power plant: The intermediate load is the remaining
load region (Figure 7.1) other than base load region and peak load
region in the load duration curve. The intermediate load power plant
supplies the intermediate load.
To cater for the variable power demand at the minimum possible cost, it is
important to have integrated operation of several power plants as a combined
system or interconnected system. In such interconnected system, the base load
portion of a typical load curve may be supplied by a thermal power plant and
peak load may be supplied by a hydroelectric power plant.
7. Load factor: It is defined as the ratio of the average load to the peak
load during a certain specified period of time. The average load multiplied
by a given time duration gives the energy generated in that time duration.
Thus, the load factor may also be defined as the ratio of energy generated in
a given time duration to the energy that could have been generated with the
same fixed maximum demand. Load factor may be evaluated on daily basis,
monthly basis, yearly basis, etc. Load factor is an indication of utilization
of plant capacity and is always less than unity. The higher load factor of a
power plant is desirable so that the total capacity of the plant is utilized for
the maximum period that will result in lower per unit generation cost. Higher
load factor of a power plant also helps in smooth operation of plant due to
small load changes.
The generation cost per unit decreases with an increase in load factor.
Higher load factor means greater average load, resulting in greater number
of power units generated for a given maximum demand or installed capacity.
Thus, the fixed cost which is proportional to the installed capacity and remains
the same whether the plant is running or idle, can be distributed over a greater
number of units supplied.
8. Plant operating factor: The plant operating factor is the ratio of the
duration during which the plant is in actual service, to the total duration of
the period of time considered.
9. Utility or utilization factor: The utilization factor is defined as the ratio of
maximum demand of a plant to the rated capacity of the plant. It is a measure
of utilization of installed capacity of the plant. This factor may exceed unity
if plant develops power more than the rated capacity, i.e. plant is overloaded.
The plant is always designed to take 10 to 20% more load than rated. A low
value of utilization factor means that the plant is stand-by plant or the reserve
capacity of plant is more for future planning.
10. Reserve factor: The reserve factor is the reciprocal of utilization factor.
A high value of reserve factor or low value of utilization factor is necessary
 Power Station Economics 241
to have some reserve capacity of the plant to meet the increasing demand in
future. But, reserve capacity should not be very high.
11. Plant capacity factor: The plant capacity factor is the ratio of the average
load for a certain period of time considered to the rated capacity of the plant.
It may also be defined as the ratio of the energy generated in a given time
duration to the energy that could have been generated by running the plant to
its full capacity. The capacity factor becomes identical with load factor if the
maximum demand is equal to the rated capacity of the plant. The difference
between the load factor and the capacity factor is an indication of reserve
capacity.
12. Plant use factor: The plant use factor is the ratio of the energy generated
in a given time duration to the energy that could have been generated by
running the plant to its full capacity and for the actual number of hours of
operation in the given time duration. Plant use factor is a modification of plant
capacity factor in which the actual number of hours, during which the plant
was in operation, is used.

7.4 Estimation and Prediction of Load

Estimation of load to be taken by a power plant must be known in advance
before installing a power plant. The power plant must fulfill the demand and
anticipated growth of demand. The following methods are used to forecast
the load demand:
1. Load survey method: In this method survey of load such as industrial,
agricultural, municipal and residential is carried out. Factors such as standard
of living, population growth and further developments are also considered to
estimate the load.
2. Method using economic parameters: The per capita energy consumption of a
country depends on various economic factors such as gross investment, industrial
production, etc., and these factors are used to estimate the load demand. It is a fact
that energy demand is proportional to the gross national product (GNP) of a country.
The electricity consumption increases with increase in economic growth.
3. Statistical method: From the data of maximum demand for several years
we can get yearly increase and thus, future demand can be predicted. If the
electric load demand E increases at the average fractional rate r each year, the
rate of change of electric load demand per year can be expressed as
dE = Er
(7.6)
dt
After integration
E = Eoer(t-t° ) (7.7)
242 Power Plant Engineering
where E0 is the electric load demand in the base year to. It can be said that
the growth of electric load demand is exponential by assuming the increase
in average fractional rate r each year. The time period in which the electric
load demand becomes double can be evaluated as
In 2 0.693
2E0 = E0er(At) At = = (7.8)
r r
The present trend of average fractional rate is r = 6.2%. Thus, with this
average fractional rate it can be predicted that electric load demand will become
twice of the present demand after 11.2 years.
4. Mathematical method: The curve fitting tool using the data of annual load
curve and the maximum demand for several years can be utilized to predict
the future load.

7.5 Plant Design, Operation and Economics

Economy and reliability are the main principles of design of a power plant.
The following factors are considered while selecting and designing a power plant:
(i) Location to decide the type of power plant
(ii) Availability of water
(iii) Availability of labour
(iv) Cost of land
(v) Capital cost
(vi) Operating cost
(vii) Maintenance cost
The main purpose to consider and evaluate the above mentioned factors is
to reduce the cost of generation. The cost of power generation can be reduced
by adopting the following economical measures:
(i) By reducing the initial investment in the power plant.
(ii) By selecting the equipment of longer life for less depreciation.
(iii) By selecting generating units of adequate and proper capacity.
(iv) By running the power plant at maximum possible load factor.
(v) By increasing the efficiency of power plant.
(vi) By keeping proper supervision and doing proper maintenance.
(vii) By simplifying the operation of the power plant so that fewer personnel
are required.
(viii) By installing the power plant as near the load centre as possible to
reduce transmission and distribution losses.
While planning a power plant, first the power output to be installed is
determined from the estimated maximum demand, anticipated growth of demand
and reserve capacity needed. After determining the installed capacity, the size
and number of generating units are decided according to the load curve or
 Power Station Economics 243

load duration curve. It is desirable that the number of generating units should
be two or more than two so that plant operation is not seriously affected in
the event of breakdown of a unit. Too many standby units increase the capital
investment and increase the overall cost of generation. The number of generating
units should be so chosen that the plant capacity is used efficiently and also
the generating units should be able to meet the variable load demand. The
variable load problem affects power plant design and operation as well as the
cost of generation. The ideal load on a power plant should be steady and of
constant magnitude from the standpoint of equipment needed and operating
routine. The ideal load will result in the operation of various plant machines
at their best efficiency. However, various users of electric power (industrial,
domestic, etc.) impose highly variable demands on the plant. Due to variable
load on the plant, the equipment cannot operate at the designed load points.
In order to follow the variable load curve very closely, the total plant capacity
has to be usually subdivided into several power units of different sizes.
If more units of smaller size are selected than a few units of bigger size, then
the total plant capacity would more nearly coincide with the variable load
curve. However, as the unit size decreases, the initial cost per kW capacity
increases. Though the capital investment per kW for larger units is lower but
larger units cannot be operated at the best efficiency for most of the time in
order to develop variable power. The maximum unit size is determined after
considering all operational, technical and economic factors involved. Thus, in
a power station neither there should be only one generating unit nor should
there be a large number of smaller units of different sizes. The size and number
of generating units should be so chosen that each unit operates on about full
load or the load at which it gives the maximum efficiency. The load duration
curve helps to decide the size of units to supply the base, intermediate and
peak loads. The peak load unit/plant should be of smaller capacity to reduce
the cost of generation. Some units must be of unequal capacities to fit the load
curve closely. However, identical units result in saving in the fixed cost. A unit
of the largest size may be chosen for required reserve capacity.
In a power plant with many generating units, there must be some spinning
reserve in order to maintain the continuity of service. Spinning reserve is that
reserve generating capacity which is connected to the bus and is ready to take
the load. It is usually equal to or greater than the capacity of the largest unit
in operation.

7.5.1 Combined Working of Power Plants (Interconnected System)

As discussed earlier that the number of generating units and their sizes in a
power plant are decided in order to meet the variable load requirement for
generating power efficiently and economically. Through a proper load sharing
programme each unit has to be operated near its point of maximum economy
for most of the time. In order to meet the variable load requirement, it is
244 Power Plant Engineering

necessary for the power plant to keep reserve units ready to maintain reliability
and continuity of power supply at all times. To supply the variable load,
a combined working of several power plants is also economical. For example,
the base load portion of a typical load curve may be supplied by a thermal
power plant and peak load may be supplied by a hydroelectric power plant.
The combined operation of power plants helps to create more generating
capacity with the available fund and to generate the power at a low rate.
The plants which operate in combinations are termed interconnected plants/
systems.
Before investment the most economic generating scheme or power
plant should be selected. Once the different types of power plants are made
available, it is important to have integrated operation of these power plants.
By such integrated operation, the reserve capacity of individual power plant
can be reduced with the same reliability. Thus, the interconnected system
provides large saving in capacity as well as reduced operating cost due to
operation of most of the power units at best efficiency. The advantages of
interconnected systems which lead to economic generation can be summarized
as follows:
(i) Reduction in total installed capacity: There is always certain diversity
between the peak loads of two power plants, so that the peak load
of the combined system is less than the sum of the peak loads of
individual power plants. Thus, the total generating capacity to be
installed gets reduced.
(ii) Increased reliability: In case of breakdown of a plant or a plant's
unit, the load supply as per demand can be maintained by the other
power plant. Thus, the reliability of power supply to the consumers
is higher in case of interconnected systems. Further, for the same
reliability the reserve capacity of plants reduces.
(iii) Reduced operating cost: The economic scheduling by properly
distributing the load among various generating units of interconnected
system reduces the operating cost. For this, it is necessary to coordinate
among generating units of interconnected system for the best possible
economic operation. In interconnected system some plants or plant
units supply the base load portion of the load curve, some plants or
plant units cater for the intermediate load while some plants or plant
units are meant for the peak load portion of the load curve.

7.5.2 Load Sharing between Base Load and Peak Load Power Plants

The load sharing between base and peak load power plants for a given load
duration curve is done with the help of annual cost equations of the power
plants. Load sharing between base and peak load plants depends on operating
characteristic of the plants and it should be so decided that economy is achieved.
 Power Station Economics 245
Figure 7.2 shows the annual load duration curve of the system or group of
consumers to which load is to be supplied by base and peak load power plants.

Time, hrs 8760

Figure 7.2 Load duration curve.

Let the annual cost equations of these power plants be given by the
following expressions:
Total annual cost for plant 1 = Co = Z(ai + b1kW + cikWh) (7.9)
Total annual cost for plant 2 = Co = Z(a2 + b 2kW + c2kWh) (7.10)
where kW and kWh respectively represent the capacity of the plant and the
total annual output of the plant, and a, b, c are constants.
Let the per kWh cost or the operating cost per unit of plant 1 be less than
plant 2, i.e., c1 < c2. The plant 1 should be selected for the base load plant
which remains in operation for the whole year. The plant which has lower per
kWh cost will have more per kW capital cost, i.e. b1 > b2.
Let the number of hours for which peak load plant should be in operation
be h for economical loading. The kW. base is the capacity of base load plant
and the kW ppeak is the capacity of peak load plant for economical loading.
The Aba
Abase is the area gfcdeg or kWh generated by the base load plant and the
Apeak is the area agf or kWh generated by the peak load plant for economical
loading. The total annual cost Co +2 of the plants at this condition is given by
Co+2 = Z(ai + a2 + b ikW•base + b2kWpeak + CO base + C2Apeak) (7.11)
From Figure 7.2 it is evident that h, Abase and Apeak can be expressed in terms
of kWbase. For the minimum total annual cost

dc,1+2
(7.12)
dkWbase
Or, the change in total annual cost for a small change in capacity of the
base load power plant must be zero. If the base load power plant capacity is
246 Power Plant Engineering
increased by a small amount d(kW), the area or unit generated by the base
load plant will increase by d(kW)h and the area or unit generated by peak
load plant will decrease by d(kW)h. The total annual cost for a small change
in capacity of base load power plant is given by

a1 + a2 + bi (kWbase + d(kW)) + b2 (kWpeak — d(kW))

Ct,1+2 7 + (7.13)
Cl )base + d(kW) x h) + cl (Apeak d(kW) x h)
The change in total annual cost for a small change in capacity of the base
load power plant
= [(b1 — b2)d(kW) + (ci — c2)d(kW) x h]
Thus, for economical loading

(b1 — b2 ) difference in installed capacity dependent cost per kW capacity)

h—
(c2 — c1 ) Idifference in per kWh cost
(7.14)
If the load duration curve and the annual cost equations of two power plants
(any type of plant) are known, the number of hours for which the peak
load plant should be in operation is determined by using the Eq. (7.14).
The capacity of the base load plant (kW base/
base) and capacity of the peak load
plant (kWpeak) are then decided by the given load duration curve.

7.5.3 Economic Scheduling Principle or Load Division

The total load to be supplied by a power plant should be economically distributed

among the various generating units installed at the power plant. The load should
be shared by the various generating units in such a manner that the combined
input is least for a given total load. The input to a generating unit may be in
the form of heat energy in the case of thermal power plant or flow rate of water
in the case of hydroelectric power plant. In a power plant, the performance
of a generating unit is described either by the efficiency versus load curve,
or input (I) versus output or load (L) curve. The input to a generating unit
may also be expressed in relation to output. The ratio of input to output or
reciprocal of efficiency for thermal power plant is termed heat rate and may
be called input rate for hydroelectric power plant. For a thermal power plant,
the efficiency of a generating unit strongly depends on the output developed
by the unit. Thus, for thermal power plant load division is more important.
Consider a power plant with two generating units 1 and 2 which supply,
in parallel, a common load. Suppose generating unit 1 is more efficient or
it requires less input for a given output, still it is not essential that the unit
1 should be loaded first to its full capacity and then unit 2. It should be kept
in mind that a unit ready to develop power requires certain inputs at idle
 Power Station Economics 247
condition or zero output in order to meet the frictional and various other
losses. For a given total load (Lc) to be developed by both units, the combined
total input (Ic) of generating units 1 and 2 should be least for economical
loading. In order to determine the economical loading for a given Lc, Ic is
to be determined for various values of load (L1) on generating unit 1. For a
load L1, first the corresponding load (L2) on generating unit 2 is determined
by subtracting L1 from Lc. The input (h) of generating unit 1 and input (12)
of generating unit 2 are then determined from their respective performance
curve or relation between input and output. Thus, in this manner, the values
of Ic for given Lc are determined for various values of L1 and from these the
least value of Ic is selected. The values of L1 and L2 corresponding to the
least value of Ic are the load that should be, respectively, shared by generating
units 1 and 2. However, this method requires tedious calculations and is not
easily applicable for power plants with more than two generating units. If the
performance relations between input and output for generating units land 2
are known, then mathematically the same concept can be used as follows.
For the economical loading when Ic is minimum for given Lc, the derivative
of Ic with L1 or L2 should be zero as L1 and L2 are variables. Thus,
= dIl dI2 =0
(7.15)
dL1 dL1 dL1
where
= + 12
Total load Lc is
Lc = L1 + L2
Because Lc is constant, the derivative of it with respect to L1 gives
dL2 _1
= (7.16)
dL1
Equation (7.15), by using Eq. (7.16), can be rewritten as
dI1 dI2 dI1 dI2 dL2 dI1 dI2
+ —= — + —x — = —_ — (7.17)
dL1 dL1 dL1 dL2 dL1 dL1 dL2
Hence for the minimum combined total input to supply a given total output,
the slopes of the input-output curves for each unit should be equal. The slope
of the input-output curve for thermal power plant is also termed incremental
heat rate. This principle called the principle of economic scheduling can be
extended to the network of multiple units. According to this principle, the
load is so distributed that at any moment all generating units will have the
same incremental heat rates. The incremental heat rate represents the amount
of energy needed to generate an additional unit of output at any given load.
The heat rate which is the reciprocal of efficiency decreases when the load
increases from zero to full load, whereas the incremental heat rate increases.
248 Power Plant Engineering

7.6 Tariffs or Energy Rates

The total cost of generation (fixed cost and operating cost) of electricity
generated by the plant has to be recovered from the consumers with profit.
Tariffs or energy rates are various methods of charging the consumers for the
consumption of electricity. It is desirable to charge the consumer according to
the maximum demand (kW) and the energy consumed (kWh). For example,
a taxi service provider charges as per km basis, per day basis with a fixed
minimum km and extra amount on each additional km, and as per the demand
of taxi services. A tariff should be easier to understand, should consider the
maximum demand and energy consumed, should be able to recover the total
cost of generation, transmission and distribution with profit, should encourage
the consumers having high load factors and have penalty for low load factor,
and should provide incentive for using power during the off-peak hours.
A tariff should normally provide low rates for higher consumption and for
power connections than for lower consumption. However, due to gap in demand
and supply of electricity, higher rates are charged for higher consumption and
power connections.
The various possible types of tariffs can be expressed in the form of the
following general equation:
y = ax + bz + c (7.18)
where,
y = total amount of bill for the period considered.
a = rate per kW of maximum demand.
x = maximum demand in kW.
b = energy rate per unit or kWh.
z = energy consumed in kWh during the period considered.
c = a fixed and constant amount to be charged in each billing period.
The total bill as per the above general equation consists of three parts:
(i) based on the maximum demand, (ii) depending on the total energy consumed,
and (iii) a constant amount. This constant amount is mandatory in order to charge
the consumers that remain connected to the lines of a supplier but use no energy.

7.6.1 Types of Tariffs

The various types of tariffs are as follows.

1. Flat demand rate: In this type of tariff the bill is based on the maximum
demand or consumers connected load irrespective of the amount of energy
consumed. Thus, no electric meter is required for the billing purpose.
Flat demand rate is used in street lighting, signal systems, etc. The general
equation can be modified for the flat demand rate as follows:
y = ax (7.19)
 Power Station Economics 249
2. Straight meter rate: In this type of tariff the charges depend on the amount
of energy consumed and charge per unit is constant. This tariff is used for
residential and commercial customers. The general equation can be modified
for straight meter rate as follows:
y = bz (7.20)
The main drawback of this tariff is that a customer who does not use energy
will not pay any amount. Also, this tariff does not encourage the consumer
to use more power in case of surplus power or discourage the consumer to
reduce the power consumption in case of power shortage because the rate per
kWh is fixed.
3. Step meter rate: In this type of tariff the charge for energy consumption
either goes down in case of surplus power, or goes up in case of power shortage,
as the energy consumption becomes more. This tariff is expressed as follows:
y = bi z if (1 z
y = b2z if A1 z A2 (7.21)
y = b„z if An _1 < z < A„
where b1, b2, bn are the energy rate per kWh and A1, A2, ..., An are the
limits of energy consumption.
4. Block meter rate: According to this tariff a certain price per unit (kWh)
is charged for all or any part of block of such unit and for succeeding blocks
of energy the corresponding unit charges decrease or increase. It is expressed
by the expression
y = b1z1 + b2z2 + b3z3 + • • • + bnzn (7.22)
where b1, b2, bn are the unit energy charges for energy blocks of magnitude
z1, z2, z3, Zn respectively. For example, Z 2 per unit for first 100 units,
Z 3 per unit for next 50 units and Z 4 per unit for above 150 units.
5. Two part tariff (Hopkinson demand rate): This tariff is used for industrial
loads. In this type of tariff, the total charges are based on the maximum demand
as well as energy consumed. The general equation can be modified for two
part tariff as follows:
y = ax + bz (7.23)
Here a (rate per kW of maximum demand) and b (energy rate per unit or
kWh) may be constant or variable as per the demand and energy consumption.
The drawback of this tariff is that a separate meter is required to record
the maximum demand besides the meter for energy consumption.
6. Three part tariff (Doherty rate): This type of tariff follows the general
equation, (Eq. 7.18), discussed earlier. The Doherty rate is sometimes modified
by specifying the minimum demand and the minimum consumption that must
be paid by the customer in case the demand and consumption are less than
the specified values.
250 Power Plant Engineering

Solved Examples

EXAMPLE 7.1 Estimate the generation cost per unit of electrical energy
from a power plant having the following data:
Installed capacity of the plant = 120 MW
Capital cost = Z 2200 x 106
Interest and depreciation = 10%
Annual load factor = 50%
Annual cost of fuel, salaries and taxation = Z 2100,0000
Also discuss the effect of annual load factor on generation cost per unit
by using the above data and assuming the annual cost of fuel, salaries and
taxation remain same.
Solution
total annual cost (C,)
Generation cost per unit —
total amount of unit supplied per annum (kWh net )
Ct = fixed cost + operating cost = (I + D + T)CC + (W + R + M) + Cf
10
C = 1 x 2200 x106 + 21 x 106 = Z 241 x 106
t 00
By assuming peak load equal to installed capacity of the plant
Average load = load factor x peak of maximum load = 0.5 x 120 = 60 MW
Number of units generated or kWhgen = average load x 8760
= 60 x103 x 8760 = 5256 x105 kWh
241 x 106
Generation cost per unit — = 0.458 Z/unit
5256 x 10'
Effect of annual load factor on generation cost per unit:
The total annual cost which is the sum of fixed cost and operating cost
increases with an increase in load factor or number of units generated per year.
The fixed cost depends on peak load or installed capacity of plant. Operating
cost (salaries, taxation, cost of fuel, etc.) increases in less proportion than
increase in load factor. The generation cost per unit can be written as:
Generation cost _ total annual cost (C,) — fixed cost + operating cost
per unit average load x 8760 load factor x peak load x 8760
Generation cost _ (I + D + T)Cc (W + R + M) + C f
+
per unit number of units generated number of units generated
It is evident from the first part of the above expression that fixed cost is
distributed for more number of units and the second part of the above
expression also reduces because the operating cost increases in less proportion
 Power Station Economics 251
than increase in load factor. Thus, generation cost per unit reduces with an
increase in load factor.
For the given problem, the total cost remains the same because operating
cost is the same. Let the new load factor be 0.6, then the generation cost per
unit will be
241 x 106
Generation cost per unit — = 0.382 !/unit
0.6 x120 x103 x 8760

EXAMPLE 7.2 The peak load on a power plant is 60 MW. The loads having
maximum demand of 30 MW, 20 MW, 15 MW and 10 MW are connected
to the power plant. The capacity of the power plant is 80 MW and the
annual load factor is 0.80. Estimate (a) the average load on the power plant,
(b) the energy supplied per year, (c) the demand factor, (d) the diversity factor,
(e) the utilization factor, (f) the plant capacity factor, and (g) the reserve factor.
Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load = 0.8 x 60 = 48 MW
Energy supplied per year or kWhger, = average load x number of hours in year
= 48 x103 x 8760 = 42048 x104 kWh
Simultaneous maximum demand of the group of consumers
= (30 + 20 + 15 + 10) = 75 MW
Let the connected load be equal to the maximum demand of the group of
consumers, then
maximum demand 60
Demand factor = = = 0.8
connected load 75
sum of the individual consumers maximum demands
Diversity factor —
simultaneous maximum demand of the group of consumers
75
= — =1.25
60
maximum demand of plant — 60 = 0.75
Utility or utilization factor =
rated capacity of the plant 80
average load 48
Plant capacity factor = = = 0.6
rating or capacity of the plant 80
load factor 1 — 1 =1.333
Reserve factor = —
capacity factor utilization factor 0.75

EXAMPLE 7.3 A steam power plant is erected at a cost of 6 x 105.

Find the annual depreciation reserve, respectively, by straight line and sinking
fund methods by assuming an interest rate of 12% per annum and a salvage
value of 20% of the principal value at the end of useful life of 25 years.
Solution Annual depreciation reserve by the straight line method
252 Power Plant Engineering

(P — S) (6 — 0.2 x 6)105
A— = Z 19200
n 25
Annual depreciation reserve by the sinking fund method
r 0.12
A = (P — S)[ (6 0.2 x 6)105 [ Z 3599.98
(1 + r)" —1 (1 + 0.12)25 —1

EXAMPLE 7.4 Estimate the generation cost per unit of electric energy
production from a power plant having the following data:
Output per year = 5 x 108 kWh
Annual fixed charges = 100/kW of installed capacity
Annual running charges = 0.35/kWh
Annual load factor = 60%
Solution
Output per year = number of units generated
= average load x 8760 = 5 x108 kWh

Average load = 5 x108— 57077.62 kW

8760
average load 57077.62
Peak or maximum load — — 95129.37 kW
load factor 0.6
Let the installed capacity of the plant be equal to peak load.
Fixed cost = annual fixed charges per kW x installed capacity in kW
= 100 x 95129.37 = 9512937.6
Running cost per year = annual running charges per x unit number of units
= 0.35 x 5 x 108 = 175 x 106
Total annual cost (Ct) = fixed cost + running cost
= 9512937.6 + 175 x 106 = 1.845 x 108
total annual cost (Ct ) _ 1.845 x 108
Generation cost per unit = = 0.369 !/kWh
output per year 5 x 108
EXAMPLE 7.5 A thermal power plant of 210 MW capacity has the maximum
load of 180 MW. Its annual load factor is 0.70. The coal consumption is
1 kg per kWh of energy generated and the cost of coal is 450.00 per tonne.
Calculate (a) the annual revenue earned if energy is sold at 1.5 per kWh,
(b) the capacity factor of the plant, and (c) the utilization factor.
Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load
= 0.7 x180 =126 MW
Number of units generated = average load x 8760
=126 x103 x 8760 =110376 x104 kWh
 Power Station Economics 253
Annual coal consumption = number of units generated
x coal consumption per unit
110376 x104 x1=110376 x104 kg
1103760 tonnes
Annual cost of coal = annual coal consumption x 450
1103760 x 450 = Z 496692 x103
Annual selling price of electricity = number of units generated or supplied
x selling price per unit
=110376x104 x1.5 = Z165564 x104
Annual revenue earned = annual selling price of electricity— annual cost of coal
165564 x 104 — 496692 x 103 = Z 1158948 x 103
average load 126
Plant capacity factor = = = 0.6
rating or capacity of the plant 210
maximum demand of a plant 180
Utilization factor = = = 0.857
rated capacity of the plant 210

EXAMPLE 7.6 A 300 MW thermal power station is to supply power to a

system having maximum and minimum demand of 240 MW and 200 MW
respectively in year. Assuming the load duration curve to be a straight line,
estimate (a) load factor, and (b) capacity factor.
Solution Figure E7.6 shows the annual duration curve for the above problem,
by assuming it to be a straight line.

Time, hrs 8760

Figure E7.6 Load duration curve.

The area under the load duration curve represents the energy generated in
the considered duration. Thus,
1
Number of units generated in a year = [200 x 8760 + — (240 — 200) x 8760]103
2
= 220 x103 x 8760 =19272 x105 kWh
Number of units generated in a year = average load x 8760 =19272 x 105 kWh
254 Power Plant Engineering

19272 x 105
Average load = — 220 x 103 kW = 220 MW
8760
average load 220
Load factor — — — 0.916
peak or maximum load 240
average load 220
Plant capacity factor = — = 0.733
rating or capacity of the plant 300
EXAMPLE 7.7 A power station has to supply load on daily basis as follows:
Time (hours) 0-6 6-12 12-14 14-18 18-22 22-24
Load (MW) 30 100 60 80 100 60
(a) Draw the load curve.
(b) Draw the load duration curve.
(c) Select suitable generation units to supply the load.
(d) Calculate the load factor.
(e) Calculate the capacity of the plant and the plant capacity factor.
Solution Figure E7.7 shows the load curve and the load duration curve.
To plot the load duration curve, first loads are arranged in ascending order
and durations for which given load or more than this are calculated as shown
in the table below.

Load (MW) 30 or above 60 or above 80 or above 100

Time duration (hours) 24 18 14 10

120 -
100 -
80 -
ct 60 -
40 -
20 -
0
4 8 12 16 20 24
Time, hrs
(a) Load curve
120
100
80
60 -
o 40 -
20 -

0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time, hrs
(b) Load duration curve
Figure E7.7 Load and load duration curves.
 Power Station Economics 255
The area under the load curve as well as the load duration curve represents
the energy generated in the considered duration. Thus,
Number of units generated in a day
= 30 x 6 +100 x 6 + 60 x 2 + 80 x 4 +100 x 4 + 60 x 2
=1740 MWh =174 x104 kWh
Number of units generated in a day = average load x 24
17424104
Average load = — 72500 kW = 72.5 MW
average load 72.5
Load factor = — 0.725
peak or maximum load 100
The minimum and maximum loads to be supplied are, respectively, 30 MW and
100 MW. To supply the load based on the load duration curve or requirement,
two generating units, each of 30 MW capacity and two generating units, each
of 20 MW capacity, may be selected. The one unit of 30 MW will run for
24 hours, the second unit of 30 MW will run for 18 hours, the one unit of
20 MW will run for 14 hours, and the second unit of 20 MW will run for
10 hours. One additional unit should be kept as standby and its capacity should
be equal to the largest unit, i.e. 30 MW. Thus, the installed capacity of the
plant will be 130 MW.
average load 72.5
Capacity factor = = 0.557
rating or capacity of the plant 130
EXAMPLE 7.8 A thermal power plant consists of two 60 MW units,
each running for 8000 hours, and one 30 MW unit running for 6000 hours per
year. The energy produced by the plant is 876 x 106 kWh per year. Determine
the plant load factor, plant capacity factor and plant use factor. Consider the
maximum load as equal to the plant capacity.
Solution
Maximum load = plant capacity = 60 x 2 + 30 = 150 MW
Maximum possible energy that can be produced = 60 x 2 x 8000 + 30 x 6000
= 1140 x 103 MWh
= 1140 x 106 kWh
It is given that the energy produced by the plant is 876 x 106 kWh per year.
It means that units are not running to their fullest capacity.
Number of units generated in a year = average load x 8760 = 876 x 106 kWh
876 x106-10 5
Average load= kW =100 MW
8760
average load 100
Load factor — — — 0.667
peak or maximum load 150
average load 100
Plant capacity factor = — = 0.667
rating or capacity of the plant 150
256 Power Plant Engineering

actual kWh produced

Plant use factor =
plant capacity (kW) x actual number of
hours of plant operation
876 x 106 876 x 106
= 0.768
(60 x 2 x 8000 + 30 x 6000) x103 1140 x106
EXAMPLE 7.9 A power station has maximum demand of 80 MW, a load
factor of 0.7, plant capacity factor of 0.5 and plant use factor of 0.90. Find
(a) the daily energy produced, (b) the reserve capacity of the plant, and (c) the
maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant operating schedule
is fully loaded when in operation.
Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load
= 0.7 x 80 = 56 MW
Daily energy produced = average load x number of hours in a day
=56 x103 x 24 = 1344 x103 kWh
average load 56
Plant capacity factor — 0.5 =
capacity of the plant plant capacity

Plant capacity = =112

0.5
Reserve capacity = Plant capacity — maximum demand = 112 — 80 = 32 MW
actual kWh produced
Plant use factor —
plant capacity (kW) x actual number of
hours of plant operation
1344 x 103
0.9 =
maximum energy that could be produced
1344 x 103
Maximum energy that could be produced = = 1493333.33 kWh
0.9

EXAMPLE 7.10 Determine the generation cost per unit of electrical energy
production from a power plant for which data are supplied as follows:
Installed capacity of the plant = 120 MW
Peak load = 100 MW
Capital cost = Z 8000 per kW of capacity
Fuel consumption = 1 kg/kWh
Cost of fuel = Z 125 per 100 kg
Interest and depreciation = 15%
Load factor = 50%
Salaries and other operating cost per annum = Z 12 x 107
 Power Station Economics 257
Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load
= 0.5 x 100 = 50 MW
Number of units generated = average load x 8760
= 50 x103 x 8760 = 438 x106 kWh
Total fuel consumption = number of units generated x specific fuel consumption
= 438 x 106 x 1 = 438 x 106 kg per annum
125
Total cost of fuel = 438 x 106 x100
-= ! 5475 x 105 per annum

Total cost per annum Ct = fixed cost + operating cost

= (/ + D + T)C, + (W + R + M)+ C f
15
= x 8000 x120 x103 +12 x107 + 5475 x105
100
=Z 8115 x105
total annual cost
Generation cost per unit =
total number of unit generated per annum
8115 x105
= Z 1.852 per unit
438 x106
EXAMPLE 7.11 A load having maximum demand of 150 MW and a load
factor of 60 % may be supplied by the following schemes:
(a) A thermal power plant capable of supplying the whole load
(b) A thermal power plant in combination with a pumped storage power
plant capable of supplying 150 x 106 kWh per annum with a maximum
output of 60 MW.
Calculate the cost of energy per unit in each of two cases and recommend
the suitable scheme using the following data:
Capital cost of thermal power plant = Z 7000 per kW
Capital cost of pumped storage power plant = Z 4000 per kW
Operating cost of thermal power plant = 70 paise per kWh
Operating cost of pumped storage power plant = 15 paise per kWh
Interest and depreciation for thermal power plant = 15%
Interest and depreciation for pumped storage power plant = 12%
Assume that no spare capacity is used.
Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load = 0.6 x 150 = 90 MW
Number of units to be generated = 90 x 103 x 8760 = 7884 x 105 kWh
The installed capacity of the thermal power plant or combined power plant is
equal to the maximum demand because no spare capacity is used.
258 Power Plant Engineering
(a) Thermal power plant alone: The total cost of generation in this case
will be as follows.
15 3 70
Total cost per annum = — x 7000 x 150 x 10 + — x 7884 x 105
100 100
= 70938 x 104
70938 x 104
Generation cost per unit — = 0.899 !/unit
7884 x 105
(b) Thermal power plant combined with pumped storage power plant:
It is given that the maximum output or capacity of pumped storage power
plant is 60 MW. The maximum units that pumped storage plant may supply
with given capacity is
= 60 x 103 x 8760 = 525.6 x 106 kWh
But it is given that the pumped storage plant can supply only 150 x 106 kWh
per annum.
The installed capacity of the thermal power plant should be
150 — 60 = 90 MW
The number of units supplied by thermal power plant should be
7884 x 105 — 150 x 106 = 6384 x 105 kWh
The total cost of generation in this case is the sum of costs of generation
of thermal power plant and pumped storage power plant. The total cost of
generation will be
15 3 70
Total cost per annum = [- x 7000 x 90 x 10 + -x 6384 x1051
100 100
3 15
100 x 4000 x 60 x10 + x150 x1061= 59268 x104
+[ 100
59268 x 104
Generation cost per unit — = 0.752 !/unit
7884 x 105
The per unit generation cost of the thermal power plant in combination with
pumped storage power plant is lower. Thus, this scheme shall be recommended.
EXAMPLE 7.12 A 50 MW power plant has the following data:
Capital cost = 15 x 105
Annual taxation = 0.4 x 105
Annual salaries and wages = 1.2 x 106
Cost of coal = 65 per tonne
Calorific value of coal = 23000 kJ/kg
Rate of interest and depreciation = 15%
If the plant heat rate is 140 MJ/kWh at 100% capacity and 165 MJ/kWh at
70% capacity, calculate the generating cost/kWh at 100% and 70% capacity
factor.
 Power Station Economics 259
Solution
(a) At 100% capacity factor
Average load = plant capacity factor x capacity of the plant
= 1 x 50 = 50 MW
Number of units generated =50 x 103 x 8760 = 438 x 106 kWh
Plant heat rate =140 x103 x 438 x106 = 6132 x101° kWh
total plant heat rate _ 6132 x 101°
Weight of coal required —
calorific value of coal 23000
= 2666087 x 103 kg
2666087 x103 x 65
Cost of coal — = Z 173295660
103
Total cost per annum = 15
— 5 + 0.4 x105 +1.2 x 106 +173295660
100 x 15 x10
= Z 1.7476 x108
1.7476 x108
Generation cost per unit — = 0.399 !/unit
438 x106
(b) At 70% capacity factor
Average load = plant capacity factor x capacity of the plant = 0.7 x 50 = 35 MW
Number of units generated = 35 x 103 x 8760 = 306.6 x 106 kWh
Plant heat rate =165 x 103 x 306.6 x 106 = 5058.9 x 101° kWh

Cost of coal — 5058.9 x101°x 65 = Z 142968910

23000 x 1000
15
Total cost per annum =100
— x 15 x 105 + 0.4 x105 +1.2 x 106 +142968910

= Z 1.444 x108
1.444 x 108
Generation cost per unit — = 0.471 !/unit
306.6 x 106
The generation cost per unit decreases with increase in the plant capacity factor.
EXAMPLE 7.13 A load having maximum demand of 50 MW and a load
factor of 60 % may be supplied by the following schemes:
(a) A thermal power plant having a capital cost of 8000 per kW and a
maintenance cost of 20 paise per kWh. The overall efficiency of thermal
power plant is 30% and the calorific value of the coal is 25,000 kJ/kg.
(b) A hydel power plant having a capital cost including cost of transmission
lines of 25000 per kW and an operating cost of 10 paise per kWh.
Assuming interest and depreciation rate of 15% and 12% respectively
for thermal power plant and hydel power plant, calculate the price of
coal above which thermal power plant will be uneconomical.
260 Power Plant Engineering
Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load = 0.6 x 50 = 30 MW
Number of units to be generated = 30 x 103 x 8760 = 2628 x 105 kWh
Total cost of generation for hydel power plant
The total cost of generation for this case will be as follows.
12 10
Total cost per annum = — x 25000 x 50 x 103 + - x 2628 x 105
100 100
=17628 x 104
Total cost of generation for thermal power plant
Energy generated = units generated x time = 2628 x105 x 3600
= 94608 x 107 kJ
energy generated
Weight of coal required —
calorific value of coal x overall efficiency
94608 x 107
=12614.4 x 104 kg
25000 x 0.30
Let x be the cost of coal in Z per kg, then
Cost of coal = 12614.4 x 104 x x
The total cost of generation for this case will be
15 20
Total cost per annum = — x 8000 x 50 x 103 + - x 2628 x 105
100 100
+12614.4 x 104 x
=11256 x104 +12614.4 x 104 x
The thermal power plant will be uneconomical if
11256 x 104 + 12614.4 x 104 17628 x 104
x 0.505 Z/kg
Thus, the price of coal above which thermal power plant will be uneconomical
is Z 505.13 per tonne.
EXAMPLE 7.14 An undertaking consumes 6 x 104 kWh per year and its
maximum demand is 1000 kW. It is offered two tariffs.
(a) Z 120 per kW of maximum demand plus 15 paise per kWh.
(b) A flat rate of Z 2.5 per kWh.
Calculate the annual cost of energy for both the cases.
Solution
(a) According to the first tarrif, the cost of energy
15
=120 x1000 +- x 6 x104 =Z12.9 x104
100
 Power Station Economics 261
(b) According to the flat rate, the cost of energy
= 2.5 x 6 x 104 = Z 15 x 104
EXAMPLE 7.15 A new factory having a maximum demand of 100 kW and
a load factor of 30% is comparing two options for power supply.
(a) Public supply whose tariff is Z 60 per kW of maximum demand plus
Z 2 per kWh. The capital cost required for public supply system is
Z 80,000 and interest and depreciation is 10%.
(b) Own oil engine generating station having the following particulars:
Capital cost = Z 500,000
Fuel consumption = 0.2 kg per kWh
Cost of fuel = Z 15,000 per tonne
Wages = 5 paise per kWh
Maintenance cost = 3 paise per kWh
Interest and depreciation = 15%
Determine which option will be more economical.
Solution
Average load = load factor peak or maximum load = 0.3 x 100 = 30 kW
Energy required per year = average load x number of hours in year
= 30 x 8760 = 2628 x 102 kWh
Public supply
10
Total cost per annum =100
— x 80000 + 60 x100 + 2 x 2628 x102 = 539600
total cost per annum 539600
Energy cost per kWh = = Z 2.053
energy required per annum 2628 x 10 2

Own oil engine generating station

Fuel consumption = 0.2 x 2628 x 102 = 52560 kg = 52.56 tonne

Cost of fuel =15000 x 52.56 = Z 788400
15
Total cost per annum = — x 500000 + (5 + 3)x 2628 x102 + 788400 = 884424
100 100
total cost per annum 884424
Energy cost per kWh — , = 23.365
energy required per annum 2628 x 10 2

As the energy cost for public supply option is less than oil engine generating
station, the public supply is preferable.
EXAMPLE 7.16 It is proposed to supply a load with a maximum demand
of 200 MW and a load factor of 70%. Choice is to be made from a steam
power plant, a hydel power plant and a nuclear power plant. Select the suitable
power plant using the data given below:
262 Power Plant Engineering
Cost Steam Hydel Nuclear
Capital cost per MW capacity Z 4 crore Z 5 crore Z 6 crore
Interest 7% 6% 6%
Depreciation 6% 4% 7%
Operating cost per kWh 40 paise 8 paise 20 paise
Transmission and distribution cost per kWh 3 paise 5 paise 3 paise

Solution
Average load = load factor x peak or maximum load = 0.7 x 200 = 140 kW
Energy required per year = average load x number of hours in year
= 140 x 103 x 8760 = 12264 x 105 kWh
Total cost per annum = fixed cost + operating cost
+ transmission and distribution cost
The fixed cost is the sum of interest and depreciation on capital cost.
total cost per annum
Energy cost per kWh —
energy required per annum
The total cost per annum and energy cost per kWh are calculated for these
plants using the above two relations as follows.
Steam power plant
Total cost per annum
= 7 6\ 7 40 3
x 200 x 4 x10' + — x12264 x105+ — x12264 x105
X100 1001 100 100
=15673.52 x 105
15673.52 x 105
Energy cost per kWh — = 1.278
12264 x 10'
Hydel power plant
Total cost per annum
( 6 7 8 5
= - \ x200 x5 x10' + —x12264 x10- + x12264 x105
X100 1001 100 100
=11594.32 x105
11594.32 x105
Energy cost per kWh — , = 0.9454
12264 x10'

Nuclear power plant

Total cost per annum
6 7\ 7 20
x 200x 6 x10 ' +— x12264 x105 x12264 x105
00 100 j
X100 100 100
=18420.72 x105
 Power Station Economics 263

18420.72 x 105
Energy cost per kWh = = ! 1.502
12264 x10'
The total cost per annum or energy cost per kWh increases in the following
order: hydel power plant, steam power plant and nuclear power plant. Therefore,
the hydel power plant may be selected.
EXAMPLE 7.17 A generating unit of 10 MW capacity supplies the following
loads:
(a) Domestic consumers with a maximum demand of 6 MW at a load
factor of 30%.
(b) Small industrial load with a maximum demand of 3.6 MW at a load
factor of 60%.
(c) Street light load with a maximum demand of 400 kW at a load factor
of 20%.
Determine the cost of energy per kWh for each type of consumer using
the following data:
Capital cost of the plant = 10,000 per kW
Total operating cost = 40,00,000 per year
Interest and depreciation = 10% per annum
Solution The installed capacity of the plant is equal to the sum of maximum
demands of each type of consumer. In order to calculate the cost of energy
per kWh for each type of consumer, the fixed cost of the plant should be
distributed to each type of consumer according to its maximum demand, and
operating cost of the plant should be distributed to each type of consumer
according to energy consumed.
10
— x 10 x 103 x 104 = Z 107
Fixed cost of the plant per year = 100

o7
Fixed charges to consumers per kW = — = Z 1000
104

Energy supplied per year by the plant to all three consumers

= [(6 x 0.3) + (3.6 x 0.6) + (0.4 x 0.2)] x 103 x 8760 = 4040 x 8760 kWh
40 00 000
Operating charges to consumers per kWh = 4040 x 8760 — Z 0.113 or 11.3 paise

The total charges to a consumer is the sum of fixed charges based on the
maximum demand and operating charges based on energy consumed.
Domestic consumers
Total charges = 6000 x 1000 + 0.113 x 6000 x 0.3 x 8760 = Z 7,781,784
264 Power Plant Engineering

7,781,784
Cost of energy per kWh = — Z 0.493 or 49.35 paise
6000 x 0.3 x 8760
Industrial consumers
Total charges = 3600 x 1000 + 0.113 x 3600 x 0.6 x 8760 = ! 5738140.8

Cost of energy per kWh = 5738140.8— ! 0.303 or 30.32 paise

3600 x 0.6 x 8760

Street light load

Total charges = 400 x1000 + 0.113 x 400 x 0.2 x 8760 = Z 479190.4
4
Cost of energy per kWh = 479190.— ! 0.6837 or 68.37 paise
400 x 0.2 x 8760

EXAMPLE 7.18 The following loads are connected to a power plant:

Type of load Simultaneous Diversity factor Demand factor

maximum demand
(MW)
Domestic 30 1.20 0.70
Commercial 35 1.25 0.90
Industrial 55 1.3 0.95

If the overall diversity factor is 1.5, determine (a) the maximum load, and
(b) the connected load of each type.
Solution
The maximum demand of the consumers = 30 + 35 + 55 = 120 MW
sum of the individual consumers maximum demands
Diversity factor —
simultaneous maximum demand of
the total group of consumers
Since the overall diversity factor is 1.5, the simultaneous maximum load of
the group of type of load
120
= — = 80 MW
1.5
Maximum demand of the domestic load = 30 x 1.2 = 36 MW
maximum demand — 36
Connected domestic load — = 51.428
demand factor 0.7
Similarly, the connected commercial load
35 x1.25
— 48.61 MW
0.9
 Power Station Economics 265

55 x 1.3
Connected industrial load = — 75.263 MW
0.95
Total connected load of the plant = 51.428 + 48.61 + 75.263 =175.30 MW

EXAMPLE 7.19 The incremental fuel costs for two generating units a and
b of a power plant are given by the following relations:
dFa
= 0.06P, + 25
dP,
dFb
=0.04Pb + 30
dPb

where F is the fuel cost in rupees per hour, P is the power output in MW and
subscripts a and b are generating units a and b respectively. Estimate
(a) the economic loading of two units when the total load supplied by
the plant is 150 MW, and
(b) the loss in fuel cost per hour if load is equally shared by both units.
Solution
(a) For economical loading, the combined fuel cost (Fc) of two units
must be minimum for the given combined power output (Pc). The
combined fuel cost is given by
Fc = + Fb
For Fc to be minimum for given Pc, the derivative of Fc with either
Pa or Pb should be zero as Pa and Pb are variables. Thus,
dFc dFa dFb
=—+ — (1)
dP„ dP, dP,
Because Pc = Pa + Pb, is constant, the derivative of it with respect
to Pa gives
dPb =_i
(2)
dPa
Equation (1) by using Eq. (2) can be rewritten as
dFa + dFb = dFa + dFb x dPb dFa = dFb
dP, dP„ dP, dP, dPb dP„ dPb (3)
Hence for the minimum combined fuel cost to supply a given combined
power output, the incremental fuel costs for each unit should be equal.
Thus,
Pa + Pb =150 (4)
0.06Pa + 25 = 0.04Pb + 30 (5)
266 Power Plant Engineering

Solving Eqs. (4) and (5), we get

Pc, =1 10 MW and Pb = 40 MW
(b) If the load is equally shared by the units, i.e. Pa = Pb = 75 MW, then
the combined fuel cost will increase due to a departure from economic
loading. The change in cost of fuel for unit a, if load taken reduces
from 110 to 75 MW, is given by
75 75
dFa = (0.06P, + 25) dPa
[10 110
75
[ 0.06/%2
= +25P, = —1069.25 Z per hour
2 110
i.e. cost of fuel for unit a reduces.
The change in cost of fuel for unit b if load taken increases from 40
to 75 MW is given by
75 75
dFb = (0.04Pb +30)dPb
40 40
75
[ 0.04P2
= b +30Pb = +1130.5 per hour
2 40

i.e. cost of fuel for unit b increases.

Therefore, the net increase in fuel cost
= 1130.5 — 1069.25 = Z 61.25 per hour
EXAMPLE 7.20 The performance of a 60 MW power plant is given by:
I = [4 + 4L + 0.2L2 ] x107
where I is the heat input in kJ/hr and L is the load in MW. Determine (a) heat
input per day to the power plant if it works 20 hours at full load and remaining
period at no load, (b) saving in heat input per kWh of energy produced in
comparison to case (a) if the plant works at full load for the whole day, and
(c) saving in heat input per kWh of energy produced in comparison to case
(a) if the plant works at constant load for the whole day and generates the
amount of energy equal to case (a).
Solution
(a) The heat input Ia per day is the sum of heat input for 20 hours at full
load and heat input for the remaining 4 hours at no load. Thus, I, is
a =
I [4 + 4 x 60 + 0.2 x 602 ] x107 x 20 + [4 + 4 x 0 + 0.2 x 0] x107 x4
=19296 x 107 kJ =19296 x104 MJ
 Power Station Economics 267
(b) The heat input Ib per day if plant works for 24 hours at full load is
/b =[4 + 4 x60+0.2 x602 ]x107 x 24=23136 x107 kJ
= 23136 x 104 MJ
The energy generated Ea by the plant working for 20 hours at full
load and for remaining 4 hours at no load is
Ea = 60 x 20 + 0 x 4 =1200 MWh =1200 x103 kWh
Similarly, the energy generated Eb by the plant working for 24 hours
at full load is
Eb = 60 x 24 =1440 MWh =1440 x103 kWh

The saving in heat input per kWh of energy produced in comparison

to case (a) if the plant works at full load for the whole day is
Ib
Saving in heat input = / —
Ea Eb
19296 x107 23136 x107
=133.33 kJ/kWh
1200 x103 1440 x103
(c) The constant load Le for full day to generate the amount of energy
equal to case (a) is given by

1200 x103
La= = 50 x103 kW = 50 MW
24
The heat input per day if plant work for 24 hours at this constant
load is

= [4 + 4 x 50 + 0.2 x 502 ] x107 x24

=16896 x107 kJ =16896 x104 MJ
Saving in heat input per kWh of energy produced in comparison to
case (a) if the plant works at constant load for the whole day is

Saving in heat input = / — /

Ea Ea
19296 x107 16896 x 107
= 20000 kJ/kWh
1200 x 103 1200 x 103

EXAMPLE 7.21 The performance of a 10 MW thermal power plant is given by:

/ = [9 + 6L + 0.25L2 ] x107
where I is the heat input in kJ/hr and L is the load in MW. Determine the
load at which efficiency of the plant is maximum.
268 Power Plant Engineering

Solution The efficiency ri is given by

output 1
7-1 = =
input [9 + 6L + 0.25L2 ] X 10 7 = ll
L+6+0.25L1X107

For the maximum efficiency, the denominator of the above equation should
be minimum.

+6+0.25L1=0 ——
92 + 0.25 = 0
dL L
L = 6 MW
The efficiency of the plant is maximum when load is 6 MW.
EXAMPLE 7.22 The steam consumption rates in kg per hour for two steam
turbines each of 20 MW capacity are given by the following equations:

= 2000 + 10/1 — 0.0001L?

S2 =1000 + 7L2 — 0.00005 L22
where S is the steam consumption rates in kg per hour, L is the load in kW
and subscripts 1 and 2 are respectively for first and second turbines. Find the
economical loading when both turbines take a total load of 30 MW.
Solution For economical loading, the incremental heat rate or steam
consumption rate must be equal.
dSi _ dS2
dL1 dL2
10 — 0.0002 Li = 7 — 0.0001 L2 (1)

The total load is 30 MW.

L1 + L2 = 30000 (2)
Solving Eqs. (1) and (2)
L i = 20000 kW = 20 MW and L2 = 10000 kW = 10 MW

EXAMPLE 7.23 The estimated total annual cost for two power plants A and
B are given by the following expressions:
Total annual cost for plant A = Ct , A =Z (6,00,000 + 3 kW + 0.015 kWh)
Total annual cost for plant B = Ct , B =Z (7,50,000 + 5 kW + 0.014 kWh)
where kW and kWh, respectively, represent the capacity of the plant and the
total annual output of the plant. The plants are to be used for supplying the load
to a system whose annual load duration curve is a straight line. The maximum
load of the system is 5 MW and the minimum load is 1 MW.
 Power Station Economics 269
Which plant should be used to supply the base load and what should be its
installed capacity to give the minimum per unit generation cost? Also calculate
the load factor for the base load plant and the peak load plant.
Solution Plant B should be selected for the base load plant which remains
in operation for the whole year because the per unit operating cost of plant
B (Z 0.014) is less than that of A. Figure E7.23 shows the annual load duration
curve of the system to which load is to be supplied by plants A and B. Let
the number of hours for which peak load plant should be in operation be h
for economical loading. The kWbase is the capacity of base load plant and the
kWpeak is the capacity of peak load plant for economical loading.

Time, hrs 8760

Figure E7.23 Annual load duration curve.

The h for economical loading is given by

(b1 — b2 ) Idifference in installed capacity dependent cost per kW capacity)

h= =
( c2 cl ) Idifference in per kWh cost)
(b1 — b2 ) (5 — 3)
h= 2 = = 2000 hours
(c2 c1 ) (0.015 — 0.014)

From the similar triangles (Aagf and Aabc)

k Wpeak = (5000 —1000)
k Wpeak 913.24 kW
2000 8760
kWbase 5000 — kWp eak — 5000 — 913.24 = 4086.76 kW

Alternatively h, kWbase, and kWpeak can be determined as follows.

Total annual cost for plants A and B = Ct,A+B
=Z (6,00,000 + 7,50,000 + 5 kWbbase ase + 3 kWpea k +
0.014 kWh base + 0.015 kWh peak )
where kWh base = Area gfcde and kWh peak = Area agf
270 Power Plant Engineering

From Figure E7.23 it is evident that kWbase, kWpeak, 1Wh

— — —base, and kWh peak
can be expressed in terms of h as follows. From Aagf and Aabc

k Wpeak = (5000 —1000) 44000

00 h
h 8760 876 0
h
k Wbase = 5000 — kWpeak = 5000 4000
8760
1 2000 2
kWh peak = area of Aagf = —
2 kW peak h = h
8760

2000 2
kWhbase = A — area of Aagf = A h
8760
A is the area acdea or energy generated by the plants and is constant for
the given load duration curve.
The total annual cost for plants A and B can be written as
6,00,000 + 7,50,000+5(5000 — kW+ 3 kWpeak
Ct,A+B —7
+ 0.014(A — kWh peak 1, 0.015 kWh peak

Ct,A+B —7 [constant — (5 — 3) kWpeak + (0.015 — 0.014) kWh peak

where
constant = 7 [6,00,000 + 7,50,000 + 5 x 5000 + 0.014A]
40 00
Ct,A+B =7 [constant (5 3) h + (0.015 0.014) 20 00 h2 1
8760 8760
For the minimum total annual cost

dc,A+B =0 _ (5 _ 3) 4000 + (0.015 0.014) 2000 2h = 0

dh 8760 8760
On solving, we get
(5 — 3)
h= = 2000 hours
(0.015 — 0.014)
Using this value of h
4000
2000 = 913.24 kW
kWPeak 8760 X

k Wbase = 5000 — kWpeak = 5000 — 913.24 = 4086.76 kW

kWhpeak = 2000 x (2000)2 = 913.24 x 103 kWh

8760
1
Energy generated by the plants = A = — (5000 —1000) 8760 +1000 x 8760

= 26280 x103 kWh

 Power Station Economics 271

kWhb„e = A —kWh peak — 26280 x 103 — 913.24 x 103 = 25366.76 x 103 kWh
= 25366.76 x 103
Average load for base load plant = kWhbase = 2895.74 kW
time 8760
average load = 2895.74 =
Load factor for base load plant = 0.708
maximum load 4086.76
kWhpeak 913.24 x 103 =
Average load for peak lo ad plant = 456.62 kW
time 2000
average load = 456.62 = 0.5
Load factor for peak load plant =
maximum load 913.24
If the load factor for peak load plant is calculated on an annual basis (time
= 8760 hours), then the load factor is only 0.114.
EXAMPLE 7.24 The nature of load required by the consumers for 24 hours
is tabulated as given below:
Time period 6-10 10-18 18-20 20-24 0-6
Load (MW) 120 160 100 40 20
(a) If the above load is taken by a thermal power plant, then find the
input to the thermal power plant. Take the thermal efficiencies of
thermal power plant at 160, 120, 100, 40 and 20 MW load as 35%,
30%, 25%, 20%, and 15% respectively.
(b) If the above load is taken by the combined thermal and pumped storage
power plants, then find the input to the thermal power plant. Take the
thermal efficiency of thermal power plant at base load equal to 35%.
In pump storage plant, the efficiency of the pump is 80% and water
turbine is 88%.
(c) Find the overall efficiencies in cases (a) and (b).
Solution The energy to be generated by the plant or total output in a day
is given by
Total output per day =120 x 4 +160 x 8 +100 x 2 + 40 x 4 + 20 x 6
= 2240 MWh
(a) Thermal power plant alone: In this case the capacity of the thermal
power plant should be equal to maximum demand (160 MW) and most of
the time the plant works at part load and at less efficiency. The total input in
a day in this case will be
120 x4 160x8 100x 2 40x4 20 x6
Total input per day =
0.3 0.35 0.25 0.2 0.15
= 7657.14 MWh
output = 2240
Overall efficiency per day = = 29.25%
input 7657.14
272 Power Plant Engineering

(b) Thermal power plant combined with pumped storage power plant: In this
case the capacity of the thermal power plant need not be equal to the maximum
demand (160 MW) and for the whole time the thermal power plant works at
base load or constant load and higher thermal efficiency. The capacity of the
thermal plant should be such that during the off-peak hours the excess energy
from this is utilized to pump the water from lower basin to upper basin, while
during the peak load period, the pumped storage plant develops the energy by
allowing the water from upper basin to lower basin through turbine.
The capacity of the thermal plant should be more than the average load if
one considers the efficiency of pump and turbine. The average load is given by
Average load = total output per day = 2240
= 93.33 MW
24 24
Let the capacity of thermal power plant be 'x' MW and x is such that
100 < x 120
For the periods when load is less than or equal to 100 MW, the thermal
power plant develops excess energy than requirement which is utilized for storage
purpose in pumped storage plant. During the peak hour energy requirement is
more than that can be supplied by the thermal power plant alone and therefore it
is supplied by the thermal power plant and pumped storage power plant. Thus,
[(x —100) x 2 + (x — 40) x 4 + (x — 20) x 6] x 0.8 x 0.88
= (120 — x) x 4 + (160 — x) x8
where 0.8 and 0.88 are the efficiencies of pump and turbine respectively.
On solving, x = 102.597 MW
The value of 'x' is as per assumption.
The total input in a day in this case will be
102.597 x 24
Total input per day = = 7035.278 MWh
0.35
output 2240
Overall efficiency per day = = = 31.84%
input 7035.278
It is clear from this example that there is saving in input to thermal power
plant by using the combined system.

Review Questions

1. How is the generation cost per kWh determined?

2. How can the generation cost per kWh be reduced?
3. Discuss the terms annual fixed cost and annual operating cost.
4. What are the elements which contribute to the cost of electricity?
5. How does the economy of scale affect the construction cost?
 Power Station Economics 273
6. How is the installed capacity of a power plant decided?
7. What is depreciation?
8. Discuss straight line method and sinking fund method of determining
depreciation.
9. What is meant by load curve? Explain its importance in power generation.
10. How is the load duration curve obtained from the load curve?
11. Define diversity factor, load factor and maximum demand. How they
influence plant design, operation and economics?
12. Define utility factor, capacity factor and demand factor.
13. Prove that the load factor of a power system is improved by an increase
in diversity of load.
14. Compare hydro, steam and nuclear power plant from plant economics
and generation point of view.
15. Discuss the salient features of interconnecting various power stations.
16. Explain the principle of economic scheduling.
17. Write a brief note on different types of tariffs.
18. What are the principal factors involved in fixing of a tariff?

Analytical Problems

1. Estimate the generation cost per unit of electrical energy from a power
plant having the following data:
Installed capacity of the plant = 120 MW
Capital cost = Z 2400 x 106
Interest and depreciation = 12%
Annual load factor = 55%
Annual cost of fuel, salaries and taxation = Z 2200,0000
Also discuss the effect of annual load factor on generation cost per
unit by using the above data and assuming annual cost of fuel, salaries
and taxation remains the same.
2. The peak load on a power plant is 70 MW. The loads having maximum
demand of 35 MW, 25 MW, 15 MW and 10 MW are connected to
the power plant. The capacity of the power plant is 80 MW and the
annual load factor is 0.80. Estimate (a) the average load on the power
plant, (b) the energy supplied per year, (c) the demand factor, (d) the
diversity factor, (e) the utilization factor, (f) the plant capacity factor,
and (g) the reserve factor.
3. A steam power plant is erected at a cost of Z 8 x 105. Find the annual
depreciation reserve respectively by the straight line and the sinking
fund methods by assuming an interest rate of 10% per annum and a
274 Power Plant Engineering

salvage value of 15% of the principal value at the end of useful life
of 25 years.
4. A 300 MW thermal power station is to supply power to a system
having a maximum and a minimum demand of 260 MW and
220 MW respectively in a year. Assuming the load duration curve to be
a straight line, estimate (a) the load factor and (b) the capacity factor.
5. A power station has to supply load on daily basis as follows:

Time (hours) 0-6 6-12 12-14 14-18 18-22 22-24

Load (MW) 25 100 50 75 100 50
Draw the load and the load duration curves. Also select suitable
generation units to supply the load.
6. A power station has a maximum demand of 90 MW, the load factor
of 0.6, the plant capacity factor of 0.5 and the plant use factor of
0.95. Find (a) the daily energy produced, (b) the reserve capacity of
the plant, and (c) the maximum energy that could be produced daily
if the plant operating schedule is fully loaded when in operation.
7. The maximum load on a thermal power plant of 60 MW capacity is
50 MW at an annual load factor of 50%. The loads having maximum
demands of 25 MW, 20 MW, 8 MW and 5 MW are connected to the
power station. Determine the average load on power station and demand
factor.
8. A load having a maximum demand of 180 MW and a load factor of
60 % may be supplied either by a thermal power plant capable of
supplying the whole load or a thermal power plant in combination with
a pumped storage power plant capable of supplying 160 x 106 kWh
per annum with a maximum output of 80 MW. Calculate the cost
of energy per unit in each of two cases and recommend the suitable
scheme using the following data:
Capital cost of thermal power plant = 7000 per kW
Capital cost of pumped storage power plant = 4000 per kW
Operating cost of thermal power plant = 70 paise per kWh
Operating cost of pumped storage power plant = 15 paise per kWh
Interest and depreciation for thermal power plant = 15%
Interest and depreciation for pumped storage
power plant = 12%
9. It is proposed to supply a load with a maximum demand of 250 MW
and a load factor of 70%. Choice is to be made from a steam power
plant, a hydel power plant and a nuclear power plant. Select the suitable
power plant using the data given below:
 Power Station Economics 275

Cost Steam Hydel Nuclear

Capital cost per MW installed 5 crore 6 crore 7 crore
Interest 7% 6% 6%
Depreciation 6% 4% 7%
Operating cost per kWh 50 paise 10 paise 25 paise
Transmission and distribution costs
per kWh 3 paise 7 paise 3 paise
10. A generating unit of 12 MW capacity supplies the following loads:
(a) Domestic consumers with a maximum demand of 8 MW at a load
factor of 30%.
(b) Small industrial load with a maximum demand of 3.5 MW at a
load factor of 60%.
(c) Street light load with a maximum demand of 500 kW at a load
factor of 20%.
Find the cost of energy per kWh for each type of consumer using the
following data:
Capital cost of the plant = 10,000 per kW
Total operating cost = 40,00,000 per year
Interest and depreciation = 10% per annum
11. An undertaking consumes 8x 106 kWh per year and its maximum
demand is 1.2 MW. It is offered two tariffs.
(a) 130 per kW of maximum demand plus 15 paise per kWh.
(b) A flat rate of 2.5 per kWh.
Calculate the annual cost of energy for both the cases.
12. The incremental fuel costs for two generating units a and b of a power
plant are given by the following relations:
dFa
= 0.065Pa + 25
dPa
dF
b = 0.08Pb + 20
dPb
where, F is the fuel cost in rupees per hour, P is the power output
in MW and subscripts a and b are respectively for generating units a
and b. Estimate (a) the economic loading of two units when the total
load supplied by the plant is 200 MW, and (b) the loss in fuel cost
per hour if generating unit a shares 90 MW load.
13. The performance of a 70 MW power plant is given by:
I = [4 + 5L + 0.2L2 ]X107
where, I is the heat input in kJ/hr and L is the load in MW. Determine:
(a) The heat input per day to the power plant if it works 20 hours at
full load and remaining period at no load.
276 Power Plant Engineering

(b) The saving in heat input per kWh of energy produced in comparison
to case (a) if the plant works at full load for the whole day.
(c) The saving in heat input per kWh of energy produced in comparison
to case (a) if the plant works at constant load for the whole day
and generates the amount of energy equal to case (a).
(d) The load at which the efficiency of the plant is maximum.
14. The estimated total annual cost for two power plants A and B are given
by the following expressions:
Total annual cost for plant A = Ct,A =Z (125 kW + 0.0275 kWh)
Total annual cost for plant B = C
- t,B =Z (120 kW + 0.03 kWh)
where kW and kWh, respectively, represent the capacity of the plant
and the total annual output of the plant. The plants are to be used for
supplying load to a system whose annual load duration curve is a straight
line. The maximum load of the system is 120 MW and minimum load
is 12 MW. Which plant should be used to supply the base load and
what should be its installed capacity to give the minimum per unit
generation cost? Also calculate the load factor for the base load plant
and the peak load plant.
15. The nature of load required by the consumers for 24 hours is tabulated
as given below:

Time period 6-10 10-18 18-20 20-24 0-6

Load (MW) 150 180 120 70 50
(a) If the above load is taken by a thermal power plant, then find the
input to the thermal power plant. Take the thermal efficiencies of
thermal power plant at 180, 150, 120, 70 and 50 MW load as 30%,
25%, 20%, 15%, and 10% respectively.
(b) If the above load is taken by combined thermal and pumped storage
power plant, then find the input to the thermal power plant. Take
the thermal efficiency of thermal power plant at base load equal
to 30%. In pump storage plant, the efficiency of the pump is 84%
and the water turbine is 88%.
 CHAPTER 8

Non-conventional
Power Generation

8.1 Introduction
The thermal, nuclear, and hydroelectric power plants are termed conventional
power plant and they utilize conventional sources of energy. The sources of
energy other than the conventional sources are called the non-conventional energy
sources. The non-conventional sources may be renewable or non-renewable.
The renewable energy sources are those which are inexhaustible and replenish
themselves. The hydroelectric power plant is the only conventional power plant
which is renewable. The non-conventional power plant may be direct energy
system in which energy of fuel/source is directly converted into electricity by
eliminating the conventional steam or gas turbine. Various non-conventional
energy sources are given below:
1. Solar thermal energy
2. OTEC
3. Solar PV conversion
4. Wind energy
5. Geothermal energy
6. Tidal energy
7. Biomass
8. MHD generator
9. Fuel cells
10. Thermoelectric generator
11. Thermionic generator
12. Wave energy
Presently, the major power generation is by consuming fossil fuels, and
it will continue to be generated by consuming fossil fuels. The fossil fuel
reserves are likely to be exhausted in the near future; and for a sustainable

277
278 Power Plant Engineering
development presently used fossil fuel has to be quickly substituted by the
other energy sources. The combustion of fossil fuels also causes environmental
pollution and global climate change. There is a resurgence of interest in nuclear
power; however, it is doubtful that it alone will be able to satisfy the growing
energy demand. Further, the nuclear reactor may not be harmless although
properly constructed. Radiations emitted by the reactor may be hazardous to
human life. A great catastrophe may take place with any kind of failure, as
happened in Japan.
The three potential practical solutions to energy and environmental problems
are: energy conservation technologies (efficient energy utilization), renewable
energy technologies, and cleaner technologies. For efficient power generation, it
is necessary to look for direct energy systems such as MHD generator and fuel
cell. Direct energy systems such as MHD generator and fuel cell, if developed
successfully, have high fuel to electricity conversion efficiency. The renewable
energy technologies of solar, wind, and biomass are not only essential but also
hopefully be able to provide the additional resources for clean and sustainable
energy future. Substituting fossil fuels with renewable sources for electricity
generation is an important strategy to reduce CO2 emissions into the atmosphere
and combat global climate change.
The wind power and solar energy technologies have vastly improved in the
last two decades and are becoming more cost effective. As these technologies
mature and become even more cost competitive in the future, they may be in
a position to replace major fractions of fossil fuels for electricity generation.

8.2 Solar Energy

The solar energy is a very large, inexhaustible source of energy. It is the most
promising non-conventional, renewable, and non-polluting or environmentally
clean source of energy. It is free and available in adequate quantities in
almost all parts of the world. The sun is a vast nuclear power plant of the
fusion variety which generates power in the form of radiant energy at a rate
of 3.8 x 1020 MW. An extremely small fraction of this power from the sun is
intercepted by the earth in the form of solar radiation which is approximately
1.8 x 1011 MW and is many thousand times more than the present energy
demand. Thus, solar energy has the potential to meet present and future
projected global energy demands without inflicting any environmental impacts.
Under Indian climatic conditions the solar energy can contribute significantly
towards this duty. India receives solar energy equivalent to over 5000 trillion
kWh/year, which is far more than the total energy consumption of the
country. The daily average of incident solar energy in India ranges from 4 to
7 kWh/m2 depending upon the location.
However, the solar energy is a dilute (very low energy density) source of
energy and its availability varies widely with time. The solar radiation intensity
rarely exceeds 1 kW/m2 even in the hottest region of the earth. Thus, due to its
 Non-conventional Power Generation 279

dilute nature, large collection area is required for an application which adds to
the cost. The variation in availability of solar radiation occurs with day-night
cycle, seasons, and local weather conditions at a specific location. Thus, the
energy collected during the period of availability of solar radiation must be
stored for the periods when it is not available. The need for energy storage
(storage may be in the form of thermal, electrical, mechanical, or chemical)
also further adds to the cost of solar systems.
The sun or any body emits electromagnetic radiation of all wavelength,
but greater solar energy is in the radiation with the wavelengths ranging from
about 0.3 lam to over 3µm, which correspond to ultraviolet (less than 0.4
lam), visible (0.4 to 0.7 lam), and infrared (over 0.7 lam). Most of the solar
energy is concentrated in the visible and the near-infrared wavelength range.
The incident solar radiation, sometimes called insolation, is the energy per unit
time per unit area. The amount of solar radiation falling on a surface normal
to the rays of the sun and outside the atmosphere of the earth (extraterrestrial)
at mean earth-sun distance is called the solar constant. The solar constant
based on estimates and measurement is taken equal to 1367 W/m2. As solar
radiation passes through the earth's atmosphere, some of it is absorbed by air
and water vapour, while some gets scattered by molecules of air, water vapour,
aerosols, and dust particles. The part of solar radiation that reaches the surface
of the earth with essentially no change in direction is called direct or beam
radiation. The scattered radiation reaching the surface from the atmosphere is
called diffuse radiation. The sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation is
termed total or global radiation.
The sun is considered as a deity in the religious text of India. It may
be because the sun is the mother of all forms of energy except the nuclear
energy. Solar radiation can be used directly as well as indirectly. The indirect
uses of solar energy are: hydropower, winds, biomass, wave energy and the
OTEC. The basic process for rainfall or hydrological cycle is the evaporation
of water from the water bodies; uneven heating and cooling is responsible
for the movement of air; photosynthesis process takes place in the presence
of sunlight; winds create the waves in the ocean; the surface water of sea is
warmer than water at depth only because of absorption of solar radiation. Even
the fossil fuels (major source for energy) are also solar in origin because these
have been generated by the action of heat, pressure and time on forests and
animals. The direct uses of solar energy include:
(A) Solar thermal conversion
(B) Solar photovoltaic conversion

8.2.1 Solar Thermal Conversion

Solar energy in the form of heat can be collected by using flat plate solar
collector (FPSC) or concentrating solar collector. Solar collectors are special
280 Power Plant Engineering

kind of heat exchangers in which the solar radiation is absorbed by an absorber

(receiver) surface having high absorptivity for short wavelength solar radiation.
A part of solar radiation absorbed as heat energy is transferred to the transport
medium (air, water, or oil) usually flowing through the collector and the
remaining is lost (transferred) to the surrounding by conduction, convection
and radiation. The heat losses to the surrounding must be minimized in order
to improve the collection efficiency of solar collector.
There is no optical concentration of solar radiations by mirrors (reflector)
and lenses (refractor) in FPSC. A FPSC (Figures 8.1-8.2) has nearly the same
area for intercepting and for absorbing solar radiation. The FPSC is simple
in construction, utilizes the beam as well as diffused radiation and does
not require tracking. A FPSC is usually held tilted in a fixed position on a
supporting structure, facing south if located in the northern hemisphere. This
angle of tilt is taken equal to latitude of the location ±10 to 15° where + sign
is for winter application and — sign is for summer application. The angle of
tilt for year round application is taken equal to latitude of the location. FPSC
is by far the most used type of collector and is employed for low temperature
applications up to 100°C, although some new types of collectors employing
vacuum insulation and selective coatings can achieve slightly higher values.

Glass cover

7'
04- Casing

OPPOkag Insulation
Absorber-plate
Figure 8.1 A liquid FPSC.

Bottom-plate Absorber-plate Glass-cover

+—Absorber-plate

1I
Air in Insulation Air out Insulation
Figure 8.2 Flat plate solar air heater.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 281
Solar water heating is a well proven and economically viable option using
FPSC. Commonly used FPSC for water heating (Figure 8.1) consists of absorber
plate, tubes fixed to or integral with the absorber plate through which water
to be heated flows, transparent glass cover (s) and an insulated box container.
The transparent glass cover at top helps in reducing the losses by convection
and re-radiation from top of the absorber plate. The glass used as a transparent
cover is transparent to incoming short wavelength solar radiation but opaque
to long wavelength radiation emitted from the absorber surface. By increasing
the number of glass cover, the losses by convection and re-radiation from top
of the absorber plate reduces, but at the same time the solar radiation reaching
on the absorber surface is also reduced. The thermal insulation at the sides and
bottom helps to reduce the losses by conduction from the sides and bottom.
Solar air heater because of its simplicity is cheap and widely used FPSC. In
solar air heater (Figure 8.2), the flow passage is in the form of duct formed by
the absorber plate, bottom plate and sides. The flow passage cross section has
to be made larger in order to keep the pressure drop of air within manageable
limit. The main applications of solar air heater are space heating and drying
for industrial and agriculture purpose. The energy collection efficiency of solar
air heater is generally poor because of unfavourable thermo-physical properties
of air flowing in the duct. However, the use of air as a heat transfer medium
instead of water in solar collectors reduces the risks of corrosion, leakage and
freezing, and helps to reduce weight and costs of collectors.
Temperatures far above those attainable by FPSC can be reached if a large
amount of solar radiation is concentrated on a relatively small collection area.
Such concentrating solar collector may be classified as non-imaging and imaging.
A box type solar cooker with booster mirror (Figure 8.3) is an example of
non-imaging concentrating solar collector. Imaging type concentrating solar
collector usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept and focus the
beam radiation to a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing the radiation
flux. Due to concentration of radiation flux and heat loss from smaller
absorber area, the thermal energy collection of such collector is usually higher.

Glass over
Adjustable
mirror

Cooking pot

Insulated box

Figure 8.3 Box-type solar cooker.

282 Power Plant Engineering

However, concentrating collector must be moved as per the path of the sun so
that sun's rays after reflection always fall on the absorber surface. This movement
is termed tracking which may be about single-axis or two-axis. Imaging type
may be further sub-divided into line focusing and point focusing type.
The parabolic trough collector (PTC) is most widely used and developed
line focusing concentrating solar collector. PTC (Figure 8.4) consists of
a concentrator (reflector) having the shape of cylindrical parabola and a
receiver (absorber tube) surrounded by glass tube and located at the focal axis.
Glass cover/
envelope Receiver
Fluid out
Beam
radiation

Receiver Thermic
Reflector fluid
Reflector
1

Fluid in
Glass cover/envelope
Figure 8.4 Parabolic trough collector.

Reflector focuses the sunlight on the surface of the absorber tube. With PTC
system temperatures from 100 to 400°C for industrial process heat applications
and power generation can be obtained without any serious degradation of the
collector's efficiency. PTCs require an evacuated tube receiver (vacuum in the
annular space between absorber tube and an outer glass tube) in order to reduce
thermal losses and achieve high temperature at collector array exit. Although
such receivers increase collector field initial cost, its application in electric power
generation systems is essential due to the high operating temperature. However,
in other applications such as industrial process heating, the absorber tube with
a non-evacuated glass tube is also used. The liquid heated in absorber/receiver
tube of PTC depends on temperature requirement and generally thermic fluids
are used. The thermic fluids or heat transfer oils cost less to install, operate
and maintain. The low pressure in the systems utilizing thermic fluids due
to their high boiling point can significantly reduce capital costs. The thermic
fluids have minimal potential for corrosion and fouling. The PTC can be
orientated in an east-west direction, tracking the sun from north to south, or
orientated in a north-south direction and tracking the sun from east to west.
Because it is sufficient to use single axis tracking of the sun for PTC, long
collector modules can be produced. PTC technology is the most advanced of the
solar thermal technologies because of considerable experience with the systems
and the development of a small commercial industry to produce and market
these systems. The trough reflector and drive system has the potential for very
low cost. Major installations for both process heat and electricity production
 Non-conventional Power Generation 283

already exist based on parabolic-trough systems. The biggest application of

this type of system is the Southern California power plants, known as solar
electric generating systems (SEGS).
The generation of temperatures higher than that of PTC is possible by using
paraboloid reflector, which focuses the solar radiation at a point. A paraboloid
dish collector (Figure 8.5) is a point focus collector which concentrates solar
radiations onto a receiver located at the focal point of the dish. It can achieve
temperatures in excess of 1500°C. However, it requires the tracking about
two axes.

Receiver

Beam radiation Wf Reflector

Figure 8.5 Paraboloidal dish collector.

Solar thermal energy collected by various varieties of collection devices can

be used for various applications and a few of these are: water heating; cooking;
drying; distillation in solar still; space heating; space cooling and refrigeration;
power generation. The solar energy technology has been developed to a point
where it can replace most of the fossil fuels or fossil fuel-derived energy. In
many applications it is already economical, and it is a matter of time before
it becomes economical for other applications as well.

8.2.2 Solar Thermal Power Generation

Power from solar radiation can also be produced by photovoltaic (PV) cell
but large PV plants have the disadvantage of higher cost in comparison to
solar thermal power plants (STPPs). STPPs, although more expensive than
conventional fossil-fuel power plants, release much less carbon dioxide and
other pollutants. The shortages of power are going to be more acute in India
and STPP could prove to be of immense importance to many relatively remote
area of the country where unused land area is also available. STPP reduces
dependence on conventional fuels and offers a decentralized means of power
generation. STPP may also help to mitigate the use of captive plants (thermal
plant or diesel generator set) in industries.
All STPPs have four basic systems: collector, receiver, transport-storage,
and power conversion subsystems. The collector captures and concentrates
solar radiation towards the receiver which absorbs the concentrated sunlight
284 Power Plant Engineering
and transfers heat energy to a working fluid. The transport-storage system
passes the heated fluid from the receiver to the power conversion system. The
power-conversion system consists of a heat engine and related equipment for
converting thermal energy into electrical energy. Some designs also include
a secondary, fossil-fuel driven heat source that charges the storage system or
drive the power conversion system during periods of low solar radiation. The
maximum operating temperature of flat plate solar collectors is low relative
to desirable input temperatures of heat engines, therefore focusing collectors
or concentrators are used exclusively for power generation.
For the conversion of solar heat to mechanical power, various engines such
as organic Rankine-cycle engines, steam (Rankine) turbines, Brayton engines
and Stirling engines are in use. Organic Rankine-cycle engines were not found
useful for solar power generation because they were relatively inefficient and
expensive due to low temperature input from flat plate solar collectors. For
a parabolic trough based system, Rankine (steam) cycle is a good choice,
while for point focusing collector system combined cycle (Brayton—Rankine)
approach may be used. Steam-turbine technology, although mature, is also not
especially well suited for distributed dish solar energy systems. Dish-mounted
steam turbines must be relatively small, which prohibits the use of high-
efficiency steam turbine expanders and so results in relatively low efficiency.
Besides, maintenance requirements of such steam turbines are also quite high.
Consequently, there is relatively less-interest in steam turbines for solar dish
system. The Stirling engine is potentially the most efficient and is attracting a
lot of attention in recent times. Because of its potential for long-life, reliable
operation and externally heated engine attributes, the Stirling engine has emerged
as the pre-eminent power-conversion module for dish-electric systems.
The solar thermal power generation options can be classified as follows:
(i) Low temperature systems (temperature < 100°C)
(ii) Medium temperature systems (temperature up to 400°C)
(iii) High temperature systems (temperature > 400°C)
The low temperature systems generate power using flat plate solar collector,
solar pond and solar chimney while medium and high temperature systems
use focusing collector.

Low temperature systems

The system that generates power using FPSC with or without booster mirrors
is based on organic Rankine cycle. The hot water at temperatures close to
100°C obtained from FPSC is used to generate the vapour (Figure 8.6) of low
boiling point fluid which drives the vapour turbine of organic Rankine cycle.
The overall efficiency of these systems is low due to low temperature difference
between source and sink. As the major cost in low temperature systems using
FPSC is of collectors, thus solar ponds have also been used instead of FPSC.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 285
Flat-plate solar collectors Vapour
with booster mirrors

o
bi)
Turbine
ct
4— to o<
(-)

0 'F,d•

(Condenser

Water

Figure 8.6 Low temperature power generation system using FPSC.

Solar pond (Figure 8.7) is a pond of water in which a salt concentration

gradient is maintained. Maximum solar radiation is absorbed at the bottom of
the pond and is transferred to water layer at bottom. The salt concentration to
suppress the convection is more at bottom and least at the top. Solar pond is
a novel device which combines the functions of both collection and storage.
The hot water at temperatures less than 80°C obtained from bottom of solar
pond is used to generate the vapour of low boiling point fluid similar to FPSC.
The advantage of solar pond plants is that they have built-in storage capacity.
However, they also do not appear to be economically attractive.
Saline Fresh
water run-off / \ water inlet
Surface convective zone

Concentration
To Rankine
Return gradient zone Hot cycle utilising
water water low boiling
Lower convective zone substance

Figure 8.7 Solar pond for power generation.

In a solar chimney power plant (Figure 8.8) air is heated while passing
under a very large greenhouse (between 2 and 8 km in diameter), and this hot
air is channelled upwards towards a convection tower or chimney placed at
the centre of greenhouse. The hot air then rises naturally and is used to drive
turbine placed at the bottom of chimney. Solar chimney power plant is also
termed solar updraft power plant. The generating capacity of a solar updraft
power plant depends primarily on two factors: the size of the collector area
which governs the amount of air flow through chimney and chimney height
responsible for pressure difference or stack effect. Heat can be stored inside
the collector area greenhouse by water or soil underneath, which can be used
286 Power Plant Engineering

Air

Chimney
Glazing

Turbine

4—
Air Air

Air
Figure 8.8 Solar chimney power plant.

to warm the air later. There are no solar updraft towers in operation at present.
A research prototype operated is a 50 kW plant in Spain in the 1980s and
it was destroyed by a storm in 1989. It had a 200 m high chimney with a
constant diameter of 10.3 m. The solar collector area extends to a radius of
126 m from the chimney. The energy conversion efficiency of such plant is low.
Such plants have some significant advantages like: low cost of constructional
material, natural storage by heating the soil underneath the glazing, utilization
of greenhouse for agriculture purpose and very little operating and maintenance
cost. The main disadvantage of this plant is that structure is sensible to heavy
storms.

Medium and high temperature systems

There are three prominent options of solar thermal power generation by
medium and high temperature systems. Each option is characterized by shape
of the mirrored surface on which sunlight is collected and concentrated. These
prominent options are:
(a) Parabolic trough based system
(b) Central receiver system
(c) Parabolic dish system
(a) Parabolic trough system: Parabolic trough system (Figure 8.9) is known
as distributed collectors system. It is also known as solar farm which has
several rows of PTC. Thermic fluid flowing in the tube is heated and then
transported to a central point through a piping network designed to minimize
the heat loss. The heat of thermic fluid is utilized to generate steam which
drives steam turbine.
The state of the art of solar thermal parabolic trough power plants can be
appreciated by the overall installed capacity of 354 MW (SEGS) in California,
USA. Since 1985, a 14 MW plant, six 30 MW plants and two 80 MW plants
 Non-conventional Power Generation 287
Water from condenser
A
Thermic fluid Boiler/heat-
0 0 .0 0 0 exchanger

Rankine
cycle block
Parabolic trough solar collectors Steam to turbine

(a) Power generation by using thermic fluid

Superheating Steam to turbine

Water Preheating Boiling

Parabolic trough solar collectors Rankine cycle block

Separating-drum Water injector
Water from condenser
Water recirculation
and separating drum Water from condenser
(b) Power generation by direct steam generation
Figure 8.9 Power generation using PTC system.

(the last 80 MW plant became operational in 1991) have been built and are
feeding electricity into the Californian grid. Unfortunately, the development of
these power plants could not be continued because the responsible company
could not compete due to worsening financial and economical conditions.
Though, the technology itself was successful. In India STTP of 50 kWe based
on this technology is at solar energy centre, Gwalpahari (Gurgaon). This is the
first plant of its kind in India and has been installed for R&D purpose only. It
mainly consists of 48 PTCs arranged in four double loops with six PTCs in a
row, boiler and a single stage impulse steam turbine. The total solar collector
field area is 1280 m2. Hytherm-500 oil is allowed to flow through the absorber
tubes of the collector system. The hot oil at 290°C is collected in a storage
tank of 14 m3 capacity. This hot oil can also be fed to a boiler/economizer
directly where its heat is transferred to water, which gets converted into steam
at 238°C and 31 bar. The exhaust steam from turbine is condensed in the
air-cooled condenser and the condensed water is again pumped to the boiler.
In SEGS, thermic fluid is circulated through the collector loop and higher
process temperature is not possible due to thermal instability of thermic fluid
or heat transfer oil as well as there is environmental risk in case of leakage of
thermic fluid. The direct steam generation (DSG) in parabolic trough collectors
is a promising option for the improvement of the reliable parabolic trough
technology for solar thermal power generation. The steam at higher pressure
(70 bar) and temperature (410°C) can be produced directly in the collectors
loop. Temperature is limited due to thermal stability of the available selective
coating on the absorber tube. Pressure is limited to prevent tube or tube joint
failure. A conceptual design of the DSG in a parabolic trough solar field for
5 MW Rankine cycle based power plant has been mentioned in the literature.
The solar field of this plant produces 410°C/70 bar superheated steam. The
solar collector field of this plant consists of seven parallel rows of parabolic
288 Power Plant Engineering

trough collectors and each row is composed of 10 parabolic trough collectors

for preheating water, evaporation and superheating steam. The length of a
parabolic trough collector is 100 m while aperture width is 5.76 m.
The SEGS plants apply a two-circuit system, consisting of the collector
circuit and the Rankine cycle of the power block. These two-circuits are
connected via a heat exchanger to generate steam. In the case of the DSG in
the collector field, the two-circuit system turns into a single-circuit system,
where the collector field is directly coupled to the power block. This renders
a lower investment and higher process temperatures resulting in higher
system efficiency. Though DSG increases the cost of the solar field piping by
increasing the solar field fluid-steam working pressure to above 85 bar, but
it reduces the overall plant investment cost because it eliminates the thermic
fluid-steam generation heat exchangers and all the elements associated with
the thermic fluid circuit, i.e. fire extinguishing system, oil expansion tank, oil
tank blanketing system, etc.
(b) Central receiver system: This system is known as solar tower system. A
central receiver system (Figure 8.10) consists of a field of sun-tracking mirrors
called heliostats. Each heliostat reflects solar energy to a receiver mounted on
the top of tower. The concentrated heat energy absorbed by the receiver is
transferred to a circulating fluid that is used to produce power. Solar tower
power plants are appropriate technology for a centralized electricity supply.

Receiver

Fuel firing

Hot thermic fluid or Gas turbine

compressed air out Steam turbine cycle
Air cycle
Receiver
Boiler/Heat-exchanger
Thermic fluid or Hot thermic Thermic fluid
Tower compressed air in fluid to receiver

Heliostats Beam Steam turbine

radiation cycle

Figure 8.10 Central receiver system for power generation.

The key features of the central receiver system are:

1. Heliostats collect solar energy optically and transfer it to a single
receiver, thus minimizing thermal energy transport requirements.
2. Due to high concentration ratio (300 to 1,500) the central receiver
system is highly efficient both in collecting energy and in converting
 Non-conventional Power Generation 289
it to electricity as central-receiver systems can operate at temperatures
from 500 to 1,500°C.
3. Due to high temperature level, a high diversity of combined processes is
possible with high efficiency in combination with electricity production.
4. They can conveniently store thermal energy.
5. They are large (generally 10 MW or higher) and thus benefit from
economies of sale.
The field layout of central receiver system requires specifications of tower
position and height, field shape and arrangement of heliostats in the field. The
tower is placed at the south end of field for places up to 30-40° latitude in northern
hemisphere. In general, the higher the tower, the more horizontal the mirrors
can be and thus cosine losses are reduced. However the problem of spreading of
the reflecting beam becomes worse and cost rise sharply with increased tower
height. A tower height of about 100 m has been choosen for a 10 MW pilot plant.
Tower height of 1000 m is indicated for plants in 200 MW range. The receiver
may be external or internal (cavity) type. The cavity type volumetric air receiver
technology may be used to generate power in a combined cycle.
SOLAR II modified from SOLAR I by adding more heliostats in Barstow,
USA, was the only solar tower project producing power. Presently it is being
used for other higher temperature applications. A salt receiver (diameter and
height are 19 m and 21.5 m respectively) employing NaNO3/KNO3 with 60/40
weight percentage as a circulating fluid and designed for a thermal power of
43 MW for a 4 h full load operation with two storage tanks are new features
of SOLAR IL
(c) Parabolic dish systems: In parabolic dish (Figure 8.5) systems, the
receiver placed at the focal point absorbs the radiant solar energy. Parabolic dish
systems are often called distributed receiver systems because parabolic dishes
are distributed throughout a collector field such as parabolic troughs. Parabolic
dishes typically have concentration ratios ranging from 600 to 2000, and can
achieve temperatures in excess of 1500°C. They are thus highly efficient at
thermal energy absorption and power conversion. The absorbed heat energy
can then either be converted into electricity using an engine-generator coupled
directly to the receiver, or heat energy can be transported through pipes to
a central power conversion system. Thus, they have modular collector and
receiver units that can either function independently or as part of a larger
system of dishes. Systems that employ small generators at the focal point of
the dish gather energy in the form of electricity rather than as a heated fluid.
This distributed parabolic dish system lacks thermal storage capabilities, but
can be hybridized to run on fossil fuel, during the periods without sunshine.
The central generation system is similar to a parabolic trough system in which
thermal energy rather than reflected sunlight (as in the central receiver system),
is gathered from the collector field. The need to circulate heat-transfer fluid
throughout the collector field raises design issues such as piping layout, pumping
requirement, and thermal losses.
290 Power Plant Engineering
Parabolic dish systems have the greatest potential for the highest efficiency
and least generation cost but ironically these face the greatest uncertainty.
Maintenance costs, for example, remain, largely unknown in the face of
inadequate data. However, the parabolic dish technology has accomplished most
significant achievements with distributed systems using Stirling engines. These
systems are well suited for decentralized power production, covering the range
between 10 kW and 10 or even more MW by clustering lots of individual
modules. Thus, both stand-alone operation in remote areas and supply for
villages or small communities is possible. The optimal size of the dish Stirling
system is about 25 kW because of the size of the available engines and wind
loading on the dish collector.
In India the solar dish, first of its kind in the country, has been erected at
Latur, Maharashtra to provide process heat for milk pasteurization. The aperture
area of dish is 160 m2, reflector area is 123 m2 and the annual average thermal
power is 50-70 kWth.
Note: The low temperature solar power systems using FPSC and solar pond
should not be considered for power generation due to their low efficiency and
high cost. Solar chimney based system may be a promising system due to its
possible low cost and multi-use in spite of low thermal efficiency. Several
large scale pilot plants based on central receiver concepts has been put up in
field. No commercial plant based on central receiver concept has been built,
despite the fact that these systems have greater potential for low energy costs
and higher efficiency than the parabolic trough systems.
In India only three experimental efforts have, so far, been made to
investigate the feasibility of solar thermal power generation. Though, India is
in a unique position in regard to solar thermal power generation. The only
significant attempt is a 50 kW parabolic trough based system at Solar Energy
Centre, Gwalpahari (Gurgaon). India, already being an energy deficient
country inevitably requires to explore new avenues of generating electricity in
a sustainable way to meet the future energy challenges. At present fossil fuel
electricity is more economical than the solar, however, in future the cost of
fossil fuel electricity is to rise due to depletion of resources. Solar electricity
will see a substantial drop in its cost due to a gradual evolution of improved
technologies. Thus, India should enter in PTC and dish field and promote R
& D work in these field.

8.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Systems

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is an indirect method of utilizing

solar energy. The ocean thermal energy is available continuously rather than
available only in the daytime. A large amount of solar energy is collected and
stored in tropical (closer to equator) oceans. The surface of the water acts
as the collector for solar heat, while the upper layer of the sea constitutes
 Non-conventional Power Generation 291
infinite heat storage reservoir. The surface water is wanner than the water at
lower depth. The temperature of ocean water at the surface is fairly constant
for the first few metres because of mixing. The temperature of ocean water
subsequently decreases and asymptotically approaches the value at the lower
level. The temperature difference between the warm surface water of the tropical
oceans and the cold water in the depth of over a few hundred metres is about
20-25 K. OTEC systems utilize this naturally existing temperature difference
between water at the surface and the lower levels of the ocean. The surface
water at higher temperature acts as a heat source, while the water at depth acts
as a heat sink. Because of the relatively small temperature difference between
source and sink, OTEC systems have very low efficiencies. Further, because
of the parasitic power requirement (such as for pumping up the cold water
supply from deep) and other losses, the achievable net conversion efficiency
is only about 2.5%. Though, many different designs have been analyzed for
commercial installations, no large scale OTEC systems have yet been built.
Based on Rankine cycle, there are three types of electricity conversion
systems: open cycle, closed cycle, and hybrid cycle. The hybrid systems
combine both closed cycle and open cycle systems.

8.3.1 Open Cycle

Open cycle system (Figure 8.11) is also termed Claude cycle system. Historically,
French engineer Claude in 1930, first successfully designed, constructed and
demonstrated a small scale open cycle system off the coast of Cuba (Brazil).
However, no net power was obtained because the power required for pumping
large volumes of cold water from the ocean depth was larger than the power
developed by the turbine and the project was abandoned.
Non-condensable gases

Low pressure steam

Degasifier H Flash evaporator

Turbine
Water to sea

Warm surface water Cold sea Surface condenser Cold sea

water out water in

Desalinated water
Figure 8.11 Open cycle OTEC system.

The open cycle system uses warm surface sea water as the working fluid
which is first degasified and then evaporated in a flash evaporator under
vacuum. The low pressure steam thus produced is then expanded in a turbine.
292 Power Plant Engineering

The size of steam turbine required is large because of large specific volume
of steam associated with low pressure. The exit steam from the turbine is
condensed in a condenser with the help of cold water from the deep sea.
The condensate can be utilized as desalinated water if a surface condenser is
used. Thus desalinated water is obtained as a useful by-product. If a direct
contact condenser is used, then the mixture of condensate and cooling water
is discharged back into the ocean.

8.3.2 Closed Cycle

Closed cycle system (Figure 8.12) uses the ocean's warm surface water to
vaporize a working fluid, which has a low boiling point, such as ammonia,
propane, R-22, etc. Warm surface sea water is pumped through an evaporator
where the heat energy of warm water is utilized to generate the vapour of
working fluid of Rankine cycle at high pressure. In the evaporator the working
fluid in the form of a high pressure liquid absorbs heat from warm sea water
and is converted into vapour. The high pressure vapour leaving the evaporator
is expanded in vapour turbine similar to a steam turbine except that vapour
turbine is designed to operate at a lower inlet pressure. The low pressure exit
vapour from the vapour turbine is condensed in the condenser by pumping cold
water through a cold water pipe from the deeper regions. The liquid working
fluid is then pumped back to the evaporator. This cycle is favoured for future
development in expectation of higher efficiency.
Evaporator
Water back to sea

• Condenser
Water back
• to sea
Cold water from depth J
Figure 8.12 Closed cycle OTEC system.

8.4 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Conversion

Photovoltaic conversion is the direct conversion of photons of sunlight into dc
electricity with no intervening heat engine. The semiconductor devices used
in photovoltaic conversion are called photovoltaic (PV) cells or solar cells.
The principle of working of a solar cell is that first electron-hole pairs are
 Non-conventional Power Generation 293
created in semiconductor material by absorption of photons of sunlight and
then these are separated by a potential gradient existing within the cell. For
potential gradient within the cell a p-n junction or any other equivalent, such
as a Schottky junction is required.
In a semiconductor, the valence band has electrons at a lower energy level
and is fully occupied, while the conduction band has electrons at a higher energy
level and is not fully occupied. The difference between the energy levels of the
electrons in these two bands is called the band gap energy. Photons of sunlight
having energy equal to or greater than the band gap energy are absorbed in
the semiconductor material and excite some of the electrons. These excited
electrons jump from valence band to conduction band leaving behind holes
(deficiency of electrons) in the valence band. Thus, electron-hole pairs are
created by photons of sunlight. The energy of a photon of sunlight is related
to the wavelength (A) by the equation
E = hCIA (8.1)
where h is Planck's constant equal to 6.62 x 10-27erg-s, and C is the velocity
of light. The energy of a photon in electron-volts (eV) becomes E = 1.24/A,
if A is in pm.
The main constraint on the efficiency of a solar cell is related to the band
gap of the semiconductor material of a photovoltaic cell. The photons that have
energy less than the band gap are not able to generate electron-hole pairs and
they just produce heat due to absorption on the cell. The excess energy of
photons above the band gap energy is also wasted as heat and simply heats
up the cell. The actual efficiency is even lower because of reflection of light
from the cell surface, shading of the cell due to current collecting electrodes,
internal resistance of the cell, and recombination of electrons and holes before
they are able to contribute to the current.
Photovoltaic devices are solid state; therefore, they are robust and simple
in design and require a little maintenance. They work quite satisfactorily with
beam as well as diffuse radiation. The biggest advantage of photovoltaic cells
is that they can be constructed as stand-alone systems to give outputs from
microwatts to megawatts because a cell is like a building block. That is why
they have been used as the power sources for calculators, watches, water pumps,
remote buildings, communications, satellites and space vehicles, and even
megawatt-scale power plants. However, the main factors limiting their use are
that they are still rather costly and there is very little economy associated with
the magnitude of power generated in an installation. The costs of photovoltaic
panels have come down from about $30 to $3 per peak watt over the last three
decades and are targeted to reduce to around $1 per peak watt in the next
ten years. To reduce the costs further, efficiency of photovoltaic cells must be
increased and the manufacturing costs will have to be decreased. Photovoltaic
cells have been made with silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), copper indium
diselenide (CIS), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and a few other materials. The
294 Power Plant Engineering

first solar cells were made from single crystal silicon and even today silicon is
the material mostly used for making solar cells. The photovoltaic technology
is classified in the following manner:
1. Silicon Crystalline Technology:
(a) Monocrystalline Photovoltaic Cells
(b) Multicrystalline Photovoltaic Cell
2. Thin Film Technology:
(a) Amorphous Silicon Photovoltaic Cells
(b) Poly Crystalline Photovoltaic Cells (Non-silicon based):
(i) Copper Indium diselenide (CIS)
(ii) Cadmium Telluride (CdTel)
(iii) Galium Arsenide (GaAs)
(iv) Multijunction

8.4.1 Single Crystal Silicon Solar Cell

The single crystal silicon solar cell (Figure 8.13) is a p-n junction which
consists of a thin layer of p-type silicon joined to a micro thin layer of n-type
silicon, with an uninterrupted silicon crystal structure across the junction. The
solar photons fall on the micro thin n-type and penetrate to the junction area to
generate electron hole pairs. For single crystal silicon, the p-type is produced by
doping pure silicon (four valence electrons) with trivalent impurity like boron
(three valence electrons), while n-type is produced by doping pure silicon with
pentavalent impurity like phosphorous or arsenic (five valence electrons). The
n-type layer has an abundance of free electrons and the p-type layer has an
abundance of free holes. The electrons from n-type region diffuse across the
junction into the p-type region and the holes diffuse across the junction into
the n-type region due to large concentration differences of hole and electron
oaa
Anti-reflection
1'v 4
coating

Metal electrode finger

n-type silicon —
p type
0.2 silicon Load

300 lam Metal

electrode
on back side

Figure 8.13 Single crystal silicon solar cell.

 Non-conventional Power Generation 295
concentrations between the n-side and the p-side of the junction. Before
formation of the junction, both sides of the junction are electrically neutral.
When the negatively charged electron leaves the phosphorous or arsenic atom,
the phosphorous or arsenic atom becomes a positively charged phosphorous or
arsenic ion. In a similar fashion, when the positively charged hole leaves the
boron atom, the boron atom becomes a negatively charged boron ion. Thus,
as electrons diffuse to the p-side of the junction, they leave behind positively
charged electron donor ions that are covalently bound to the silicon lattice.
As holes diffuse to the n-side of the junction, they leave behind negatively
charged hole-donor ions that are covalently bound to the silicon lattice on the
p-side of the junction. The diffusion of charge carriers across the junction thus
creates an electric field across the junction which causes the charge carriers
to drift. In the case of the positively charged holes, they drift in the direction
of the electric field, i.e. from the n-side to the p-side of the junction. The
negatively charged electrons drift in the direction opposite to the field, i.e.
from the p-side to the n-side of the junction. If no external forces are present
other than temperature, then the flows of holes are equal in both directions
and the flows of electrons are equal in both directions, resulting in zero net
flow of either holes or electrons across the junction. The band gap energy for
silicon, is 1.1 eV, so if a photon with energy equal to or higher than the band
gap energy is absorbed, then it can create one electron-hole pair. When solar
radiation falls on the p-n junction, the energy from the light (photons) enables
electrons to break free from the junction to generate electricity.
For manufacturing of single crystal silicon solar cells, thin wafers of
about 300 p.m thickness are sliced from a cylindrical block or cut from a
long ribbon of single crystal of p-type doped silicon. The p-type wafers are
then passed through furnace containing phosphorus atoms so that a shallow
junction is formed at one end by diffusion of the n-type impurity of about
1 pm thickness. After this metal electrodes made from a Ti-Ag solder are
attached to the both faces of the wafer or cell. On the backside, the electrode
completely covers the surface while on the front side, in order to permit the
sunlight to penetrate the junction the electrode is in the form of a metal grid
with fingers. An anti-reflection coating of SiO, having a thickness of about
0.1 p.m is then laid on the cell and top surface of cell is encapsulated in weather
resistant thin transparent sheet to complete the assembly.
The voltage developed by a single solar cell depends on the junction material
and current developed besides junction material also depends on the cell area.
A typical silicon cell develops a voltage of 0.5-1 V and current density of
20-40 mA/cm2. A PV module is formed in order to obtain higher voltages and
currents by arranging individual cells side by side on a suitable back-up board
and connected in series and parallel. Thus, a cell is like a building block. The
shape of cells may be circular or rectangular, and rectangular shape results in
more compact modules. A number of modules are interconnected to form an
array to get the desired voltage and current.
296 Power Plant Engineering

A typical photovoltaic system (Figure 8.14) comprises of a photovoltaic

array, storage battery, blocking diode and dc-ac inverter. The blocking diode in
between photovoltaic array and storage battery prevents the battery discharge
during the non-availability of solar radiation.
Single cell

• •• • • •• • • •• •
• •• • • •• • • •• •
• •• • • •• • • •• •

Module • •• • • •• • • •• •
• •• • • •• • • •• •
• •• • • •• • • •• •

• •• • • •• • • •• •
• •• • • •• • • •• •
• •• • • •• • • •• •

Array
Figure 8.14 A typical photovoltaic system.

8.5 Wind Energy

Wind or atmospheric air motion possesses kinetic energy that can be utilized
to produce electricity by windmill. The wind farm is a cluster of several
windmills located side by side in a suitable wind swept locations. Wind energy
is the most rapidly expanding source of energy in the world today and the
contribution of wind power to meet electricity demand is growing rapidly.
Recent development of wind energy has concentrated on the generation of
electricity in a wind farm. The wind power supplies about 0.6% of the world
electricity demand today. In Germany, the contribution of wind power to
electricity consumption is over 5%.
Throughout history people harnessed the wind energy potential. Earlier
sailors used to sail their ships by wind power. Later people built and used
windmills for pumping water, for grinding grain and for cutting wood at
sawmills. Windmills played an important role in water pumping throughout
the world. With the advent of central electricity plant, the use of windmills
began to decline due to their higher cost. There is again renewed interest in
windmills and the wind energy is again becoming cost effective due to the
shortage of fossil fuel reserves and large increase in the cost of natural gas and
other fossil fuels. The cost to generate wind energy has decreased dramatically
from more than 30 cents (U.S.) per kWh in the early 1980s to less than
4 cents/kWh in 2004. Wind energy has proved to be an economically viable
option in certain locations in India. Wind resources in India are tremendous
and are mainly located near the sea coasts such as Gujarat coast, Tamil Nadu,
west Rajasthan, Karnataka, West Bengal, U.P., and M.P. The average cost of
installation of windmill in India is currently about Z 25,000 per kW and the
pay back period is about 5 years.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 297
The primary causes of wind are uneven heating of the earth by solar radiation
and the earth's rotation. Thus, wind energy is an indirect form of solar energy
and has advantages and disadvantages similar to that associated with utilization
of solar energy. Differences in solar radiation absorption at the various surfaces
(land, desert, water, and forest areas) of the earth and transference back to the
atmosphere create differences in atmospheric temperature, density, and pressure,
which in turn create force that move air from one place to another. Winds are
the natural phenomena of the atmosphere, and on the basis of origin, winds
can be classified as local and planetary.
1. Local winds: Local winds are caused by the differential heating of
land and water, and also by hills and mountain sides. During the day,
air that is above the land warms more quickly than air present above
the water entities. The hot air over the land expands and rises, and the
heavier, cooler air over a body of water rushes in, to take its place,
creating local winds or breezes. At night, the winds are reversed because
air cools more rapidly over land than over water.
2. Planetary winds: Planetary winds are caused by greater solar heating
of earth's surface near the equator due to more solar radiation incident
than near the north and south poles. The warm tropical air rises and
flows through the upper atmosphere towards the poles and cold air
from the poles flow back to the equator nearer to the earth's surface.
The earth's rotation affects the direction of winds and gives rise to
semipermanent global wind patterns such as trade winds, westerlies,
easterlies, and subtropical and polar jets.
The available power in the wind passing through an area 'A' perpendicular
to the wind at a velocity ' ir with air density 'p' is given by
2 1
P= 1mV = - ApV 3 (8.2)
2 2
where m is the mass flow rate (kg/s) of air and is equal to AVp.
It can be said from Eq. (8.2) that if the wind speed doubles, the power
output increases eightfold. It is obvious that the most important factor in the
available wind power is the velocity of the wind. For example, an increase in
wind velocity of only 20% from 5 to 6 m/s (18 to 21.6 km/h), yields a 73%
increase in available wind power. Therefore, the site wind speed distribution,
or the relative frequency of occurrence for each wind speed, is very important
in determining the resource. For economic utilization, the wind speed must
be order of 15 to 20 km/h. It can also be said from Eq. (8.2) that power
varies according to square of the diameter of the wind interception area. The
available wind power also depends on density of air. The air density decreases
with increasing temperature (seasons) and increasing altitude above sea level.
Wind moving across the earth's surface is slowed by trees, buildings,
grass, rocks, and other obstructions in its path. Wind speed, direction, and
distribution can vary significantly over fairly short distances in the horizontal
298 Power Plant Engineering

or vertical directions. The actual wind resources in any specific area can vary
dramatically from those estimates and should be determined with long-term,
site specific measurements. Sites having wind power potential of at least
200 W/m2 at 10 m height or 400 W/m2 at 50 m height are often considered
economic for utility scale wind power development with presently available
wind technology. Sites having low wind power potential are likely to become
economic with near-term wind technology advances.

8.5.1 Windmill

You might have seen paper fans available during festivals or fairs. This paper
fan rotates when the wind blows and the speed of leaves changes with the
speed of the wind. The windmill works in a similar fashion. Windmills or wind
turbines convert the kinetic energy of the wind to mechanical energy which may
then be converted to electricity by connecting the windmill to the generator
through a step up gear box. Modern wind machines or wind turbines have a
small number of aerofoil-shaped blades, in contrast to the older windmills that
usually had several flat or slightly curved blades.
Although there are many different configurations of wind turbines
(Figure 8.15), most of them can be classified as either horizontal axis wind

Aerofoil

Multiblade type

Troposkein Guy wire

shape
"Cpi— Aerofoil
Savonius type Propeller type Darrieus type
Figure 8.15 Various types of windmills.

turbines (HAWTs), which have blades that rotate about a horizontal axis parallel
to the wind, or vertical axis wind turbines (VAWTs), which have blades that rotate
about a vertical axis. Many types of HAWTs and VAWTs have been developed.
However, only a few have been found to be suitable and some of these are:
Multiblade type, Sail type, Propeller type, Savonius type and Darrieus type. The
first three are HAWTs, while the remaining two are VAWTs. The salient features
of these are given below:
(i) The multiblade type similar to paper fan available during festivals has
more number of blades (12 to 20) made of sheet metal or aluminium.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 299
The width of blade increases from centre to the periphery. The
diameter of rotor usually ranges from 2 m to 5 m. It has advantage
of simplicity and low cost and is normally used for pumping water.
(ii) The blade surface of sail type is made from cloth or plastics arranged
in mast and pole or sailwings. Both the multiblade and sail type run
at low speeds of 60 to 80 rpm.
(iii) The propeller type has two or three long aerofoil blades of glass fibre
reinforced plastic and runs at speeds of 300 to 400 rpm.
(iv) The Savonius type works like a cup type anemometer. It consists of
a hollow circular cylinder sliced in half, the two halves being fixed
to a vertical axis with a gap in between. Two halves of cylinders
are fixed in such a manner that they face in opposite directions and
have an almost S-shaped cross section. The force of the wind on
cupped face is greater than on the rounded face. Torque is produced
by the pressure difference between the two sides of the half facing
the wind. The wide gap between the two inner edges of the halves
of cylinder allows the air to flow around the forward moving cupped
face and then around the inside of backward moving face. The design
is efficient but requires large area.
(v) The Darrieus type looks like an egg beater and has two or three blades
shaped like aerofoil. The fixed-pitch blades are curved and attached to
hubs on vertical shaft at both ends. The curved blade has the shape
like the rope during skipping. It requires much less surface area.
HAWTs and VAWTs both contain the same major components, but the details
of those components differ significantly. HAWTs usually have all of their drive
train (the transmission, generator, and any shaft brake) equipment located in a
nacelle or enclosure mounted on a tower. Their rotors must be oriented (yawed) so
the blades are properly aligned with respect to the wind. Their blades are subjected
to cyclic stresses due to gravity as they rotate. HAWTs may be readily placed on
tall towers to access the stronger winds typically found at greater heights. The most
common type of modern HAWT is the propeller type machine (Figure 8.16), and
these machines are generally classified according to the rotor orientation (upwind
or downwind of the tower), blade attachment to the main shaft (rigid or hinged),
maximum power control method (full or partial span blade pitch or blade stall), and
number of blades (generally two or three blades). The small wind turbines use a
tail vane, to align the rotor with the wind direction. The tail vane is a simple shape
cut from metal sheet, and it is attached to the back side of the windmill head. Most
large, upwind HAWTs and a few downwind HAWTs incorporate active yaw control
systems using a wind direction sensor and a drive motor/gear system to orient the
rotor with respect to the wind direction. Some downwind HAWTs are designed
to utilize the wind itself to automatically orient the rotor. Active yaw systems
tended to be extremely problematical in early turbines, but yaw loads are much
better understood today, and these systems are no longer a major problem area.
300 Power Plant Engineering

Rotor blade

Gear box
Generator

Wind direction for

• Wind direction for
a upwind rotor a downwind rotor
Nacelle

Tower

Hub
height

Figure 8.16 Propeller type of wind machine.

VAWTs usually have most of their drive train on the ground; their blades
do not experience cyclic gravitational stresses and do not require orientation
with respect to the wind. However, VAWT blades are subject to severe
alternating aerodynamic loading due to rotation, and VAWTs cannot readily
be placed on tall towers to exploit the stronger winds at greater heights. The
most common types of modern VAWTs are the Darrieus turbines. Although
there are still a few manufacturers of VAWTs, the overwhelming majority of
wind turbine manufacturers devote their efforts for developing better (and
usually larger) HAWTs.
The wind turbines for electricity production are manufactured in sizes
from a few Watts to 2.5 MW. The number of blades is usually from 2 to 6.
The speed of rotor at rated output range from 17.5 rpm to 35 rpm for 2 MW
and 40 rpm to 60 rpm in the range of 40 kW to 200 kW. The blade diameters
ranges from 3.65 m to 90 m depending on the capacity, higher blade diameters
are for higher capacity. The material used for rotor blade may be canvas,
wood, aluminium and its alloy, reinforced fibre, and steel depending on the
type of windmill.

8.6 Geothermal Energy

The word 'Geothermal' comes from the combination of the Greek words `geo'
means earth, and 'therm' means heat. Geothermal energy is the heat of the
earth's own interior. Geothermal resources are concentrations of the earth's
heat, and are known to men in the form of volcanoes, lava flows, hot springs
and natural geysers.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 301
The interior of earth is thought to consist of central core, mantle and crust.
The core consists of an inner solid core surrounded by a molten core. The
molten core is surrounded by a region of semifluid material called the mantle
and the mantle is covered by the crust. The centre of the earth is estimated at
temperature up to 4700 K due to decay of radioactive isotopes. Temperature
within the earth increases with depth at an average of about 25°C/km. The
suitable site for geothermal energy exploitation should have more temperature
increase rate about 40°C/km so that water may be available at 120°C or more
at moderate depth ranging from 200 m to 500 m. The variations of the thermal
energy within the deep crust and mantle of the earth give rise to concentrations
of thermal energy near the surface of the earth that can be used as an energy
resource. Heat is transferred from the deeper portion of the earth by conduction
of heat through rocks, by the movement of hot deep rock toward the surface,
and by deep circulation of water. The heat flow depending on the location is
generally 0.04-0.09 W/m2. Most high temperature geothermal resources are
associated with concentrations of heat caused by the movement of magma
(melted rock) to near surface positions where the heat is stored. Earth tremors
cause the magma to come closer to the earth's surface in certain places and
crust fissures to open. The hot magma near the surface in a typical geothermal
field (Figure 8.17) causes hot springs, fumaroles, geysers, and steam to vent
through the fissures if water exists there. The hot magma near the surface
solidifies into igneous rock. The groundwater that finds its way down to this
igneous rock through fissures in it will be heated by the heat of the rock or
by mixing with hot gases and steam originating from the magma. The heated
water will then rise convectively upward into a porous and permeable reservoir
above the igneous rock. A layer of impermeable solid rock traps the hot water
in the reservoir. The solid rock, however, has fissures that act as vents of the
giant underground boiler.
Rain/surface water

Steam

Impermeable
solid rock
Fissure
=Reservoir=
Heat Igneous rock Heat

Hot magma

Figure 8.17 A typical geothermal field.

Geothermal resources, whether water exists there or does not exist, can be
extracted and used economically to generate electricity now or in the reasonable
302 Power Plant Engineering

future. Currently, only concentrations of heat associated with water in permeable

rocks can be exploited. Heat, fluid, and permeability are the three necessary
components of all exploited geothermal fields. Geothermal resources can also
provide energy for heating, industrial uses, and bathing. Geothermal systems
are of the following types:
1. Hydrothermal systems
(a) Vapour dominated systems
(b) Liquid dominated systems
(i) Flashed steam systems
(ii) Binary cycle systems
2. Geopressurized systems
3. Hot dry rock (HDR) systems
4. Magmatic systems

8.6.1 Hydrothermal Systems

Hydrothermal systems are geothermal resources containing water in pores

and fractures of the rocks and heated by contact with rock. In hydrothermal
systems, the geothermal fluid is in the form of geothermal brine, hot mineral
water and steam. In order to utilize energy of hydrothermal systems, wells
are drilled either to intercept a fissure or the reservoir. The depth of wells, in
general, ranges from 600 m to 2 km, although there may be deeper wells. All
commercial geothermal production is expected to be restricted to hydrothermal
systems for many years because of the cost of artificial addition of water.
Successful and sustainable geothermal energy usage depends on re-injection
of the maximum quantity of produced fluid to augment natural recharge of
hydrothermal systems. Most hydrothermal resources contain liquid water,
but higher temperatures or lower pressures can create conditions where wet
steam or dry steam is available. Thus, hydrothermal systems may be vapour
dominated or liquid dominated.
(a) Vapour dominated systems: In vapour dominated systems (Figure 8.18),
the water due to pressure drop or throttling action is vaporized into steam that
reaches the surface in a relatively dry condition at about 250°C and rarely
above 8 bar. This steam can be economically used in Rankine cycle based
power plant. The steam available at the well head is in superheated condition
due to pressure drop of steam in the well which is at temperature about 250°C.
However, this steam also contains corrosive gases and erosive materials. Thus,
the steam available at the well head is first passed through the centrifugal
separator to remove particulate matter and separated steam is then supplied
to turbine. The steam after expansion in the turbine is condensed in a direct
contact type or mixing type condenser in contrast to surface condenser used in
thermal power plant. Some amount of condensate is cooled further in cooling
 Non-conventional Power Generation 303

Steam

x Centrifugal
Turbine
Cooling —►
tower

separator 4_

Steamjet
I
(AAAAA 6 -14— Pump
Condensate
pump
ejector
1
Direct contact condenser

•
Ground Reinjection well
Figure 8.18 A vapour dominated geothermal power plant.

towers for cooling water purpose in mixing condenser. The remaining condensate
is injected back into the reservoir to make geothermal reservoir a sustainable
resource. A steam jet ejector is used to maintain the vacuum in the condenser.
(b) Liquid dominated systems: In liquid dominated systems the hot water
trapped in the underground reservoir is at a temperature range of 175 to
315°C. Such hot water reserves are with small content of steam. The energy
available in such reserves can be extracted by means of wells drilled through
the impermeable rocks. The water flows either naturally to the surface or
pumped up to it. The power production in such system is adversely affected
because the hot water contains large concentration of dissolved solids which
precipitates and causes scaling and fouling in pipes and heat exchangers. The
power from liquid dominated systems can be produced by using the following
two concepts:
(i) Flashed steam systems: Flash steam systems (Figure 8.19) are the most
common and use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater

Steam

4—Flash Cooling
separator Turbine tower

E
A

Steam jet ejector

AAAAA 6 4—Pump
Condensate
pump
E
Direct contact condenser

♦ Ground Reinjection well

Spent brine
Figure 8.19 Liquid dominated flashed steam geothermal power system.
304 Power Plant Engineering

than 180°C. As this hot water flows upward through wells in the ground, the
pressure decreases and due to throttling action, some of the hot water converts
into steam. This mixture is further throttled in a separator and the dry steam
is then separated from the brine. The dry steam is used to run a turbine. The
steam after expansion in the turbine is condensed in a direct contact type
condenser similar to vapour dominated systems. Some amount of condensate
is cooled in cooling towers. The remaining condensate and the separated brine/
water from separator are injected back into the reservoir.
(ii) Binary cycle systems: Binary cycle systems (Figure 8.20) use geothermal
reservoirs of water with lower temperatures of about 107°C-180°C. The
hot water or brine from underground reservoir is circulated through a heat
exchanger and is pumped back for re-injection in the ground. The heat of hot
water in the heat exchanger is utilized to generate the vapour of low boiling
fluid, usually an organic compound or refrigerants. The generated vapour is
then used to run a vapour turbine. The water and the working fluid are kept
separated during the whole process, so there are little or no air emissions.
Binary cycle geothermal power generation plants differ from dry steam (vapour
dominated) and flashed steam systems in that the water or steam from the
geothermal reservoir never comes in contact with the turbine/generator units.
The advantage of the binary cycle plant is that they can operate with lower
temperature water (110°C-185°C), by using working fluids that have an even
lower boiling point than water.

Cooling
tower

Pump

Surface condenser
Condensate
pump

Ground
Reinjection
Figure 8.20 Liquid dominated binary cycle geothermal system.

8.6.2 Geopressurized Systems

These sources contain water or brine similar to liquid dominated systems except
that this water is trapped in much deeper (2.5 km to 9 km) underground aquifers.
The temperature (— 160°C) of this water is slightly above normal gradient or rate
of increase in temperature with depth, and pressure (> 1000 bar) is very high
 Non-conventional Power Generation 305

which is well above hydrostatic pressure corresponding to depth. Because of the

abnormally high pressure of water, up to 135 MPa in such reservoirs, they are
referred to as geopressurized systems. The pressure is very high because water
in such reservoirs is trapped in a porous sedimentary medium by the overlying
impervious layers. This water is highly saline and is also saturated with natural gas,
mostly methane. The solubility of methane in water is high at high pressure. The
pressure of this water reduces when it is brought to the surface and methane gas
is released from the water or brine. Geopressurized systems may be economically
feasible by the utilization of methane as a fuel as well as heat energy of water.

8.6.3 Hot Dry Rock (HDR) Systems

Hot dry rock (HDR) systems also termed petrothermal systems are subsurface
zones of earth with low initial permeability of rock and temperature range from
200°C-350°C, and without or little underground water. HDR deposits have
the largest geothermal energy potential in the world. However, these systems
cannot be used for economic production of energy at this time.
The petrothermal systems composed of HDR but no underground water. The
rock occurring at moderate depths has a very low permeability and needs to be
fractured to increase the heat transfer surface. Extraction of geothermal energy
through these hot dry rocks requires injection of cold water into artificially
created fractured rock cavities or injection wells in hot dry rock and extraction
of hot water and steam by means of production wells. Water injected into the
well acts as a heat collecting and heat transporting medium. Cavity in hot dry
rock acts like a boiler steam generator.

8.6.4 Magmatic Systems

Magmatic system refers to the nearby area of recent volcanic activity where
the hot magma at high temperature from 600°C-1400°C and in large volume
is available at moderate depth of less than 5 km. Though the extraction of
heat from hot magma may be difficult, but the concept to use such resources
is to place a heat exchanger within the magma. The heat of magma would be
taken by the fluid circulating through the heat exchanger and this heat energy
of fluid could be utilized for useful purpose. The heat exchanger should be able
to bear the high temperature magma as well as the provision will have to be
made to maintain the flow of highly viscous magma around the heat exchanger.

Geothermal resources in India

India has about 150 known geothermal sites having geothermal fluid of
moderate and low temperature (< 160°C). The geothermal fields in India are
in the form of hot water springs (40°C to 98°C) and shallow water reservoir.
Due to moderate and low temperatures of geothermal fluids, the prospects of
geothermal power plants in India are low. However, the geothermal energy has
306 Power Plant Engineering
several low temperature applications. The geothermal resources in India are
located in the entire Himalayan range, Cambay basin, Godavari valley and so
on. At several religious places in India, the geothermal resources have been
used since antiquity for cooking and medicinal purposes. One such place is at
Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) near Kullu, where a 5 kW pilot power plant
has also been installed.

8.7 Tidal Energy

The ocean contains a vast renewable energy potential in its waves, tides and
in the temperature difference between warmer surface water and cold water at
depth. Tides are the periodic rise and fall in sea water level. This difference
in elevation of water can be harnessed from the coastal water by erecting a
dam that entraps the water in a reservoir or basin at high tide and release it
back to the sea during low tide. The energy from tides is derived from the
kinetic energy of water moving from a higher to a lower elevation, similar
to hydroelectric plants. Electricity by tidal power plant is produced from the
gravity-driven inflow to dam or outflow from dam or both through a water
turbine. Only a few sites around the world have the proper conditions of tides
and landscape to use this type of power plant because costs are strongly driven
by the civil works required. Thus, the tide although free, the economics of
tidal power production remains uncompetitive to conventional energy systems.
The advantages of the tidal power are that it is inexhaustible, completely
independent of the rainfall, pollution free and do not require large valuable land
area. However, the operation is intermittent and power generated is variable
due to variation in tidal range.
Tides are a result of the gravitational attraction of the sun and the moon on
the water of solid earth, and the rotation of the earth. The moon is the major
factor in tide formation because about 70 per cent of the tide producing force
is due to the gravitational attraction of the moon. Surface water is pulled away
from the earth on the side facing the moon, and at the same time the water on
the opposite side is also pulled away from the solid earth to balance the dynamic
forces. The high (flood) tides occur in these two areas while the low (ebb) tides
occur at intermediate areas. The position of a given area relative to the moon
changes because the moon rotates around the earth in a lunar day which is equal
to 24 hours 50 minutes. During a lunar day the tide at a location rises and falls
twice and there is a periodic succession of high and low tides. A tidal cycle
(Figure 8.21) or rise and fall of sea water level last for 12 hours 25 minutes.
The rise and fall of the water level follows a sinusoidal curve and the average
time for the water level to fall from the high tide point to low tide point or to
rise from low tide point to high tide point is approximate 6 hours 12.5 minutes.
The tidal schedule (time based on clock) varies day to day or tides do not come
at the same time because the earth revolves about its axis in 24 hours while
moon rotates around the earth in 24 hours 50 minutes.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 307
High tide

Tidal range
Ak Mean
water level

1F
Low tide
12h 25 min
Figure 8.21 Tidal cycle.

The tidal range is defined as the difference between mean water level at
high tide and low tide. Because of the changing positions of the moon and
sun relative to the earth, the range varies (Figure 8.22) continuously. At times
during full or new moon (Purnima or Amawasya tithi), the sun, moon and earth
are approximately in a line, and due to this the gravitational forces of sun
and moon enhance each other. Thus, the high tides are higher and low tides
are lower than average during full or new moon and the tidal range is then
exceptionally large. These high range tides are termed spring tides. On the other
hand, near the first and third quarters of the moon, when the sun and moon are
at right angles with respect to the earth, the high tides are lower and the low
tides are higher than the average and the tidal range is then small. These low
range tides are termed neap tides. Thus, the tidal range varies during a lunar
month of 29.5 days for which a spring-neap-spring tidal cycle occurs. The tidal
range first reduces from maximum at new moon (Amawasya) to minimum at
first quarter of the moon (after approximately 7-8 days) and then increases
and again becomes maximum at full moon (Purnima). A similar trend is also
followed from the full moon to the new moon.
New moon First quarter Full moon Third quarter New moon
• 3 0 0 •

29.51 days
Spring tide Neap tide Spring tide Neap tide Spring tide
Figure 8.22 Variation of tidal range in a lunar month.

Though, the tidal resource is variable but it is predictable. The variations

in the periodicity and changes in the range of tide at a location must be taken
into account for the design and operation of tidal power plant. A minimum tidal
range of 5 m is required for plants using conventional hydroelectric equipment.
308 Power Plant Engineering

However, the low-head hydroelectric power equipment has proved adaptable

to tidal power and new systems for 2 m ranges have been proposed. The tides
along most coastlines are about a metre high, but in constricted areas the tidal
range may be more than 10 metres.

8.7.1 Operation of Tidal Power Plant

A tidal power plant has the following three main components

(i) Powerhouse: Powerhouse houses the turbines, generators and other
auxiliary equipment.
(ii) The dam or dyke to form basin (reservoir) or basins: The dyke
forms a barrier between the sea and the basin or between one basin
and the other basin in case of multiple basins.
(iii) Sluice ways: The sluice ways, which are gate controlled, are used
either to fill the basin during the high tide or empty the basin during
the low tide, as per the operational requirement.
A tidal power plant scheme involves the construction of barrier (dyke)
preferably in constricted area across an ocean bay or estuary to create a basin.
A tidal power plant may be based on the following schemes:
1. Single basin scheme
(i) Ebb cycle system
(ii) Flood cycle system
(iii) Double cycle system
2. Two basins linked scheme

Single basin scheme

In a single basin scheme (Figure 8.23), there is only one basin interacting with
the sea. The sea and the basin are separated by a dyke and the water flow
between them is through sluice ways or low head turbines located conveniently
along the dyke or dam. The power generation is during low (ebb) tide in a
single ebb cycle system, during high (flood) tide in a single flood cycle system
and during both (ebb and flood) in a double cycle system.
In a single basin ebb cycle system, the basin is filled during the flood tide
(high tide) by keeping the sluice gates open and allowing water flow from the
basin to sea, while the turbine sets are shut. The reservoir or basin is filled
till the maximum tide level is reached and at the beginning of the ebb tide
the sluice gates are closed. After two or three hours when there is sufficient
difference between the full reservoir level and the falling water level in the
sea, the turbines are started by allowing water to flow from the turbines to sea.
The effective head on the turbines is not constant and reduces due to rising
level of the next flood tide and falling reservoir level. Turbines are kept in
working until the effective head on the turbines reduces to the extent where it
 Non-conventional Power Generation 309
Dyke
Sluices and powerhouse Basin
Sea 17

.
Fxxi
Front view

Sluices Basin (
Sea

Sluices
1—Powerhouse

Dyke

Figure 8.23 Single basin tidal power generation scheme.

can no longer work safely and efficiently. At this stage the turbines are shut.
The sluice gates are opened again during the flood tide, to repeat the cycle
of operations.
In a single basin flood cycle system, the power generation is done during
flood tide by allowing sea water into the basin by passing the water through
the turbines. The power generation is stopped when the flood tide period is
over and the basin water is drained into the sea through the sluice ways. The
drawbacks in flood cycle system are that it generates power for a shorter
period, requires a larger size plant and generates less energy in comparison
to ebb cycle system.
In a single basin double cycle system, the power generation is done during
both emptying and filling the basin. Thus, the turbines used are reversible
turbines. The double cycle system has only short duration of intermittent
turbine operation, yet a continuous generation of power is still not possible.

Two basins linked scheme

In a two basins linked scheme (Figure 8.24), there are two separate but adjacent
basins at different levels. The powerhouse is located in the barrier between the
two basins while the sluice gates are embodied in the dam across the mouth of
the two basins. The water level in higher or upper basin is maintained above
that in the lower basin. The electricity is generated by water flowing from
upper basin to lower basin through turbines located in the barrier between the
two basins. At the beginning of the flood tide, the sluice gates of the upper
basin are opened and those of the lower basin are closed. The upper basin is
filled up during flood tide and power generation continues simultaneously with
the filling up of the upper basin. The water from the lower basin is drained
310 Power Plant Engineering

Upper basin

Powerhouse
Dyke

Sluices ?r
Sea
Dyke

Sluices
Dyke Lower basin

Figure 8.24 Top view of two basins linked scheme for tidal power generation.

continuously in the sea during ebb tide. In a two basin linked scheme, the
power may be generated continuously at variable rate because there is always
a difference of head between upper and lower basins.

8.8 Energy from Biomass

Biomass means organic matter which is produced in nature primarily through
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a naturally occurring process which derives
its energy requirement from solar radiation. In photosynthesis process, water
and carbon dioxide are converted into organic material. Biomass is derived
from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities and from
many sources, including the by-products from the wood industry, agricultural
crops, raw material from the forest, household wastes, etc. The term biomass
is also generally understood to include animal and human wastes.
Biomass is a renewable energy resource. The potential for application of
biomass, as an alternative source of energy in India, is large. We have plenty
of agricultural and forest resources for production of biomass. Biomass may
be obtained either in planned or unplanned manner from forests, agricultural
lands, arid lands and even wastelands. Many technological possibilities exist for
exploiting the energy stored in green plants and organic wastes. The biomass
may be burned directly or converted into a conveniently usable solid, liquid
and gaseous fuel. The liquid and gaseous fuels may be blended with internal
combustion engines fuel. Energy from biomass may be obtained through the
following three routes:
1. Direct combustion
2. Thermochemical conversion
3. Biological conversion
 Non-conventional Power Generation 311

8.8.1 Direct Combustion

The direct route of using a biomass resources such as wood waste, cow dung
and bagasse (the fibrous residue after the pressing of sugar cane) is to burn it.
More than 95% of the worldwide use of biomass is through its direct combustion.
The majority of biomass is used in developing countries, in daily living to
provide heat for cooking and space heating. The half of all solid biomass
combustion worldwide goes into cooking and space heating at the household
level. Even today, in India a substantial part of the cooking energy requirements
of millions of village households is met by burning wood, agricultural waste
and dung cakes in stoves (chulhas). However, such direct utilization in chulhas
has low efficiency of use which is mainly due to poor combustion efficiency
and inadequate heat transfer to the cooking vessels.
The solid biomass can be co-fired with coal in boilers. This has been
practiced, tested, or evaluated for a variety of combustion technologies in
boiler. In a biomass/coal co firing operation, a biomass fuel is used to replace
a portion of the coal fed to an existing coal-fired boiler. Solid biomass can be
fed to coal boilers by blending biomass on the coal pile or separately injecting
biomass into the boiler. Separate injection of solid biomass to the pulverized
coal boiler allows for the introduction of higher biomass percentages typically
up to 30% on a mass basis. Thus, the electrical power can be produced from
wood, wood wastes and agriculture waste by co-firing with coal.
The wood for power generation as well as for cooking purpose can be
obtained continuously by energy plantation approach. In this approach, selected
species of fast growing or high yield trees are to be planted and harvested
over regular intervals of time in a phased manner. The tree species at any
location must be selected in such a manner so that there is no danger of
monoculture weakening the ecological system. The trees such as eucalyptus,
babool, sycamore, and casuarinas may be grown in India.

8.8.2 Thermochemical Conversion

Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes processes like destructive

distillation, pyrolysis, gasification and production of methanol and ethanol in
different oxidation, temperature, pressure, and catalysis conditions.
Wood is most commonly converted to charcoal, while producing a poor wood
gas. Pyrolysis is a process in which wood and woody substances are heated in the
absence of air. At a temperature of around 400°C, a self-sustaining exothermic
reaction takes place in which the structure of the biomass breaks down. The
products of biomass pyrolysis include water, charcoal (or more correctly char,
a carbonaceous solid), oils or tars, and permanent gases including methane,
hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. All of the products of the process
except the water are combustible. The pyrolysis produces mostly charcoal in batch
furnaces constructed in cottage industries; neither liquids nor gases are recovered.
312 Power Plant Engineering

The biomass can be converted into a gaseous fuel. The gaseous fuel
can be utilized in electric power generation, the manufacture of liquid fuels,
and the production of chemicals. Biomass gasification is a thermal process
that transforms wood, charcoal, and woody substances into combustible gas
containing carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Biomass gasification is a process
of partial combustion in which oxygen or air supply is intentionally kept less
than the amount required for the full combustion of biomass. The chemistry of
gasification of biomass is best viewed as an extension of the pyrolysis process.
Biomass gasification is carried out in a gasifier. In gasifier wood first
dries, becomes charcoal through pyrolysis, and then gasifies, thus improving
efficiency and reducing cost. The majority of gasifiers are partial oxidation
reactors, in which just sufficient air or oxygen is introduced to burn a part of
the input biomass to provide the heat for pyrolysis and gasification. The use
of pure oxygen as the gasification agent results in the higher calorific value
of the resulting combustible gas termed producer gas. Typically the gasifier
(Figure 8.25) is a vertical cylindrical vessel of varying cross section. The biomass
is fed from the top at regular intervals of time and is converted into producer
gas and ash as it moves down slowly through various zones of the gasifier.

Gas out 4-
Drying zone
Insulation up to 120°C

Pyrolysis zone
200°C-600°C
Oxidation zone
900°C-1200°C
1— Air
Reduction zone
600°C-900°C
' Ash k
• Grate
Water seal Ash pit
Figure 8.25 Down draft biomass gasifier.

In the first zone which is drying zone, the moisture content in biomass is
removed by evaporation through heat transfer from the lower zones which are at
much higher temperatures. The second zone called the pyrolysis zone which is at
temperatures ranging from 200°C to 600°C from top to bottom. In the pyrolysis
zone, the dried biomass loses its volatiles and a self-sustaining exothermic reaction
takes place in which the structure of the biomass breaks down. The third zone is
called the oxidation or combustion zone. Combustion reactions similar to those
occurring in a normal furnace take place in this zone with the help of predetermined
 Non-conventional Power Generation 313
quantity of air for partial combustion and a portion of the char and the pyrolysed
gases coming from the second zone are burnt. In this zone temperatures ranging
from 900°C to 1200°C are attained and the principal reactions taking place are
exothermic and oxidizing in nature. The fourth and last zone called the reduction
zone is at temperatures ranging from 900°C to 600°C. In the reduction zone, char
(carbon), carbon dioxide and water vapour from the combustion zone are converted
into carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The principal reactions are endothermic and
reducing in nature, and are as follows:
CO2 + C 2C0
C + H2 0 CO + H2
C + 2H2 0 CO2 + 2H2
The final products are producer gas and ash. The heating value of the gas
ranges from 4000 to 5000 kJ/m3, which is a relatively low value compared to
the heating value of other gaseous fuels, like natural gas. The gas also contains
measurable amounts of particulate material and tar. Thus, the gas has to be
first cleaned for complete removal of particulate material and tar, if it is to be
used as a fuel for internal combustion engines. The cleaning system consists
of a cyclone separator, a scrubber and a filter. The spark ignition engine can
operate with producer gas alone while compression ignition engine operates in
the dual-fuel mode and normally requires 25 per cent of the diesel required by
the engine if operating with diesel alone. In these internal combustion engines
cleaned gas along with air is sucked during suction stroke.
The producer gas can be used as a component in the production of
methanol and ethanol. Methanol (methyl alcohol) is a chemical product, now
manufactured worldwide by processing natural gas. Ethanol, also called ethyl
alcohol, is either synthesized from ethylene, or fermented from amylaceous
and glucidic substances.
Medium calorific value (MCV) gas can be produced without using oxygen or
air in gasification. This requires an independent source of heat to be transferred
to the biomass to pyrolize the feedstock. Medium calorific value (MCV) gas
can also be produced by making the biomass to react with steam and oxygen
at a high pressure and temperature.

8.8.3 Biological Conversion

The processes to digest and metabolize plant polymers have evolved over
billions of years from simple bacteria to large mammals. The various biological
degradation processes have been harnessed in industrial conversion processes
to produce biofuels and bioproducts. For the last several years, efforts have
been made to develop diesel fuel (bio-diesel) substitutes made from plant oils
(sunflowers, cotton, peanuts, and others). Of the many processes, only two
have attained large-scale use: anaerobic digestion for production of gaseous
fuel and fermentation for ethanol production.
314 Power Plant Engineering

Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic microorganisms convert the biodegradable fraction of organic
materials to mixture of carbon dioxide and methane (45 to 70 per cent) termed
biogas in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic digestion or fermentation has
achieved some spectacular results, and the process now appears to have several
uses that can contribute to rural development. The process is carried out in
easily constructed and operated biogas digesters, which use all types of wastes
as raw material, including agricultural wastes (straw, leaves); animal wastes
(manure, rumenal fluids, viscera); urban organic wastes (garbage, sewage);
and industrial organic wastes (from food, fish, fruit, and vegetable processing
plants). A typical biogas plant (Figure 8.26) has the following components:
Gas holder Biogas
Water seal
Feed Floating dome
I Sludge
• Slurry level
11,
0
0
0 Ground
0 0
t 0
0 4.
Partition 0
wall 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
I
I 000 0 Masonry work

COMIMIMMWO
Figure 8.26 Floating dome type biogas plant.

(i) Digester: A digester is a well, containing the animal waste (usually

gobar or cattle dung) and other wastes in the form of slurry (raw
material mixed with water). In the digester the slurry is fermented.
The digester is normally below the ground level. The diameter of the
digester ranges from 1.2 m to 6 m, while its depth ranges from 3 m
to 6 m. A vertical partition wall divides it into two equal parts and
serves to direct the flow of the slurry.
(ii) Dome: The dome is top cover of well and serves as the gasholder.
The dome may be fixed or floats on the slurry as per the gas pressure.
(iii) Pipelines: There are two pipelines respectively connected at bottom
of both parts of digester formed by partition wall. One pipeline is for
feeding the slurry, and the other is for the spent slurry called sludge
to come out after it has undergone fermentation.
(iv) An inlet tank for mixing the feed and supply it into the digester.
(v) An outlet tank to remove the spent slurry.
(vi) Distribution pipeline(s) to transport the gas into the kitchen or any
other place of use.
(vii) A manure pit, where the spent slurry is stored.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 315
In the digester, the feeding of slurry is done regularly, i.e. once a day.
The gas generation process takes place slowly and the generation of gas takes
places only after the gestation period or a few days during initial starting. The
process in digester depends on various factors, such as pH (between 7.0 and
7.2), temperature (10-60°C), digester hermeticity (absence of 02), carbon/
nitrogen ratio of the raw material and flow percentage of solids. The gas
generation process takes place in two stages. In the first stage, the complex,
organic substances contained in the waste are broken down into small-chain
simple acids by acid-forming bacteria. In the second stage, these acids are
acted upon by methane-forming bacteria which produce methane and carbon
dioxide. The spent slurry or sludge floats in the first part of the digester and
goes into the second part of the digester. The sludge comes out through the
corresponding pipeline with the build up of gas pressure in the dome. The
sludge retains the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium originally present in
the waste and is an excellent biofertilizer. Another interesting application of
biofertilizer is its use as animal food.
Biogas is a safe fuel for cooking and lighting. It is also a good alternate
fuel for compression-ignition engines and can yield diesel savings of 70 to 80
per cent. The production of biogas is of particular significance in India because
of its large cattle population. Using only local resources, namely cattle waste
and other organic wastes, energy and manure (fertilizer) are derived. Thus the
biogas plants are the cheap sources of energy in rural areas.

Fermentation
Ethanol is currently the most important liquid fuel produced from biomass. It is
produced by fermentation of certain crops and foodgrains such as sugar cane,
sugar beet, maize, corn, cassava and tapioca. Fermentation is the breakdown of
complex molecules with the help of ferment such as yeast, bacteria, enzymes,
etc. The fermentable sugars can be obtained directly from sugar cane and
sugar beet, or they can be produced by means of the hydrolysis of starches
or cellulose and hemicelluloses.
Ethanol thus produced can be mixed with petrol (90% petrol, 10% ethanol)
for use in automotive engines. However, this method can be of substantial
benefit only to a country like Brazil having a large surplus of agricultural
land. The production of ethanol as a fuel is not appropriate for India since
the availability of sugar cane and maize is limited.

8.9 MHD Power Generation

The magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation is a direct energy
conversion system which converts the heat energy directly into electrical
energy. A substantial fuel economy can be achieved due to the elimination
of the link process of producing mechanical energy via heat power cycle.
The principle of MHD power generation is Faraday's law of electromagnetic
316 Power Plant Engineering

induction which states that when a conductor and a magnetic field move
relative to each other, an electric voltage is induced in the conductor. As the
name implies MHD generator (Figure 8.27) is concerned with the flow of a
conducting fluid in the presence of magnetic and electric fields. In conventional
generator or alternator, the conductor consists of copper windings or strips
while in an MHD generator, the hot ionized gas or conducting fluid replaces
the solid conductor. A pressurized, electrically conducting fluid flows through
a transverse magnetic field in a channel or duct. Pair of electrodes are located
on the channel walls at right angle to the magnetic field and connected through
an external circuit to deliver power to a load connected into it. Electrodes in
the MHD generator perform the same function as brushes in a conventional dc
generator. The MHD generator develops dc power and the conversion to ac is
done by an inverter. The power generated per unit length by MHD generator
is approximately given by:
P = 6uB 2 1p (8.3)
where u is the fluid velocity, B is the magnetic flux density, c is the electrical
conductivity of conducting fluid and p is the density of fluid.
Magnetic field
Motion
e.m.f. and current *-----VvElectrode
connection
•
Field
Segmented
Insulator wall electrode wall
Duct

7‘.
Hot gas flow
Lower magnet coil
(upper not shown)
Figure 8.27 MHD generator.

It is evident from Eq. (8.3) that for the higher power density of an MHD
generator, there must be strong magnetic field of 4-5 tesla (1 tesla = 104
gauss) and high flow velocity of conducting fluid besides adequate conductivity.
The fluid is heated to high temperature and alkali materials (potassium salt,
cesium) having low ionization potential are injected in the hot fluid to ensure
reasonable conductivity of the fluid. The injected material is termed seed
material. An adequate electrical conductivity can thus be realized at somewhat
lower temperatures by seeding. Actually seed material acts as conductor, while
the flowing fluid acts as a carrier. Only a small amount of seed material is
required and is typically around 1% of the total mass flow. To achieve a
 Non-conventional Power Generation 317

higher velocity, the fluid is passed through the nozzle and fluid should have
higher pressure prior to the nozzle. In the MHD duct, the kinetic energy
and the internal energy of hot fluid decreases due to the effect of the strong
magnetic field and the consequent Lorentz force. To accommodate the flow
due to a reduction in velocity along the length of duct, the duct is made like
a diffuser or divergent. The fluid looses its ionization potential in MHD duct
with reduction in internal energy or temperature and at this state the fluid which
is still at higher temperature is exhausted from the duct. The thermal energy
of hot fluid leaving the MHD duct is further utilized in a heat power cycle.
An MHD generator requires several components: duct, magnets, electrodes,
inverter, seed injector, combustor with fuel and oxidizer supply or an input heat
exchanger, nozzle, compressor, diffuser, exhaust gas cleaning system, etc. The
material for MHD duct walls, has to stand up to temperatures above 2200°C
and the corrosive atmospheres of alkali-seeded gases. The duct wall will also
need to be an electrical insulator at such high temperatures. Materials used for
duct walls are magnesium oxide, strontium zitconate and hafnia. Electrodes
are of tungsten or carbon and often segmented to reduce energy losses due to
Hall Effect. As stated earlier, the magnetic field must be strong and to produce
such magnetic field, electromagnets consume a lot of electricity. The power
consumption of these electromagnets is reduced by cooling and cryogenic or
superconducting coils at liquid helium temperatures have been suggested. MHD
power generation system can use various fuels like coal, natural gas, kerosene,
benzene, toluene, fuel oil, etc. However, coal is inherently a better fuel than
others, because it contains less hydrogen, and thus the sink of electrons in the
flow created by the OH- ions is reduced.
The MHD power generation seems to be a most promising direct energy
conversion method because of higher conversion efficiency as well as possibility
to develop system for bigger capacity. The MHD generator is capable of utilizing
the heat energy generated by modern furnaces at high temperatures, which can
reach temperatures of more than 2500 K. In contrast to the MHD generator, the
maximum limiting temperature for gas turbine blades is about 750°C-800°C.
Power systems incorporating MHD generators are either of the once-through
(open cycle) or working fluid recycle (closed cycle) type. In open cycle, the
MHD generator operates directly on ionized combustion gas while for closed
cycle operation noble gases and liquid metal MHD are invariably considered.
The complete MHD system can either be stand-alone or incorporated into a
more complex configuration such as a binary cycle.

8.9.1 Open Cycle MHD Power System

In an open cycle MHD power system (Figure 8.28), air is used as a fluid for
the MHD duct. First atmospheric air is compressed in a compressor and then
the air is preheated in heat exchanger by using the heat of air or gas leaving
the MHD duct. The air is preheated so that high temperature is possible in
318 Power Plant Engineering

AC power
Atmospheric air
Nozzle Inverter Compressor To chimney
Hot air
-4 Flue
Slag separator
MHD and radiant 0
—0 boiler g. :g 45' -<9
duct
I
-0-
Slag -Steam Seed
Seed injection
turbine
Pulverized • cycle
coal
ti
Seed regeneration Seed I

Figure 8.28 Component arrangement of an open cycle MHD-steam power plant.

combustion chamber. For this, oxygen-enriched air is also used when the
preheated air temperature is not high enough. The air can also be preheated
indirectly using an auxiliary combustion system. The temperature of preheated
air is then raised very high in the range of 2200°C to 2700°C either by directly
burning pulverized coal in combustor or in a separate heat exchanger. For air
or gas to be conducting, a certain number of free electrons must be present
along with an equal number of ions and the main body of neutral atoms. Since
a very high temperature is required to ionize a gas (thermal ionization) which
cannot be endured by the materials available, the hot air or gas is seeded with
cesium or potassium (K2CO3 or KOH) to make it conductor at low temperature
in the range of 2200°C to 2700°C.
The pressurized hot air from combustion chamber is passed through the
nozzle and then seed material is injected before the gas enters the MHD duct.
In the MHD duct, the kinetic energy and some part of the internal energy of
the conducting gas is converted in electricity and there is a decrease in the
kinetic energy of the gas as well as reduction in temperature. The gas looses
its ionization potential when temperature falls to about 1700°C and is unable
to produce power. This high temperature exhaust gas from the MHD duct
is then used in the preheating of compressed air which is to be heated in
the combustion chamber. The heat energy of hot exhaust gas leaving the air
preheater is then utilized in generating steam for Rankine cycle power block.
Before exhausting the products of combustion to atmosphere, the seed material
is recovered in an electrostatic precipitator, which can be used again. The use of
electrostatic precipitator helps in the abatement of atmospheric pollution since
the oxides and hydroxides of the seeding element cause severe air pollution.
Thermodynamically the operation of MHD power generation may be
considered to be based on Brayton cycle with MHD generator replacing the
gas turbine. The heat energy of hot exhaust gas from the MHD generator is
 Non-conventional Power Generation 319
further utilized to produce steam for Rankine cycle power block system. Thus,
the operation of open cycle MHD power system may be considered to be based
on combined cycle with MHD unit as topping unit and steam power cycle as
bottoming unit. Since the combined plant operates over a larger temperature
difference, the efficiency will obviously be higher. System calculations have
shown that, when coupled as a topping cycle to the best available steam
plant technology, thermal efficiency with coal is 52.5%. When coupled into
a ternary cycle with a gas turbine and a steam turbine, increase in efficiency
of 60% is possible.

8.9.2 Closed Cycle MHD Power System

For closed cycle operation, noble gases and liquid metal are considered as
fluid. In closed cycle, the fluid is heated in a heat exchanger by using the heat
energy of any combustion source. A high temperature nuclear reactor, probably
helium cooled, is also a feasible source for MHD and in the early stages of
development. In this closed cycle scheme, helium (or argon) gas seeded with
cesium is heated in a nuclear reactor, passed into the MHD duct and then into
the steam generating system.

8.10 Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a
fuel (H2, CH4) and oxidant (02, air) directly into the low voltage dc electrical
energy. Direct conversion in fuel cells avoids the inefficient multi-step processes
involved in heat engines via combustion. The performance of fuel cells is not
limited by the second law of thermodynamics. Their potential high efficiency
(up to 70%) represents less chemical, thermal, and carbon dioxide emissions for
the same amount of power generation. Fuel cells are efficient, clean, suitable
for both mobile and stationary applications, quiet in operation or without
vibration and noise, and compatible with renewable energy sources. Fuel cells
are currently high-cost and low-size devices. The potential of a single fuel
cell is typically around 0.7-0.8 V, and it is normally too small for practical
applications. Therefore, many individual fuel cells are electrically connected
(in parallel or in series) together to form a fuel cell stack. Parallel connection
is generally avoided because high current flow will cause an excessively large
Ohmic voltage loss in the stack components and at the surface contacts among
the components. The expected life of fuel cells is also less and ranges from
10000 to 40000 hours, though experience indicates that the real life is very
less than the expected life.
A fuel cell has three main components: a fuel electrode (anode), an oxidant
electrode (cathode), and an electrolyte sandwiched between them. Like a
continuous battery, the fuel cell has electrodes in an electrolyte medium. The
electrodes of a fuel cell do not normally take part in the chemical reactions
320 Power Plant Engineering

although they may act as catalysts, whereas in the battery the electrodes take
part in chemical reactions. In the batteries the electrodes and sometimes the
electrolyte are changed and exhausted so that the operation of battery eventually
stops, while in a fuel cell, the fuel and the oxidizer are continuously supplied
respectively to anode and cathode.
The type of reactions taking place in a fuel cell is determined by the fuel
and oxidizer combination, by the composition of the electrolyte, and by the
materials and catalytic effect of the anode and the cathode. There may be transfer
of negative ions from the cathode to anode or transfer of positive ions from
the anode to cathode depending on electrolyte. However, the electron produced
at anode travel through external circuit or load and collected at cathode.
Fuel cells are classified based on their operating temperature, nature of
electrolyte and the type of ion migrating through the electrolyte. There are
presently six major fuel cell technologies and these are alkaline, phosphoric
acid, polymer electrolyte membrane, molten carbonate, solid oxide, and direct
methanol fuel cell. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is the most popular alkaline
fuel cell.

8.10.1 Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell

A hydrogen-oxygen fuel (Figure 8.29) has three chambers separated by the

porous electrodes. The middle chamber is filled with 40% KOH solution. The
surfaces of electrodes are chemically treated, so that there is minimum leakage
of electrolyte in the outer chambers. The hydrogen is supplied to the anode
while the oxygen is supplied to the cathode. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell takes
two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen and produces two
molecules of water leaving behind four spare electrons to generate an electric
current. Waste heat is also generated due to the electrochemical reactions

Electron flow
r/Z/Z AV r A
Fuel (H2) Spent oxidant
ril.

0
rii
Spent fuel 41— Air (02)
AW A AW A
Porous Electrolyte Porous
anode to coolant cathode
Figure 8.29 Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 321
occurring at the anode and the cathode, migration of ions through the electrolyte
and electrons transporting in the solid portion of the electrodes and the external
circuit. The by-products (water and waste heat) of the electrochemical reactions
should be removed continuously from the cell to maintain its continuous
isothermal operation for electric power generation. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel
cells were originally used for space missions and reaction product water was
used for drinking purpose by the astronauts. It is also possible for some types
of fuel cells to use the waste heat as the heat source for either cogeneration
or bottoming cycles.
The alkaline electrolyte is immobilized in an asbestos matrix and operates at
high pressure to prevent the boiling and depletion of the liquid electrolyte. The
cell-component materials must withstand the extreme corrosive, oxidizing and
reducing environments of the cathode and anode due to high temperature and
high pressure. To meet these requirements, precious metals such as platinum,
gold, and silver are used for the construction of the electrodes.
In terms of the energy value of the hydrogen, the conversion process is
around 75% to 80% efficient. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells give the highest
energy conversion efficiency among all the fuel cell types under the similar
operating conditions.

Cell reaction
Although the half cell reactions at anode and cathode may be quite different
in different types of fuel cells, the overall cell reaction remains the same as
given below:
1
H 2 + - 02 Electrical energy + H2 O + Waste heat
2
Half cell reaction for acidic electrolyte
The molecular hydrogen supplied to anode reacts electrochemically at the
anode as:
H2 2H+ + 2e-
The hydrogen ions (protons) migrate to cathode through the electrolyte
while the electrons are forced to transfer to cathode through an external circuit.
At the cathode, the protons and electrons react with the oxygen supplied to
cathode as:
102 + 2H+ + 2e- H2 O
2

Half cell reaction for alkaline electrolyte

The molecular hydrogen supplied to anode reacts electrochemically with the
hydroxyl ions at the anode as:
2H2 + 4(OH)- 4H2 0 + 4e-
322 Power Plant Engineering

At the cathode, water and electrons react with the oxygen supplied to
cathode as:
02 + 2H2 0 + 4e- 4(OH)-

8.11 Thermoelectric Power Generation

Thermoelectric devices are based on the Seebeck effect for power generation
and the Peltier effect for refrigeration. Thermoelectric generator is a device
based on the Seebeck effect and it converts heat energy directly into electrical
energy. When the junctions in a loop of two dissimilar materials are kept at
different temperatures (one junction hot and another cold), because of electron
density difference an e.m.f. is developed. This is called the Seebeck effect.
Both conditions, i.e. dissimilar material and temperature difference are must.
The developed e.m.f. (AV) is given by:

A V = a ABAT (8.4)
where AT is the temperature difference between two junctions and aAB is the
Seebeck coefficient. The Seebeck effect is used in a thermocouple to measure
temperature.
In a thermoelectric generator loop (Figure 8.30), the dissimilar thermoelectric
materials A and B are joined at the hot end, while the other ends are kept cold
and connected to load. A direct current will flow in a circuit or load connected
between these cold ends. The current will continue to flow as long as the
heat is supplied at the hot end and heat is removed from the cold ends. In a
thermoelectric generator large current and low voltage is developed. A typical
couple operating at hot and cold junction temperatures of 600°C and 200°C
can develop 0.1 V and 2 A. For a given thermoelectric generator, the voltage
and electric power output can be increased by increasing the temperature
Source, Q,
Hot junction

Semi Conductor
conductor

Cold junction
Sink, Q2

Figure 8.30 Thermoelectric generator loop.

 Non-conventional Power Generation 323
difference between hot and cold ends. The source of heat is immaterial and
any fuel may be used consequently.
An important application of thermoelectric generator is to generate power in
space and the other remote locations by the use of radioactive decay heat. The
use of solar energy to supply heat to hot junction can be an attractive application
of thermoelectric generator if high efficiency materials can be developed.
Even the refrigeration can be done with the help of solar energy by using
thermoelectric refrigerator based on Peltier effect and power to thermoelectric
refrigerator may be supplied by the thermoelectric generator operated with the
help of solar energy. The operation of the thermoelectric generator loop can be
reversed to act as a thermoelectric refrigerator by supplying electrical energy
in place of heat. The operation of a thermoelectric refrigerator requires low
voltage and a substantially higher input current.
A thermoelectric module (may be for power generation or refrigeration) is a
standard device which consists of several p-type and n-type legs (Figure 8.31)
connected electrically in series and thermally in parallel, and bonded to a
ceramic plate on each side. In a thermoelectric module for power generation
such connection is necessary to increase both voltage and power. While in a
thermoelectric module for refrigeration such connection is necessary to utilize
high voltage and to get cooling effect. The number of couples in series may
be in thousands.
Heat absorbed or rejected Thermal conductor

Thermal and
AT electrical conductor

Heat rejected or absorbed

Thermal
Current source or conductor
load resistance

Figure 8.31 Thermoelectric module for power/refrigeration.

The large-scale thermoelectric systems can be easily designed and built

by assembling various numbers of these thermoelectric modules connected in
series or in parallel depending on the type of applications. If the output voltage
by a thermoelectric generator is not sufficient to operate a particular device
or equipment, it can be increased with little loss of power, by an inverter-
transformer combination.
Thermoelectric generators have been employed in areas outside the regular
electric power distribution system. The advantages of thermoelectric generator
are: no moving parts, no wear and tear problem, no noise and vibration,
324 Power Plant Engineering
simple and compact system, highly reliable and long life. The disadvantage
of thermoelectric generator is its very low thermal efficiency of the order of
3% and to achieve higher efficiency new material combination research is
required. Because of limited conversion efficiencies, the thermoelectric devices
have remained confined to specialized applications.
Thermoelectric generator is like a heat engine and its thermal efficiency
depends upon the temperature of hot and cold junctions and the material
properties. The semiconductor materials have more favourable properties which
can withstand high temperatures and can give reasonable efficiency. To achieve
higher efficiency, thermoelectric material should have high value of figure of
merit. The figure of merit Z is given by

Z = VaABIKR (8.5)
where K is the thermal conductance and R is the electrical resistance of junction
material. For higher figure of merit, the aAB should be high and the product
KR should be low. The product KR depends on property and dimensions of
junction material. The semiconductor materials have a greater value of Z than
insulators and metals. Such materials are: bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3), bismuth
antimony (BiSb), lead telluride (PbTe), antimony telluride (Sb2Te3). The most
commonly used material for thermoelectric generator is lead telluride (PbTe).
It can be alloyed with bismuth selenide, antimony telluride, lead selenide and
tin telluride to give improved properties.

8.12 Thermionic Power Generation

Thermionic converter or generator transforms heat energy directly into electrical
energy by utilizing thermionic emission effect. Thermionic emission effect is the
emission of electrons from heated metal and some oxide surfaces. All metals
and some oxides have free electrons which are released on heating. Thermionic
converter (Figure 8.32) consists of two electrodes, of different work functions,
with a very small gap (about 1 mm) or space in between them and held in a
Heat sink a 800°C

Rarefied vapour

Heat source a 1700°C

Figure 8.32 Elementary thermionic converter.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 325
container or tube having a high vacuum or filled with ionized cesium vapour. One
metal electrode is heated until it becomes hot enough to release electrons from its
surface. The hot metal electrode acts as cathode and is called emitter. The emitted
electrons from emitter travel through small gap to the opposite colder electrode.
The colder electrode collects electrons and termed collector. The collector becomes
negatively charged (anode) and is cooled to maintain it at low temperature. The
electrons from collector (anode) can return to emitter (cathode) through an external
load, thereby producing a direct electric current or power.
A thermionic generator is a low voltage, high current device where current
densities of 20-50 A/cm2 have been achieved at voltages from 1 V to 2 V. The
voltage developed depends mainly on the difference in the work function of the
electrode materials. The work function is the energy required to extract an electron
from the metal and its value varies with the nature of the metal and its surface
condition. A certain amount of energy equal to work function has to be spent to
release the electron from the surface because the emission of an electron from a
metal surface is opposed by a potential barrier equal to the difference between
the energies of an electron outside and inside the metal. The electrode with the
large work function is maintained at a higher temperature than the one with the
smaller work function. The current developed depends mainly on the difference
in temperature of emitter and collector. The low work function material for anode
may be barium oxide or strontium oxide while the high work function material
for cathode is tungsten impregnated barium compound.
The positively charged emitter (cathode) tends to pull the emitted electrons
back. The accumulated electrons in the gap exert a retarding force on the
electrons trying to cross the gap and produce a space charge barrier which
inhibit the emission of electrons from the cathode. The space charge is reduced
by introducing a small quantity of cesium metal into the evacuated vessel
containing the electrodes. At the existing high temperature, the cesium vaporizes
and ionizes. The positive cesium ions by combining with the electrons in the
vicinity of the emitter electrode help to reduce the space charge. To achieve
a higher degree of ionization of cesium, the emitter temperature must be of
the range of 1500°C to 1600°C. On the colder (collector) electrode, there is
deposition of solid cesium which reduce the work function of collector and
thus increasing the output voltage.
A thermionic converter, in principle, is a form of cyclic heat engine.
Heat is supplied to the emitter at higher temperature. A part of heat supplied
is converted into electrical energy, and the remainder is rejected from the
collector maintained at lower temperature. As with other cyclic heat engines,
the efficiency of thermionic converter is limited by Carnot's law. For higher
efficiency emitter must be maintained at a temperature as high as possible,
while the collector should be at the lowest possible temperature. The thermionic
converter continuously generates electrical energy as long as heat is supplied
to the emitter and a temperature difference is maintained between the emitter
and the collector. The heat to the emitter (cathode) may be supplied through
326 Power Plant Engineering

nuclear fission by enclosing the fissile element in cathode, by placing it in the

radiant zone of furnace of thermal power plant, or by using the heat of high
temperature exhaust gases leaving the MHD duct.

8.13 Wave Energy

Ocean or sea waves are a huge and largely untapped renewable energy
resource. Ocean waves are caused by the wind blowing over the surface of
the ocean. Ocean waves arise due to the transfer of energy from the sun to
wind and then from wind to water. In many areas of the world the wind blows
with enough consistency and force to provide continuous ocean waves. Ocean
waves vary considerably in different parts of the world and energy from the
ocean waves cannot be harnessed effectively everywhere.
Ocean waves are the forward movement of the ocean's water due to
oscillation of water particles by the frictional drag of wind over the water
surface. It is important to note that while it appears that the water is moving
forward, only a small amount of water is actually moving. Instead, it is the
ocean wave energy that is moving and since water is a flexible medium for
energy transfer, it looks like the water itself is moving. The energy in a dynamic
sea due to continuous wave motion in deep water is the sum of kinetic energy
and potential energy. Ocean wave energy can travel thousands of kilometre
with the little energy loss. The energy is associated with water that remains
at the same location. Ocean waves travel in groups called wave trains. Ocean
wave size is determined by the wind speed and the distance over which the
wind excites the waves. Ocean wave size also depends on the depth and
topography of the seabed. In addition, undersea earthquakes can sometimes
generate enormous ocean waves. A two-dimensional progressive ocean wave is
shown in Figure 8.33 with some familiar terms. It is represented by sinusoidal

Crest 4 ► Crest
Wave direction propagation •
v = Af yi
H F _I 4
1 1
V %
v , .... A
\v /
01 v. \ )se i
•-....
V / I - V `
1 I I I ,/ 1 I \\ 7/2
! 4
/1 •• ! 4/ !
.1 4
‘‘, M: P' 0
i ; Z.• ;
r 1/ \t ,-r -/ - - -."`\ /,
v ,
i ,,' ...‘,:-.. .....,

- /11i ....
.,
iv '-- /I
's.
s
', I\
1 I
/I ,,"
,-- 1 '--
/I
I\ I‘
I\, ,/ I ' 1-. I \ „ / I

Figure 8.33 Two-dimensional progressive ocean wave.

 Non-conventional Power Generation 327
simple harmonic wave. Ocean waves have crests and troughs. The wavelength
of the ocean wave is determined by the horizontal distance between the two
wave crests or two wave troughs. The amplitude of the wave is determined
by the vertical distance between the two wave crests or two wave troughs.
The air pressure difference between upwind and leeside of a wave crest and
friction on the water surface by the wind causes the growth of ocean waves.
A floating object is observed to move in perfect circles when ocean waves
oscillate. If that object is hovered in the water, it would be moving along the
diminishing circles, when placed deeper in the water. At a depth equal to half
the wavelength, the object would be standstill. Ocean waves with wavelength
of 100 metres are common and could just stir the bottom down to a depth
of 50 metres. Thus long waves extend much deeper down than short waves.
Long surface waves travel faster and further than short ones.
The main advantages of ocean wave energy are:
(i) It is a free and renewable energy resource.
(ii) Wave energy conversion devices do not use up large land masses
such as solar and wind devices.
(iii) By absorbing the incoming ocean wave energy, the wave energy
conversion devices create an area of calm water behind them. Wave
energy conversion devices protect the coastlines from destructive
action of ocean waves and help to create a valuable area for other
commercial (harbour) and recreational marine activities. Wave energy
conversion devices also create environment suitable for aquaculture
development.
(iv) Ocean waves offer the highest energy density among renewable
energy sources. Solar energy intensity of typically 0.1-0.3 kW/m2 on
horizontal surface is converted to an average power flow intensity of
2-3 kW/m2 on a vertical plane perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation just below the water surface. Wave energy is naturally
concentrated by accumulation over time and space. Waves effectively
store the energy for transmission over great distances. For instance,
large waves appearing off Europe will have been initiated in stormy
weather in the mid-Atlantic or as far as the Caribbean.
(v) Wave energy conversion devices have a limited negative environmental
impact. In general, offshore devices have the lowest potential impact.
(vi) Wave energy conversion devices can generate power up to 90 per cent
of the time, compared to 20-30 per cent for wind and solar power
devices
In spite of the advantages listed above, there are a number of technical
challenges or disadvantages that need to be overcome to increase the commercial
competitiveness of wave energy conversion devices. The main disadvantages
of ocean wave energy are:
328 Power Plant Engineering
(i) The power per unit frontal length of the ocean wave is proportional
to square of wave height and to wave period. The strong dependence
on wave height makes the resource highly variable.
(ii) Normally the power per unit frontal length of the ocean wave is
40 kW/m, however, in extreme conditions (major storms) the power per
unit frontal length of the ocean wave may be in excess of 2000 kW/m.
Large ocean waves are unsafe for operation. Because of their severity,
they impose severe constraints and increase system cost.
(iii) The wave energy conversion devices operate in harsh marine
environment and the problems of biological growth of marine organisms
are relatively unknown. Hence, the cost of maintenance, repair and
replacement seems to be large.
(iv) Wave energy conversion devices are complicated and are less reliable.
(v) More power is available in deep water ocean waves in open sea,
where it is difficult to construct, operate and maintain a system.
(vi) Wave periods are commonly 5-10 s and it is difficult to couple this
irregular slow motion of wave to electrical generators requiring very
high frequency compared to waves.

8.13.1 Wave Energy Conversion Devices

Wave energy conversion devices extract energy directly from the surface
motion of the ocean waves or from the pressure fluctuation below the surface.
As an ocean wave passes a stationary position, the surface changes height.
The pressure under the surface changes because near surface water moves
and its kinetic and potential energy changes. A large number of wave energy
conversion devices/concepts have been suggested for converting ocean wave
energy into other forms of mechanical, potential or pneumatic energy. Many
of the wave energy conversion devices are at R & D stage, with only a small
range of devices having been tested at large scale.
Wave energy conversion devices are generally categorized by location
and type. Depending on the location they may be classified as shoreline,
nearshore and offshore. Shoreline devices are close to the utility network, are
easy to maintain, and have a reduced likelihood of being damaged in extreme
conditions. However, the wave power received is less. Nearshore devices are
in relatively shallow water. Nearshore devices are often attached to the seabed,
which gives a suitable stationary base against which an oscillating body can
work. Offshore devices are in deep water and they can transform more energy
because of the higher energy content in deep water ocean waves. However,
offshore devices are more difficult to construct and maintain, and need to be
designed to survive the more extreme conditions.
Wave energy conversion devices can also be classified into the following
types: attenuator, point absorber, terminator and overtopping. Attenuators are
long multisegment floating structures and lie parallel to the predominant wave
 Non-conventional Power Generation 329
direction. The difference in heights of waves along the length of the device
causes flexing where the segments connect and this flexing is connected to
hydraulic pumps or other converters. A point absorber is a floating structure
with components that move due to wave action. The floating structure heaves
up and down on the surface of the water or submerged below the surface
relying on pressure differential. Because of their small size, wave direction
is not important for these devices. Terminator devices have their principal
axis perpendicular to the predominant wave direction and physically intercept
waves. Overtopping devices have reservoirs that are filled by incoming waves
to levels above the average sea level. The water from the reservoir is allowed
to flow back to sea via hydraulic turbines.
Wave energy conversion devices incorporate various power take-off
mechanism, which varies from device to device. Figure 8.34 shows the possible
power take off mechanism which may be hydraulic, turbine or linear electric
generator based.
Turbine

Velocity Motion
increases rectification

Hydraulic
•
Hydrodynamic H High pressure Rotary
Sea interaction with Hydraulic electrical
Piston fluid
wave primary interface H motor generator
rectification

Electrical linear generators

Linear
electrical Electricity
generator h
Figure 8.34 Power take-off mechanism for wave energy conversion devices.

The description of some wave energy conversion devices is presented as

follows.

Shoreline locations
1. Oscillating water column: When an ocean wave passes on to a partially
submerged cavity open under the water, a column of water oscillates up and
down in the cavity. Oscillation of water column induces an oscillatory motion
in the air above the water column. Oscillating water column (OWC) utilizes
this concept. OWC device has so far been mounted on shore but is also
proposed for floating plants. OWC device (Figure 8.35) consists of a chamber
built in shoreline cost so that the water column in the chamber oscillates with
the ocean waves. This motion makes the air flow in and out of the chamber,
turning a turbine. The wells turbine uses the symmetrical airfoil blades in a
330 Power Plant Engineering

Sound baffle
Wells turbine
•1

Wave motion —0.

Figure 8.35 Oscillating water column type wave energy conversion device.

simple rotor to extract power from the airflow in both directions. A pilot OWC
plant of 150 kW capacity was built at Vizhingam near Trivendum (India) in
1991. The main advantages of OWC devices are:
(i) The air velocity is increased by smooth reduction in the cross-sectional
area of the channel approaching the turbine. Thus, slow motion of
the ocean waves can be coupled to the fast rotation of the turbine
without mechanical gearing.
(ii) The pieces of generating equipment are kept away from the column
of saline water.
2. Pendulum system: Figure 8.36 shows a pendulum system. This system
consists of a terminating rectangular concrete box, which is open to the sea
at one end and a pendulum flap is hinged over this opening. The actions of
the ocean waves cause the pendulum to swing back and forth. This motion of
the pendulum is then used to power a hydraulic pump.
Hydraulic pump

Pendulum flap
Concrete box

Figure 8.36 A pendulum system.

 Non-conventional Power Generation 331
Nearshore locations
1. Wave dragon system: Wave dragon system is a floating, slack-moored
energy converter of the overtopping type. It captures sea water of incident
waves in a reservoir above the sea level, and then releases the water back to
sea via a number of low head turbines. The wave dragon system is shown in
Figure 8.37. This system uses a pair of large curved reflectors to gather waves
into the central receiving part, where they flow up a ramp and over the top
into a raised reservoir. Wave dragon system is a very simple construction and
only the turbines are the moving parts.
Overtopping
Reservoir

Turbine outlet
Figure 8.37 A wave dragon system.

2. Wave capture system: Wave capture system is probably the simplest

conceptually. When a moving ocean wave is constricted, a surge is produced
and water is raised and stored in a reservoir at a height above the mean sea
level. The water from the reservoir may then return to the sea through a
conventional low head hydroelectric generator. This system is similar to a tidal
power plant, but with a more continuous and less inflow of water. This system
can be used successfully at low tide sites only. Figure 8.38 shows a tapered
channel (Tapchan) system based on wave capture concept. A 350 kW Tapchan
system was built in Norway in 1984, which survived a severe storm in 1989.
This tapered channel takes advantage of the rocky coastline to funnel ocean
waves through a 60 m wide opening into a coastal reservoir of 5500 m2. Ocean

Cliff face
Turbine house

Figure 8.38 A tapered channel (Tapchan) system.

332 Power Plant Engineering

wave height increases as the channel narrows over its 60 m length, and the
rising ocean waves supply the water to the reservoir by spilling over the 3 m
high channel walls. The reservoir level is maintained at a relatively constant
elevation by continuous wave action, and reservoir provides water for a low
head hydroelectric turbine. The site for Tapchan system should have persistent
waves with large average wave energy and water close to shore should be deep
so the oncoming ocean waves are not dissipated.

Offshore locations
1. Pelamis: The Pelamis (Greek word, meaning sea snake) is a floating
device comprised of cylindrical hollow steel segments joined to each other by
two degree of freedom hinged joints to follow the surface wave profile. Each
hinged joint is similar to a universal joint, with the central unit of each joint
containing the complete power conversion system. The Pelamis (Figure 8.39)
floats on or near the sea surface and moves in response to the shape of the
wave, rather than just the vertical displacement of water. The Pelamis wiggles
like a snake in both the vertical and horizontal directions as a wave goes past.
The Pelamis structure is anchored to the seabed by flexile cables fitted in such
a way that the float axis is oriented in the predominant wave direction. The
wave induced motion of these joints is resisted by four hydraulic cylinders
that accommodate both horizontal and vertical motion. These cylinders act as
pumps, which drive fluid through a hydraulic motor, which in turn drives an
electrical generator. Accumulators are used in the circuit to regulate the flow
of fluid for generating a more constant power and also to decouple the pump
with the motor.
Pelamis
Wave direction —0.
,^ r 01011111111. 01111111111.
f •
I r - , , r` • ,
I . •A 1„. -i v ~s
if '1i, -11-
, ,
-- ."
I .1-1 5

Seabed
Flexible cable
Figure 8.39 Pelamis device.

2. Power buoy: The power buoy utilizes the pressure difference above the
device between wave crests and troughs. It comprises a seabed fixed air-filled
cylindrical chamber with a moveable upper cylinder. As a wave crest passes
over the upper cylinder, it moves down and the water pressure compresses the
air within the cylinder. As a wave trough passes over the upper cylinder, it
rises. The rising and falling of the waves create mechanical energy which is
converted into electricity by various power take off mechanism (Figure 8.34)
and transmitted to shore by means of a secure, undersea transmission line.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 333
Using the three-point mooring system, power buoys are designed to be installed
about 8 kilometre offshore in water 40 to 60 metre deep.
The vertical movement of the water can be utilized by a system utilizing
a float placed on the surface of the water which heaves up and down with
waves. The vertical to and fro movements of the float is used to operate the
piston of an air pump as shown in Figure 8.40. The pump may be situated at
the seabed. Several such float operated air pumps deliver the compressed air
to a storage reservoir. The compressed air is then used to generate electricity
by passing it through a turbine. Hydraulic pump instead of air pump may be
utilized in this float operated system. Hydraulic pump raises water either to
an artificial reservoir in sea or to an onshore reservoir. The water from the
reservoir is passed through the turbine to generate electricity.
Air in
Float (buoy)

Air pump
Out
Check valve
Compressed
air storage
Anchor

Seabed
(a) Float with air pump

Floa (buoy)

Reservoir
Hydraulic pump

♦ Out
Water in

(b) Float with hydraulic pump

Figure 8.40 Float type devices.

3. Nodding duck: A nodding duck also known as the Salter's duck is

shown in Figure 8.41. It is a simple device for extracting power from the
horizontal movement of water in waves. In nodding duck type device cam-
shaped/pear-shaped floating pieces known as nodding ducks are hinged to a
common flexible linkage. The wave striking horizontally on the duck causes it
to deflect and turns the beak of the duck which faces the waves. The nodding
ducks oscillate about the axis with the wave crests and troughs. The ratchet
and wheel mechanisms convert the motion of the duck to a common shaft.
334 Power Plant Engineering

Wave front
(a) Nodding ducks assembly

Buoyancy tanks

Power canister

Steel spine
Ballast

Water-filled bearing
(b) Nodding duck or cam
Figure 8.41 A nodding duck device.

Review Questions

1. Write a short note on non-conventional energy.

2. Discuss the potential and application of non-conventional energy sources
in our country.
3. Write a note on solar energy.
4. Discuss the various types of solar thermal collectors and give their
applications.
5. Discuss low temperature, medium temperature and high temperature
solar thermal power plants.
6. Write a short note on box type solar cooker.
7. Write a short note on solar water heater.
8. What is a solar pond?
9. Explain with a sketch the central tower concept of utilizing solar energy
for power generation.
10. Describe the basic principle of solar cell. What are the main hurdles
in the power generation by the solar cells?
11. What are the direct and indirect methods of solar energy utilization?
12. Briefly describe ocean thermal energy conversion.
13. What are the drawbacks of OTEC?
14. Write a short note on windmills.
 Non-conventional Power Generation 335
15. Why the cost of wind power generation is high?
16. Write a short note on wind energy.
17. Give the layout and working of wind electricity generation power plant.
18. Write the merits and demerits of wind energy power generation.
19. Discuss the different tidal power schemes and configurations.
20. Explain spring tides and neap tides.
21. Write a short note on geothermal power plant.
22. Compare a geothermal power plant with conventional steam power
plant.
23. Explain the different types of geothermal sources.
24. Explain the flashed steam system with flow and T-s diagrams. How is
the binary cycle system different from it?
25. Write a short note on vapour-dominated geothermal power plant.
26. How the biomass can be utilized for power production?
27. Write a short note on biogas plant.
28. How can India benefit from installation of biogas plant?
29. Discuss a few direct and indirect power generation methods.
30. Explain the working of open cycle MHD generator.
31. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a MHD-steam power
plant?
32. Describe the working of fuel cell.
33. How is a fuel cell different from a battery?
34. Write a note on thermoelectric generator.
35. How does a thermoelectric generator fit as a topping unit in riser tube
of a boiler?
36. Discuss thermionic power generation.
 Bibliography

Arora, S.C. and S. Domkundwar, A Course in Power Plant Engineering,

Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1998.
Bejan, A., Advanced Engineering Themodynamics, John Wiley, 1992.
Cengel, Yunus A. and Michael A. Boles, Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach, 3rd ed., Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2006.
El-Walkil, M.M., Power Plant Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985.
Garg, Santosh Kumar, Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering, Khanna
Publishers, 2002.
Goswami, D. Yogi and Frank Kreith, Energy Conversion, CRC Press,
New York, 2007.
Manual of central training resources unit of NTPC India, Power Plant
Familiarization, 1991.
Mathur, M.L. and R.P. Sharma, A Course in Internal Combustion Engines,
Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1989.
Morse, F.T., Power Plant Engineering, Affiliated East West Press, 1954.
Nag, P.K., Engineering Themodynamics, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1995.
Nag, P.K., Power Plant Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1998.
Sukhatme, S.P., Solar Energy: Principle of Thermal Collection and Storage,
Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1998.

337
 Index

Air pollution control, 8 Coal handling, 51

Anaerobic digestion, 314 Cogeneration, 229
Anion exchanger, 41 Combined cycle power point, 22, 226
Aquaculture, 327 dual pressure steam cycle, 228
Ash handling system, 73 IGCC power plant, 25, 229
Attenuator, 328 PFBC power plant, 24, 229
Axial compressor, 222 single pressure steam cycle, 227
Condensate polishing, 42
Condenser, 44
Back pressure turbine, 39 direct contact type, 44
Bag house, 77 evaporative, 46
Base load, 239 surface, 45
Binary vapour power cycle, 22 Cooling ponds, 47
Binding energy, 88 Cooling towers, 48
Biogas plant, 314 dry cooling tower, 50
Boiler, 32 wet cooling tower, 48
Boiling water reactor, 103 Conventional energy resources, 3
Brayton cycle, 18, 212 Coupled cycles, 21
Brayton—Rankine combined cycle, 226 Crests, 327
Breeder reactor, 94 Cyclone burner, 66
Cyclone separator, 76

CANDU reactor, 104

Capacity factor, 237, 241 Dams, 131
Catchment area, 130 concrete dam, 133
Central receiver, 288 fill dam, 132
Centrifugal compressor, 221 Deaerator, 42
Cetane number, 186 Demand factor, 238
Chain grate stoker, 58 Demineralization process, 41
Chain reaction, 90 Depreciation, 233
Circulating water system, 47 Diesel engine power plant, 180
Cladding, 96 applications, 181
Coal gasification, 71 components, 188

339
340 Index

Diversity factor, 238 Integrated gasification combined cycle, 25

Draft tube, 143 Internal combustion engines, 182
Dust collection, 75

Knocking, 186
Economic scheduling, 246
Economizer, 34
Electrostatic precipitator, 78 Lime soda process, 40
Energy conservation, 10 Liquid metal cooled reactor, 102, 106
Energy sources, 1 Load curve, 238
Environmental aspects, 6 Load duration curve, 239
Load factor, 240

Fabric filter, 77
Feed water heater, 17 Mass curve, 127
Feed water treatment, 39 Mass defect, 87
Fixed cost, 232 Mechanical dust collectors, 75
Flat plate solar collector, 280 Mechanisms, 333
Flow duration curve, 124 MHD, 315
Fluidized bed combustion, 67 Moderator, 97
Mooring system, 333
circulating fluidized bed, 70
pressurized fluidized bed, 71
Frontal length, 328
Near shore, 328
Fuel bed combustion, 55
Nooding duck, 333
Fuel cell, 319
Nuclear fission, 88
Nuclear fusion, 88
Nuclear reactor, 92
Gas cooled reactor, 105
core, 96
Gas turbine, 225 fuel cycle, 107
Gas turbine power plant, 207 fuel preparation, 108
advantages and disadvantages, 210 heterogenous reactor, 95
combustion chamber, 223
components, 220
Geothermal energy, 300 Ocean waves, 326
Gobar gas plant, 314 Off shore, 328
Greenhouse effect, 7 Oscillating water column, 329
OTEC, 290
Overfeed stokers, 57
Hydraulic turbine, 148 Overtopping, 328
classification, 148
selection, 154
Hydrograph, 123 Pass out turbine, 39
Hydrological cycle, 121 Peak load, 239
Pelamis, 332
Phosphate softening, 40
Importance of nuclear power, 111 Photovoltaic cell, 292
India's nuclear power programme, 112 Plant use factor, 241
 Index 341
Pneumatic energy, 328 Stokers, 57
Point absorber, 328 chain grate, 58
Pondage, 129 spreader, 59
Power buoy, 332 Supercharging, 202, 203
Pressurized water reactor, 102 Superheater, 35
Pulverized coal firing, 60
Pumped storage plants, 145
Tapchan system, 331
Terminal velocity, 69
Radiator, 195 Terminator, 328
Radioactive decay, 86 Thermal reactor, 93
Rankine cycle, 13 Thermionic power, 324
Ratchat and wheel, 333 Thermochemical conversion, 311
Regenerative feed water heating, 16
Thermoelectric power generation, 322
Runoff, 121
Tidal energy, 306
Tidal power plant, 308
Topography, 326
Salter's duck, 333
Troughs, 327
Seabed, 328
Turbocharging, 202, 204
Shoreline, 328
Site selection of power plant
hydroelectric, 119 Underfeed stokers, 59
nuclear, 84
thermal, 30
Sodium zeolite softening, 41 Waterwall, 32
Solar cell, 292 Wave capture, 331
Solar energy, 278 Wave dragon, 331
Solar pond, 285 Wave energy, 326
Solar thermal collectors, 279 Wave height, 328
Solar thermal power generation, 283 Wave period, 328
Specific speed, 152 Wave trains, 326
Spill ways, 134 Wind energy, 296
Steam-turbine, 36 Windmill, 298
 /his textbook has been designed
_V for a one-semester course on
Power Plant Engineering studied by both
degree and diploma students of
POWER PLANT
mechanical and electrical engineering. It
effectively exposes the students to the
basics of power generation involved in
ENGINEERING
several energy conversion systems so
that they gain comprehensive knowledge Manoj Kumar Gupta
of the operation of various types of
power plants in use today.

After a brief introduction to energy fundamentals including the environmental impacts

of power generation, the book acquaints the students with the working principles, design
and operation of five conventional power plant systems, namely thermal, nuclear,
hydroelectric, diesel and gas turbine. The economic factors of power generation with
regard to estimation and prediction of load, plant design, plant operation, tariffs and so
on, are discussed and illustrated with the help of several solved numerical problems.

The generation of electric power using renewable energy sources such as solar, wind,
biomass, geothermal, tidal, fuel cells, magneto hydrodynamic, thermoelectric and
thermionic systems, is discussed elaborately.

The book is interspersed with solved problems for a sound understanding of the various
aspects of power plant engineering. The chapter-end questions are intended to provide
the students with a thorough reinforcement of the concepts discussed.

THE AUTHOR
MANOJ KUMAR GUPTA, Ph.D. (IIT Delhi), is Associate Professor in the Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Ujjain Engineering College, Ujjain. He has 18 years of
teaching experience. His current research areas include solar thermal devices and solar
thermal plant.

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Solar Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications, 2nd ed.,
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ISBN:978-81-203-4612-3

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