REVIEW NOTES IN GEN BIO 2 (1ST QUARTER)

I. Recombinant DNA Technology

Overview:
➢ Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is a groundbreaking technique that allows scientists to artificially combine
DNA from different organisms. It plays a central role in biotechnology, genetics, and medicine.

➢ Key Steps in Recombinant DNA Technology:

➢ Isolation of Genetic Material: DNA is extracted from donor organisms, such as bacteria, plants, or animals.
➢ Cutting DNA with Restriction Enzymes: Restriction enzymes (also called restriction endonucleases) recognize
specific sequences of nucleotides in DNA and cut the DNA at these sites. These cuts often result in "sticky ends",
allowing easier attachment of new DNA segments.
➢ DNA Ligation: DNA ligase seals the gaps between DNA fragments, forming a stable recombinant molecule.
➢ Inserting into Vectors: Vectors (plasmids, viruses) act as carriers to introduce recombinant DNA into host cells.

➢ Gene Cloning and Expression: Once inside the host cell, the recombinant DNA replicates, and the host machinery
expresses the gene, producing desired proteins (like insulin or growth hormones).

Significant Concepts:
➢ Practical Applications: The production of human insulin via recombinant DNA technology was a game changer in
treating diabetes. Prior to this, insulin was harvested from animals, causing allergic reactions in some patients.
➢ Gene therapy uses recombinant DNA to correct genetic disorders by introducing functional genes into a
patient’s cells.

➢ Role in Agriculture: Development of genetically modified crops like Bt corn and Roundup Ready soybeans. These
crops are engineered for pest resistance or herbicide tolerance, boosting agricultural efficiency and reducing
pesticide use.

➢ CRISPR-Cas9: A newer, more precise gene-editing technology that allows scientists to cut and replace DNA
sequences at specific locations. CRISPR has opened the door to potential cures for genetic disorders like cystic
fibrosis and sickle cell anemia.
➢ Ethical Concerns: Issues include GMO labeling, the environmental impact of genetically modified organisms, and
the risk of creating “designer babies” in the future. Some argue that manipulating life at the genetic level has
unknown long-term consequences.

II. Genetic Engineering

Overview:
➢ Genetic engineering encompasses a broad array of techniques aimed at modifying an organism's genetic code to
achieve desired traits. This can involve adding, removing, or altering specific genes.

Major Genetic Engineering Techniques:

➢ CRISPR-Cas9: CRISPR is revolutionary because it allows for precise and easy-to-use gene editing. Its ability to
target specific sequences within the genome makes it ideal for correcting genetic mutations.

➢ Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): PCR is used to amplify small DNA sequences, making it easier to study genes
or create more copies for further experiments.

➢ Gene Splicing and Insertion: Gene splicing refers to cutting and recombining DNA sequences to insert new genes
into organisms. For example, genes responsible for frost resistance can be spliced into crops to protect them
from cold climates.

Significant Concepts:
 ➢ Cloning: Reproductive cloning creates genetically identical organisms (e.g., Dolly the sheep), while therapeutic
cloning generates stem cells for regenerative medicine. This raises ethical debates about human cloning and the
use of embryonic stem cells.

➢ Gene Therapy: A promising approach to treating genetic diseases by correcting defective genes within an
individual's
➢ cells. For example, gene therapy is being used to treat spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a deadly disease caused
by a
➢ single faulty gene.

➢ Transgenic Organisms: Organisms that carry genes from other species. For example, GloFish (fluorescent fish)
contain a jellyfish gene that makes them glow under UV light. In agriculture, Golden Rice is engineered to
produce vitamin A, aiming to reduce malnutrition.

➢ CRISPR's Potential and Risks: While CRISPR offers incredible possibilities, including potentially eradicating
hereditary diseases, the technology is controversial due to fears of its misuse in creating genetically enhanced
humans ("designer babies"). The possibility of unintended mutations (off-target effects) also poses a significant
risk.

III. Fossilization and the Geologic Time Scale

➢ Overview: Fossils provide insight into ancient life and how organisms have evolved over millions of years. The
Geologic Time Scale is a system used by scientists to understand Earth’s history, divided into eons, eras, periods,
and epochs.

Types of Fossilization:
➢ Permineralization: Occurs when minerals carried by water fill the cellular spaces of an organism, preserving the
shape of bones, shells, or wood.
➢ Carbonization: When organisms decompose under pressure, leaving a carbon imprint. Common in plant fossils.
➢ Unaltered Preservation: Organisms are preserved with little or no change, like a woolly mammoth frozen in ice
or insects trapped in amber.

Significant Concepts:
➢ The Cambrian Explosion: Approximately 541 million years ago, this event marked a period of rapid diversification
of life forms, with the appearance of many major animal groups. It is considered one of the most important
evolutionary events in Earth's history.

Mass Extinctions:
➢ The Permian-Triassic Extinction (also called “The Great Dying”) wiped out 96% of marine species and 70% of
terrestrial species. This allowed for new species, including dinosaurs, to dominate in the next era.

➢ Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction: This extinction event, likely caused by a massive asteroid impact, led to the
demise of dinosaurs, paving the way for mammals to rise as dominant species on Earth.

➢ Fossil Evidence for Evolution: Transitional fossils like Archaeopteryx, which show traits of both birds and reptiles,
support the theory of evolution by showing gradual change over time.

➢ The Great Oxygenation Event: About 2.4 billion years ago, the rise in atmospheric oxygen (produced by
cyanobacteria) dramatically altered Earth's environment, allowing more complex life forms to evolve but also
leading to the extinction of many anaerobic organisms.

IV. Selective Breeding and Classical Breeding

Overview:
➢ Selective breeding is a traditional practice where organisms with desirable traits are mated to produce offspring
with enhanced characteristics. Classical breeding typically involves natural processes like outbreeding and
hybridization.

Types of Breeding:
➢ Inbreeding: Breeding closely related organisms to retain desired traits. While it can lead to stronger expression
of these traits, it also risks increasing genetic disorders.

➢ Outbreeding: Mating unrelated organisms to introduce genetic diversity, improving traits like disease resistance.
This is common in livestock breeding.

➢ Hybridization: Crossing two different species or varieties to combine beneficial traits. Hybrid crops are widely
used in agriculture for improved yield, disease resistance, and adaptability to environmental stresses.

Significant Concepts:
➢ Genetic Diversity: A crucial factor in the health and sustainability of populations. While selective breeding can
enhance certain traits, it often reduces genetic diversity, leaving populations vulnerable to diseases and
environmental changes.

Challenges of Selective Breeding:

➢ Reduced genetic diversity can lead to the loss of important traits and increased susceptibility to diseases (e.g.,
the Irish potato famine). Careful management is required to balance trait enhancement with genetic health.