 Argument Definition:

 An argument is made up of propositions, where one is the conclusion,

and the others (premises) support it.

 A proposition is the factual idea expressed by a sentence. For example,

"Her name is Ayşe" and "She is called Ayşe" express the same
proposition.

 The same sentence can express different propositions depending on

who says it. For example, a tennis player and a footballer saying "I am
the greatest sportsman" are talking about themselves.

 Arguments Structure:

 Arguments can have different numbers of premises but only one final
conclusion.

o Example 1: "Ali has two sisters. Therefore, Ali is not an only

child." (1 premise)

o Example 2: "Helping someone commit suicide is murder. Murder

is wrong. Therefore, helping someone to commit suicide is
wrong." (2 premises)

o Example 3: "Car use damages the environment. Reducing car

journeys would help. We should protect the environment.
Therefore, we should reduce car journeys." (3 premises)

 Standard Form of Arguments:

 To clearly present an argument, list premises in order, and write the

conclusion below, using an inference bar (which means "therefore").

 Example in standard form:

o P1: Car use damages the environment.

o P2: Reducing car journeys helps the environment.

o P3: We should protect the environment.

o C: Therefore, we should make fewer journeys by car.

 Steps to Reconstruct an Argument:

 Identify the conclusion.

 Identify the premises.

  Number the premises.

 Draw the inference bar.

 Write the conclusion with 'C' before it.

 Identifying Arguments:

 Arguments are about understanding the author's or speaker's

intention. Sometimes, premises are left unstated, assuming the
listener will understand.

 Example: "Trophy hunting should be illegal because it’s wrong to kill for
pleasure, and trophy hunting involves killing for pleasure."

o P1: Killing for pleasure is wrong.

o P2: Trophy hunting is killing for pleasure.

o P3: What is wrong should be illegal.

o C: Trophy hunting should be illegal.

 Tolerance and Argument Analysis:

 To analyze arguments, we must sometimes point out mistakes or flaws

in other people's reasoning. However, some people believe that being
tolerant means accepting others' opinions without judgment.

 But true tolerance and respect don't conflict with argument analysis.
It’s respectful to thoughtfully explain errors in someone’s argument, as
it shows you are giving their ideas serious attention.

 Challenges to Clear Argument Thinking:

 Many people believe that certain issues, especially moral ones, are
"just a matter of opinion," implying that no one opinion is better than
another. This mindset discourages clear reasoning and analysis.

 Another way people shut down discussions is by labeling something as

"a subjective judgment" or "just an opinion."

 Common Reactions to Arguments:

 People have different tendencies when it comes to arguments. Some

believe everything they're told, while others always disagree. Some
stick stubbornly to their views, while others are overly skeptical,
doubting everything.
  A rational thinker evaluates new information, adjusts beliefs if needed,
and sticks to beliefs when supported by facts. This sometimes means
agreeing with the majority and sometimes going against it.

 Performatives:

 Language is not just for giving information; it can also be used to

perform actions. For example, when someone says, "I do" in a wedding
ceremony, they are performing the action of getting married. These
kinds of sentences are called performatives.

 Performatives often use the first person (e.g., "I do"), but not always.
For example, "You’re invited" performs the action of inviting.

 Explicit Performatives:

 These are clear examples of performative sentences that explicitly

state an action. Examples include:

o "I promise to meet you."

o "I resign."

o "I apologize."

 In arguments, we use argumentative performatives like:

o "I conclude that this decision should be denied."

o "I assure you this will hurt the poor."

 Speech Acts:

 Performatives are a type of speech act, where saying something also

does something. For example, saying "Yes" can be used to make a
promise, swear, or refuse something, depending on the context.

 Speech acts are different from regular sentences because they

perform an action, such as promising, concluding, or apologizing. Each
speech act is identified by the verb used (e.g., "I promise," "I resign").

 Conversational Acts:

 In conversation, speech acts are used to affect others. For example,

when Ayşe says, "Someone is following us," she performs a speech act
to make Ahmet believe they are being followed. Whether Ahmet
believes her or not depends on the effectiveness of the speech act.
Identifying Conclusions

1. Focus on the Main Point: Ask yourself what the speaker or writer is
trying to prove. This is usually the conclusion. Once you identify it, try
to restate it in a simple way for clarity.

2. Any Proposition Can Be a Conclusion: Arguments can be about

anything, so the subject matter itself isn’t a clue. Conclusions are
usually expressed in declarative sentences (statements), but in real-
life, they may not always be so clear. Sometimes, you’ll need to
rephrase questions or statements into declarative form to clarify the
conclusion.

3. Conclusion Indicators: Look for words like:

o Therefore

o Hence

o Thus

o It can be concluded that

o So

These words often signal the conclusion. In cases where premises and
conclusion are in one sentence (e.g., "The fact that Elon Musk is CEO proves
he must be highly intelligent"), the word "proves" indicates the conclusion.

Identifying Premises

1. Look for Reasons: To find the premises, ask what reasons the writer
or speaker is giving to support the conclusion. What evidence is
presented?

2. Premise Indicators: Words like "since," "because," and "as implied

by" often introduce premises. Phrases like "My reason is..." or "My
evidence for this is..." also point to premises.

Argument vs Explanation

 Explanation: Explains why something happened, assuming the

audience already accepts it as true. For example, "The roof is leaking
because the storm damaged it" explains the cause of the leak.

 Argument: Tries to persuade someone that something is true by

providing reasons. For example, "There is water dripping, so the roof
 must be leaking" is an argument trying to prove that the roof is
leaking.

Intermediate Conclusions

1. Multiple Arguments: Sometimes, the conclusion of one argument

becomes a premise for the next. For example:

o P1: Bobby is a dog.

o P2: All dogs are mammals.

o C1: Bobby is a mammal (this is the conclusion of the first

argument).

o P3: All mammals are warm-blooded.

o C2: Bobby is warm-blooded (this is the final conclusion).

2. Step-by-Step Reasoning: In extended arguments, earlier conclusions

(like C1) serve as intermediate conclusions that help build towards
the final conclusion (C2). The final conclusion is what the argument is
ultimately trying to prove.

Uses of Language

1. Types of Sentences:

o Interrogative Sentences: Used for asking questions (e.g.,

"What time is it?").

o Imperative Sentences: Used for giving commands (e.g., "Feed

the dog!").

o Declarative Sentences: Used for stating facts or descriptions

(e.g., "I fed the dog.").

2. Declarative Sentences and Arguments:

o Only declarative sentences can be true or false. Arguments rely

on these sentences to express premises and conclusions.

o You can't argue over questions or commands, but you can argue
over facts expressed in declarative sentences (e.g., "The Earth is
round").

3. Truth and Correspondence:

 o A true sentence describes the world accurately, meaning it
corresponds to the facts. A false sentence misrepresents the
facts. This is known as the correspondence principle: a
sentence is true if it matches the facts and false if it doesn’t.

Objection to the Correspondence Principle

1. Example of the Flat Earth Belief:

o In ancient times, people believed the earth was flat. Some might
argue that the statement "The earth is flat" was true for them.
However, just because many people believed it doesn't make it
true. The earth was never flat, so their statement was always
false. If we claim otherwise, we would have to believe that the
earth somehow changed shape, which is clearly wrong.

o We must resist saying something is "true for someone" just

because they believe it. Truth is based on facts, not opinions or
beliefs.

2. Feeder and Walker Example:

o If two people (Feeder and Walker) both claim, "I fed the dog,"
only one of them can be correct, assuming there was only one
meal for the dog. The same sentence can have different
meanings based on who says it. This raises the question of how
to apply the correspondence principle (truth based on facts)
when context affects the sentence’s meaning.

o To solve this, we focus on propositions—the actual ideas or

thoughts behind the sentences. A proposition is true when it
correctly describes reality.

3. Propositions and Sentences:

o Sentences express propositions. For example, the sentence

"World War I began in 1914" expresses the same proposition no
matter who says it. The correspondence principle applies to
propositions, which can only be either true or false.

Truth and Falsity

1. Characteristics That Depend on People's Feelings:

 o Some things depend on how people feel about them (e.g.,
whether a movie is scary). Other things, like the time it takes for
the Earth to orbit the sun, do not depend on opinions or feelings.

2. Truth and Facts:

o A proposition is true if it corresponds to the facts and false if it

doesn’t. The truth of a statement does not change based on
people’s beliefs or feelings.

Belief, Disbelief, and Suspension of Judgment

1. Attitudes Toward a Proposition:

o When you consider a proposition, you can:

 Believe it (you think it’s true),

 Disbelieve it (you think it’s false), or

 Suspend judgment (you can’t decide).

o You can only hold one of these attitudes toward a proposition at

any given time, but you can change your mind later.