Aim:

by pting qaku, otuta u ord v.

Appatus
lonser lcS, &oMECN , illuvinat d oit
qauaL , Mwd, ntbu stalt
Pyinciple -
(aleulatud usirg. -áia emua.

ud tus:
V
dist V= dista tcars

feem u-V qeag

thu focal ugtn , fis CA +08
>She conv lns is nicuntd cn
a stand unod is ulaad in -hc
Df iltuçndLd wi qau2a .Jhe Scn
is plattd
lens,. Sottn alet is adjustud
tbtaun a uell defincd inge
 bteten lns and tljcd ud tns and
Inaq hi astu d as u and v.

is duaun ih u- dlog

Is (hucn , vt ncting thu tuou at C.

waLo BC 92aHallel to -0us wd
lo 4-ans. 0A and ce
qnCasUtd as 0A= C8- af

Aueautiens:
in tle tns holda.
Veltialy
ILS ard thu (qtn rly uchn he
Shapest clstanxt l imaac is chaud.
 held.
in
lens vertical bentt may Aens
temd. is i Imaqe
td Keal, tnly that distcu aSuch
placdod be
thculd
bc qauxe win Ihc
SUn. olht a In
 Io find tn valus ef vfo diount valus

V= inoge dinante

* ount he mino) tn a miksO) huldo.

duiding
* Uhnùn a shanp iaqe th tu duan .

focal unglh te hier.

 Ataud.
* Plau cun thjut at a cletane fAun
niAEA. Maku &l that the

ttugh docal lengdh and ax aougn

jcal nqth.
+ Citain a shwp imag te
Obj t en thu n.

and thtain tu ousperdling imagc

# Rucsd all thsexvaticns

u focal lungth thi niktor

gap h f=-8tm.

* faalla PUmCval may net be

 Paeations
the Soustes
.Paaltak
should docatMiqo
mon Mbk of
eror
may
beshould Aemoval may -

30
fonton :
cm be not
be
veubical
udhfoym cinag utial
6
 Juisn
sin :

h angl of dvidion .
Inaduc amd

dHwing brad,a chil shut

half nutu
ae and 9ketxads.

h sujautive inde () y k matnial

(-D quaph indi catu that. as tr

ciatien() fius duAsA , attains

InoLasing fo Juths intn, n ugi

t inidun c. fhe mininum valu. of
deviaticn is callud agu el miimn
da viatien (dnm).
 dbaing tomd wssg rouing iis.

I#S buangulan þau.. Uting a quriu.

AE. pahe an wge so'ad bo

csm
with hu 5nal nd dac Inidrt Ly.

pus at
each tttr.
cck a ttu inagcs tu int huugh

pins &uch thcd huy qaaxguvicsa pins

Sbraigie linu as that tau
whun it is viwd frem thu -AC
te jaiùm.
* Rumove tu pins and the Frism .
Jein in çdrt say und emtqut ay
Cnd tu 0r dviaticn .

Ruyaatbwun 86°and bo
aiqles
 ncuasOs , thu anqu
dviatien fist dtruasng, attain hu
Minimum valuu (am) and n Stol
nouasng fo fuobie inccase in andt
tl incidone.
Shqlu of ninimum sinlien Dm: 99

Fucutiens;
Jhu angl er incidec shauld tic
btuun 9s°-to'
"Jhu pins Shculd be lid votical .
Jhu disang bedwcan thu tuo ins
Should nd be s an 10mm.
" ow huod thould le 9mate cd jo
ond unorgut
lo all ht tlsovatio.
b cscd

" hn puicks may be thick.

 Jn:tien icd

to dhaw 1-V chaH actnistics cuve

PN
krcticn cçudt in fouad
Cund PCVOYU bias.

d qminnduis cuodt , a oahustal ,

milli ammtr , a mivo asnmctv,
Voltnat

* fowOHd bios
foouasd tias dhaxa ctoistics , whcn he
P- Eide cf the dicd1 is Umacted ko
peitive tminals t u battiry and
h- side is nnatud to the nagative temiral
9 th btty hn h dicdt is &aid
o èe in fouand biaMd ditcn. hith
hu intease in bias Voltagc , th brunt
CUYLnt in weaa alouls in the begirnirg
and thon
diode (o-av te 6re)hu cwecot invaN
Sudden'y. Shu voltogtIS altid cut in
Votag e hahold votagt.
Rvere bia thaxactoistítk, okco i
 sn: Cach
netned
in a cacuihutiammuta Shy
thand iading tltnta
at maLUn
üsi
ng 0 ov
focm
Sus inglccly incuasd isdicdc
t pplid
to ditenNL petutial Sh *
dicdt. dhe
pavala
hc o (tnncttd Voltmtn
is *A
khostat.
aandammtr onili with 40ics
Q
onncta
nd is(o' iooc Jhfiguxe-
e |de
hiain
cn asmad ac
nrtiony +Jhe
Pucackeu:
eltage. deun buok
is pasticulax
alld vtages Ehis Voltag..
Mevaln. Gulfiicnily
hugh inHNNS
voltag bras Auee whn But tras.
uh ant tDst alpsst moins which ficw,
nt amall vey a istt initially
20
t/r than battxy the teminal
cf 9Ugatve
 * Jo dbtain thu eve choactaistic
Cwee the dioce is evO tcnnccted .
PUsistor IS 9MCved. Jhe
Dillianmcta d erpoimenis
* qaph is daucn with votmata
Lcing aleng the ois and he
nillicamincta Rading aleng thtstiey-aiscuoveto.
dhe found chanactoi
* Jhe incase in CWent is
het cct prupo4itn Jo voltagc
diacct
cuUrt is found 0 inosc
veltagc
Shoply fen a paxticulan cuvc
voltoge. The tbtaired
Culed krct
0sis An fewnd haacbnistic t| diau .
-aÀs nd #nc miono
Aading alsng
is inguascd,

fivse secly and o gapidly

hieh h uKRUt
* Jhe Voltaqcs at
is calkd vcesC
inouas Hapidls
tuakácun valtag
 Ihu gal is daun f
foued biasd and Kvevy biasd
civdts hh Matic hoatnistic of tie
dicdt is daer. 20
Pcrautions:
* found Lias voltagc keyerd bcak
down Should
+ Rveese kins veltag yetd
Eak doun should ntt ke aj;ptizt.

chan ard iaht