[DOCUMENT TITLE]

FUNDAMENTAL OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY

BCA 104

UNIT – II
OPERATING SYSTEM
CONCEPTS

Er. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT,
MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNPUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Operating System lies in the category of system software. It basically manages

all the resources of the computer. An operating system acts as an interface
between the software and different parts of the computer or the computer
hardware. The operating system is designed in such a way that it can manage
the overall resources and operations of the computer.
Operating System is a fully integrated set of specialized programs that handle all
the operations of the computer. It controls and monitors the execution of all
other programs that reside in the computer, which also includes application
programs and other system software of the computer. Examples of Operating
Systems are Windows, Linux, Mac OS, etc.

An Operating System (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer

hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is the most important type of system software in a computer
system.

The operating system helps in improving the computer software as well as

hardware. Without OS, it became very difficult for any application to be user-
friendly.

The Operating System provides a user with an interface that makes any
application attractive and user-friendly. The operating System comes with a
large number of device drivers that make OS services reachable to the hardware
environment. Each and every application present in the system requires the
Operating System.
The operating system works as a communication channel between system
hardware and system software. The operating system helps an application with
the hardware part without knowing about the actual hardware configuration. It
is one of the most important parts of the system and hence it is present in every
device, whether large or small device.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Functions of the Operating System

Resource Management: The operating system manages and allocates memory,
CPU time, and other hardware resources among the various programs and
processes running on the computer.

 Process Management: The operating system is responsible for starting,

stopping, and managing processes and programs. It also controls the
scheduling of processes and allocates resources to them.
 Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s
primary memory and provides mechanisms for optimizing memory usage.
 Security: The operating system provides a secure environment for the
user, applications, and data by implementing security policies and
mechanisms such as access controls and encryption.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

 Job Accounting: It keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs
or users.
 File Management: The operating system is responsible for organizing and
managing the file system, including the creation, deletion, and
manipulation of files and directories.
 Device Management: The operating system manages input/output
devices such as printers, keyboards, mice, and displays. It provides the
necessary drivers and interfaces to enable communication between the
devices and the computer.
 Networking: The operating system provides networking capabilities such
as establishing and managing network connections, handling network
protocols, and sharing resources such as printers and files over a network.
 User Interface: The operating system provides a user interface that
enables users to interact with the computer system. This can be a
Graphical User Interface (GUI), a Command-Line Interface (CLI), or a
combination of both.
 Backup and Recovery: The operating system provides mechanisms for
backing up data and recovering it in case of system failures, errors, or
disasters.
 Virtualization: The operating system provides virtualization capabilities
that allow multiple operating systems or applications to run on a single
physical machine. This can enable efficient use of resources and flexibility
in managing workloads.
 Performance Monitoring: The operating system provides tools for
monitoring and optimizing system performance, including identifying
bottlenecks, optimizing resource usage, and analyzing system logs and
metrics.
 Time-Sharing: The operating system enables multiple users to share a
computer system and its resources simultaneously by providing time-
sharing mechanisms that allocate resources fairly and efficiently.
 System Calls: The operating system provides a set of system calls that
enable applications to interact with the operating system and access its
resources. System calls provide a standardized interface between
applications and the operating system, enabling portability and
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compatibility across different hardware and software platforms.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

 Error-detecting Aids: These contain methods that include the production

of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error-
detecting methods.

Objectives of Operating Systems

Let us now see some of the objectives of the operating system, which are
mentioned below.
 Convenient to use: One of the objectives is to make the computer system

more convenient to use in an efficient manner.

 User Friendly: To make the computer system more interactive with a

more convenient interface for the users.

 Easy Access: To provide easy access to users for using resources by acting

as an intermediary between the hardware and its users.

 Management of Resources: For managing the resources of a computer in

a better and faster way.

 Controls and Monitoring: By keeping track of who is using which resource,

granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests from

different programs and users.
 Fair Sharing of Resources: Providing efficient and fair sharing of resources

between the users and programs.

Components of Operating System

There are various components of an Operating System to perform well defined

tasks. Though most of the Operating Systems differ in structure but logically
they have similar components. Each component must be a well-defined
portion of a system that appropriately describes the functions, inputs, and
outputs.

There are following 8-components of an Operating System:

1. Process Management
2. I/O Device Management
3. File Management
4. Network Management
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5. Main Memory Management

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

6. Secondary Storage Management

7. Security Management
8. Command Interpreter System

Following section explains all the above components in more detail:

Process Management

A process is program or a fraction of a program that is loaded in main memory.

A process needs certain resources including CPU time, Memory, Files, and I/O
devices to accomplish its task. The process management component manages
the multiple processes running simultaneously on the Operating System.

A program in running state is called a process.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection

with process management:

 Create, load, execute, suspend, resume, and terminate processes.

 Switch system among multiple processes in main memory.
 Provides communication mechanisms so that processes can communicate
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with each other’s.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

 Provides synchronization mechanisms to control concurrent access to

shared data to keep shared data consistent.
 Allocate/de-allocate resources properly to prevent or avoid deadlock
situation.
I/O Device Management

One of the purposes of an operating system is to hide the peculiarities of

specific hardware devices from the user. I/O Device Management provides an
abstract level of H/W devices and keep the details from applications to ensure
proper use of devices, to prevent errors, and to provide users with convenient
and efficient programming environment.

Following are the tasks of I/O Device Management component:

 Hide the details of H/W devices

 Manage main memory for the devices using cache, buffer, and spooling
 Maintain and provide custom drivers for each device.
File Management

File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system.

Computers can store information in several different physical forms; magnetic
tape, disk, and drum are the most common forms.

A file is defined as a set of correlated information and it is defined by the

creator of the file. Mostly files represent data, source and object forms, and
programs. Data files can be of any type like alphabetic, numeric, and
alphanumeric.

A files is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined

by its creator and user.

The operating system implements the abstract concept of the file by managing
mass storage device, such as types and disks. Also files are normally organized
into directories to ease their use. These directories may contain files and other
directories and so on.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection

with file management:

 File creation and deletion

 Directory creation and deletion
 The support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 File backup on stable (non-volatile) storage media
Network Management

The definition of network management is often broad, as network

management involves several different components. Network management is
the process of managing and administering a computer network. A computer
network is a collection of various types of computers connected with each
other.

Network management comprises fault analysis, maintaining the quality of

service, provisioning of networks, and performance management.

Network management is the process of keeping your network healthy for an

efficient communication between different computers.

Following are the features of network management:

 Network administration
 Network maintenance
 Network operation
 Network provisioning
 Network security
Main Memory Management

Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a
repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices.

Main memory is a volatile storage device which means it loses its contents in
the case of system failure or as soon as system power goes down.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

The main motivation behind Memory Management is to maximize memory

utilization on the computer system.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections

with memory management:

 Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom.
 Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
 Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
Secondary Storage Management

The main purpose of a computer system is to execute programs. These

programs, together with the data they access, must be in main memory during
execution. Since the main memory is too small to permanently accommodate
all data and program, the computer system must provide secondary storage to
backup main memory.

Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage
medium, for both programs and data. Most programs, like compilers,
assemblers, sort routines, editors, formatters, and so on, are stored on the disk
until loaded into memory, and then use the disk as both the source and
destination of their processing.

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection

with disk management:

 Free space management

 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling

Security Management

The operating system is primarily responsible for all task and activities happen
in the computer system. The various processes in an operating system must be
protected from each other’s activities. For that purpose, various mechanisms
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which can be used to ensure that the files, memory segment, cpu and other
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

resources can be operated on only by those processes that have gained proper
authorization from the operating system.

Security Management refers to a mechanism for controlling the access of

programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer controls
to be imposed, together with some means of enforcement.

For example, memory addressing hardware ensure that a process can only
execute within its own address space. The timer ensure that no process can
gain control of the CPU without relinquishing it. Finally, no process is allowed
to do its own I/O, to protect the integrity of the various peripheral devices.

Command Interpreter System

One of the most important component of an operating system is its command

interpreter. The command interpreter is the primary interface between the user
and the rest of the system.

Command Interpreter System executes a user command by calling one or more

number of underlying system programs or system calls.

Command Interpreter System allows human users to interact with the

Operating System and provides convenient programming environment to the
users.

Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements. A

program which reads and interprets control statements is automatically
executed. This program is called the shell and few examples are Windows DOS
command window, Bash of Unix/Linux or C-Shell of Unix/Linux.

Types of Operating Systems

There are several types of Operating Systems which are mentioned below.

1. Batch Operating System

2. Multi-Programming System
3. Multi-Processing System
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4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

5. Time-Sharing Operating System

6. Distributed Operating System
7. Network Operating System
8. Real-Time Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirements and
groups them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with
similar needs. Batch Operating System is designed to manage and execute a
large number of jobs efficiently by processing them in groups.

Batch Operating System

Advantages of Batch Operating System
 Multiple users can share the batch systems.

 The idle time for the batch system is very less.

 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System
 Batch systems are hard to debug.

 It is sometimes costly.

 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
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 In batch operating system the processing time for jobs is commonly difficult
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to accurately predict while they are in the queue.

ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than
one program is present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in
execution. This is basically used for better utilization of resources.

Multiprogramming
Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System
 Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.

 It helps in reducing the response time.

Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

 There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources with the

system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which
more than one CPU is used for the execution of resources. It betters the
throughput of the System.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Multiprocessing Operating System

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
 It increases the throughput of the system.

 As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with

another processor.
Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System
 Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult to

understand.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming Operating System
with having facility of a Round-Robin Scheduling Algorithm. It can run multiple
programs simultaneously.
There are two types of Multi-Tasking Systems which are listed below.
 Preemptive Multi-Tasking
 Cooperative Multi-Tasking
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Multitasking Operating System

Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System
 Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-Tasking

Operating System.
 It comes with proper memory management.

Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

 The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple times.

5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each
user gets the time of the CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also
known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different
users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this
time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.
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Time-Sharing OS
ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA
BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Each task gets an equal opportunity.

 Fewer chances of duplication of software.

 CPU idle time can be reduced.

 Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to share

hardware resources such as the CPU, memory, and peripherals, reducing

the cost of hardware and increasing efficiency.
 Improved Productivity: Time-sharing allows users to work concurrently,

thereby reducing the waiting time for their turn to use the computer. This
increased productivity translates to more work getting done in less time.
 Improved User Experience: Time-sharing provides an interactive

environment that allows users to communicate with the computer in real

time, providing a better user experience than batch processing.
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS
 Reliability problem.

 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs

and data.
 Data communication problem.

 High Overhead: Time-sharing systems have a higher overhead than other

operating systems due to the need for scheduling, context switching, and
other overheads that come with supporting multiple users.
 Complexity: Time-sharing systems are complex and require advanced

software to manage multiple users simultaneously. This complexity

increases the chance of bugs and errors.
 Security Risks: With multiple users sharing resources, the risk of security

breaches increases. Time-sharing systems require careful management of

user access, authentication, and authorization to ensure the security of data
and software.
Examples of Time-Sharing OS with explanation
 IBM VM/CMS: IBM VM/CMS is a time-sharing operating system that was

first introduced in 1972. It is still in use today, providing a virtual machine

environment that allows multiple users to run their own instances of
operating systems and applications.
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 TSO (Time Sharing Option): TSO is a time-sharing operating system that

was first introduced in the 1960s by IBM for the IBM System/360
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

mainframe computer. It allowed multiple users to access the same

computer simultaneously, running their own applications.
 Windows Terminal Services: Windows Terminal Services is a time-sharing
operating system that allows multiple users to access a Windows server
remotely. Users can run their own applications and access shared
resources, such as printers and network storage, in real-time.

6. Distributed Operating System

These types of operating system is a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that
too, at a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers
communicate with each other using a shared communication network.
Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are
referred to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These systems’
processors differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these
types of the operating system is that it is always possible that one user can
access the files or software which are not actually present on his system but
some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled
within the devices connected in that network.

Distributed OS
Advantages of Distributed Operating System
 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all

systems are independent of each other.

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 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed.

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 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable.

ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

 Load on host computer reduces.

 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to

the network.
 Delay in data processing reduces.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System

 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication.

 To establish distributed systems the language is used not well-defined yet.

 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.

Not only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood
well yet.
Examples of Distributed Operating Systems are LOCUS, etc.
Issues with Distributed Operating Systems
 Networking causes delays in the transfer of data between nodes of a

distributed system. Such delays may lead to an inconsistent view of data

located in different nodes, and make it difficult to know the chronological
order in which events occurred in the system.
 Control functions like scheduling, resource allocation, and deadlock

detection have to be performed in several nodes to achieve computation

speedup and provide reliable operation when computers or networking
components fail.
 Messages exchanged by processes present in different nodes may travel

over public networks and pass through computer systems that are not
controlled by the distributed operating system. An intruder may exploit this
feature to tamper with messages, or create fake messages to fool the
authentication procedure and masquerade as a user of the system.
7. Network Operating System
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of
operating systems allow shared access to files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small private network. One more
important aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well
aware of the underlying configuration, of all other users within the network,
their individual connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly
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known as tightly coupled systems.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Network Operating System

Advantages of Network Operating System
 Highly stable centralized servers.

 Security concerns are handled through servers.

 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the

system.
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of

systems.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System

 Servers are costly.

 User has to depend on a central location for most operations.

 Maintenance and updates are required regularly.

Examples of Network Operating Systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003,

Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, BSD,
etc.
8. Real-Time Operating System
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to
process and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response
time. Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are
very strict like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Types of Real-Time Operating Systems
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 Hard Real-Time Systems: Hard Real-Time OSs are meant for applications

where time constraints are very strict and even the shortest possible delay
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

is not acceptable. These systems are built for saving life like automatic
parachutes or airbags which are required to be readily available in case of
an accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems: These OSs are for applications where time-
constraint is less strict.

Real-Time Operating System

Advantages of RTOS
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and systems, thus

more output from all the resources.

 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems is very

less. For example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in

shifting from one task to another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3
microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance on

applications that are in the queue.

 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of

programs is small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in

transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.

 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of

systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration
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is very less on a few applications to avoid errors.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so
good and they are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the

designer to write on.

 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and

interrupts signal to respond earliest to interrupts.

 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are

very less prone to switching tasks.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are scientific experiments, medical
imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic
control systems, etc.

FILE & DIRECTORY

Directories and files are both essential components of a computer's file system.
A directory is a container that stores files and other directories, organizing them
in a hierarchical structure. It acts as a roadmap for locating and accessing specific
files. On the other hand, a file is a collection of data or information that is stored
on a computer. It can contain text, images, videos, or any other type of data.
While directories help in organizing and managing files, files themselves contain
the actual content that users interact with. Both directories and files work
together to create a structured and efficient system for storing and accessing
data on a computer.

Directories and files are fundamental components of any computer system.

They are used to organize and store data in a structured manner. While both
directories and files serve different purposes, they are closely related and work
together to manage data effectively.

Definition

A directory, also known as a folder, is a container used to organize files and

other directories. It acts as a storage location for files and provides a way to
navigate through the file system. On the other hand, a file is a collection of
data or information stored on a computer. It can be a document, image, video,
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or any other type of data.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Attributes

Directories have several attributes that distinguish them from files. One of the
key attributes of a directory is that it can contain other directories and files.
This hierarchical structure allows for better organization of data. Directories
also have permissions associated with them, which control who can access,
modify, or delete the contents within them.

Files, on the other hand, are typically smaller units of data that are stored
within directories. They can have different file extensions, which indicate the
type of data they contain. Files also have permissions that determine who can
read, write, or execute them. Additionally, files can be opened, edited, and
saved by various applications.

Manipulation

Directories and files can be manipulated in different ways. Directories can be

created, renamed, moved, and deleted. They can also be copied to another
location or archived for backup purposes. Files, on the other hand, can be
created, edited, saved, and deleted. They can also be moved, copied, or shared
with others.

When it comes to accessing directories and files, users can navigate through
directories to find specific files or create new directories. Files can be opened
using the appropriate application, edited, and saved back to the original
location. Both directories and files can be searched for using keywords or
filters to locate specific data.

Storage

Directories and files are stored on various storage devices, such as hard drives,
solid-state drives, and cloud storage. Directories are used to organize files
within a file system, making it easier to locate and manage data. Files are
stored within directories and can be accessed by navigating through the
directory structure.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Storage capacity is an important consideration when working with directories

and files. The size of directories can vary depending on the number of files and
subdirectories they contain. Files can also vary in size, depending on the type
of data they store. It is essential to manage storage space efficiently to prevent
data loss or system slowdowns.

In conclusion, directories and files are essential components of any computer

system. While directories are used to organize and store files, files contain data
that can be accessed and manipulated by users. Understanding the attributes
of directories and files is crucial for effective data management and
organization.

File

File is nothing but a collection of information. The information can be of

numbers, characters, graphs, images, etc. Every file should be stored under a
unique name for its future reference. Every file should be saved along with an
extension. Some of the extensions and their description are given below −

Sr.No. Extension & Description

1 .avi - Microsoft videos for Windows movie

2 .dbf - dbase II, III, IV data file

3 .doc(x) - Microsoft word for windows

4 .gif - Graphics Interchange Format

5 .htm - Hypertext Markup Language

6 .html - Hypertext Markup Language

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7 .jpg - JPEG graphics file

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

8 .mpg - MPEG video file

9 .mid - MIDI music file

10 .mov - QuickTime movie

Representation

File should be represented in address bar along with path of the file, filename
and extension.

For example: C:\Windows\system32\Hello.html

In which C:\Windows\system32 → path
Hello → filename
.html → extension.
Directory Management

Directory is a place/area/location where a set of file(s) will be stored. It is a folder

which contains details about files, file size and time when they are created and
last modified. The different types of directories are discussed below −

Root Directory

Root Directory is created when we start formatting the disk and start putting
files on it. In this, we can create new directories called "sub-directories". Root
directory is the highest level directory and is seen when booting a system.

Subdirectory

Subdirectory is a directory inside root directory, in turn, it can have another sub-
directory in it.

Attribute Directory File

Type Folder Document
Contents Contains files and subdirectories Contains data or
information
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Size Can vary in size depending on Size is determined by the

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contents amount of data stored

ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Permissions Can have different permissions Can have different

for reading, writing, and permissions for reading and
executing writing
Location Can be nested within other Can be stored in directories
directories

Disk Operating System

A DOS, or disk operating system, is an operating system that runs from a disk
drive. The term can also refer to a particular family of disk operating systems,
most commonly MS-DOS, an acronym for Microsoft DOS.

An operating system (OS) is the software that controls a computer's hardware

and peripheral devices and allows other software programs to function. Early
computers of the 1940s and 1950s did not have disk drives. Instead, they were
hard-wired to carry out specific computations.

Later, computers were able to store instructions loaded into the computer's
memory using punch cards and then, after that, magnetic tapes. Computer
memory space was limited, and when the instructions to control a computer
were moved onto a disk drive, such as a floppy disk or internal HDD, it was
considered cutting-edge technology.

DOS is also used to describe several similar command-line disk operating

systems. Early computers, such as the Commodore 64, Atari 800 and Apple II, all
featured a disk operating system, including Commodore Business Machines
DOS, Atari DOS and Apple DOS, respectively. DOS/360 was an OS for
IBM mainframes, which first appeared in 1966, but it is unrelated to the 8086-
based DOS of the 1980s.

Working of a Disk Operating System

When a computer is powered on it goes through various steps called the boot
process. For a computer running a disk operating system, the following six steps
are standard:

1. The read-only memory (ROM) bootstrap loader reads the Master Boot
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Record and passes control over to it.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

2. The boot record loads the disk operating system into memory, and it takes
control of the machine.
3. The computer transfers data stored on a magnetic disk to its main
memory, the random access memory.
4. It also transfers data to external devices attached to the computer, such
as a computer screen or printer.
5. The computer provides various application programming interfaces for
programs like character input/output (I/O), memory management,
program loading and termination, as well as handling input from the user
through a keyboard.
6. The OS also provides file management that organizes, reads and writes
files on storage. The files are organized in a hierarchical structure of
directories, subdirectories and files.

A disk operating system doesn't have a graphical user interface (GUI). Its
interface is character-based, so users must type commands in the command line
to indicate what actions they want.

An example of a PC-DOS 2.0 startup screen on an early IBM PC shows the

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command-line interface.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

DOS features
Among the features and limitations of disk operating systems are the following.

 Command-line interface (CLI). It does not have a GUI and doesn't accept
mouse inputs. It is a character-based interface system where all
commands are entered in text at the command-line prompt.
 Management. A disk operating system can manage a computer's files, I/O
system and its memory.

Limitations

 No built-in security. It does not have built-in security, such as file

ownership and permissions.
 No multiusers or multitasking. It also does not support multiusers or
multitasking. It is only able to run one program at a time, but it provides
direct access to the basic I/O system and underlying hardware.
 Challenging interface. The CLI, in which a user must type in commands,
requires the user to remember commands to run programs and do other
OS tasks. This approach makes it difficult for novices to use. For example,
typing the command cd \ directory name changes the current working
directory to the named directory and typing the command dir lists the
files in the current directory.

Windows Operating System

Microsoft Windows, computer operating system (OS) developed by Microsoft

Corporation to run personal computers (PCs). Featuring the first graphical user
interface (GUI) for IBM-compatible PCs, the Windows OS soon dominated the
PC market. Approximately 90 percent of PCs run some version of Windows.

The first version of Windows, released in 1985, was simply a GUI offered as
an extension of Microsoft’s existing disk operating system, or MS-DOS. Based in
part on licensed concepts that Apple Inc. had used for its Macintosh System
Software, Windows for the first time allowed DOS users to visually navigate a
virtual desktop, opening graphical “windows” displaying the contents of
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

electronic folders and files with the click of a mouse button, rather than typing
commands and directory paths at a text prompt.

Subsequent versions introduced greater functionality, including native Windows

File Manager, Program Manager, and Print Manager programs, and a
more dynamic interface. Microsoft also developed specialized Windows
packages, including the networkable Windows for Workgroups and the high-
powered Windows NT, aimed at businesses. The 1995 consumer release
Windows 95 fully integrated Windows and DOS and offered built-
in Internet support, including the Web browser Internet Explorer.

SOME FAMOUS VERSION OF WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM ARE AS FOLLOWS:

 Windows 95
 Windows XP
 Windows Vista
 Windows 7
 Windows 8
 Windows 10
 Windows 11

CRONOLOGY OF WINDOWS OS UPDATION JOURNEY

With the 2001 release of Windows XP, Microsoft united its various Windows
packages under a single banner, offering multiple editions for consumers,
businesses, multimedia developers, and others. Windows XP abandoned the
long-used Windows 95 kernel (core software code) for a more powerful code
base and offered a more practical interface and improved application and
memory management. The highly successful XP standard was succeeded in late
2006 by Windows Vista, which experienced a troubled rollout and was met with
considerable marketplace resistance, quickly acquiring a reputation for being a
large, slow, and resource-consuming system. Responding to Vista’s
disappointing adoption rate, Microsoft in 2009 released Windows 7, an OS
whose interface was similar to that of Vista but was met with enthusiasm for its
noticeable speed improvement and its modest system requirements.

Windows 8 in 2012 offered a start screen with applications appearing as tiles on

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a grid and the ability to synchronize settings so users could log on to another
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Windows 8 machine and use their preferred settings. In 2015 Microsoft

released Windows 10, which came with Cortana, a digital personal assistant
like Apple’s Siri, and the Web browser Microsoft Edge, which replaced Internet
Explorer.

The same year that Windows 10 was released, a developer at the Microsoft
Ignite conference offhandedly announced that Windows 10 would be the “last”
version of Windows. However, Microsoft later clarified that the company would
regularly update the OS but that there would be no more large-scale revisions.

In 2021 Microsoft released Windows 11, which features a redesigned start

menu and faster operating speeds. However, Cortana was removed from the OS
because its performance lagged behind virtual assistant competitors such as Siri
and Amazon’s Alexa. Cortana was replaced, in some senses, by a new
generative artificial intelligence (AI) feature known as Copilot, which uses large
language models to generate content in an effort to improve productivity. The
software, which uses the technology popularized
by ChatGPT and Google Gemini, responds to user commands (for example,
“create a budgeting spreadsheet”) by generating new content and
is integrated into applications such as Microsoft 365 (which includes Microsoft
Word and PowerPoint, among others), Bing, and the Windows task bar.

Windows 11 has encountered resistance from those who had been using
Windows 10, and the majority of Windows users continue to use the prior OS.
Users are especially critical of the newly redesigned start menu, which features
less flexible options than the previous OS and lacks the older version’s “live tiles”
feature, which pulled information and news in real time from the Internet. The
feature was replaced by a widgets dashboard separate from the start menu.
Additionally, the task bar in Windows 11 is centered at the bottom of the
computer screen, although it can be aligned to the bottom left
(its default position in Windows 10). Many users thought that this limited the
flexibility of the OS and chose not to upgrade. Windows 11 also requires PCs to
run on a 64-bit processor, so users with 32-bit processors cannot use the new
OS unless they purchase a new computer.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

UNIX operating system

UNIX is a powerful Operating System initially developed by Ken Thompson,
Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell laboratories in 1970. It is prevalent among scientific,
engineering, and academic institutions due to its most appreciative features like
multitasking, flexibility, and many more. In UNIX, the file system is a hierarchical
structure of files and directories where users can store and retrieve information
using the files.

Features of UNIX Operating System:

Let's discuss the features of UNIX OS one by one in detail.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Multitasking: A UNIX operating system is a multitasking operating system that

allows you to initiate more than one task from the same terminal so that one
task is performed as a foreground and the other task as a background process.

Multi-user: UNIX operating system supports more than one user to access
computer resources like main memory, hard disk, tape drives, etc. Multiple
users can log on to the system from different terminals and run different jobs
that share the resources of a command terminal. It deals with the principle of
time-sharing. Time-sharing is done by a scheduler that divides the CPU time into
several segments also called a time slice, and each segment is assigned to each
user on a scheduled basis. This time slice is tiny. When this time is expired, it
passes control to the following user on the system. Each user executes their set
of instructions within their time slice.

Portability: This feature makes the UNIX work on different machines and
platforms with the easy transfer of code to any computer system. Since a
significant portion of UNIX is written in C language, and only a tiny portion is
coded in assembly language for specific hardware.

File Security and Protection: Being a multi-user system, UNIX makes special
consideration for file and system security. UNIX has different levels of security
using assigning username and password to individual users ensuring the
authentication, at the level providing file access permission viz. read, write and
execute and lastly file encryption to change the file into an unreadable format.

Command Structure: UNIX commands are easy to understand and simple to

use. Example: "cp", mv etc. While working in the UNIX environment, the UNIX
commands are case-sensitive and are entered in lower case.

Communication: In UNIX, communication is an excellent feature that enables

the user to communicate worldwide. It supports various communication
facilities provided using the write command, mail command, talk command, etc.

Open Source: UNIX operating system is open source it means it is freely

available to all and is a community-based development project.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Accounting: UNIX keeps an account of jobs created by the user. This feature
enhances the system performance in terms of CPU monitoring and disk space
checking. It allows you to keep an account of disk space used by each user, and
the disk space can be limited by each other. You can assign every user a different
disk quota. The root user can perform these accounting tasks using various
commands such as quota, df, du, etc.

UNIX Tools and Utilities: UNIX system provides various types of tools and
utilities facilities such as UNIX grep, sed and awk, etc. Some of the general-
purpose tools are compilers, interpreters, network applications, etc. It also
includes various server programs which provide remote and administration
services.

The structure of Unix OS Layers are as follows:

While working with UNIX OS, several layers of this system provide interaction
between the pc hardware and the user. Following is the description of each and
every layer structure in UNIX system:

Layer-1: Hardware -
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This layer of UNIX consists of all hardware-related information in the UNIX

environment.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Layer-2: Kernel -
The core of the operating system that's liable for maintaining the full
functionality is named the kernel. The kernel of UNIX runs on the particular
machine hardware and interacts with the hardware effectively.

It also works as a device manager and performs valuable functions for the
processes which require access to the peripheral devices connected to the
computer. The kernel controls these devices through device drivers.

The kernel also manages the memory. Processes are executed programs that
have owner's humans or systems who initiate their execution.

The system must provide all processes with access to an adequate amount of
memory, and a few processes require a lot of it. To make effective use of main
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memory and to allocate a sufficient amount of memory to every process. It uses

essential techniques like paging, swapping, and virtual storage.
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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

Layer-3: The Shell -

The Shell is an interpreter that interprets the command submitted by the user
at the terminal, and calls the program you simply want.

It also keeps a history of the list of the commands you have typed in. If you need
to repeat a command you typed it, use the cursor keys to scroll up and down the
list or type history for a list of previous commands. There are various commands
like cat, mv, cat, grep, id, wc, and many more.

Types of Shell in UNIX System:

o Bourne Shell: This Shell is simply called the Shell. It was the first Shell for
UNIX OS. It is still the most widely available Shell on a UNIX system.
o C Shell: The C shell is another popular shell commonly available on a UNIX
system. The C shell was developed by the University of California at
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Berkeley and removed some of the shortcomings of the Bourne shell.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR
BCA-104 Fundamental Of Information Technology
UNIT-II Operating System Concepts

o Korn Shell: This Shell was created by David Korn to address the Bourne
Shell's user-interaction issues and to deal with the shortcomings of the C
shell's scripting quirks.
Layer-4: Application Programs Layer -
It is the outermost layer that executes the given external applications. UNIX
distributions typically come with several useful applications programs as
standard. For Example: emacs editor, StarOffice, xv image viewer, g++ compiler
etc.

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ER. ABHISHEK MISHRA

BCA DEPARTMENT, MARIAHU P.G. COLLEGE,
MARIAHU, JAUNUR