10:58 . 4) 8 ¢ Defects in Timber A defect is any feature that reduces the quality and market value of timber. Defects in timber are caused by bad felling, poor seasoning or attack from insects and fungi. Types of defects in timber These defects are grouped into two viz: 1. Natural defects 2. Artificial defects Natural defects: These are defects which occur during the growth of a tree. They include the following: 1. Heart shakes: This is a split that is restricted to the pith or centre of a tree. rt shake eee tangential cut ~ Jeast shrinkanr 2. Star shakes: This is similar to the heart shake, but with more splits like a star. =~ classnotes.ng10:58 = ga 3. Cup shakes: These are visible cracks that go part around the growth ring. cup shake 4. Ring shake: This is the circular crack on the timber. 5, Discolouration may be caused by fungus attack in wood with high moisture content.10:58 . Fa 6. Knot: A knot is a defect that occurs at the branch of a tree. When a knot rots away and falls out of its position, it leaves what is known as knothole. Artificial defects: The artificial defects in timber are those defects that are caused by careless handling and faulty seasoning and preservation of wood. They include: 1. Cup: This is a concave curvature across the face of the timber. It is caused by bad stacking and shrinkage during drying. 2. Bow: This is either concave or convex curvature along the length of a plank. 3. Check: This is longitudinal opening or separation of wood along the grain of a plank. 4. Twist: This is a spiral form of distortion along the length of a plank. 5. Warps: Twists in timber are called warps. They may be caused by improper seasoning procedure. « Manufactured Board aA classnotes.ng @ < > ia) mn10:58 F 34 « Manufactured Board ‘Sterling Board (OSB) Chipboard Exterior Plywood (WBP) ‘Hardboard ‘Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) Laminboard Manufactured boards are man-made wood products that vary in size, weight and structure. Veneer: A veneer is a thin sheet of wood used in the manufacture of boards. It is usually sliced from a log. Methods of producing veneers (i) Slicing Method: The method of using a slicing blade to cut off thin leaves from a particular log. (ii) Reeling method: This is the method of peeling log ina continuous rotary fashion mounted on a machine. The log is usually softened through steaming first. (iii) Eccentric or Sawing Method: In this method, the log is cut into quarters. It is this quarter that is then sliced to veneer. classnotes.ng10:58 .F Ba (iii) Eccentric or Sawing Method: In this method, the log is cut into quarters. It is this quarter that is then sliced to veneer. Types of manufactured board 1. Plywood: This consists of a product obtained by glueing three or more sheets of veneer together. They are used for partitioning. 2. Blockboard: This board looks like a flush door. The inner part of this board contains a strip of timbers forming the core and covered with two layers of veneers. They are used for flooring and doors. 3. Laminated boards: These are boards used for high-class veneer furniture. It contains a thinner strip of timber forming the core and glued together. The surface is glossy. They are used for high-class furniture work. 4. Particleboards: These are boards made from wood chippings glued together and compressed under heat. It is used for panelling and kitchen furniture work. 5. Hard boards: These boards are made from the combination of wood waste (sawdust in Nigeria) and handed tanether under hidh temneratiire and classnotes.ng10:59 1 5. Hard boards: These boards are made from the combination of wood waste (sawdust in Nigeria) and bonded together under high temperature and compression. They are used for making cabinets. Advantages of manufactured boards 1. They do not shrink and warp like solid wood. 2. They can be worked and cut easily. Disadvantages of manufactured boards 1. They are very costly. 2. Some of them have rough edges. In our next class, we will be talking about PROCESSING OF MATERIALS — METALS AND ALLOYS. We hope you enjoyed the class.Introduction to metals and alloys Metals are materials used in producing some equipment used in everyday life. Metals always occur in nature as a compound such as an oxide or the sulphide, i.e. metal is produced from iron ore which is dug from the ground. In its natural state iron-ore contains many impurities that are removed through smelting. Metal processing: Processing metals depends on the type of iron-ore used. First, the ore is physically crushed and then exposed to a combination of heat, chemical and other physical processes which makes it result in a liquid molten metal that can be poured and shaped. As we know, the ore is obtained from beneath the earth and processed into pig-iron by removing most of the impurities. This whole process is carried out in a furnace. Production of metals . Smelting . Casting . Alloying . Forming . Shaping Oapon sa . Finishinge Smelting: The metal ore is heated in a furnace e.g. blast furnace until the metal melts into liquid form. It is then separated from other impurities that have mixed with it. and coke blast furnace hot air e Casting: The hot molten metal is poured into containers of different lengths and sizes called moulds. It is left there to cool and solidify to take up the shape of the mould.e Alloying: This is the mixing of two or more metals to obtain an improved metal. This process is carried out to improve the quality of certain metals in engineering. Usually, a base metal, known as the parent metal, has up to 90% of the alloy material while the other 10% are just alloying agents. For example: 1. Bronze = copper (78% to 95%) +tin(5 to 22%) taluminum(5 to 20%) 2. Brass = Copper (10 to 35%) + Zinc (5 to 22%) Importance of alloys For strength. Wear resistance. It provides hardness. POY = Corrosion-resistance.S/N NAME OF ALLOY Cast Iron High Carbon Steel Low and Medium Carbon Steel Silicon Steel MAIN PROPERTY Brittle metal It is worked upon in hot forming like forging and it is easily tempered A group of malleable and ductile metals. Contain very good magnetic property. APPLICATION It is used for making automobile cylinders and pistons Used for making tools like punches, hammerheads, saws, chisels. Used for making structural steelwork, automobile and vehicle parts. Used for making laminations in the construction of transformers.ie Forming: This is the method of processing metal either hot or cold into geometrical shapes by applying compressive or tensile forces of deformation. Types of forming 1. Compressive forming: This is the use of pushing force to change the original shape of metal to the desired shape. There are two examples involved: (a). Rolling: This is the use of rollers to flatten and reduce the thickness of metal. Rollers (smooth) zz Cooling (b). Extrusion: This is the method of forcing metal through a hole. This can be done through die forming (where the metal is stamped by a press around a die) or forging (where a localized force is applied to the metal).2. Tensile forming: This is the method of using a pulling force to change the shape of a metal. This may include stretching, expanding and recessing of metals. e Shaping: This aspect of processing metals involves the use of the lathe machine to carry out milling, turning, etc operations. Af a re b . ; Types of shaping (I). Bending: Most metalwork project involves bending and folding, either cylindrically or as square-box shape. This changes the shape of the metal.(ii). Drawing down: This is the process of stretching a metal by hammering. (iii). Twisting: This is a beautification process in forging operation. J el8) =) TD al , Noe (iv). Upsetting: This is the process of increasing the thickness of metal. It is useful in processing bolt heads. e Finishing: This is the technique of giving metalwork a protective coat, smooth edges and surfaces in addition to an acceptable, improved final appearance.Types of metal finishing 1. Buffing: This is the method of using wheels covered with soft cloth or leather to polish the surface of the metal. 2. Lacquering: This is the application of a lacquer to the metal surface to prevent corrosion. 3. Enamelling: This is the application of corrosion- resistant material, like plastics, on metal to make the surface glossy and hard. 4. Scratching: This is the use of a thin metal piece and steel brush for cleaning metal parts thoroughly to be finished. 5. Painting/spraying: This is the application of oil paint to metal for coating purpose. 6. Copper finishing: This is the oxidation of copper surface to form shades of different colours like purple, red, brown, etc. 7. Spot finishing: This is the forming of pressed spots on metal by the use of ornamental finishing and abrasive powder and oil spread over the metal. The spot is achieved by placing the metal over a spinning wood ona drill chuck.8. Electroplating: This is the protective coating of a metal with other metal such as tin, zinc or chromium to prevent corrosion. Note: A furnace is a solid structure in which a lot of heat energy is generated to produce metal. The different types of furnaces in which different types of metals are produced are: e Bessemer converter e Blast furnace e Electric Arc-furnace e@ Open Hearth furnace e Cupola furnace e Reverberating furnace e Pudding furnace