Oscillations and

Waves

Venugopal A R
Department of Physics
Brindavan College of
Engineering

Bengaluru-560063
 Oscillations and Waves

1.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

1.1.1 Introduction
The Periodic motion, from mosses on springs to vibrations of atoms at lattice points, is one of
the most important kinds of physical behaviour. This world is filled with oscillations in which objects
move back and forth repeatedly. Here are a few examples: The motion of a pendulum in a wall clock,
i.e. pendulum moves back and forth. When wind blows past a tree, the branches of trees oscillate so
severely that it rips apart. When an airplane is in flight, the turbulence of the air flowing past the wings
makes them to oscillate, eventually leading to metal fatigue and even failure. When we try to ride a
bike with punctured tyre, its wheels oscillate horizontally (“hunt” in mechanical engineering terms) as
they are forced to turn in new directions (you can hear the oscillations). When an earthquake occurs
near surround a city, buildings may set oscillating so severely that they are shaken apart. The
oscillations of electrical signals in electronic circuits (LC, LCR Circuits) and many more…
In this chapter we try to look in detail on Hooke's law and its applications, where the force is
proportional to the displacement, which tends to restore objects to some equilibrium position. Many
physical systems can be successfully studied and modelled with this simple idea, including the
vibrations of strings, the swinging of a pendulum, and the propagation of waves in a medium of all
kinds. In all these physical systems the basic phenomena involved is periodic motion. Periodic
vibrations can cause disturbances that move through a medium in the form of waves. There are many
kinds of waves occur in nature, such as sound waves, water waves, seismic waves, and electromagnetic
waves. These very different physical phenomena are described by common terms and concepts in the
chapter and we discuss a basic type of oscillation called simple harmonic motion.
1.1.2 Oscillation: “The periodic motion that occurs when a time varying force acts on an object”.
If the oscillations occur without the action of external force then, such oscillations are called
as free oscillations. If the oscillations occur with application of external force then, such
oscillations are called as forced oscillations.
1.1.3 Simple Harmonic Motion is a special kind of periodic oscillation. The motion of an object is
said to be SHM if the restoring force or acceleration is directly proportional to the
displacement and it acts in the direction opposite to that of motion. Ex. Oscillations of simple
pendulum, oscillations of weight attached to spring.
1.1.4 Expression for Simple Harmonic motion
Let us assume the object moves on a
frictionless horizontal surface. If the spring is
stretched or compressed a small distance “x” from
its upstretched or equilibrium position and then
released, it exerts a force on the object as shown in
the figure.
The force is directly proportional to
displacement.

This equation is called as Hooke‟s law and represents the Restoring force.
Where “k” is spring constant and its value is depends on stiffness of the spring.
The acceleration of an object moving with simple harmonic motion can be found by using Hooke's law in
the equation for Newton's second law.

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 Oscillations and Waves

This equation of motion is called as Simple Harmonic Oscillator (SHO) equation, for an abject
executing SHM. It is a second order linear differential equation in which the second derivative of dependent
variable is proportional to the negative of dependent variable. And this is the basic equation for SHM.

Let , Then we get

Where is a called as angular frequency of oscillations.

1.1.5 Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillations: An object with Simple Harmonic Motion has
following properties.

i. It has periodic motion about an equilibrium point.

ii. The period of each cycle is constant.
iii. For every period it has maximum displacement.
iv. The Force is directly proportional to the displacement or acceleration.
v. The periodic motion due to Force is always directed towards the equilibrium point.

1.1.6 Mechanical Simple Harmonic Oscillators (mass suspended to spring)

Consider an object of mass „m‟ attached to spring with rigid support as shown in the figure.
The object is made to oscillate up and down and these oscillations are due to restoring force in the
spring. This force (F) is directly proportional to the displacement (y) from the equilibrium position.
According to Hooke‟s law,

Where „k‟ is the spring constant and „y‟ is the

displacement of the mass on y – direction.

From Newton‟s second law we have

On equating above equation, we get

Where is the angular frequency of oscillation, the auxiliary equation of above equation is

The general solution of „y‟ is given by

Where „ ‟ and „ ‟ are constants and its values depends on initial conditions.
The above equation reduced to the form

Where „A‟ is the amplitude and is the initial phase.

This is the equation for the displacement of the object in y – direction.

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 Oscillations and Waves

Velocity (v): The velocity of the object executing

simple harmonic oscillations is the differential equation
of displacement „y‟ with respect to „t‟.

The velocity of object during SHM varies from

to – . The velocity of the object is zero for the
maximum displacement and the velocity become
Maximum for zero displacement of object on periodic
motion.
Acceleration (a): The acceleration of a body in SHM
is the change of velocity (v) with time (t) and it is given
by the differential equation of „v‟ with respect to time
„t‟.

From the above equation acceleration is directly proportional to displacement and directed opposite to
the displacement. Varies from to .
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the object during the periodic motion is called the
amplitude (A) and its value varies from +A to –A.
Phase Angle and Initial Phase: The quantity is the phase of the periodic motion of the
object and is called as phase angle. The angle is its initial phase.
Angular frequency or velocity: It is the rate of change of angular displacement and is given by

Frequency: It is defined as number of oscillations per second and given by √

Time period (T): The time taken for one complete oscillation and it is given by

1.1.7 Mass Suspended Springs in Series and Parallel

Consider the two springs of spring constants

and respectively, with suspended mass . Let
be the effective spring constant when two springs in
series and be the effective spring constant for two
springs in parallel as shown in figure.

Springs in Series

When springs are in connected in series to the

extension is the net displacement „y‟ is given by

In the above equation is the displacement due to first spring with restoring force and is the
displacement due to second spring with restoring force respectively. If is the effective restoring
force due to applied mass .
Then we have

F
Substituting in (1), we get

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 Oscillations and Waves

The effective spring constant or force constant of the series combination is given by

Springs in parallel

In this case, the displacement due to both springs of force and respectively. The
effective restoring force of the system is given by

The effective spring constant is

1.1.8 Complex notation and Phasor representation of SHM

The periodic motion of a system can be described by complex

notation. In general the complex notation can be represented by
.
It has two components is a real part of and is
the imaginary part of .
The complex conjugate of is
The product of and is
These components are represented by Argond diagram.
The angle is the angle between and measured in
anticlockwise.

Where | | √
The displacement of oscillatory motion can be represented by

But
𝒛 𝒙 𝒊𝒚 𝑨 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝝋 𝒊 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝝋 𝟏
The Equation for the Simple Harmonic Motion is

The Auxiliary equation is

The solution for displacement is
The reduced form of displacement is
On equating (2) and (3), we get

We have
On comparing (4) and (5)

Squaring and adding above equation, we get

√
Dividing the Equations, we get
* +
This is the angle between and resultant

1.1.9 Natural frequency of oscillations: When a body exhibits free oscillations the frequency with which
the oscillations occur is called Natural Frequency.
1.2.1 Damped Oscillations: For an object with periodic oscillations, the amplitude of oscillations decreases
with respect to time. The decrease in amplitude of the oscillations may be due to the involvement of

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 Oscillations and Waves

resistive forces like friction. Hence the amplitude of damped oscillations decreases continuously and
finally comes to rest position. The following are the examples for damped oscillations.
i. A simple pendulum oscillating in air. During the motion the pendulum experiences air
resistance which leads to the dissipation of energy. Hence the amplitude of oscillations of the
simple pendulum decreases and finally comes to a stop.
ii. An object of mass suspended in liquid with spring. During the oscillations the viscous
force acting on the mass reduces the amplitude gradually.
1.2.2 Theory of Damped Oscillations

Expression for decay of the amplitude in damped oscillations.

Consider a Simple Harmonic Oscillator with decreasing in the amplitude of oscillations. The Restoring
force is the sum of force due to displacement and change in displacement with time (velocity) within
resistive medium and it is given by.

In the above equation is the spring

constant, and is a constant depends
on resistive medium, shape and size of
the pendulum. Now by newton‟s second
law

On equating the above equations, we get.

Let is the natural frequency of oscillations and is the damping coefficient, it depend on
the medium. The auxiliary equation of above equation is.

On solving,

The roots of the above equation is

The general equation for (1) is

( √ ) ( √ )

For small damping, the above equation is reduced to

Where is the frequency of damped oscillations and it is given by

√ [ ]

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 Oscillations and Waves

The coefficient of Cosine term gives amplitude of the damped oscillations and from above equation, it
is given by . Therefore the amplitude of oscillations decreases exponentially, and it is less than
that of natural frequency
The damped oscillations are classified as follows.
a. Under damped Oscillations: The oscillations are said to be under damped or light damped or
weakly damped, if the retarding force is weaker than the restoring force. Then the amplitude of
the oscillations decreases with respect to time. The condition for damped oscillations is
.
b. Over damped Oscillations: The
oscillations are said to be over damped or
hard damped, if system attains
equilibrium state slowly without making
any oscillations. The condition for the
damped oscillations is .
c. Critical Damped oscillations: When a
system attains equilibrium state without
making any oscillations is called critical
oscillations. The condition for the
damped oscillations is . The
below figure shows the all the three types
of oscillations.

Quality factor: It is defined as times the

ratio of energy stored in an oscillation to the energy lost per time period.

Where is the angular frequency and is the relaxation time ⁄ and it is defined as the
time taken for an oscillator to decay the energy to ⁄ times of its initial value. It is also given by.
√
1.2.3 Theory of Forced Oscillations
‘The oscillations occur that under the action of an external periodic force are called forced
oscillations’. During forced oscillations the system oscillates with the frequency of the external
periodic force. Examples for forced oscillations are Sonometer wire set to oscillations using a tuning
fork and Resonance air column.
i. Expression for Amplitude and Phase in Forced Oscillations
The forces acting on the system during forced oscillations
a. Restoring force acting in the direction opposite to the displacement.
b. Damping force due to resistive medium.
c. External periodic force acting on the system.
Thus the equation in differential form could be written as

In the above equation called as damping coefficient, √ is the natural frequency,

is the applied period force and is the frequency of applied periodic force. The
above equation could be represented in complex exponential form as.

The solution for this equation is

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 Oscillations and Waves

Substituting Equation (2) in (1), we get

( )

( )

( )
The above equation could be written as
( )
Equating the real and imaginary parts on LHS and RHS in above equation
( )

Squaring and adding the equations (3) and (4), we get Amplitude as

√
Dividing equation (4) by (3), we get phase of the oscillations as

Conditions for forced Oscillations:

i. If i.e. if the frequency of the applied frequency is less than the natural
frequency, The amplitude of the forced oscillations is

From the above equation the amplitude is independent of even though the system
oscillates with the applied frequency . The phase of the oscillations is given by

Thus the displacement and phase are almost in phase.

ii. If The amplitude becomes

The amplitude of the oscillations is maximum; this condition is called the Resonance.
The corresponding phase difference is

Hence the phase difference between displacement and applied force is

iii. If This case is significant only if the damping force is very small (for small
). The amplitude is

√
And the Phase is

For small
The phase difference between the
displacement and applied force is .
The above three cases are shown in figure.

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1.2.4 Resonance

When a system under the forced oscillations in which the frequency of the applied force is
varied. If the frequency ( ) of the applied periodic force matches with the natural frequency
( ) of oscillations of the system, then the amplitude of the oscillations will be maximum
results in maximum transfer of energy occurs from driving system to the oscillating system.
At resonance the system will be in phase with the applied periodic force. The amplitude is

Examples of Resonance

The following are the examples of resonance in different oscillating systems under
forced oscillations.
i. In Sonometer when the natural frequency of the stretched string is equal to the
frequency of the tuning fork the amplitude of oscillation is maximum.
ii. Helmholtz resonator
iii. Resonance in LCR circuits, an example for electrical resonance.
iv. The absorption of energy by electrons in atoms.
v. Resonance air column.
1.2.5 Sharpness of Resonance

The sharpness of resonance is the rate of change of amplitude with respect to a

small change in frequency of the applied external periodic force, at resonance.
Mathematically

Where is the change in the amplitude to the corresponding change in

frequency at resonance.

1.2.6 The Effect of damping on the sharpness of resonance.

We have the equation for Sharpness of
resonance is

During the tuning of oscillating system the rate

at which the amplitude varies near resonance
depends on damping. Smaller the damping
sharper will be the resonance and larger the
damping flatter will be resonance.

1.2.7 The Helmholtz Resonator: It is an important type of resonator with very different
acoustic characteristics. It is made of a hollow sphere with a short and small diameter
neck. The Helmholtz resonator has a single isolated resonant frequency. If (f) is resonant
frequency of a classical Helmholtz resonator, and it is determined by its volume (V) and
by the length (L) and area (A) of its neck.

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Working:
When a resonator is held near the source of a sound, the air in it will begin to resonate if
the tone being analysed, it has a spectral component at the frequency of the resonator.
By listening carefully to the tone of a musical instrument with such a resonator, it is
possible to identify the spectral components of a complex sound wave such as those
generated by musical instruments. The expression for resonant frequency in Helmholtz
resonator is given by

Numerical Problems:

1. A block whose mass m is 680gm is fastened to a string whose spring constant k is

65N/m. The block is pulled a distance x=11cm from its equilibrium position at
x=0 on a frictionless surface and released from rest at t=0. What are the angular
frequency, frequency and period of the resulting motion?
SOLUTION: m=680 X 10—3kg, x=11cm, k=65N/m

√ √

2. A 0.12Kg body undergoes SHM of amplitude 8.5 cm and a period 0.2 sec if the
oscillations are produced by a spring, what is the spring constant?
SOLUTION: m=0.12Kg, A=0.085 m, T=0.2 sec

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3. A sewing machine needle moves along a path of 4cm long with an oscillating
frequency of 10 Hz. Calculate the displacement at 1/120 second after crossing
the centre of the path.
SOLUTION: linear path 2A=4cm, amplitude A=0.02m, f=10Hz, t=1/120 sec

4. A free particle is executing SHM in a straight line with a period of 25secound, 5

seconds after it has crossed the equilibrium point, the velocity is found to be 0.7
m/s. Calculate the displacement at the end of 10 seconds and also the amplitude
of oscillation.
SOLUTION: T=25 sec, At time t= 5 sec, velocity v=0.7m/s
Displacement, under the absence of initial phase ɸ
Angular frequency
And velocity
A=9.01 m
Displacement is calculate after 10 sec,

5. A 4 kg mass attached to a spring is observed to oscillate with a period of 2

seconds. Calculate the period of oscillation if a 6 Kg is attached to the spring.
SOLUTION: mass m1=4 Kg, T=2 sec, m2=6 Kg
Time period √
Squaring both sides and simplifying

For the mass m2=6 Kg,

√ √

6. For the system in the figure, determine mass m such that the system has a
natural frequency of 10 Hz. Taking k1=2000 N/m, k2=1500N/m, k3=3000N/m,
k4=k5=500 N/m.

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SOLUTION: frequency f=10 Hz.

We know that frequency is given by √ ---------- (1)
To find the equivalent spring constant (k)
Here k1, k2, k3 are connected in series

Again k4, k5 are connected in parallel

Now again ks and kp are connected in series

Now let us calculate mass

Squaring and simplifying

7. For the mass-spring system as shown in figure determine natural frequency if 2

Kg mass is attached to the system. Taking k1=500 N/m, k2=1000N/m,
k3=1500N/m, k4=2000 N/m, k5=2500 N/m.

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 Oscillations and Waves

SOLUTION: mass m=2 Kg.

We know that frequency is given by √ ---------- (1)
To find the equivalent spring constant (k)
Here k4, k5 are connected in series

Again k1, k2 are connected in parallel

Now again ks1 and k3 are connected in series

Now again ks2 and kp are connected in parallel

Now let us calculate natural frequency

√ √

8. A free particle is executing simple harmonic motion in a straight line. The

maximum velocity it attains during any oscillation is 62.8 m/s. find the frequency
of oscillation, if its amplitude is 0.5 m.
Maximum velocity during oscillation, Vmax=62.8 m/s
Amplitude, A=0.5 m
We have equation for free vibrations,
x=a sin ωt
Velocity is given by
√ √ √
The particle attains maximum velocity while passing through it equilibrium
position, at which time, the displacement is zero.

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 Oscillations and Waves

√
Angular frequency,

Frequency of oscillation,

9. A mass of 0.5 Kg attached to a spring to set to vibrate. The vibrating motion is

represented by the equation . Calculate damping
constant and angular frequency.
SOLUTION: m=0.5 Kg, this is the damped oscillation equation is given by

b=0.014, k=1.5
Damping constant,

Angular frequency, √ √

10. The Q value of a spring loaded with 0.5 Kg is 75. The spring vibrates with a
frequency of 5 Hz. Calculate the force constant and damping constant.
SOLUTION : Q=75, m=0.5 Kg, f=5 Hz
Frequency,

Squaring and simplifying

To find the damping constant

Quality factor is given by

11. A vibrating system of natural frequency 500 cycles/sec is forced to vibrate with a
periodic force/unit mass of amplitude 100 X 10—5 N/Kg in the presence of a
damping/unit of 0.01 X 10—3 rad/sec. calculate the maximum amplitude of
vibration of the system.
SOLUTION:
f=500 cycles/sec, —
, —

For forced oscillation, maximum amplitude

—

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12. A body of mass 500 gm is attached to a spring and the system is driven by an
external periodic force of amplitude 15 N, and frequency 0.796 Hz. The spring
extended by a length of 88mm under the given load. Calculate the amplitude of
oscillation if the resistance coefficient of the medium is 5.05 Kg/s. Ignore the
mass of the spring.
SOLUTION:
m=500 gm=0.5 Kg, F=15 N, f=0.796 Hz, x=88 X 10—3m, b=5.05 kg/s.
Angular frequency of the applied force,

Force constant,

Natural frequency of oscillation of the body,

√ √

Damping factor,

The amplitude of oscillation is given by,

√ √

13. Calculate the peak amplitude of vibration of a system whose natural frequency is
1000 Hz when it oscillates in a resistive medium for which the value of
damping/unit mass is 0.008 rad/sec under the action of an external periodic
force/unit mass of amplitude 5 N/Kg, with tunable frequency.
SOLUTION:
f=1000 Hz, ,
Angular frequency of the applied force,

The amplitude of oscillation is given by,

√
For maximum amplitude is achieved when the frequency ω of the applied force is
tuned to match the natural frequency ω0 of the system.
ω= ω0

√ √ √

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14. A vibrating system of natural frequency 500 cycles/sec., is forced to vibrate with
a periodic force/unit mass of amplitude 100 X 10—5 N/Kg in the presence of a
damping/unit mass of 0.01 X 10—3 rad/sec. calculate the maximum amplitude of
vibration of the system.
SOLUTION:
f=500 cycles/sec, ,
Angular frequency of the applied force,

The maximum amplitude of oscillation is given by

15. A mass of 2 Kg suspended by a spring of force constant 51.26 N/m is executing

damping simple harmonic oscillations with a damping of 5 Kg/ sec. Identify
whether it is the case of underdamping or of overdamping. Also estimate the
value of damping required for the oscillations to be critically damped (ignore the
mass of the spring).
SOLUTION: m=2 Kg, k=51.26 N/m, b=5 Kg/ sec
Damping factor, b2=(5)2=25
Let us calculate, 4mk=4 X 2 X51.26=410.08
Therefore, b2 < 4mk which is under damping
For critically damped oscillation, b2 = 4mk

√ ⁄

16. A 20gm oscillator with natural angular frequency 10 rad/ sec is vibrating in
damping medium. The damping factor is proportional to the vibrator. If the
damping coefficient is 0.17, how does the oscillation decay?
SOLUTION: m=20gm=0.02 Kg, ω0=10 rad/ sec, b=0.17Kg/sec
Natural frequency of oscillation of the body,

Force constant,

Damping factor

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1.3 SHOCK WAVES

1.3.1 Introduction

The true history of shock wave research in this period bears little direct relation to the
problems seen in Explosive Devices, Metal Cutting and Shaping with Explosives, Jetting and
Penetration, Wave Shaping, Explosive Welding, Metallurgy: Twinning and Transformation
Bands, Phase Transformation in Steels Powder Compaction, Synthesis of Diamond, and Cracking
of Tar Sand etc… It was a time of simplification and of a rebuilding from fundamentals of
physics. The modern shock wave research was published by J.M Walsh and R. H. Christian in
March, 1955. Shocks were generated by plane wave explosive incidents. In which pressure was
considered to be most significant factor in condensed matter physics. Static high pressure
research was observed and there was a considerable amount of effects in producing the shock
waves.

1.3.2 Acoustic waves: These are also known as sound waves, a type of longitudinal waves that
propagate by means of adiabatic compression and rarefactions. This will have the same
direction of vibration as their direction of travel. These sound waves are audible has the
frequencies lie between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. Travel at a speed of 343 ms-1 at STP.
The longitudinal waves whose frequencies less than 20 Hz called “infrasonic waves”.
These waves are not sensitive to our ear.
The longitudinal waves whose frequencies greater than 20,000 Hz called “Ultrasonic
waves”. These waves are not sensitive to our ear.
1.3.3 Shock Waves: Shock waves are strongly pressure disturbances that are generated
suddenly either by explosion or by a plane flying at a supersonic speed.
1.3.4 Mach number: it is defined as the ratio of the speed of object in medium to the speed of
the sound in that medium.

1.3.3 Subsonic waves: These are mechanical wave’s moves with the speed less than the
speed of sound waves in fluid called subsonic waves. Therefore the Mach number for such
waves is less than unity i.e., M < 1. Most of the speed of vehicle moves with less than the speed of
sound.

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1.3.4 Transonic waves: The mechanical wave’s move with the speed is equal to the speed of
sound waves in fluid called subsonic waves. Therefore the Mach number for such waves is less
than unity i.e., M = 1.

1.3.5 Supersonic Waves: The mechanical waves which move with the speed greater than the
speed of sound waves are called supersonic waves. The Mach number for such waves is greater
than unity and ranges from 1 to 3 i.e., 1 < M < 3.

1.3.6 Characteristic properties of Shock waves

i. Shock waves travel in a medium with Mach number (M)>1.
ii. Shock waves obey the laws of fluid dynamics.
iii. When shock waves pass through a medium the entropy of the system increases.
iv. When shock waves pass through a medium the changes are adiabatic.
v. General wave properties cannot be associated with shock waves.

1.3.7 Basics of conservation of Mass, Energy and Momentum

i. Control volume: For an inertial frame of reference it is a volume fixed in space or
moving with constant velocity through which the fluid flows. The surface enclosing the
control volume is referred to as the control surface.
Consider a rectangular region of fluid (say air) around a normal shock wave as
shown in the figure. Normal shock waves are the basic type of shock waves which are in
a direction perpendicular
to the flow The left of the
shock wave we have the
initial conditions and final
conditions to the right. M1,
V1, p1, T1 and ρ1 represent
the initial conditions of the
flow and M2, V2, p2, T2 and
ρ2 represent the final
conditions of the flow.

The following are the assumptions with regard to the flow

a. It is a steady flow.
b. It is an adiabatic system.
c. There are no viscous forces acting between the system and boundaries.
d. There are no external forces acting.
ii. Conservation of Mass
The basic law of conservation is mass can neither be created nor destroyed. For
a closed system the total mass remains constant. Mathematically
msys = Constant
Hence

For a control volume or open system conservation of mass is expressed in the rate form
as ̇ ̇

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Here ̇ and ̇ are are the mass flow into and out of the control volume
respectively. is the rate of change of mass within the control volume boundaries.
By applying the law of conservation of mass to the system, we get

iii. Conservation of Momentum

It is given by the total momentum of the system is always conserved. By applying

Newton’s second law of motion to the control volume the conservation of momentum is
“any change in momentum of the fluid (air) within a control volume be due to the net
flow of fluid (air) into the volume and the action of external forces on the fluid within
the volume.”

iv. Conservation of energy

It deals with energy can neither be created nor destroyed. In other words total
energy of a system remains constant. In case of a fluid system under adiabatic conditions
the total energy entering the system must be same as the total energy leaving the
system. The total energy of the control volume remains constant.

1.3.8 Hand operated Reddy Shock tube

“It’s a hand operated tube capable of generating Shock Waves in a small region. With the
Mach number of waves more than 1.5”
Principle: It operates on the principle of Free Piston-drive Shock Tube.
Construction: The setup consists of long cylindrical stainless tube of length one meter and
diameter 30mm. The tube is divided into two sections.
a. One is called the driver section which maintains at high pressure
b. Another called driven section which maintains at low pressure.

A diaphragm made of aluminium or plastic of thickness separates the two sections. A piston is
fitted at one free end of driver section for manual operation. Other end of driven section is

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closed. A pressure gauge is fixed in driver section near diaphragm and two pressure sensors are
fixed at closed end of the driven section with separation of 70mm. The driver section is filled
with driver gas and gas in driven section is called driven gas.
Working: The driver section initially kept at elevated pressure and the driven section at low
pressure. When the piston is pushed hard with high speed, the gas gets compressed producing
the heat by adiabatic compression. The diaphragm bursts due to high pressure heated gas
creating a shock wave in gas of driven section.
This shock wave instantaneously raises the pressure and temperature in driven gas.
This shock wave will reflect from downstream end. This undergoes further compression and
increase in the value of pressure and temperature. This gas will be reflected back and forth
between two ends till compressions reduce. The pressure values can be read from sensors
and . This kind of shock waves has many applications.
Characteristics of Shock tube
a. It operates on the principle of Free Piston-drive Shock Tube (FPST).
b. It can generate the shock waves with Mach number greater than 1.5
c. The produced shock waves will have the pressure about more than the few hundred
atmospheric pressure and temperature greater than 10000K. Hence, these shock waves
can be used for material processing and synthesis of materials.
d. The shock waves produced in smaller diameter tubes can be used for studying the blast
induced traumatic brain injuries.
e. It can be used to generate shock waves with Mach number greater than 2 by proper
dimensional analysis.
1.3.9 Applications of Shock Waves

The following are the applications of the shock waves.

a. Mach reflection of a shock wave is used to remove micron size dust particles from
the surface of silicon wafers.
b. Shock waves are used in medical therapy in orthopaedics and for breaking kidney
stones.
c. Shock waves are used in pencil industries to impregnate preservatives into wood
slats.
d. Shock waves are used in sandal oil extraction.
e. Shock waves are used in biological cell transformation.
f. Shock waves are used in geophysics.

Numerical problems:

1. A body is moving with a speed of 3000 Km/hr. classify the speed of the body
based on Mach number, given velocity of sound in air is 343 m/s and also
calculate the Mach angle.
SOLUTION:
⁄
⁄
Mach number,

Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 Oscillations and Waves

( ) ( )

2. The difference between two pressure sensors in a shock tube is 150 mm. The
time taken by shock waves to travel this distance is 0.3 m sec. if the velocity of
sound under the same condition is 343 m/s, find the Mach number of the shock
wave.
SOLUTION: distance between sensor=d=150 mm=150 X 10—3 m,
Time taken distance wave to travel, t=0.3 m sec=0.3 X 10—3 sec, vsound=343 m/s
Mach number,

3. In a Shock tube experiment, it was found that the time taken to travel between
the two sensors is 195 μ sec. if the distance between the two sensors is 100 mm,
find the Mach angle. Given velocity of sound=343 m/s
SOLUTION: distance between sensor=d=100 mm=100 X 10—3 m,
t=195μ sec=195 X 10—6 sec, vsound=343 m/s

( ) ( )

Reference:
1. College Physics With an Integrated Approach to Forces and Kinematics Alan
Giambattista Cornell University. The McGraw-Hill Companies.
2. Halliday & resnick, Fundamentals Of Physics, Jearl Walker Cleveland State University.
3. Fundamentals of physics / Jearl Walker, David Halliday, Robert Resnick—10th edition.
4. Images: Google Search Engine

Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 MODULE - 1
Modern Physics and Quantum Mechanics

Blackbody Radiation spectrum:

A Blackbody is one which absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and emits all the absorbed
radiation when it is hotter. A true blackbody does not exist practically. A blackbody designed by
Wein has features very close to the true blackbody. A blackbody at a particular temperature
found to emit a radiation of all possible wavelengths. It is a continuous spectrum starting from
certain minimum wavelength to maximum wavelength. The maximum intensity (Emax)
corresponds to a particular wavelength (λm). For different temperatures of the black body, there
are different curves. As the temperature of the body increases, the wavelength corresponding to
maximum intensity shifts towards lower wavelength side. The distribution of energy in black
body radiation is shown in the following fig.

6000K

3000K
Energy
2000K

Wavelength
Wein‟s, Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck have given their explanations to account these observed
experimental facts as follows:

1. Wein’s Displacement Law:

The law states that “the wavelength of maximum intensity is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the emitting body, because of which the peaks of the energy curves for
different temperatures get displaced towards the lower wavelength side”.
1
i.e. m    or λmT = constant = 2.898×10-3 mK
T 
Wein showed that the maximum energy of the peak emission is directly proportional to
the fifth power of absolute temperature.
Em α T5 or Em = constant × T5

Wein’s Energy Distribution law: The relation between the wavelength of emission and the
temperature of the source is
C 
 2 
U  d  C1  e5  T 
d

Where Uλdλ is the energy / unit volume in the range of wavelength λ and λ+dλ, C 1 and C2 are
constants.
This is called Wein‟s law of energy distribution in the black body radiation spectrum.
Drawbacks of Wein’s law:

Wein‟s law holds good for the shorter wavelength region and high temperature of the
source. It failed to explain gradual drop in intensity of radiation corresponding to longer
wavelength greater than the peak value.

2. Rayleigh-Jeans Law:

Rayleigh derived an equation for the blackbody radiation based on principle of

equipartition of energy. The principle of equipartition of energy suggests that an average energy
kT is assigned to each mode of vibration. The number of vibrations/unit volume whose
wavelength is in the range of λ and λ+dλ is given by 8πλ-4dλ.
The energy/unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ is

Uλd λ = 8π λ-4kTdλ

Where k is Boltzmann constant= 1.38x10-23J/K.

This is Rayleigh-Jean‟s equation. According to the above equation the energy radiated by
the blackbody decreases with increasing wavelength.

Drawbacks of Rayleigh-Jeans Law: (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe)

Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicts to radiate all the energy at shorter wavelength side but it
does not happen so. A black body radiates mainly in the infra-red or visible region of
electromagnetic radiation spectrum and intensity of radiation decreases down steeply for shorter
wavelengths. Thus, the Rayleigh-Jeans Law fails to explain the lower wavelength side of the
spectrum. This is referred to as ultra-violet Catastrophe.

3. Planck’s Law:

Planck assumed that walls of the experimental blackbody consists larger number of
electrical oscillators. Each oscillator vibrates with its own frequency.
i) Each oscillator has an energy given by integral multiple of hυ where h is Planck‟s
constant & υ is the frequency of vibration.
E = nhυ where n = 1, 2, 3 . . . etc.
ii) An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing radiations of frequency υ
where υ=ΔE/h, ΔE is difference in energies of the oscillator before and after the emission
or absorption take place.

Planck derived the law which holds good for the entire spectrum of the blackbody radiation as
8hc  1 
Uλ dλ = 5  h / kt
d (since υ = c/λ) (1)
 e 1
This is Planck‟s Radiation Law.
Reduction of Planck’s law to Wein’s law and Rayleigh Jeans law:
1) For shorter wavelengths, υ = c/λ is large.
When υ is large, ehυ/kT is very large.
... ehυ/kT >> 1
... (ehυ/kT-1) ≈ ehυ/kT = ehc/λkT
Substituting in eqn 1:
  C2 
 
8hc  1 
Uλ dλ = 5  hc/kT  d = C1  e
5  T 
d
 e 
Where C1 = 8πhc and C2 = hc/k
This is the Wein‟s law of radiation.

2) For longer wavelengths υ = c/λ is small.

When υ is small hυ/kT is very small.
Expanding ehυ/kT as power series:
ehυ/kT = 1 + hυ/kT + (hυ/kT)2 + . . .
≈ 1 + hυ/kT.
..
. If hυ/kT is small, its higher powers are neglected.
h hc
... ehυ/kT-1 = 
kT kT
Substituting in eqn 1:
 
 8hc 
Uλ dλ =   d
 5  hc  
   kT  
 
 8kT 
=  4  d
  
This is Rayleigh Jeans Law of Radiation.

Compton Effect:

The scattering of a photon by an electron is called as Compton effect or Compton scattering.

When a photon of wavelength „λ‟ is scattered by an electron in the direction making an
angle „θ‟ with the direction of incidence, the wavelength of the scattered photon increases. Its
wavelength is λ'. The electron recoils in a direction making an angle „φ‟ with the incident
direction of photon. The difference in the wavelength (λ'-λ) is called the Compton shift.
Compton found that λ' is independent of the target material, but depends on the angle of
scattering.
 If λ is the wavelength of the incident photon, its energy E is given by E=hc/λ where „h‟ is
the Planck‟s constant, „c‟ is the velocity of light, „λ‟ is the wavelength of the incident photon. If
λ' is the wavelength of the scattered photon, its energy E' is given by

E' = hc/λ'

The energy of the scattered photon is reduced from E to E'. The difference of energy is
carried by recoiling electron at an angle „φ‟ with the incident direction of photon.

Applying the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum Compton

h
obtained an expression for change in wavelength  λ given by  λ = λ' – λ = (1  cos  )
mc

Where „m‟ is the mass of the electron, h/mc is called as Compton wavelength.

Compton Effect explains particle nature of light.

VTU
2018

Quantum Mechanics
The behavior of entities at atomic scale more pronounced

The gestation of Quantum Physics has been very long and its phenomenological
foundations were various. Historically the original idea came from the analysis
of the black body spectrum. This is not surprising since the blackbody, in fact an
oven in thermal equilibrium with the electromagnetic radiation, is a simple and
fundamental system once the laws of electrodynamics are established. As a
matter of fact many properties of the spectrum can be deduced starting from
the general laws of electrodynamics and thermodynamics; the crisis came from
the violation of energy equipartition. This suggested to Planck the idea of
quantum, from which everything originated.

Max Planck

A R VENUGOPAL

Department of Physics

Brindavan College of Engineering

VTU Syllabus: Introduction to Quantum mechanics, Wave nature of particles,
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and applications (Non -confinement of
electron in the nucleus), Schrodinger time independent wave equation,
Significance of Wave function, Normalization, Particle in a box, Energy Eigen
values of a particle in a box and probability densities.
Introduction to Quantum mechanics: The discoveries and insights over the last three
centuries share a characteristic feature: seemingly unconnected phenomena turned out to be
manifestations of the same fundamental principle. It was a period of unification of disparate fields
of experience. Here are some of the most important steps. Newton showed that the motion of the
planets is governed by the same law as the free fall of an object on earth. Thus, the classical theory
unifies terrestrial and celestial mechanics. In contrast to the belief of the ancients, the classical
theory shows that the world of the earth and the macroscopic phenomenon.

For a long time, the phenomena of electricity, magnetism, and light appeared to be
unconnected. In the first half of the nineteenth century, one of the great unifications of physics
took place. Faraday and Maxwell, together with many others, were able to show that all three
phenomena are manifestations of the electromagnetic field. And so the field concept entered into
physics. The simplest example is the electric field of an electric charge that exerts a force on
another charge when the latter falls within its range. An electric current produces a magnetic field
that exerts a force on magnetic materials. In Quantum mechanics the fundamental concepts were
not too different from those of our everyday experience, such as particle, position, speed, mass,
force, energy, and even field. We often refer to those concepts as classical. The world of atoms
cannot be described and understood with those concepts. For atoms and molecules, the ideas and
concepts formed in dealing with the objects in our immediate environment no longer suffice. One
needs a new concept to understand the properties of atoms. The quantum mechanics changed our
old concepts of reality in many respects.

According to Max Planck the energy could be taken only certain discrete values as follows

i. A System can absorb and emit the radiations in discrete packets called
quanta.
ii. If is the frequency of an electromagnetic oscillator. Then its energy is
proportional to .

i.e.,

Where h is Planck’s constant and its value is 6.625x10-34 JS.

In other words it states that exchange of energy between the radiation and matter cannot takes
place continuously. The energies of the atoms are said to be quantized and the allowed energy
levels are called as quantum levels.

A Black body which absorbs all radiations and emits all radiations irrespective of wavelengths can
be explained only based on quantum mechanical principles. Then, the energy density corresponds
to the emitted radiation in the wavelength range of and is given by

[ ]

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 2

Wave nature of particles: The light, believed to be a wave, exhibited particle properties
and that electrons, believed to be particles, exhibited wave properties. Let us call it the wave-
particle duality. Louis de-Broglie extended the wave particle duality of light to all the fundamental
entities of physics such as electrons, protons neutrons etc. de-Broglie put a bold suggestion that,
if radiation can behave as particle under certain circumstances then, one can even expect that
entities which ordinarily behaves as particles to exhibit wave properties under appropriate
circumstances.

The hypothesis of de-Broglie was that the dual nature that is wave –particle behavior of radiation
applies equally well to matter. Just as a photon has a light wave associated with it, governs its
motion. Such a wave associated with matter are called matter waves or de-Broglie waves and the
hypothesis is called de-Broglie hypothesis.de-Broglie hypothesis opened up a new thinking in
almost all the fields of Physics. In fact it can be treated as the new beginning of the Modern
Physics.

The expression of the wavelength associated with a material particle can be derived on the
analogy of radiation as follows:

Considering the Plank’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon (quantum) is given by

Equating above equations, we get

Where cis the speed of light and h= 6.62x10-34 JS is Planck’s constant.

The momentum of a particle of mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’ is and its de-Broglie wavelength
is accordingly

This physically means that a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving with the velocity ‘v’ has a wave
associated with it of de-Broglie wavelength.

This physically means that a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving with the velocity ‘v’ has a wave
associated with it of de-Broglie wavelength.

If ‘E’ is the kinetic energy of the particle, then De-Broglie wavelength is

√

For an accelerated charged particle at a potential difference of ‘V’, the de-Broglie’s wavelength is
√

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 3

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: To regard a moving particle as a wave group
implies that there are fundamental limits to the accuracy with which we can measure such
“particle” properties as position and momentum. According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle: It is impossible to know both the exact position and momentum of a particle at the
same time, It states that “The product of inherent uncertainties involved in the measurements
position and momentum simultaneously is greater than or equal to greater than ⁄ ”.

Another forms of the uncertainty principle concerns energy and time is given by

The Uncertainty principle between angular displacement and angular momentum is given by

Significance of Uncertainty principle: The Physical Significance of this principle is that one
should not think of exact position or an accurate value of momentum of the particle. Instead one
should think of probability of finding the particle in a certain region or the probability of finding
the momentum of the particle. The estimation of such probabilities is made by means of certain
mathematical function called wavefunction in quantum mechanics.

Applications of uncertainty principle:

Non-existence of electrons in atomic nucleus:

We know that, the diameter of nucleus cannot exceed . Let us assume that, if
an electron exists inside the nucleus. This means, Uncertainty in position cannot exceed the
diameter of the nucleus. Hence .

We know from Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Therefore, the uncertainty in momentum of the electron is and

hence, the momentum of an electron is equal to uncertainty in its momentum.

Then the relativistic energy of the electron in the nucleus is given by

Where m is the rest mass of the electron and p is the momentum

[ ]
[ ]

or

The value indicates that an electron requires energy of to exist inside the nucleus. But

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 4

the measurements made in the beta decay shows that the kinetic energy of the order of 3 – 4 MeV.
The actual energy of the electrons exists in various orbits outside the nucleus is less than the
value , if it exists inside the nucleus. Therefore, it is clear the no electron can exists
inside the nucleus.

Wave function:
We know that matter exhibits wave like behavior under certain conditions. When the momentum
of the particle is well defined, the wave can be of infinite extent. Therefore a particle moving along
x-axis with well defined momentum is described by an infinite plane wave ( )and is given by
[( )]
( )

It is a function of space variables (x,y,z) and time ‘t’

Where angular frequency and k is wave vector

In the case of electromagnetic waves, the electromagnetic waves vary with space and time.
In case of sound waves, it is describes pressure variation in space and time. In other words to
describe the wave function one requires quantity which varies in space and time. In analogy with
these, to describe the matter waves associated with the particle motion, one requires a quantity
which varies with space and time, this variable quantity is called as wave function ( ). The
solution describes wave aspect, particle aspect in consistent with the uncertainty principle.

Physical significance of wave function:

The wave function ( ) signifies the probability of finding the particle described by the wave
function at the point ⃗ ( ) and at time ‘t’

Properties of wave function:

The knowledge of the wave function of the particles can be evaluated by knowing the values of
( ) from the Schrödinger wave equation.

i) The wave function ( ) is single-valued everywhere: The wave function

should have single value rather than multiple values. Consider a wave function
( ) has an interval of wave function , and .
ii) Wave function is finite everywhere: Consider
a wave function as a function of as shown in the
figure 1.4. The wave function is infinite at ,
Which means the probability of finding the particle
is infinitely large at . This violates the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Thus the wave
function becomes unacceptable. Therefore, the
wave function must have a finite value everywhere.
iii) Wave function and its derivatives are
continues everywhere: When the wave function is continuous and finite
everywhere, the first and second derivatives are also continuous which is
essential to evaluate the Schrödinger equation. Hence wave functions must be
continuous everywhere.
iv) It is large in magnitude where the particle is likely to be located and small in
other places.
v) The wave function describes the behavior of a single particle not the statistical
distribution of a number of such quanta.
vi) It can interfere with itself ( phenomenon of electron diffraction)

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 5

 Probability density: Consider a particle
whose position is independent of time in a
volume inside which particle is known to be
present in a volume element . Let be the
wave function associated with the particle,
and then the square of the wave function
associated with the particle is interpreted as
measure of probability density.

That is | | is the probability density per volume

element , that the particle will be found in that volume element.

( ) | |

If the wave function is complex, then, the probability density is product of wave functions
and its complex conjugate , therefore the probability density is given by

( )

Normalization: If the particle exists somewhere at all the time. Let be the wave function
associated with the particle, then the probability density of particle in a volume element is
| | . If we further extend the case where the particle is definitely present in some region
or space, As per the statistical rule the normalization is given by.

∫ | |

This is based on the fact that, a value 1 for probability means, it is clearly a certainty. However,
in the above case if we are not at all certain about locating the particle in a finite volume
anywhere in the space, then the expectation will become limited to the extent that it exists
somewhere in space. Then the limits in equation extend to to and the
probability becomes.

∫ | |

This process is called Normalization.

Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation:

The wave function of matter wave which is confined to a small region of space is given by
[(
( ) )]
(1)

In many cases the potential energy does not depend on time ‘t’ explicitly. In these cases, there is
no external force acts on the particle. Hence, the potential energy depends on the position of the
particle; the wave function for such cases can be obtained as follows.

Differentiating the equation (1) twice with respect to ‘x’ we get

(2)

Differentiating the equation (1) twice with respect to ‘t’ we get

(3)

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 6

We have Phase velocity or (4)

Substituting equation (4) in (2), we get

(5)

Using (3) in (5),

This is the equation for the travelling wave. Now, we have (6)

Substituting equation (6) in (2), we get

(7)

The total energy of the particle is

or

(8)

Where, is the potential energy, it depends only on position and is independent of time.

The De-Broglie’s wave length is or (9)

Substituting equation (9) in (8), we get

( )
Or (10)

Substituting equation (10) in (7), we get

( )

( )

This is the Expression for Schrodinger’s time-independent equation.

Applications of Schrödinger’s equation

Particle in one dimensional potential well of infinite height

Consider particle confined in a one dimensional potential well of infinite height and of
length ‘L’ as shown in the figure 1.5.

a) The particle move along x – axis between x =0 and x = L exhibits elastic collisions

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 7

 b) The particle inside the potential well
is not influenced by any external
force. Therefore potential energy is
minimum and taken to be zero.

c) The potential energy outside the Figure 1.5

potential well is infinite.

Consider Schrödinger time

independent equation
( )

(1)

For the particle inside the potential well potential energy

i.e.

Substituting in (1) we get

(2)

Let (3)

Then equation (2) becomes

The solution of the above equation is given by

( ) (4)

Where A and B are constants depends on boundary conditions

a) When ; ( )

equation (4) becomes

Substituting in equation (4)

( ) (5)

b) When ; ( )

Equation (5) becomes

On solving or

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 8

 (6)

Substituting equation (6) in (3), we get

(7)

The above equation is called the Eigen energy values for a particle in one dimensional
potential well.

For

This is the least possible energy possessed by the particle in a 1-D potential well called Zero-
point energy.

For

This is the energy of the particle in first excited state and so on.

Normalization: For the particle inside the potential well, the probability of finding a particle
is unity and is given by.
∫ | |

( )
∫ [ ]

∫ ∫

On simplification we get

Substituting √ and in (5)

( ) √

This equation is called as Eigen wave function, where

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 9

Eigen energy values and Eigen function for a particle in infinite potential well:

We have equation for the Energy Eigen values

and the Eigen wave function is

( ) √ (8)

Case i When for ground stand, the wave function and corresponding energy for a particle in
ground state is

( ) √

is called the ground state energy or Zero-point energy and is the wave function

Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7

corresponds to particle in ground state. At the boundary conditions and , the

wave function . It indicates the probability of finding the particle at both and
is zero i.e., | | . However, the probability of finding the particle is maximum at
the centre i.e., . The physical representation of the normalized wave function and
probability density of wave function of particle at is shown in below figures 1.6. and
figure 1.7.

Case ii When , the particle in the excited state known as first excited state. Therefore, the
energy and the wave function corresponding of the particle in the first excited state is given by

( ) √

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 10

 Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9

The normalized wave function and probability density of wave function of the particle in
the first excited state is as shown in the figure 1.8. and 1.9.

The probability of finding the particle in the first excited state at , and is
zero i.e. | | . Since . However the probability of finding the particle is
maximum at at , and .

Reference:

1. Concepts of Modern Physics: Arthur Beiser. McGrawhill company. 2009.

2. Modern Physics: Robert Resnic, Robert Eiseberg. John-Wiley.2000.
3. Engineering Physics by Rajendran, McGrawhill company. 2011.

Department of Physics, Brindavan college of Engineering Page 11

BRINDAVAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

LASERS
Controlled emission of photons…
A R VENUGOPAL

2014

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
LASERS
VTU Syllabus: Principle and production. Einstein’s coefficients (expression
for energy density). Requisites of a Laser system. Condition for Laser
action. Principle, Construction and working of He-Ne and semiconductor Laser.
Applications of Laser – Laser welding, cutting and drilling. Measurement of
atmospheric pollutants. Holography – Principle of Recording and
reconstruction of 3-D images. Selected applications of holography.

Introduction: Lasers are devices that produce intense beams of light which are monochromatic,
coherent, and highly collimated. The wavelength (color) of laser light is extremely pure (monochromatic)
when compared to other sources of light, and all of the photons (energy) that make up the laser beam
have a fixed phase relationship (coherence) with respect to one another. Light from a laser typically has
very low divergence. It can travel over great distances or can be focused to a very small spot with a
brightness which exceeds that of the sun. Because of these properties, lasers are used in a wide variety
of applications in all walks of life. The term “laser” is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation. To understand the laser, one needs to understand the meaning of these terms.
The term “light” is generally accepted to be electromagnetic radiation which interacts with matter
results in emission of light, and is discussed briefly with the help of Planck’s photon hypothesis and
Bohr’s atomic model as follows.
Planck's Hypothesis is that, light is made up of particles called “photons” which exhibit both
particle-like and wave-like properties. Each photon has an intrinsic energy determined by the equation

where is the frequency of the light and h is Planck’s constant.

According to Bohr’s atomic theory, for an atom to absorb light (i.e., for the light energy to cause
an electron to move from a lower energy state to a higher energy state ), the energy of a single
photon must equal, almost exactly, the energy difference between the two states. Too much energy or
too little energy and the photon will not be absorbed. Consequently, the wavelength of that photon
must be

. Likewise, when an electron decays to a lower energy level in a radiative transition, the
photon of light given off by the atom must also have energy equal to the energy difference between the
two states.

Interaction of radiation with matter

There are three possible ways through which interaction of radiation with matter take place,
Absorption of radiation called induced absorption of radiation.
Emission can take place in ways by Einstein namely the
spontaneous emission and the stimulated emission.

i) Induced absorption: The absorption of incident

photon of energy is equal to energy difference two
energy states by, a quantum system results in the
transition of electron/atom from a lower energy
state to a higher energy state.
Consider a two energy state quantum system,
with be the energy of the lower state and be
 the energy of the higher state as shown in figure 01.
Let the photon of energy is incident
on the system, the electron/atom absorbs the
incident photon energy and get excited to higher
energy state. Hence, the atom is called the excited
atom.
ii) Spontaneous Emission: It is the emission of a
photon, when an electron/atom makes transition
from higher energy state to lower energy state,
without the aid of any external agency.
Consider an electron/atom in the excited state of
two energy state quantum system, the excited electron/atom gets de-excited with releasing
the energy in the form of photon, with energy. . Without being aided by any
external agency. The emitted photon may not have any phase similarities and can have any
direction under identical conditions. Hence they are incoherent.
iii) Stimulated emission of radiation: It is the emission
of a photon by a quantum system, when a photon of
right energy is incident on the system, due to which
the electron/atom makes transition from a higher
state to lower energy state. Thus, emitted photon is
called the stimulated photon and it will have the
same phase, wavelength and direction as that of the
passing photon.
Consider an electron in the excited state of two
energy level system, Let a photon of energy
is interacted with the electron/atom
makes transmission into the lower energy state. The emitted photon will have the same
phase, direction and wavelength as that of the incident photon, thus emitted photons are
highly coherent.
This kind of emission is responsible for laser action.
Expression for Energy density in terms of Einstein’s coefficient:
Consider two energy level quantum systems with be the energy of the lowest energy state
and be the energy corresponds to higher energy state. Let band be the number of atoms per
unit volume of the system in energy states and respectively. Let us consider a stream of photons
having the wavelength range to be incident on the system. Then the energy incident per unit
volume of the system in the frequency interval of and
is given by . Then we can solve for

i) Induced Absorption: In this process, the

electron/atom makes transition from lower energy
state to higher energy state , when it absorbs a
photon of energy incident on the
system. The number of such absorptions per unit
time, per unit volume is called rate of induced
absorption.
The rate induced absorption depends on the two
factors,
 a) Number of atoms per unit volume in lower energy state i.e., and
b) Incident energy density .
Rate of induced absorption
Rate of induced absorption
Where, is the proportionality constant called
Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption.
ii) Spontaneous emission: The spontaneous emission
occurs when an electron/atom undergoes transition
from higher energy state to lower energy state ,
by emitting a photon of energy . But
this emission is without being aided by any external
agency. Hence, it is independent of the incident energy
density and depends only on the number of atoms
in the higher energy state . The number of such
emissions per unit time, per unit volume is called the
rate of spontaneous emission. Then,
The rate of spontaneous emission
The rate of spontaneous emission =
Where, is the proportionality constant called Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous
emission.

iii) The Stimulated emission: Stimulated emission requires

external photon of right energy to
stimulate the electron/atom to the downward
transition, results in the emission of stimulated photon.
Hence, the emitted photons are depends on the
incident energy density , and also depends on the
number of atoms in the higher energy state. Then the
rate of Stimulated emission
Then the rate of Stimulated emission
Where, is the proportionality constant called
Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

Consider the system under thermal equilibrium, under such conditions the number of such photons
absorbed per second is equal to the number photos emitted per second both by the spontaneous
emission and by stimulated emission processes.
Under thermal equilibrium,
Rate of Absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
or

Re writing above equation we get,

( ) -------------------(1)

We have the ratio of population by Boltzmann’s law

 ----------------------------------(2)
Substituting Equation (2) in (1), we get,

( )------------------(3)

But we have from Planck’s radiation law

( )------------------(4)
On comparison of equations (3) and (4) we get,
and or
The Equation for the energy density is
( )

Condition for population Inversion: We know that the average life time of an atom in the unstable state
is of the order of Seconds, during the de-excitation, the spontaneous emission will occur. Since the
number of atoms in the lower energy state are greater than that of higher energy state. Hence emitted
light is not coherent. The ration of population in the energy states is given by Boltzmann’s equation.

( )

In general . Then
That is, The population of higher energy state is very much less than that of the lower energy state.
Hence the probability of spontaneous emission is more than the Stimulated emission. Physically, if
, then, Stimulated emission will take place. The process by which the population of higher
energy state is greater than that of lower energy state can be achieved called population inversion.

Population Inversion:
A State in which the population of higher energy
state is greater than that of lower energy state can
be achieved called population inversion.
Consider a three energy level quantum
system with are the energies of the
lower, first excited and second excited states
respectively as shown in figure.
Let the atoms excited from the stable state to the
unstable state , Since the life time of the atoms is
very small in unstable state. These atoms undergo
downward radiation less transition to meta stable
state , and stays over a long time. Hence
population of the state increases steadily, under
these conditions a stage will be reached wherein the population of overtakes that of , which is
known as population inversion. Once the population of exceeds . The stimulated emission is more
than that of spontaneous emission and emitted photos will have same phase, wavelength and direction,
grows to a large number and build up the laser light. Hence the condition for laser action is achieved by
population inversion.

Basic requirements for the production of lasers

There are three basic requirements for the laser system, and are as follows
I) Active material/medium: The material which is responsible for the laser action, i.e. a
material in which amplified signal is attained through population inversion.
II) Resonance cavity: the cavity in which the active
material is placed and in which a resonance is
brought about by adjusting the two mirrors, such
that the distance between them is integral multiples
of half wavelength of the amplified signal.
The cavity is in cylindrical in shape having length
‘L’ with small cross-section, it consists of two
mirrors. A fully reflected mirror is placed at one end
and a partially reflected is placed at other end. The
energy is given to system by the excitation source.
The distance between the two mirrors is so adjusted
that it is exactly integral multiples of half
wavelength. This creates the resonance and leads to better stimulated emission. The light is
emitted from a narrow of the hole of the partially reflected mirror and becomes
unidirectional. The distance between the two mirrors is . n=1, 2, 3…
III) Pumping: The process of exciting the system from lower energy state to higher energy state
by means of external source is known as the pumping. If the optical energy is used for
excitation then it is called the Optical pumping. When electrical energy is used, it is called
electrical discharge.

Helium-Neon Laser:
It is a gas laser and basic principle and construction is discussed as follows.

It consists of two main parts.

 i) Active medium: The active material used in this laser is a mixture of Helium and
Neon gases in the ratio of 10:1. This gas mixture is placed gas discharge tube made
up of quartz, at the pressure of 1 mm of Hg.
ii) Gas discharge tube: It is made up of fused quartz, it has length of 80cm and diameter
of 11cm. The end faces of discharge tube is tilted at the Brewster angle, known as
Brewster windows, since the windows are highly transparent for the prepared
direction of polarization. A fully reflected mirror is placed at one end of the discharge
tube and partially reflected mirror at the other end.

Working Principle: The population inversion for laser action is achieved by inelastic atom-atom collisions
due to the electric discharge is gas mixture. An energetic electrons interacts with helium atoms in
ground state. The impact of electron results in exchange of energy to helium atom, as a result. The
helium atoms get excited to higher energy state known as metastable states. This process is known as
collision of first kind and represented as follows.

These two energy states are very close in energy of the energy of Neon atom energy states 2s and 3s.
Hence Helium atom collides with the Neon atoms making excitation of Neon atoms. This is called the
collision of second kind.

Thus He atoms helps in achieving the population inversion. The excited Ne atoms make transition from
2s to 2p and 3s to 2p levels for laser action by emitting photons of wavelength 6328 ̇ . This photon
travels through the gas mixture parallel to the optic axis of the tube and stimulates surrounding Ne
atoms presents in the metastable state. This way large number of photons will be emitted, These
photons travels back and forth between the two parallel mirrors gets amplified through the stimulated
emission every time, finally intense beam of photons pass through the partially reflected mirror. The
emitted photos will have same phase, wavelength and directionality.
Semiconductor Laser diode:

The most compact of all the lasers is the semiconductor laser diode. This laser diode consists of a p-n
junction doped in a single crystal of a suitable semiconductor such as Gallium-Arsenide.

Principle: The laser transition can be possible only with the direct band gap semiconductors. Therefore
direct band gap semiconducting materials like Ga-As are used for laser action. The p-type material is
formed by addition of dopant like tellurium and n-type material is formed by addition of zinc. This
heavily doped semiconducting material consists of filled energy states at the bottom of the conduction
band and top of the valance band.

When Semiconductor laser diode in the forward biased, holes are injected into p-type and
electrons into n-type of the junction. The recombination of electrons and holes within the junction
region results in the emission of photons. If the junction current is large enough, population inversion
can be obtained between the electron levels and hole levels, that is increasing the population of energy
levels near the bottom of the conduction band and top of the valance band. Hence stimulated emission
can be achieved.

Working: When the p-n junction is forward biased with the applied voltage equal to the band gap
voltage, direct conduction take place. This result in the creation of high current density at the active
region, the electron in the conduction band makes the downward transition. These electrons combine
with
The holes in valance band and recombination energy are produced as the photon. This photon in turn,
may induce another electron in the conduction, there by stimulating another photon. When the applied
forward bias voltage is greater than the threshold value, population inversion can be achieved. Hence
the stimulated emission leads to the laser action in the semiconductor laser diode.

Another requirement for the laser action is the resonance cavity. In the p-n junction device, any of the
two end faces are highly polished and another two end faces are rough surfaced to prevent the leakage
of photons. The typical Gs-As semiconductor laser diode is as shown in above figure.

Carbon dioxide Laser:

It is the first molecular laser developed by C K N Patel.

Principle: In order to understand the working of this laser, one has to understand the rotational and
vibrational spectrum of CO2 molecules. As the carbon dioxide molecule is linear and Centro symmetric, C
atom at center and with linear stretch of O atoms. There are three modes of vibrations and are
discussed as follows.

i. In symmetric mode, the carbon atom is fixed in its position and each oxygen atom stretches
symmetrically in linear with the carbon atom known as the symmetric mode of vibrations.
Corresponding frequency is known as symmetric stretching frequency
ii. The oxygen atoms and the carbon atom can vibrate at right angles to the line passing
through the Centre of gravity. This is known as bending mode and the corresponding
frequency is known as bending frequency.
iii. The oxygen atoms can vibrate about the central C atom asymmetrically, and at the same
time carbon atom also vibrates about its mean position. The corresponding frequency is
called the asymmetric frequency.

In addition to these three vibrational modes, the molecule can

also rotate and therefore rotational energy levels are also
possible. Hence , the total energy associated with this
molecule is sum of vibrational and rotational energies.

Construction: It consists of discharge tube of length about 5m

and of diameter 2.5cm. A mixture of CO2, N2 and He in right
proportions is enclosed in this tube. The out power of this
laser source is increased by increasing the physical dimensions of the discharge tube. The laser is
powered by the AC or DC supply. It consist of fully reflected
mirror at one and partially reflected mirror at other end. This
laser source is water cooled or air cooled to increase the
efficiency.
Working: When the suitable voltage is applied across the electrodes, the glow discharge of gas is
initiated in the tube. During gas discharge electron will be produced from gas atoms. These free
electrons accelerated towards the positive electrode with the
collision of nitrogen molecules in their path. The collision of first
kind in which energy of the electrons transformed to the
nitrogen molecules, makes nitrogen molecules get excited.

The excited molecules undergoes collision with

molucules. Since, the energy values of and are very
close, results in second kind of collision, make molecules to
be excited.

In the metastable state, the population of molecules increases rapidly than the other lower energy
levels, Thus the population inversion can be achieved, as shown in the below figure.

Once the population inversion is established between the energy states E5 with respect to E4 & E3 energy
states. There are two possible transitions take place within the molecules energy states.

i. Transition from E5 state to E4 state results in the emission of photons of wavelength 10.6µm
which is in the infrared region, and
ii. Transition from E5 state to E3 state results in the emission of photons of wavelength 9.6µm
which is also in infrared region.

Following the above two transitions, the molecule in E3 and E4 undergoes collisions and de-
excited to E2 state and then to E1 state by losing its energy. Hence the laser beam will be emitted
from partially reflected mirror. The laser oprates with an efficiency of upto 30%. The power
output of few kilowatts can be attained. Hence, generally used in industrial applications.
Industrial Applications of Lasers

i) Laser welding
ii) Laser Cutting
iii) Laser drilling

Laser Welding:

Laser welding is a thermal technique, which is used to join the two or more work parts. The joining of
metal pieces are established by solidification of metals at common melting point.

Consider two metal plates are to be welded using laser beam, the metal plates are held in
contact at their edges as shown in the below figure. The focal spot for the welding on the surface of the
metal plate edges are identified. The high intensity laser beam is focused on the spot employing the
optical arrangements. At the surface of the metal plate, The highly concentrated laser beam with high
intensity is converted into thermal energy and thus heats the spot on the metal plates. Therefore metal
plates starts melting and then progress by surface conduction. Thus the metal plates fuse together at
the points of contacts. The energy of the beam required to melt the metal plates are kept well below the
vaporization temperature of the work piece.

The laser welding process requires few basic components such as a good laser source, a beam guiding,
work piece. A Simple experimental setup used for laser welding is as shown in the above figure. The
laser light from laser source is made to pass through the optical setup to control the optical energy of
the laser beam and to focus the laser beam. At the laser focusing point a shield gas is passed through
the shielding gas let. This shielding gas is used to cool the welding spot and to increase the process of
welding by convection. Nd-YAG and Carbon dioxide lasers are generally used in the process of laser
welding.

Advantages:

a) It is a contactless process. Therefore, unwanted materials like oxides can be eliminated.

 b) Only the focused region is heated and so it can be used in micro-electronics, where
heat-sensitive components are involved.
c) There is no mechanical stress on the components involved, thus there is no
deformation.
d) It can be used to weld joints where man cannot physically be present, for example, in
nuclear power plants.

Laser Cutting:

The laser cutting is thermo-mechanical process. During the thermal mechanical process, the material is
removed either by phase changes like melting and vaporization or by hydrothermal motions.

The below figure shows the typical laser cutting process system. It consists of nozzle with laser beam
focusing system and gas inlet to assist the laser cutting. The high intensity laser beam is focused through
the lens via nozzle. The high intensity optical beam is focused at the cutting spot, which converts into
thermal energy with temperature above the vaporization temperature. Hence, metal starts melts, this
molten material will be ejected by providing the necessary mechanical force from inlet gas jet through
the nozzle. The passed gas also used to cool the cutting spot by forced convection. On the other hand,
one can use the inert gas in order to reduce the oxidation during the laser cutting process. Hence, laser
process can be performed with good quality and precisely.

Advantages:

a) There is no thermal damage and chemical change in the material

b) There is no wear and tear and no mechanical stress induced
c) There is no need for a coolant while cutting the material
d) The cutting is clean, fast, accurate, and of a high quality
e) Saves manpower and time
Laser Drilling:

The high intensity laser beam is used to obtain the small holes in materials at high speed with good
quality. The high intensity laser beam is used to drill the material, a large number of physical processes,
ablation mechanism, etc. take place depending on used material and irradiation conditions.

The setup of the laser drilling is as shown the below figure. The high intensity pulsed laser beam
is made to incident at the drilling spot on surface of the metal. The duration of the pulses will be of 0.1
ms to 1 ms. The intense heat generated over a short duration by the pulses evaporates the material
locally. Hence the hole is left. Nd-YAG Laser is used in case metals but Carbon Dioxide Laser is used in
case of both Metals and Nonmetals.

Advantages:

a) No wear and tear of tools

b) Drilling can be done at any oblique angle
c) Fine holes of diameter 0.2 to 0.5 mm can also be drilled adjacent to each other
d) Even hard or brittle materials can be drilled as there are no mechanical stresses induced in
the material

Application of Laser in Measurement of Pollutants in the Atmosphere

Lasers are used for measuring pollutants like carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide,
Freon, and a number of other particles which come under the categories of dust, smoke, fly ash and so
on. The process of measurement of pollutants by lasers is called Light Detection and Ranging or LIDAR.

LIDAR system consists of pulsed laser source in the transmitting part and a transreceiver optical
system, a signal processing unit and a reflector at the receiving part.

In this method, a laser beam from the source is projected through the atmosphere. The laser
beam undergoes scattering by the pollutants. At the same time there is absorption of certain amount of
laser light by pollutants.
There are two techniques used:

1) Absorption technique:
In this technique, the laser beam is passed through the atmosphere and the absorption
spectrum is recorded. Since different elements of a pollutant absorb laser energy at
different wavelengths, the study of absorption spectrum indicates the type of pollutant and
its amount in the atmosphere.

2) Raman back scattering technique:

In this technique, the laser beam is passed through the atmosphere and the spectrum of
transmitted beam is recorded. In this type of diffraction it is Raman scattering that takes
place and the spectrum consists of several lines of different intensity. By measuring the
change in wavelength of the incident laser beam and the scattered beam, Raman Shift can
be calculated. The composition of the pollutants can be assessed by studying the Raman
shift.

HOLOGRAPHY

The technique of recording the three dimensional image of an object using the principle of
interference is known as holography. The word holography is derived from the Greek words “holos”,
meaning whole or complete, and “graphos”, meaning writing.

The recorded three-dimensional image is called a hologram. Holography was invented by Dennis
Gabor in 1947, when he was trying to improve the resolution of microscopes. Holography requires
highly coherent laser light.

In conventional photography, the photographic film records only the intensity of light, and not
the phase of the wave. Thus it loses the three dimensional nature of the object. But in holography we
record both intensity and phase of the wave by making the wave front from the object to interfere with
another wave front from a reference source and recording the interference fringes on a conventional
photo film. This result in a 3-dimensional picture of the object called a hologram.

Holography involves two steps:

1) Recording of the image of an object

The image of an object can be recorded on a photographic plate using the laser light using two
techniques:
A) Wave front division technique
In this method, a broadened laser beam from a laser source is made to fall on the
object and a mirror, placed one beside the other as shown in the figure. The reflected rays
from the mirror and the object are received on a photographic plate at a suitable distance.
 The laser waves reflected from the mirror have plane wave fronts, whereas the waves
reflected from the object have spherical wave spherical wave fronts, as each point on the
body acts as a point source.

The beam of light reflected from the mirror is called the reference beam and the beam
reflected from the object is called the object beam.
The two beams superpose on the photographic plate. The interference pattern due to the
interference of the plane wave front and the spherical wave front is recorded on the
photographic plate. The developed photographic plate is called Hologram.

B) Amplitude division technique

In this technique, a broadened laser beam is incident on a beam splitter. The beam
splitter reflects a part of the incident beam on to a mirror while transmitting the rest to
incident on to the object kept at a certain distance from the mirror.
The beam reflected from the mirror is called the reference beam, and the beam
reflected from the object, the object beam. These two beams interfere on the photographic
plate and an interference pattern is recorded. The recorded photographic film, when
developed gives the hologram. This method is considered division of amplitude because the
transmitted and reflected light beams from the mirrors have different intensities and hence
different amplitudes.
2) Reconstruction of Image
Reconstruction of the holographic image is the process of extraction of 3-dimensional
information about the object.
For the reconstruction of the image, the hologram is illuminated by the laser light in the
direction in which the reference beam was incident on it during recording. The incident laser
beam undergoes diffraction in the hologram and the diffracted waves undergo interference to
generate the real image of the object on the transmission side of the hologram, and a virtual
image behind the hologram at the original site of the object. When an observer sees the
hologram from the transmission side, he receives the rays diverging from the virtual image and
it appears as though the original object is lying on the other side.
Laser in defense (laser range finder)
Laser rangefinder in defense:
 A high powered laser beam from a solid state laser source such as Nd – YAG laser
is directed towards enemy target
from a transmitter.
 The pulses are narrow with high peak power, incident on the target and produces
reflection,
 this reflected rays are called secondary rays, and are received by receiver consists
of a narrow band optical filter tuned to the frequency of laser light, that all
background noise could filtered.
 The signal will be amplified by Photo-multiplier. The high speed clock in
rangefinder measures the exact time ‘t’ of secondary waves reflecting from the
target and converts it into distance using a simple equation

d= c *t
 MEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF LASERS (LASIK
(laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis))
 Laser eye surgery is a medical procedure that involves the
use of laser to reshape the surface of the eye.
 This is done to improve or correct myopia (short-
sightedness), hypermetropia (long-
sightedness) and astigmatism (uneven curvature of the eye’s
surface).
 It can also be helpful in overcoming presbyopia (difficulty
seeing up close as we get older).
 During laser eye surgery, a computer-controlled excimer
laser is used to remove microscopic amounts of tissue from
the cornea.
 The aim is to restore normal eyesight, without the need for
glasses or contact lenses.
 In one of the operations using the excimer laser, the thin
outer layer
of the cornea (called the corneal epithelium) is removed and
the underlying layers are reshaped. This procedure is known
as photorefractive keratectomy (PRK).
Skin treatment
Today, there are more medical and aesthetic
dermatological procedures utilizing laser
technology than ever before.
 Applications range from mildly invasive
procedures such as laser-assisted lipolysis to
completely non-invasive ones such as photo
biomodulation.
This wide spectrum includes skin resurfacing,
non-invasive body contouring, hair and tattoo
removal, treatment of vascular and pigmented
lesions, to name a few.
Success in each of these applications is
largely dependent on correct choice of laser
type, wavelength, and pulse width
 Application of Lasers…
 Laser beam is used to measure
distances of sun, moon, stars and
satellites very accurately.
 It can be used for measuring
velocity of light, to study spectrum
of matters, to study Raman effect.
 It can be is used for increasing
efficiency of computer.
 It is used for welding.
 It is used in biomedical science.
 Application of Lasers…

 It is used for communication, T. V.

transmission, to search the objects
under sea.
 It can be used to predict earthquake.
 Laser tools are used in surgery.
 It is used for detection and treatment of
cancer.
 It is used to aline straight line for
construction of dam, tunnels etc.
 It is used in holography.
 It is used in fiber optic communication.
 It is also used in military, like LIDAR.
 It is used to accelerate some chemical
reactions.
 It is used in 3D photography.
Optical Fibers
Light wave guides…

A R VENUGOPAL
Department of Physics
Brindavan College of Engineering
Bangalore-560063

2015
VTU Syllabus: Optical Fibers: Propagation mechanism in optical fibers.
Angle of acceptance. Numerical aperture. Types of optical fibers and
modes of propagation. Attenuation. Applications – block diagram
discussion of point to point communication.

Optical fibers: Optical fibers are cylindrical light wave guides, which guides the light waves to propagate
through it without much energy loss, by the principle of total internal reflection. Optical fibers are
widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. It consists of a core and cladding,
made up of transparent dielectric materials like glass and plastic. In optical fibers core is cylindrical in
shape and is very thin where the light travels and it has higher refractive index. Cladding is an outer
optical material surrounded by core; it has lower refractive index than core. Hence the light reflects back
into the core by total internal reflection. Jacket or the sheath is the outermost section which protects
the fiber from damage and moisture.

Propagation of light in optical fiber: Consider a ray of light propagating from a medium of higher
refractive index into medium of lower refractive index at the interface by making an angle ‘ ’ to
the normal. The refracted ray bends away from the normal by making an angle ‘ ’ is show in the
figure 1.1. If the angle ‘ ’ of incident ray increases and if it becomes equal to critical angle then the
refracted ray propagates through boundary between
two media by making an angle as shown in the
figure 1.2. When the angle ‘ ’ of incident ray exceeds Figure 1.1
the critical angle , The incident ray gets reflected
back into the same medium. Hence there is no loss if
intensity of refracted ray as shown in figure 1.3. The
reflection of light into the same medium for the
incident angle greater than critical angle is known as
total internal reflection. Therefore total internal
reflection is the basic principle involved in the
transmission of signals in the optical fibers.

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

 Figure 1.2 Figure 1.3

Applying the Snell’s law for the incident ray shown in the figure 1.2

For and . The above equation simplified to

The above equation determines the critical angle for an optical fiber.

Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture for an optical fiber:

In order to transmit the light wave through the optical fiber, it is necessary to launch the light at angles
that fall within certain range. The maximum limit of this angle is decided by the acceptance angle.

Figure 1.4

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

Let us consider an optical fiber surrounded by air medium of refractive index into which light is
transmitting at an angle at core-air medium interface, it under goes refraction through core of
refractive index at an angle ‘r’ with fiber axis. This refracted ray incident at core-cladding interface at
greater than the critical angle of . Therefore the ray undergoes total internal reflection by
making an angle as shown in the figure 1.4. The refractive index of cladding is considered to be
( . Therefore the light gets totally internal reflected for the transmission along the length of
the optical fiber.

Applying the Snell’s law to the launching face of the fiber, we get

(1)

But for air medium , we get

(2)

Now, Applying the Snell’s law at core-cladding interface

For the angle of incident is equal to critical angle the refracted ray posses through core-cladding
interface by making angle with normal.

Or (3)

Substituting equation (3) in (1) we get

This is an expression for acceptance angle or half cone acceptance angle for an optical fiber.

The light incident within the half cone acceptance angle, the refracted rays undergoes total internal
reflection in the core part of an optical fiber. The light ray can propagate through the optical fiber only
when the angle of incidence is less than the acceptance angle.

or or

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

Numerical aperture (NA) is the most important parameter of an optical fiber. It is the measure of how
much light can be collected by the fiber for the transmission. It is the sine of the half cone acceptance
angle, and is given by.

This relation shows the light gathering ability of an optical fiber increases with its numerical aperture.

Types of optical fibers

Based on the number of modes transmitted into fibers, the optical fibers are classified into two types
namely,

i) Single mode and

ii) Multi mode

Single mode optical fiber: Single mode optical

fibers are fibers which transmit signals in single
mode during transmission. The diameter of core
is of the order of 5 - 10μm and that of cladding is
less than 100μm. Single mode fibers have a
lower signal loss and higher transmission rate or
higher band width than multimode fibers. Also
these fibers have lower dispersion. In general,
single mode optical fibers are considered to be Figure 1.5
low loss fibers. So these fibers are most useful
for large bandwidth applications. Since these
fibers are more resistant to attenuation, they
can also be used in significantly longer cable
runs. The refractive index profile of single mode
is shown in figure 1.5.

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

Multimode Step Index optical fiber: It allows more
than one to propagate. The diameter of the core is of
the order of 50 - 100μm and diameter of cladding is
less than 200μm. Multimode fibers used in short
lengths, such as Local Area networks (LANs) and
Storage Area Networks (SANs). Because the
multimode optical fiber has higher NA and larger core
size, fiber connections and launching of light is very
easy. Due to several modes of transmission the Figure 1.6
dispersion increases, i.e. the modes arrive at the fiber
end at slightly different times so spreading of pulses
take place. The refractive index profile of multimode
fiber is shown in the figure 1.6.

Multimode Graded Index optical fiber:

The geometry of the graded index optical fiber are

same as that of multimode step index fibers as shown
Figure 1.7
in figure 1.7. The refractive index of core decreases
with the increasing the radial distance from the fiber
axis and become same at core cladding interface and
refractive index of cladding is uniform. The change in
the refractive index of core with increases in radius
makes the light signals to travel at the outer regions
of the core than the central region. Thus the
dispersion of the light signals can be minimized with
this type of fiber design. Under these conditions, the
transmitted signals follow the sinusoidal paths along
the fiber. The advantage of graded index fiber in
comparison with the multimode step index fibers is
considerable decrease in the modal dispersion.

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

Fractional index change: Is defined as the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and
cladding to the refractive index of the core.

Or
We have, numerical aperture

But

V – Number: The number of modes supported by an optical fiber is described by a parameter called the
V – number. For an optical fiber of radius ‘r’ carries a signal of wavelength ‘ ’. Then the number of
modes supported by the optical fiber is given by

Then the total number of modes supported by an optical fiber is given by

Attenuation: The loss of intensity of the transmitted signals through the optical fibers is called
attenuation. This alters the transmission property of the optical fiber. When the optical signal is
transmitted into core, the loss of intensity is mainly due to the following.

i) Absorption
ii) Scattering
iii) Radiation losses.

Absorption: Optical fibers are made up of glass polymers and hence the absorption is resulted due
to
1. Defects in the composition
2. Impurities in the material (extrinsic absorption)
3. Characteristic absorption of the material of the fiber (intrinsic absorption)
Apart from the above factors the amount of attenuation happens because of OH ions present
and the existence of transition metals. The presence of OH ions cannot be avoided because the
hydrolysis process involved in the preparation of optical fibers. Thus, in the transmission of signal

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

through the optical fibers, care has to be taken not to use the wavelength of light where absorption
occurs due to OH ions and the characteristic peaks of the material of the fiber appear.
Scattering loss:
However best the material may be, it is impossible to have its density uniform through out. The
variation in the density leads to the variation in the refractive index, of course to a very little extent;
even this little variation causes refraction resulting into attenuation. The complexity increases
because of the variation in the refractive index with wavelength also. Thus, the scattering induced
attenuation, which is a Rayleigh’s type of scattering of light, is very complex in nature.
Structural in-homogeneities and defects created in the fiber fabrication can also cause
scattering. This scattering being dependent on value of wavelength and it decreases with increase in
wavelength. Thus, using higher wavelengths one can reduce this type of losses.
Radiation losses:
1. Bending losses
Because of the bending of the fiber arising out of its installation from one point to another which are
known as macroscopic bending, that is bending because of the curvatures in the fiber also leads to
attenuation. Another type of bending arising out of uneven forces on the interface leading to
change in the refractive indices of core and clad resulting in to microscopic losses. These can be
reduced by having high radius of curvatures at the time of cabling and by using a high ordered clad
which has a good resistance for small variation in external forces.
2. Core and cladding losses:
Since core and cladding have to have different refractive indices and their multiplicity
being high in step index multimode and graded index fibers, where more than one material is
used, the attenuation coefficients are going to be different. This in itself creates scattering and
hence attenuation when ray of light tries to travel from one medium to another.
3. Dispersion loss:
The dispersion in the light is obvious because of the refractive indices of the different
wavelengths being different in the transmission. This arises out of the characteristic of the
material. Because of this the angle of incidence for different wavelengths will be different when
a ray tries to travel towards the clad resulting in to uneven total internal reflection and
sometimes transmission of light from core to clad. This type of attenuation thus arises because
of the wavelength itself.
The different attenuation discussed above is because of the some important parameters
of the material of fiber and its construction; however the attenuation also happens because of
group delay pulse broadening etc which are of not much importance for ordinary applications.
However, they play a very important role in case of signal processing. A major loss of signal
occurs because of the coupling between two optical fibers, although it cannot be considered as
an attenuation problem for an individual fiber but it becomes a major problem of attenuation
when whole of the system is considered.

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

Expression for attenuation coefficient:
Consider an optical fiber of length ‘ ’ carries an optical signal. Let be the intensity of the input signal at
transmission end of an optical fiber and be the intensity of the signal at the receiving end after
travelling through a distance of ‘L’. The intensity of the transmitted signal decreases due to attenuation.
According to Lambert’s law the decrease in the intensity of the transmitted signal with the increase in
the distance is proportional to Intensity of the signal.

i.e.

The negative sign indicates the decrease in the intensity of the transmitted signal

Where is the attenuation coefficient

Re-writing the above equation,

Integrating the above equation with limits to and the intensity to we get

dB/km

This is the expression for the attenuation coefficient in an optical fiber.

Application of optical fibers for communication

Point to point communication: The optical fibers are widely used in various fields like communications,
Medical, Domestic etc. One of its applications in point to point communication is discussed in detail here

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

In optical fiber communication the signal can be transmitted through the fiber only in the form of optical
signal. For which first the audio signal is converted into electrical analog signals with the help of
transmitter in the telephone and these analog signal are fed in to a coder where they get converted in to
binary form. This binary data is made to enter in to an optical transmitter where these get converted in
to optical signals by modulating the light signals. These optical signals are fed in to the optical fiber
within the angle of acceptance. At the output end the optical signals are fed in to a photo detector
which converts them in to Binary form and then in to a decoder where the signal converted in to analog
form and finally gets converted in to voice at the receiver end. As the signal propagates through the
optical fiber there may be loss of signal due to various factors like as discussed in attenuation and also
the signal may be distorted due to the spreading of pulses with time which is mainly because of the
variation in the velocity of the different spectral components through the optical fiber. With distance
the loss of the signal becomes more. Hence before the entire gets lost it is necessary to have repeaters
which amplifies the signal but there is no such device which can directly amplify the optical signal and
therefore at each repeater the optical signal needs to be converted in to electrical signal then amplify
and again convert it back in to optical signal and then fed in to the fiber. This process has to be followed
at every repeater, which restricts the speed of the signal transmission.

Dept of Physics, Brindavan College of Engineering

VTU – 2018

Electrical Conductivity
in Metals and
Semiconductors
Mobility of charge carriers…

A R VENUGOPAL
Brindavan College of Engineering
Bangalore – 63
5.1 Review of Drude – Lorentz theory or Classical free electron theory
Drude proposed his theory of electrical and thermal conduction in metals by applying the
highly successful kinetic theory of gasses to a metal, considered and imagined to be composed of
gas of electrons. In its simplest form, kinetic theory treats metals are usually crystalline solids. In
most cases, they have a relatively simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms
and a high degree of symmetry. Typically, the atoms of metals contain less than half the full
complement of electrons in their outermost shell. Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to
form compounds with each other.

Fig. 5.1: Single isolated atom (not to scale) Fig. 5.2: free moment of electrons in the vicinity of ionic lattice

In metallic atoms the outermost shells has valance electrons and are loosely bound to the
nuclei. In a metal these atoms are as close together as shown in the figure 5.2. The electrons are
tends to move freely in the vicinity of ionic lattice within the body of the metal. This leads to the
homogeneous distribution of negative charge (electrons) in the crystal lattice. The concentration of
the electrons is almost constant throughout the lattice except at the site of nuclei. The electrons
moving between the ions balance the force of repulsion between the positive ions. Hence a stable
lattice is formed.
The metallic bond formed between all the atoms of the crystal leads to the collectivization of
the electrons. These collectivized electrons move freely in the lattice called conduction electrons.
The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between two lattice ions is called mean
free path(λ) and the average time take for successive transition between the ions is called the mean
collision time (τ).Hence, they are no longer localized near their parent nuclei. These conduction
electrons in a metal contribute to the electrical and thermal conductivity of the metal. Drude
compared the free electrons in a metal as that of the molecules in a gas and applied kinetic theory of
gasses to these conduction electrons of mass mo. As the molecules in a gas moves randomly, the
electrons in the metal is also treated as randomly moving electrons, In spite of strong electron –
electron and electron – ion electromagnetic interactions. The Drude model boldly treats the
electrons as gas by the methods of kinetic theory of a neutral dilute gas, with slightly modifications.
By laws of kinetic theory of gasses, the rms velocity or the thermal velocity of randomly moving
electrons is given by

√ ⁄

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

For a conductor under the influence of electric field “There is a net displacement of electrons in
direction opposite to the electric field E called drift velocity of electrons”

Under the steady state conditions, the drift velocity of electrons in a conductor is given by

| |

Due to the drift velocity of the electrons in a conductor, there is an electric current in conductor

Consider a conductor of length ‘L’ and area of cross-section ‘A’. In the presence of electric field ‘ ’,
the ‘n’ number of electrons drift with the velocity ‘ ’ along the length of the conductor, constitutes
to electric current ‘ ’.

Then, the current density is given by

It is a vector quantity, parallel to the flow of charges,

whose magnitude is the amount of charge per unit time
crossing a unit area perpendicular to the flow.

Then, the electrical conductivity in metals is given by

The Resistivity of the metal is given by

5.2 The failure of classical free electron theory

Classical free electron theory fails to explain the following factors

i. Specific heat of a solid ( )

ii. Dependence of electrical conductivity ( ) on temperature ( )
iii. Dependence of electrical conductivity ( ) on electron concentration (
i. Specific heat of a solid ( ): The heat capacity per mole of conduction electrons depends
on the average energy of electrons in three degrees of freedom, under thermal equilibrium
and is given by.
̅
̅

Therefore molar specific heat of gas at constant volume is given by

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering
 As per classical free electron theory, the free electrons are treated as gas molecules. Thus
the above equation must be applicable for free electrons also. But, the experimental value
for specific heat was found to be

Which is far lower than the expected value and also showed a dependence on temperature
which is contrary to the theory

ii. Dependence of electrical conductivity on Temperature

It was experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity is inversely
proportional to temperature.

1

T

According to classical free electron theory,

But, ⁄ and also √ ⁄

Thus, ⁄
√

This equation suggests that the temperature dependence of conductivity is

1

T

Thus, it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with the
experimental observations.
iii. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration
As per classical free electron theory, the electrical conductivity is ,

Where ‘n’ is the electron concentration. From the above equation, we see that

 n
It clearly says that, as the electron concentration increases. The electrical conductivity of a
conductor must increase. But an Experimental observation shows that, the monovalent
materials like copper has more conductivity than the divalent and trivalent materials like

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 Zinc and cadmium. Hence, Classical free electron theory fails to explain the dependence of
electrical conductivity on electron concentration ‘n’.

5.3 Quantum free electron theory

To explain the discrepancy of classical free

electron theory, we must once again turn up to
quantum concepts. According to Quantum
mechanics, the energy of an electron in a metal is
quantized. Therefore electrons will have energy
states rather than continuous energy as per classical
theory. Electrons in a metal occupy these energy
levels. In doing so, they follow very important
quantum principle, the Pouli’s exclusion principle.
According to this principle, an energy level can
accommodate at most two electrons, one with spin
up, and other with spin down. As the distribution of
the electrons take place in energy states, this result
in the formation of energy band as shown in the
figure.

Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory.

i. The energy of electrons is quantized in a metal and has a set of energy levels.

ii. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as per
Pauli’s exclusion principle.

iii. The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined
within its boundaries.

iv. The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion
between the electrons themselves are ignored.

v. The distribution of energy among the free electrons is according to Fermi-Dirac

statistics.

5.4 Density of States in an energy band

It is defined as the number of available states per unit

energy range cantered at a given energy E in the valence
band of a material of unit volume. It is denoted by g(E).
It is a continuous function and the product g(E).dE gives
the number of states in the energy interval of E and
E+dE. The Expression is given by

⁄
√

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 From the above equation we observe that the number of energy levels in an energy states
g(E) in interval dE is proportional to E1/2. Thus, a plot of g(E) versus E will be always
parabolic in nature and as shown in the figure above.

5.5 Fermi- Dirac distribution

Fermi Dirac distribution is a representation which depicts the details of distribution of

electrons among the various available energy levels of a material under thermal equilibrium
conditions. And it is described by a function called as “Fermi factor”.

It is defined as “ The probability than an energy sate E is occupied by an electron in an energy

band” given by

[ ]

Thus, if the level is occupied by electron then, f(E)=1 and if not f(E)=0. In general f(E) has a
value between zero and one.

5.5.1 Dependence of Fermi factor on temperature.

We have Fermi factor

[ ]

Case (i): When T=0K, for

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

This means that the energy level is certainly occupied and E < EF applies to all the energy
levels below EF. Thus, at T = 0 K, all the energy levels below the Fermi level are occupied.

Case (ii): When T=0K, for

[ ]

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 [ ]

Therefore, at T= 0 K, all the energy levels above the Fermi level are unoccupied. Thus, the
variation of f(E) for different energy values becomes a step function at T = 0 K as shown.

Case (iii): When T>0K, for

[ ]

Thus, at E = EF, the probability of occupation is 0.5. Furthermore, for E > EF, the probability
value falls off to ‘0’ rapidly.

T  0K
1.0
f(E)

0.5 T  0K

0
EF
E

5.6 Fermi Energy and Fermi level: In an energy band “The Energy of the highest occupied level
at absolute zero temperature is called as Fermi energy ”. The corresponding level is
called as called as Fermi level.
5.7 Expression for the Fermi Energy :

Let us consider an energy band for a conductor of unit volume. If ‘n’ be the number of free
electrons per unit volume possessing energy only in the range E and E+dE. Then, N(E)dE is
given by the product of the number of available states in the energy range E and E+dE, g(E),
and the probability of occupation or the energy states, f(E).

N(E)dE=g(E)dE. f(E)

The electrons that are distribute in various energy levels up to the Fermi level. Thus, ‘n’ can
be evaluated by integrating N(E)dE in the limits E= 0 and E=EF.
Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering
 EF 0 EF 0

n  N ( E ).dE 
0
 f ( E ).g ( E ).dE
0

But for all energy levels between E = 0 and E=EF0, f(E) =1 at T= 0 K.

EF 0

n  g ( E ).dE
0

 3
 1
 8 2m 2  2
g ( E )dE   3  E dE
 h 
 
3 3
8 2m 2 8 2m 2 2 3
EF 0 1
n
h3 
0
E dE 
2
h3 3
EF 2

Simplifying and rearranging the equation,

2
2
h 2  3n  3
EF     Bn 3
8m   

5.8 Merits of Quantum free electron theory.

Quantum free electron theory successfully explains the following factors

i. Specific heat of a solid ( )

ii. Dependence of electrical conductivity ( ) on temperature ( )
iii. Dependence of electrical conductivity ( ) on electron concentration (
i. Specific heat of a solid ( ): According to quantum free-electron theory, only those
electrons occupying energy levels close the Fermi energy can absorb the heat energy. Such
electrons constitute a very small portion of the total free electrons, thus the specific heat
value becomes very small. Further, it was found that

But, the experimental value for specific heat was found to be

This is in agreement of the observed values.

ii. Dependence of electrical conductivity on Temperature

As per quantum free electron theory, the electrical conductivity for a metal is.

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 According to quantum theory theory, EF and vF are essentially independent of temperature
and λ is inversely proportional to temperature. ⁄
Therefore, ⁄
Thus, dependence of conductivity on temperature is agreed with experimental.

iii. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration

As per Quantum free electron theory, the electrical conductivity is ,

Where ‘n’ is the electron concentration. From the above equation, we see that

 n

And also

If we compare the case of copper and aluminium, the value of ‘n’ for Al is 2.13 times higher
than that of Cu. But the value of (λ/vF) for Cu is 3.73 times higher than that for Al. Thus the
conductivity of Al is less than that of Cu. This obeys Experimental observations, the
monovalent materials like copper has more conductivity than the divalent and trivalent
materials like Zinc and aluminium.

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

6.1 Semiconductors

“The materials for which the electrical properties lie between that of conductor and insulator
called Semiconductors”. Such as Si, Ge and (grey tin) are the class of group IV
semiconductors – C (diamond) crystalline structure lie in fourth column of periodic table. Another
important group of semiconductors is the Group III – V compounds, third and fifth column in
periodic table. Such as the combination of GaAs, InSb, GaP, InAs, GaSb…etc.

The Semiconductors of two types

i. Intrinsic Semiconductors
ii. Extrinsic Semiconductors.

I. Intrinsic Semiconductors: These are the pure form of the semiconductors,

means without any dopants in a semiconductor.

II. Extrinsic Semiconductors: These are the doped intrinsic semiconductors

or impure form of semiconductors.

According to the band theory, there exists a band gap between the valence band and
conduction band in semiconductors. At Absolute zero
kelvin, the valence band is completely filled and
conduction band is completely empty. In general, these are
partially empty or partially filled at room temperatures.
The forbidden energy gap of these semiconductors is less
than 2eV. The electrical conductivity is due to both
electrons and holes. During the conductivity the top of the
valance band is populated by holes and bottom of the
conduction band with electrons in an energy band and as
shown in figure for an intrinsic semiconductor.

The expression for the electron concentration in conduction band is evaluated by

considering the number of energy states occupied by electrons in the energy range of E to E+dE in
CB, this is g(E) dE and their probability of occupancy f(E). The expression for electron
concentration is given by.

[ ]
[ ]

Similarly, the expression for hole concentration in valance band is given by.

[ ]
[ ]

Where, are the effective mass of electron and holes in the presence of electric field

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

6.2 Fermi level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies exactly in mid-way of forbidden energy
gap of energy difference Eg. The concentration of electrons (ne) and concentration of holes (nh) are
equal. And can be written as,

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]

[ ]
[ ]

Taking natural log on both sides, we get

[ ] [ ]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

If , then above equation becomes,

6.3 Electrical Conductivity in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Consider an intrinsic semiconductor of length ‘L’ cross-section ‘A’ and of unit volume ‘V’.In
the presence of electric field ‘E’ the electrons moves in the direction opposite to ‘E’ and hole along
its direction.
The drift velocity of electrons is [ ]

The drift velocity of holes is [ ]

The current due to this drift velocity is

But, In general, the equation for electric Current is

Using the same analogy, we get electric current in a semiconductor.

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 [ ] [ ]

The current density is

On substituting for ‘I’, we get

[ ] [ ]

By, Ohms law The electrical conductivity is

[ ] [ ]

But, the mobility is

Therefore The electrical conductivity is

As, ne = nh = ni

6.4 Hall Effect:

When current carrying semiconductor or a conductor is placed in in external uniform

magnetic field ‘B’ at right angles, an electric field ‘E’ is produced perpendicular to both velocity
vector ’v’ and magnetic field Called Hall Effect.

6.5 Hall Coefficient:

Consider a P – Type semiconductor of uniform

cross section ‘A’, a potential difference of ‘V’ is applied
across the ends, hence the drift velocity of majority charge
carriers are hole move in positive x – direction and
electrons in negative x – direction. A uniform magnetic field
‘B’ is applied along the y – direction results in induced
electric field in z – direction. Therefore upper surface is
positively charged and bottom surface is negatively
charged.

The electric force on charges is

The magnetic force is

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

Where is drift velocity and is the hall field

Under steady state conditions, these are equal.

The current density on the surfaces is

On substituting for drift velocity, we get

Therefore the Hall coefficient is

For negatively charged electrons, Hall coefficient is given by

*****************************************************

Reference:

1. Solid state Physics by Ashcroft and Mermin

2. Elementary Solid State Physics by M Ali Omar

3. Solid State Physics by S O Pillai

4. NPTL sources

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 Engineering Physics

Dielectric
materials
U = ½ QV

Venugopal A R
Dept. of Physics
Brindavan College of Engineering
1.1 Dielectric materials
The insulator materials are non-conductive in nature like paper, quartz,
mica…etc. But a class of insulators has the property of inducing the charges under the
application of electric field ‘E’. Hence, find the application in storing the electric charge
devices, Such as capacitors and many more.
The dielectric materials can be defined as “The material has the ability to get
electrically polarised in the application of electric field”.
There are two types of dielectric materials.
i. Polar dielectrics
ii. Non-polar dielectrics
i. Polar Dielectrics: The effective centre of positive charges does not coincide
with the effective centre of negative charges like NaCl, H2O etc. Such materials
are called as polar dielectrics. These materials do have permanent dipoles. In
which positive and negative charges are well separated by a small distance.
When these materials placed
under the influence of
electric field, the permanent
dipoles undergoes torque
𝑟𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝜇𝐸 𝑆i𝑛𝜃 this makes
the dipoles to align along the
direction of applied field ‘E’.
The dipoles in the
dielectrics, as shown in the
figure.

ii. Non – Polar Dielectrics: In

these materials the effective
centre of positive charges
coincides with the effective
centre of negative charges
like H2, CO2, etc. called non –
polar dielectrics. These
materials do not have
permanent dipoles, and atomic in nature. When the electric is zero (not applied
E = 0) the the positive charge is at the center of the atomic structure and
surrounded by negative charged electrons. If elecric field is applied (E > 0). The
positive charge moves along the direction of the field and negetive cherges move
oppositely, creating a dipole, as shown in the figure.
In both polar and non-polar dielectrics, if ‘a’ is the distance between
positive and negative charges. Then, dipole momentum (μ) is “the product of
magnitude of the either charge ’q’ and the separation ’a’ between them”. It is given
by
𝜇 = |q|𝑎
1.2 Internal Field in the dielectrics
When a solid or liquid dielectric material is placed in external magnetic field
lines, each of the atom or molecule develops a dipole and has dipole moment due
to electric force. Therefore, “The resultant field at any given dipole will be the sum

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 of applied electric field, and electric field due to surrounding dipoles called asinternal
field within the dielectric”.

Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance constitutes a dipole.
+q l -q

Polarization: The separation of effective center of positive and negative charges in asubstance by the
application of electric field is known as polarization

Atoms in a dielectric in the

absence of electric field E

Atom in a dielectric in presence of

electric field

Atomic polarizability p = E where  is the polarization constant.

Polarization P= Dipole Moment per unit volume=  0 E( r − 1) = NEi

1.3 EXPRESSION FOR STATIC DIELECTRIC CONSTANT:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor of area A, Charge density  and total charge Q.

From Gauss’s law, Electric intensity between the plates E =
o r

Potential difference V = E . d = .d
o r

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

(a)In the absence of a dielectric

Q A A
Capacitance C without dielectic = = = o
V d d
o

 o r A
(a) In the presence of a dielectric Cwith dielectric =
d

C withdielectric
Static dielectric constant  r =
C withoutdielectric

Dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor with a dielectric to its
capacitance in the absence of a dielectric.

1.4 DIFFERENT POLARIZATION MECHANISMS:

When a dielectric material is subjected to external electric field, the electrical polarization of the material
occurs by any one of the following mechanisms. There are 4 mechanisms namely,
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientation polarization
4. Space charge polarization
Electronic polarization: These are generally seen in the case of covalent compounds.
When a covalent compound is placed in electric field, displacement of electron cloud takes place relative
to the nucleus. This displacement creates a dipole which develops dipole moment.

 o ( r − 1)
Electronic polarizability αe =
N
N is number of dipoles per unit volume
It is independent of temperature.
Electronic polarization set over a period of 10-14 to 10-15 s
Ionic polarization:
This is exhibited by ionic compounds like NaCl, KCl.
When ionic compounds are kept in an electric field, displacement of positive and negative ions occurs
developing a dipole moment.
 o ( r − 1)
Ionic polarizability αi=
Ni

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

It is also independent of temperature. The ionic compounds experience Electronic polarisation in addition to it.
The ionic polarisation occurs for a period of 10-11 to 10-14 s.
Orientation polarization:
This type of polarization occurs in polar substances in which there are permanent molecular dipoles but are
orientated randomly due to thermal agitation. When polar molecules are kept in an electric field, the already
existing dipoles tend to align in the direction of applied electric field. This increases the dipole moment.

2
Orientation polarization αo =
kT
The build up time is in the order of 10-10s. The orientational polarization is strongly temperature dependent.
Higher the temperature, lower will be the polarization.
Space charge polarization:
This polarization exists in materials possessing different phases due to difference in temperatures. In such
materials charge carriers drift and accommodate in certain regions of higher conductivity (electrodes) causing
dipole moment. It occurs in ferrites and semiconductors. Its magnitude is very small compared to other
mechanisms.

1.5 RELATION BETWEEN POLARIZATION AND DIECLECTRIC CONSTANT:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor with plates between which an electric field E0 exists.
If σ is the charge per unit area on the plates, then from Guass law, we have
E0= σ / Ԑ0. (1)
Let the given dielectric slab be placed between the two plates. Due to polarization, charges
appear at the faces of the dielectricslab and establish another field E’ within the dielectric
which is opposite to the applied field’s direction.The resultant field is given by
E= E0-E’ (2)
Let σp be the charge per unit area on the surface of the dieectric, then E’ = σp/ Ԑ0. (3)

+ + ++ + + + + ++ + + + + + +
--------------------------- E0
E’

++++++++++++++++++++

- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -

Therefore eqn (2) becomes E = σ / Ԑ0 - σp/ Ԑ0

E Ԑ0 = σ - σp (4)

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

 Since, Polarization=Induced charges per unit area, P= σp and by Gauss law D= σ where D
iscalled electric flux density.

Therefore, E Ԑ0 = D – P

P = D - E Ԑ0
From Electrostatics,
D = Ԑ0 ԐrP = Ԑ0
Ԑr E - Ԑ0 E
P = Ԑ0 (Ԑr -1)E
P =Ԑ0ᵡE
where ᵡ is the dielectric susceptibility of the material.

1.6 INTERNAL FIELDS IN A DIELECTRIC:

Internal field or local field is the resultant of the applied field and the field produced due to all the
dipoles. Consider a dielectric material kept in an electric field Ea.

Ea Eθ

B1 A1 O A2 B2

The dipole is assumed to be in a one-dimensional array and are oriented in the same direction. In that
array, let us consider an atom O which s at a distance ‘d’ from A1 and ‘2d’ from B1 and so on.
The electric field at O due to dipole A1 is given by
 cos  sin 
EA1= + = as θ = 0
2d 3
4d 3
2d 3
The electric field at O due to A2

EA2 = as all dipoles are oriented in the same direction.
2d 3

Field at O due to A1 and A2 is E A1 ,A2 = = E1
d 3

 (2d )
Similarly field at O due to B1 and B2 is = 3
= E2

The resultant field due n dipoles is given by

ER = E1 + E2 + E 3+ E 4+ E5 + E6+ …………….

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

  
= + +……………..
d 3  (2d )
3

1 .2 
The internal electric field is Ei = Ea +
d 3
1 .2 
Ei = Ea +   = E a
d 3
In three dimensional case , (1/d3) could be replaced by N, the number of atoms per unit volume and
(1.2/Π) by a constant γ which depends on the crystal structure.

N  
Hence Ei = Ea + = E +  P  N = P
  0 

1.7 CLAUSIUS – MOSOTTI RELATION:

This expression relates dielectric constant of an insulator (ε) to the polarization of individual
atoms(α) comprising it.
 r − 1 N
=
 r + 2 3 0
where N is the number of atoms per unit volume
α is the polrisability of the atom
εr is the relative permittivity of the medium
εo is the permittivity of free space.
Proof:
If there are N atoms per unit volume, the electric dipole moment per unit volume –known as
polarization is given by
P = NαE
By the definition of polarization P, it can be shown that

P=
 0 E ( r −1) = NEi

 0 r E −  0 E = NEi
NEi
r = 1+
0E …………………..(1)

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

The internal field at an atom in a cubic structure(γ =1/3) is of the form
p NE i
Ei = E + =E+
3 0 3 0
Ei 1
=
E   N  
1 −  
  0 3 

Ei
Substituting for in equation (1)
E
   N  N 0 2  N 
   0 1 −  + 1 +  
N  1 =  3 0   3 
 0 
r = 1+ 0
=

 0  N    N  1  N 
 1 −    0 1 −  1−  
  3 0    3 0  3  0 

N
1 + (2 / 3)
0
−1
N
1 − (1 / 3)
  r −1  0 N
 = =
  r + 2  1 − (2 / 3) N 3 0
0
+2
N
1 − (1 / 3)
0

Venugopal A R, Dept. of Physics Brindavan College of Engineering

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Course Material
MODULE-5

Material Characterization Techniques and Instrumentation:

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Brindavan College of Engineering,
Bengaluru 560063

Richard Feynman : “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom: An Invitation to Enter

a New Field of Physics" – Nano science.

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Material Characterization and Instrumentation Techniques:

5.Introduction to materials:

5.1 Nanomaterials and Nanocomposites

Nano science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and
development activity that has been growing explosively worldwide in the past few years. It
has the potential for revolutionizing the ways in which materials and products are created and
the range and nature of functionalities that can be accessed.

Nano Science is the study and understanding of properties of Nano Particles. Nanotechnology can
be defined as the design, characterization, production and application of structures devices and
systems by controlling shape and size at a Nano meter Scale.

Nanomaterials are considered as the bridge between bulk materials and atomic or molecular
structures. The particles with at least one dimension in the range of 1 to 100 nanometres are called
nanoparticles. A nanometre is one millionth of a millimetre - approximately 1,00,000 times smaller
than the diameter of a human hair. Nanoparticles have advantages of their small size and high
surface to volume ratio. The novel properties that differentiate the nanoparticles from bulk
materials are developed at a critical length of 100nm. As the size of the particle reduces to
nanometre range (1 nm= l0-9 m) the surface to volume ratio increases, this increase in surface to-
volume ratio, in turn increases the number of atoms on the surface and makes the behaviour of
atoms on the surface dominant over those in the interior of the particle.

Nanomaterials are of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical,
and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have the potential for great impacts in
electronics, medicine, and other fields.

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Figure 1: Illustration of size of materials exist in around us

5.2 Special features of Nano phase materials:

The material properties - physical, chemical, optical, thermal, mechanical, electronic, and
electrical depend on how their atoms and molecules interact each other and with the neighbouring
atoms and molecules. These interactions in turn depend on quantity of the material. In bulk state
most of the atoms are inside and interact only with their own kind. But at nanoscale, much
higher percentage of atoms are exposed on the surface than in the bulk state. These exposed atoms
are thus available to interact with surrounding atoms, for these reasons the shift from bulk to
nanoscale can have major impact on properties. These changes lead to the creation of novel
materials. Materials that are insulators may become semiconductor or conductors when reduced to
nano scale, bulk form of gold is a shiny golden coloured, non-reactive metal. But nanoscale gold
will take on different colours from red to green and chemically reactive.

5.3 Nanocomposites

A composite is the combination of two or more individual materials like metals, ceramics, or
polymers, to give unique properties in one material. The design purpose of the composite is to
achieve best combination of properties superior to those of the individual components and not
displayed by any single constituent material. Nanotechnology has major role in developing new

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type of materials with improved properties and wide applications. Nanocomposites are one such
type of materials and form an exciting field of research in both science and Technology. Novel
materials can be obtained from the combination of the best features of both the constituents in a
single material. They are expected to exhibit unique properties that emerges from the synergic
effect of their components.

A nanocomposite is a compound in which nanomaterials are added into a matrix (base material)
to improve a particular property of the material. It can be considered as a multiphase material in
which one of the phases has one, two or three dimensions with less than 100nm. The phase can be
organic, inorganic or both with distinct differences in structure, chemistry, and properties.
Nanocomposites differ from the conventional composites due to high surface to volume ratio of
the reinforcing nano phase.

Figure 2: Formation of polymer- nanocomposites

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5.4 Classification of nanomaterials:

Nanostructured materials are classified as Zero dimensional, one dimensional, two

dimensional, three-dimensional nanostructures.

In zero-dimensional (0D) nanomaterials all the dimensions are measured within the nanoscale (no
dimensions are larger than 100 nm). Most commonly, 0D nanomaterials are nanoparticles,
quantum dots.

In one-dimensional nanomaterials (1D), one dimension is outside the nanoscale. This class includes
nanotubes, nanorods, and nanowires.

In two-dimensional nanomaterials (2D), two dimensions are outside the nanoscale. This class
exhibits plate-like shapes and includes graphene, nanofilms, nanolayers, and nanocoating.
Three-dimensional nanomaterials (3D) are materials that are not confined to the nanoscale in any
dimension. This class can contain bulk powders, dispersions of nanoparticles, bundles of
nanowires, and nanotubes as well as multi-nanolayers.
Two dimensional nanomaterials such as tubes and wires have generated considerable interest
among the scientific community in recent years.

Figure3: Classification of nanomaterials based on dimensions

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5.5 X-Ray Diffraction technique

XRD is an effective method for determining the crystal structure of materials. It detects crystalline
materials having crystal domains greater than 3-5 nm. It is used to characterize bulk crystal
structure and chemical phase composition.

5.5.1. Application:

XRD is a non-destructive technique. Some of the uses of x-ray diffraction are;

• Differentiation between crystalline and amorphous materials;
• Determination of the structure of crystalline materials
• Determination of electron distribution within the atoms, and throughout the unit cell
• Determination of the orientation of single crystals
• Determination of the texture of polygrained materials
• Measurement of strain and small grain size.

Advantages of using X-ray:

X-ray is the cheapest, the most convenient and widely used method. X-rays are not absorbed
very much by air, so the specimen need not be in an evacuated chamber.

Disadvantage of using X-ray:

They do not interact very strongly with lighter elements.

5.5.2. Principle of X-Ray Diffraction technique

▪ X-ray diffraction is based on constructive interference of monochromatic X-rays and a

crystalline sample.
▪ These X-rays are generated by a cathode ray tube, filtered to produce monochromatic
radiation, collimated to concentrate, and directed toward the sample.
▪ The interaction of the incident rays with the sample produces constructive interference (and
a diffracted ray) when conditions satisfy Bragg's Law (nλ=2d sin θ). This law relates the
wavelength of electromagnetic radiation to the diffraction angle and the lattice spacing in
a crystalline sample.
▪ These diffracted X-rays are then detected, processed, and counted. By scanning the sample
through a range of 2θangles, all possible diffraction directions of the lattice should be
attained due to the random orientation of the powdered material.

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Fig. 5. Bragg’s analysis for X-ray diffraction planes

5.5.3. Construction

In X-ray diffractometer, an X-ray beam of a single wavelength is used to examine the specimens.
By continuously changing the incident angle of the X-ray beam, a spectrum of diffraction intensity
versus the angle between incident and diffraction beam is recorded.

The main components of diffractometer are

Figure .4: Basic components of X-ray diffractometers

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X-ray diffractometers consist of three basic elements: an X-ray tube, a sample holder, and an X-
ray detector.

1. X-ray Tube: X-rays are generated in a cathode ray tube by heating a filament to produce
electrons, accelerating the electrons toward a target by applying a voltage, and bombarding the
target material with electrons. When electrons have sufficient energy to dislodge inner shell
electrons of the target material, characteristic X-ray spectra are produced.

2. Sample Holder: It is used to keep the sample in the form of powder so that an Xray beam will
fall into it. The sample holder is attached to the rotating table and the position of the table can be
read by means of the Vernier scale.

3. X-ray detector: The X-ray detector is attached to the ionization chamber, which is mounted on
a mechanical arm issue, which can turn coaxially with the turntable. However, the mechanical arm
is so coupled to the turntable that, for every rotation by an angle θ of the turntable, the mechanical
arms turned through 2θ.

5.5.4. Working:

• The sample having many crystallites randomly orientated in all possible orientations is
mounted over the sample holder and the collimated beam of the monochromatic X-ray is
incident on it with an angle Ɵ.
• The X-ray beam gets diffracted through the crystallographic plane when the condition of
Bragg's law is satisfied, which is expressed as,

2 dhkl SinƟ = nλ

where d hkl is the interplanar distance, is the wavelength of the X-ray and n is the integer
and is the angle called Bragg's angle. The diffracted beam of the X-ray is further detected
and counted by the detector with an angle of 2Ɵ.
• After that, the detector records and processes this X-ray signal and converts the signal to a
count rate which is then output to a device such as a printer or a computer monitor.
• The geometry of an X-ray diffractometer is such that the sample rotates in the path of the
collimated X-ray beam at an angle θ while the X-ray detector is mounted on an arm to
collect the diffracted X-rays and rotates at an angle of 2θ.
• The instrument used to maintain the angle and rotate the sample is termed a goniometer.

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5.5.5. XRD pattern of oxide supports:

Titania and zirconia are used as catalyst support or as active catalyst itself. They can be identified
from their XRD pattern by comparison with the standard files. For any unknown sample the peaks
are identified by comparison with the standard data. For oxides calcined at 400-500°C, the typical
XRD profiles of Titania and tetragonal zirconia are shown in Figure 5.

Figure.5. XRD profiles for titania and zirconia prepared by precipitation method

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Solved problem

1. A cubic crystal was placed in an x-ray diffractometer using incoming x-rays with a
wavelength λ=0 .154 nm. The various peak intensities recorded at different 2θ values are given in
following table.

Determine the followings

i. Calculate the crystal size ( Given, k=0.9; β = 0.0098)

ii. Calculate the value for the lattice constant (Assume first order diffraction with n = 1.)

Solution

i. The crystal size can be calculated using the peak corresponding to 2θ = 40.3 having highest peak
intensity.

Hence, k = 0.9; β = 0.0098; λ=0.154 nm; θ=20.15, the crystal size L can determine using the
Scherrer equation as follows

ii. The plane spacing of cubic crystal is related to the lattice parameter (a) by the following
equation.

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5.6 DETERMINATION OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE:

The Scherrer equation, in X-ray diffraction and crystallography, is a formula that relates the
size of sub-micrometre crystallites in a solid to the broadening of a peak in a diffraction
pattern. It is named after Paul Scherrer. It is used in the determination of size of crystals in
the form of powder. The Scherrer equation can be
𝐾𝜆
written as: D= 𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

K is a dimensionless shape factor, with a value close to unity. The shape factor has a typical value
of about o.9, but varies with the actual shape of the crystallite.

0.9𝜆
D= 𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

0.9𝜆
D= 𝛽𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

where ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the X-rays and ’β’ is the full width at half maximum intensity in
radians. ‘θ’ is the half of the Bragg angle. The lattice parameters can be calculated from equation
using the (hkl) parameters and the interplanar spacing ‘d’.
𝑎
d = √ℎ2
+𝑘 2 +𝑙2

• The Scherrer equation is limited to Nano-scale crystallites, or more-strictly, the coherently

scattering domain size, which can be smaller than the crystallite size (due to factors
mentioned below). It is not applicable to grains larger than about 0.1 to 0.2 μ m.
• Variety of factors can contribute to the width of a diffraction peak besides instrumental
effects and crystallite size; the most important of these are usually inhomogeneous strain
and crystal lattice imperfection.
• The Scherrer equation is a widely used tool to determine the crystallite size of
polycrystalline samples. However, it is not clear if one can apply it to large crystallite sizes
because its derivation is based on the kinematical theory of X-ray diffraction.

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• For large and perfect crystals, it is more appropriate to use the dynamical theory of X-ray
diffraction. Because of the appearance of polycrystalline materials with a high degree of
crystalline perfection and large sizes, the full width at half maximum is then extracted and
the crystallite size is computed using the Scherrer equation.

5.6.1. Applications

X-ray diffraction is widely used for structural analysis. Identification of solids is critical in
material science, environmental science, and engineering. Other applications include:
1. Material Characterization
2. Determination of dimension of unit cells
3. Identification of materials like clays and mixed layer clays which are difficult to observe
optically
4. Assessment of purity of sample
5. Measurement of percentage of crystallinity

5.7 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)

The Atomic Force Microscope is a kind of scanning probe microscope in which a topographical
image of the sample surface can be achieved based on the interactions between a tip and a sample
surface. The atomic force microscope was invented by Gerd Binning et al. in 1986.

• Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) is an advanced high-resolution scanning technique used

to analyze samples in detail. The technology can magnify images over a hundred million
times. The resolution of scans can go up to the Angstrom scale (10-10 meters).
• The atomic force microscope (AFM) is a type of scanning probe microscope whose
primary roles include measuring properties such as magnetism, height, friction. The
resolution is measured in a nanometer, which is much more accurate and effective than the
optical diffraction limit. It uses a probe for measuring and collection of data involves
touching the surface that has the probe.

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5.7.1. Application
The applications of AFM are not limited to a particular field of study. The technology is used for
investigating a variety of different samples in the study of physical sciences, life sciences,
electronics, and engineering in general.
1. AFM is used to study surface textures, defects, coatings, and tons of other physical features.
2. The technology works great for observing cells and biomolecules in their natural
environment.
3. AFM can also be used to analyze microelectronics circuits and components.
4. Energy storage materials like batteries and energy generation materials like photovoltaic
cells are studied using AFM.
5. Tribology, surface chemistry, genetic engineering, medicine are other prominent fields
where the microscopy technique is used as an important tool for observation and research.

5.7.2. Principle:

The AFM is based on the principle of the interaction between cantilever/tip assembly and the
sample; this assembly is also commonly referred to as the probe. The AFM probe interacts with
the substrate through a raster scanning motion. During the scanning process, a laser beam is made
to fall on the back of the tip, which is coated with a reflective material. The laser beam gets
reflected from the shiny surface and falls on a photodetector screen.

5.7.3. Construction:

Figure 6: Schematic diagram of construction of AFM

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Atomic Force Microscopes have several techniques for measuring force interactions such as van
der Waals, thermal, electrical, and magnetic force interactions for these interactions done by the
AFM, it has the following parts that assist in controlling its functions.
1. Modified tips are used to detect the sample surface and undergo deflections.
2. Software adjustments used to image the samples.
3. Feedback loop control - they control the force interactions and the tip positions using a
laser deflector. The laser reflects from the back of the cantilever and the tip and while the
tip interacts with the surface of the sample, the laser's position on the photodetector is
used in the feedback loop for tracking the surface of the sample and measurement.
4. Deflection - The Atomic Force Microscope is constructed with a laser beam deflection
system. The laser is reflected from the back of the AFM lever to the sensitive detector.
They are made from silicon compounds with a tip radius of about 10 nm.
5. Force measurement- the AFM works and depends highly on the force interactions; they
contribute to the image produced. The forces are measured by calculation of the
deflection lever when the stiffness of the cantilever is known. This calculation is defined
by Hooke's law, defined as follows: F=-kz, where F is the force, k is the stiffness of the
lever, and z is the distance the lever is bent

5.7.4. Working
• The working of AFM is quite straightforward. The sample that needs to be
observed is first placed on a stage.
• Then a cantilever with a sharp tip is made to pass over the surface line by
line to raster (digital image that uses tiny rectangular pixels) scan the sample
in a way.
• During the scanning process, a laser beam is made to fall on the back of the
tip, which is coated with a reflective material.
• When the tip encounters bumps or depressions on the surface of the sample,
it gets deflected from its original position, causing the laser beam to move
too. This movement is detected by a photodetector and sent to a high gain
amplifier circuit.

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• After adding some gain and converting the signal into a processable entity,
the amplifier passes it on to the computer, collating signals received during
the entire scan and ultimately providing a 3D profile of the surface. The
laser beam gets reflected from the shiny surface and falls on a photodetector
screen.
5.8 X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY (XPS):
5.8.1 INTRODUCTION:
• The technique of X-Ray photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) is also known as
Electron Spectroscopy for chemical analysis. XPS is a type of electron
Spectroscopy it is an analytical technique to study the electronic structure and
dynamic in atoms and molecules.
• XPS was invented by Kai SIEGBAHN 1954 and received Nobel Prize in 1981.
• In x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, primary beam x-ray Photon, which are
irradiated on sample surface, the secondary beam (electron) obtained is then
analyzed. The Secondary beam is made up of electrons.
• The spectrum of X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy consists plot of number of
electrons or power of electron as a function of energy i.e., kinetic energy or binding
energy.

5.8.2 PRINCIPLE:
• Due to the bombardment of X-Ray Photon on the sample surface K and L electron
are ejected which are further analysed by the analyser.
• Let us consider Eb, Eb' and Eb" are binding energy of lower energy levels inner
core orbitals. Where Ev, Ev'and Ev" are the energies of the valence shell electron.
• The monochromatic X-ray Photon incident on the sample surface cell electron
abstract the energy from this x-ray Photon and get ejected in terms of electron.
Kinetic energy of the ejected electron is recorded by spectrometer and is given by

Ek = hv – Eb - ϕ
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Where,
Ek is kinetic energy of the ejected electron

ℎν is energy associated with incident Photon

Eb is binding energy of ejected electron

ϕ is the work function of the instrument

5.8.3. Construction:

Figure 7: Construction of XPS

The electron spectrometer consists of following components.
➢ Source

➢ Sample Holder
➢ Analyser

➢ Detector
➢ Processor and The Read-Out

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SOURCE:
The simple x-ray Photon source for X-ray photoelectron spectrum is x ray tube equipped
with magnesium or aluminum metal target. Monochromator crystal can also provide
having bandwidth of o.3 eV. Much smaller spots on a surface to be examined.
SAMPLE HOLDER:
• Sample holder is located in between the source and the entrance slit of
spectrometer. Crystal disperser selects the photon of known energy from the source
and incident on the sample.
• The area inside the sample holder should be evacuated within 105 Torr. Pressure to
avoid contamination of the surface sample.
• The gaseous sample can be introduced into a sample compartment through a slit, to
provide a Pressure of 10-1torr.
• If the pressure is higher than attenuation of electron beam may take place, weaker
signal may be obtained.
ANALYSER:
• It is hemispherical in shape with very high electrostatic field is applied on analyser.
Pressure maintained inside the analyser is 105 torr.
• When the electron enters, into the hemispherical analyser, it travels in curved path
and radius of Curvature depends upon magnitude of field and kinetic energy of the
electron.
DETECTOR:
• The electron channel multiplayer tube or transducer are required of X-Ray
photoelectron Spectroscopy.
• When single electron pass through Glass tube coated with V/Pb the electron
multiplier tube it is converted into number of electrons or pulses of electrons.
SIGNAL PROCESSOR AND READ OUT:
• The function of signal processor is to amplify the signal and read out device
converts signal into spectrum.

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5.8.4. WORKING:
The instrumentation of XPS system can be explained using the experimental set up as shown in
figure. In a typical set up, when the sample kept in ultra-high vacuum is illuminated by the
photons with energy (hν); soft x-rays, then after direct transfer of energy from the photons to the
core level electrons their atoms on the surface emit electrons are called photoelectrons. The
process can be explained as follows:
• A bound electron adsorbs a photon and converts part of the energy to kinetic
energy.
• While leaving the atom, some energy of the electron is consumed in overcoming
the Coulombic attraction of nucleus, thereby decreasing its kinetic energy.
• At this time the outer orbitals readjust, reducing the energy of the final state
which is being created and delivering this extra energy to the outgoing electron.
• Then the XPS spectrum is obtained by determining the K.E. and number of
electrons escaping from upper 0 to 10 nm of sample under investigation.
• XPS may be routinely employed to study inorganic compounds including metal
alloys, semiconductors, polymers, glasses, ceramics, ion-modified materials, etc
5.8.5. APPLICATION OF XPS:
• Identification of active sites
• Determination of surface contamination on semiconductors
• Study of oxide layers on metals
• Analysis of dust on the sample
• Determination of Oxidation State all the elements of periodic table can be determined or
identified except hydrogen and Helium, as they don't emit inner core electron
5.9 SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM):
SEM is a very powerful microscope which can magnify the sample by more than 100000 times.
Optical microscopes are capable of magnifying only up to 1000 times and diffraction of the light
limits the resolution. The wavelength of the visible light is in the 400 – 700 nm regions. Hence
objects (or features) of smaller size cannot be seen using visible light. Scanning electron
microscope is an improved model of an electron microscope

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5.9.1 PRINCIPLE:

When the accelerated primary electrons strike the sample, it produces secondary electron. These
secondary electrons are collected by a positively charged electron detector which in turn gives a
three-dimensional image of the sample.

Figure8: Illustration of construction of SEM

5.9.2. CONSTRUCTION:
• An electron gun is used to produce high energy electrons.
• Two magnetic lenses are used as condenser lenses to convert the diverging electron beam
into a fine beam of spot diameter of the order of a few nanometres.
• A scanning coil is used to detect the electron beam to scan the sample.
• The objective lens is used to focus the scanning beam on a desired spot on the sample.

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• The intensities of secondary electron, back-scattered electrons and the X-rays are recorded
using detectors. The images are then displayed on monitors
5.9.3 WORKING:
• when the high energy electron beam strikes the sample, some electrons are scattered
due to elastic scattering (the back-scattered electrons), some electrons are knocked
off from the surface (the secondary electrons) and some electrons penetrate deep
into the inner shells of the sample atoms to knock off inner shell electrons due to
which characteristic X-rays are produced.
• These are detected using detectors and the signals are amplified and displayed on a
TV monitor. Samples are required to be conducting. Non-conducting samples are
coated with a thin conducting material.
• SEM gives information about the surface features of the sample with resolution of
the order of a few nanometers. This information can be used to study properties like
reflectivity and roughness.
5.9.4 APPLICATIONS
❖ SEM images give information about the elements and compounds in the sample and
their relative abundance. This is used to study properties like hardness and melting
point.
❖ SEM is used to study biological specimens like pollen grains.
❖ SEM is used to study the corroded layers on metal surfaces.

5.6. TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (TEM):

5.6.1. INTRODUCTION:

We know in scanning electron microscope the resolution of the image is limited only up to
10 to 20 nm. This will not be useful to view the internal features of an atom or the
morphology of a sample of size saw o.2nm. To examine the sample of size of 2 to10 nm
the transmission electron microscope can be used. In this microscope, the image is obtained
by transmitting the electron through the specimen.

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5.6.2 PRINCIPLE:

The working principle of the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) is like the light
microscope. The major difference is that light microscopes use light rays to focus and
produce an image while the TEM uses a beam of electrons to focus on the specimen, to
produce an image. Electrons are made to pass through the specimen and the image is
formed on the fluorescent screen, either by using the transmitted beam or by using the
diffracted beam.

Figure 9: Illustration of construction of TEM

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5.6.3 CONSTRUCTION:
▪ It consists of an electron gun to produce electron. Magnetic condensing lens is used to
condense the electron and is used to adjust the size of the electron that fall onto the
specimen.
▪ The specimen is placed in between the condensing lens and objective lens as shown in
figure.
▪ The magnetic objective lens is used to block the high angle diffracted beam the aperture is
used to eliminate the diffracted beam and in turn, it increases the contrast of the image.
▪ The magnetic projector lens is placed above the fluorescent screen in order to achieve high
magnification. Can be recorded by using a fluorescent screen CCD charge coupled devices
also.

5.6.4. WORKING:
▪ Stream of electrons is produced by the electron and is made to fall over the specimen using
magnetic condensing lens. Based on the angle of incidence the Beam is partly transmitted
and partly diffracted as shown in figure.
▪ Both the Magnetic ERL Condensing lens transmitted Beam and the diffracted beams are
recombined at the E-WALLED SPHERE of reflection, which encloses all possible
reflections from the Crystal are specimen satisfying the Bragg’s law image as shown in
figure. The combined image is called the phase contrast image.
▪ In order to increase the intensity and the contrast of the image and amplitude contrast image
must be obtained for stop this can be achieved only by using the transmitting beam and
does the diffracted beam has to be eliminated.
▪ Now in order to eliminate the diffracted beam that beam is passed through the magnetic
objective lens and the aperture is shown in figure adjusted in such a way that the diffracted
image is illuminated.
Thus, the final image being alone is passed through the projector lens for further
magnification. Find image is recorded in the fluorescent screen or CCD this high contrast
image is called Bright Field image.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, BRINDAVAN COLLEGEOF ENGINEERING 22

MODULE-5 ENGINEERING PHYSICS

5.6.5. APPLICATION:
❖ Transmission Electron Microscope is ideal for several different fields such
as life sciences, nanotechnology, medical, biological, and material research,
forensic analysis, gemmology, and metallurgy as well as industry and
education.
❖ TEMs provide topographical, morphological, compositional, and
crystalline information.
❖ The images allow researchers to view samples on a molecular level, making
it possible to analyse structure and texture.
❖ This information is useful in the study of crystals and metals, but also has
industrial applications.
❖ TEMs can be used in semiconductor analysis and production and the
manufacturing of computer and silicon chips.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, BRINDAVAN COLLEGEOF ENGINEERING 23