Lebanese American University

School of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

CIE425: Environmental Lab

Experiment Date: Thursday, September 29, 2022

Submission Date: Thursday,October 6th , 2022

Group #2

Group Members

Name ID

Theresa Daher 201902428

Khalil Saliba 202002145

George Tohme 201903881

Joseph Nader 201903808

Samer Nacouzi 202001418

Table of Contents

Table of Contents...........................................................................................................................................2
Table of Figures.............................................................................................................................................2
Table of Tables..............................................................................................................................................2
Abstract..........................................................................................................................................................3
Introduction:...................................................................................................................................................4
Theory of the experiment:..............................................................................................................................4
Objectives......................................................................................................................................................5
Apparatus.......................................................................................................................................................5
Procedure.......................................................................................................................................................7
Data collected.................................................................................................................................................8
Calculations:..................................................................................................................................................8
Discussion......................................................................................................................................................9
Error Analysis................................................................................................................................................9
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................10
Appendix......................................................................................................................................................10
Work Distribution........................................................................................................................................11

Table of Figures
Figure 1 filter and sample................................................................................................................5

Table of Tables
Table 1 Turbidity Measurements...................................................................................................................7
Table 2 Experiment 2 results.........................................................................................................................7
Table 3 Work distribution............................................................................................................................10
Abstract
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the turbidity of several samples and the amount of
both suspended and dissolved solids in a given solution. The first experiment was done using the
nephelometer which is a turbidity measuring device. The second experiment determined the
amount of solids (total solids, total dissolved solids and suspended solids) present in the samples
through filtering the sample. Results showed that potable water had a higher NTU as compared
to the tap water, which contradicts our presumption that tap water has more suspended solids
than drinkable water. As for the soil samples, it was found that smaller particles have higher
turbidity. It is worth mentioning that the concentration does not affect turbidity. Furthermore, the
results of the second experiment were not very accurate since TS is the summation of TDS and
SS which was not the case in our conducted experiment. In conclusion, knowledge of turbidity is
of high importance to environmental engineers since it highly affects the design of water and
wastewater treatment.
Introduction:
Water is used for a variety of purposes in society, including drinking, showering, and cleaning,
and it is typically odorless, colorless, and clear. With time society has shown its preference in
using clear water that might be harmful than colored water that is harmless. This is where the
principle of turbidity comes into play. Turbidity, or the opaqueness, haziness of the liquid caused
by the presence of particles that are generally invisible to the naked eye. Turbidity is caused by
particles suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light making the water appear cloudy or
murky. Particulate matter can include sediment - especially clay and silt, fine organic and
inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, algae, and other microscopic organisms.
Turbidity is an important physical parameter for water quality since high turbidity can
significantly reduce the aesthetic quality of lakes and streams, having a harmful impact on
recreation and tourism. It can also increase the cost of water treatment for drinking and food
processing. It can harm fish and other aquatic life by reducing food supplies, degrading spawning
beds, and affecting gill function.
In this experiment, in addition to turbidity measurements, we determined the amount of solids in
g/L in a solution by calculating the TS (total solids), TDS (total dissolved solids), and SS
(suspended solids).Measuring water transparency and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) also can be
used to predict turbidity values.

Theory of the experiment:

Turbidity is measured using specialized optical equipment in a laboratory or in the field. A light
is directed through a water sample, and the amount of light scattered is measured. The unit of
measurement is called a Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), which comes in several
variations. The greater the scattering of light, the higher the turbidity. Low turbidity values
indicate high water clarity; high values indicate low water clarity.
In the second experiment, the TS is determined after weighing a dish filled with 100 ml of the
sample (weight B) then after drying the sample in the oven, we measure its weight again to get
the dry weight (weight A), after getting parameters A and B, we input the values in the formula
TS (g/L) = (B-A) x1000 / Vs.

The TDS is calculated after measuring 100 ml in a graduated cylinder and passing the water through a
standard glass fiber filter in a grooch crucible, then placing the filter in a dish with water and weighing it
(weight B). Finally, we place the dish in the oven and wait until evaporation is complete.
We re-measure the dish weight (weight C), and the values are entered into the formula TDS (g/L) = (B-C)
x1000 / Vs.
The SS is calculated after collecting the filter through which the solution passed while calculating the
TDS, placing it in a dish with a known weight, then placing the dish in the oven and waiting for it to dry
before measuring its weight again. Having both the weight of the dish (A) and the weight of the dish with
the filter after drying (B), we calculated the SS using the formula below. (B-A) x1000 / Vs. SS (g/L)
Objectives
 To determine the turbidity of 6 solutions having the same concentration of solids but
different particle size.
 To measure the TS, TDS and SS of a solution

Apparatus
Turbidity:
Chemicals/Solutions:
- Milk water
- Ottawa sand
- Potable water
- Tap water
- NaCl
- clay
Equipment:
- Turbidity meter
- Erlenmeyer flasks
- Sample tubes

Solid Determination:
Chemicals/Solutions:
- Montmorillonite (clay)
- Sodium Chloride
- Water
Equipment:
- Oven
- Digital Balance
- Filter
- Tong
- Erlenmeyer flask
- Graduated cylinder
- Evaporating dishes
- Filtration apparatus
- Desiccant
- Desiccator
Figure 1 filter and sample
Procedure
Turbidity meter experiment:
- Calibrate the turbidity meter using a standard and make sure the value is in the
appropriate range
- Fill each tube with a solution and insert it in the turbidity meter
- Record the reading in NTU; if it is significantly outside of the range in which the meter
was calibrated, repeat the exercise calibrating with a standard in the appropriate range
Solids in liquid experiment:
Total solids:
- Weigh the dried empty evaporating dish
- Measure a volume of 50 mL of the sample into a graduated cylinder and pour it into the
evaporating dish
- Place the dish in an oven until almost all the water is evaporated
- Let it cool and weigh the dish again
Dissolved and suspended solids:
- Weigh the dried empty evaporating dish
- Place the filter in a Gooch crucible with a flat blade forceps. Add 20 mL of distilled water
and apply suction. Add two or more successive 20 mL volumes of distilled water under
continuous vacuum.
- Mix the sample well and measure a volume of 100 mL into a graduated cylinder. Filter
the volume collecting the filtrate in the evaporating dish.
- Oven dry the dish and weigh it (for the dissolved solids)
- Weigh the dried filter (for the suspended solids)
Data collected
Table 1 Turbidity Measurements

solution turbidity (NTU)

Milk water 735
Ottawa sand 2.21
Potable water 1.79
NaCl 0.63
Tap water 0.64
clay 54.3

Table 2 Experiment 2 results

Weight of empty Weight of container +

Experiment
container (g) solids (g)
Total solids 69.62 69.7
Dissolved solids 53.37 53.42
Suspended solids 2.26 2.27

Calculations:
( B− A)×1000 (69.7−69.62)×1000
 mg TS / L = = =1.6 g/L = 1600mg/L
Vs 50
( B− A)×1000 ( 53.42−53.37 ) × 1000
 mg TDS / L= = =1 g /L = 1000mg/L
Vs 50
( B− A)×1000 ( 2.27−2.26 ) ×1000
 mg TSS / L= = =0.2 g/L = 200mg/L
Vs 50
where: B is the weight of the container + solids (in grams)
A is the weight of empty container (in grams)
Vs is the volume of the sample (in mL)
Discussion
Turbidity is among the essential water properties as it is a vital element in assessing its quality
and designing water and wastewater treatment operations. Two experiments were carried out in
order to determine the turbidity of several samples and the types and quantity of the solids
present in a sample.

The first experiment was to test the turbidity of six samples using turbiditymeter, a turbidity
measuring device. The first sample, consisting of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), yielded a result of
216 NTU. This result is in line with our predictions as calcium carbonate is deposited in lakes
and rivers and thus, it is logical to contain a relatively high quantity of impurities rendering the
sample turbid. The second sample tested was phenol, giving a result of 42.1 NTU. As can be
observed, the sample is significantly less turbid as compared to the former one making it much
clearer to see through. As for the remaining tested samples, which can be classified as soil, they
were silt, sand, red soil, and coarse sand. It must be noted that silt recorded the highest value at
98 NTU, followed by the red soil (74.7 NTU), then the sand and coarse sand with a relatively
minor difference recording values of 5.38 NTU and 4.61 NTU respectively. It has been
established that for samples having the same concentration, particles having a smaller size
contribute more significantly to turbidity because there would be particles rendering the medium
turbid. This claim supports the obtained results since silt particles have smaller particle sizes and
thus, resulted in a higher turbidity value as compared to the red soil, which has a larger particle
size. This also leads to the conclusion that the concentration does not affect the turbidity.

Moving on to the second experiment performed, suspended solids are defined as solids removed
by filtration from a water sample. The total solids (TS), total dissolved solids (TDS), and total
suspended solids (SS) were determined. The results of which turned out to be 2400 mg/L, 690
mg/L, and 580 mg/L. It is known that the TS is the summation of TDS and SS. However, this
does not accurately apply in this experiment which could be due to personal error committed
while measuring or noting the data.

Error Analysis
In our experiments a margin of error was exhibited. Instrumental errors could include improper
balance/turbidity meter calibration, or beakers used for turbidity measurement could have
previous dirt or stains fingerprints that would affect the readings recorded. As measured turbidity
levels drop below 1.0 NTU, the interferences caused by bubbles and particulate contamination
(usually only slightly problematic at higher levels), and ambient light can result in a false-
positive reading and invalid verification results. Moreover, Human errors could include incorrect
volume or mass measurements. The samples kept in the oven may not have been kept for a
sufficient amount of time, resulting in variations in the results as well.

Conclusion
In conclusion two experiments were carried out in order to determine prominent water properties
such as turbidity and the amounts of solids found in samples. In the first experiment, six samples
with the same concentrations were tested for turbidity using a turbidity measuring device called a
Nephelometer, which revealed that milk powder dissolved in water was the most turbid,
followed by clay, Ottawa sand, and then potable water. The findings supported previously
established conclusions that particle size, rather than concentration, has a greater impact on
turbidity levels. The total solids, total suspended solids, and total dissolved solids were
determined with an error in the second experiment because the sum of total suspended solids and
total dissolved solids was not equal to total solids.

Appendix
Turbidity experiment

1. The procedure can be found above.

2. In turbidity measurements, bubbles are a common source of interference. The presence of

bubbles usually causes a positive interference because they scatter more light, causing turbidity
to increase. Suspended solids and dissolved colored material absorb light thus reducing clarity
and adversely increasing the turbidity reading.

3. Both spectrophotometer and Jackson Candle Turbidimeter work on interference and

absorbance phenomena. A spectrophotometer is a device that measures the amount of light that
is absorbed or transmitted by a specific sample. The amount of turbidity in a sample is
determined by measuring the decrease in transmitted light caused by the presence of solid
particles.
A flat-bottomed glass tube is placed over a candle in the Jackson Candle Turbidimeter. The tube
is filled with water until the visual image of the candle flame diffuses into a uniform glow. The
turbidity in Jackson turbidity units is indicated by the depth of the sample.
The amount of light reflected by a water sample at a 90-degree angle is measured by a
nephelometer. This is done to minimize the effect of variables such as particle size and color,
allowing it to be sensitive enough enabling the measurement of lowest turbidity values in filter
effluent.
Solids in liquids experiment

1. The procedure can be found above.

2. If any of the solutions is basic, adding an acid would make the H+ ions react with the base
forming a new compound so the quantity of solids will be affected hindering the measurement of
true TS.

3. Because particle suspension in colloidal solids cannot be seen with the naked eye, a light
microscope is required. One method is the Tyndall effect, which involves passing light through
the mixture. The light will shine through if it bounces off the particle, indicating that it is a
colloid mixture.

4. Water evaporates at 100°C, it is preferable to dry the solutions at a higher temperature to

ensure that no water remains and thus to determine the dry mass of solids.

Work Distribution
Table 3 Work distribution

Theresa Daher Calculations Data Appendix Procedure

Khalil Saliba
George Tohme
Joseph Nader
Samer Nacouzi