ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 692–703

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijrmms

Numerical modelling of ore dilution in blasthole stoping

John G. Henning, Hani S. Mitri
Department of Mining, Metals and Materials Engineering, McGill University, 3450 University St., Montreal, Que. Canada H3A2A7
Received 12 May 2006; received in revised form 12 October 2006; accepted 7 November 2006
Available online 3 January 2007

Abstract

The paper presents the results of a study of the factors causing stope wall overbreak or ore dilution in a blasthole stoping environment.
A series of three-dimensional numerical models are developed and analyzed to examine the effect of mining depth, in situ stress as well as
stope geometry and orientation on stope wall overbreak. A characteristic orebody and mine design configuration is adopted and used as
a basis to carry out comprehensive model parametric study, from which a simple, graphical design tool is derived for the prediction of
stope overbreak. It is shown that stope overbreak is significantly affected by the stope aspect ratio and the orientation of major principal
in situ stresses with respect to the stope. The methodology presented in this paper can be adopted to develop mine-specific design tools
for the estimation of ore dilution associated with a proposed mine design. This can be extremely helpful in the process of underground
mine planning and optimization.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: 3-D modelling; Hanging-wall dilution; Numerical modelling; Ore dilution; Overbreak; Rock mechanics; Stope type; Underground mining

1. Introduction stope is backfilled (delayed backfilling). The method is used to

mine ore where both the ore and wall rocks are relatively
In a global competitive market, there is pressure on strong. The method may be applied to a variety of vertical or
mines to maximize production and increase revenue. steeply dipping orebody shapes and sizes.
Unplanned ore dilution has a direct and large influence The blasthole mining method provides limited selectiv-
on the cost of a stope, and ultimately on the profitability of ity. Since it is a bulk method, blasthole mining results in
a mining operation. The economic impact of dilution is due some overbreak. The orebody should preferably be regular,
to costs associated with the mucking, haulage, crushing, as changes in orebody geometry outlines are difficult to
hoisting, milling, and treatment of waste or low-grade rock compensate for. Production holes, commonly in the range
having little or no value, displacing profitable ore and of 50–110 mm diameter, are drilled either in a fan-shaped
processing capacity. The additional time required for pattern, or in a pattern parallel to the stope dip. Drilling
excavation and backfilling of the larger stope volumes can be done in advance of ore extraction. Stope dimensions
produced by the extraction of waste rock can also lead to are determined from local ground conditions and orebody
unscheduled delays, changes to the mining schedule, and thickness. Stope blocks are accessed in transverse or
potentially, development rehabilitation costs. longitudinal directions. Transverse stoping is common to
Blasthole mining, also referred to as long-hole mining, is a tabular orezones of widths exceeding 5 m, where stope
general term applied to mining methods that employ long- access is driven normal orezone strike. Narrower width
hole drilling for the production of ore. It is a system of large- orezones are mined longitudinally, with stope access driven
scale drilling and blasting in which large amounts of ore are parallel to, and within, the orezone strike.
broken in single blasts. Blasted slices of rock fall into an open
void within the stope. The rock is extracted and the empty
2. Review of ore dilution assessment methods

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 514 398 4890; fax: +1 514 398 7396. The term ‘dilution’ refers to any waste material within
E-mail address: [email protected] (H.S. Mitri). the mining block, including barren and subgrade rock and

1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2006.11.002
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
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backfill. Dilution tends to be the most consistently under- different stope geometries perform in a particular quality
estimated factor in mine planning [1]. Increasing ore rockmass, or mining-induced stress environment.
dilution results in a decrease of hoisted grade in compar- In assessing dilution, it is necessary to understand the
ison with the mining reserves [2]. Dilution negatively way a stope operates. Empirical design techniques, such as
influences the profitability of mining operations by low- those described in Mathews et al. [10], Potvin [11], and
ering the quantity of mineral or metal that can be produced Pakalnis and Vongpaisal [12] have gained acceptance as a
from each ton of ore processed in mining/milling opera- simple, ‘first-pass’ means of generating broad design
tions. guidelines for primary stopes. Empirical back-analysis of
Dilution is a qualitative parameter that enables the mine CMS stope stability data can provide useful predictions of
operator to evaluate quality of design [3]. Traditionally, the dilution or sloughage for particular stope design [13–15].
mining industry has used the dilution concept to define the
negative differences between forecasts and production 3. Stope design influences on dilution
results [4]. Dilution and sacrifice of ore tend to be
inseparable factors, with a trade-off between optimum In a general sense, a mine is a factory with standardized
recovery and impairment of grade. Inadequate attention to practices, equipment and materials for stope design and
stope design can quickly eliminate profitability from high excavation. However, no two stopes are the same, as each
productivity bulk mining methods [5,6]. has numerous potential variables such as stope height,
Dilution can refer to either a measure of external waste hanging-wall dip and pre-mining stress environment, which
(unplanned dilution) that has sloughed from the stope wall, may impact recovery and unplanned dilution.
or to material that is of lower grade than cut-off, but which
is included in the mineral deposit, reserve or stope outline 3.1. Stope height
and extracted with the mining of ore (planned dilution).
Unplanned dilution, the focus of in this study, refers to Published data suggests that unplanned dilution, parti-
additional non-ore material derived from rock or backfill cularly from the hanging-wall, is sensitive to the stope
outside the stope boundaries due to blast-induced over- height and the dip of the hanging-wall. Increased over-
break, sloughage of unstable wall rock, or sloughing of break may be associated with equipment limitations, such
backfill [7]. The term ‘overbreak’ is synonymous with as increased borehole deviation, or to rockmass stability.
unplanned wall dilution. Perron [16] describes instabilities associated with high
A value of dilution is recorded by most mines, although stopes at one mining operation, which ultimately required
not in an identical manner. A survey of mines throughout a re-design of both the stope height and mining sequence to
Canada by Pakalnis [3] identified nine variations on a reduce dilution. Stopes of 60 m height  20 m width were
definition of dilution. Dilution is usually calculated as a originally designed for transverse mining. Wall instability
percentage. In their review of Canadian mining practices, was found to be greater than anticipated. To improve
Scoble and Moss [7] reported that Eqs. (1) and (2) were the stability and to lower dilution, additional sub-levels were
most widely used. Eq. (1) was recommended as a standard developed in ore, reducing stope dimensions to a more
measure of dilution by Pakalnis et al. [8], as it was more stable 30 m high  20 m wide dimension. A consequence of
sensitive to wall sloughage. this conversion was a change to longitudinal mining, with a
lower rate of production.
Dilution ¼ ðTons waste minedÞ=ðTons ore minedÞ, (1)
3.2. Hanging-wall dip angle
Tons waste mined
Dilution ¼ . (2)
Tons ore mined þ tons waste mined The influence of hanging-wall dip on overbreak can be
Narrow stopes, mined by blasthole method, are generally significant. With steeply dipping orezones, vertical stresses
victims of considerable dilution: the narrower the zone is, are shed around the ore body. As the dip of the stope
the more important the border effects [4]. For example, hanging-wall becomes shallower, vertical stresses are shed
using Eq. (1), if both the hanging-wall and footwall of a onto the ore body, leading to larger displacements. An
steeply dipping 1.5 m wide tabular deposit contributes example of the influence of hanging-wall dip on stope
0.3 m of overbreak, then an unplanned mining dilution of overbreak is described in [17], where depth of overbreak
40% results. If this orezone was 3.0 m thick, mined in the was observed to increase as the hanging-wall dip became
same conditions, the resulting dilution factor becomes shallower.
20%.
In recent years, accurate surveying of excavated stope 3.3. Stress environment
surfaces has been made possible with the application of
automated non-contact laser rangefinders. The Cavity When a drift, stope or other underground opening is
Monitoring System (CMS), described by Miller et al. [9], excavated into a stressed rockmass, stresses near the new
offers a volume-based technique for directly measuring opening are disrupted and re-distributed. As a blasthole
stope performance. CMS data provides a record of how stope is mined, a zone of low stress develops [18]. Stresses
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
694 J.G. Henning, H.S. Mitri / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 692–703

normal to the hanging-wall are shed to the abutments. This analysing induced stress and displaying displacements,
zone of elastic relaxation extends further into the hanging strains and stresses. The program can accommodate multi-
wall as the distance to the supporting abutments increases. step mining sequences and multiple material zones with
According to Kaiser et al. [19], rockmass relaxation refers different material properties and stress states.
mostly to stress reduction parallel to the excavation wall
and not to stress reductions in the radial direction or a 4.1. Quantifying hanging-wall dilution using numerical
reduction in confinement. Stresses in the tangential modelling
direction to the excavation wall (the major and/or
intermediate principal stress) are reduced in the rockmass, With stope excavation, principal in situ stresses rotate
often to values far below those predicted by linear elastic such that the major (s1) and intermediate (s2) principal
models, because the rockmass has been allowed to deform stress are aligned parallel to the excavation hanging-wall.
at some distance from the excavation. Minor principal stress (s3) tends to align perpendicular to
In the relaxation zone, the absence of significant the excavation boundary, as shown in Fig. 1. Overbreak
clamping stresses is often cited as one of the main reasons occurs due to the loss of confinement in the radial direction
for the instability of large hanging-walls [20]. The depth or to the stope wall and a decrease in s1 and s2 [27]. The
volume of this relaxation zone in a stope hanging-wall is tangential stresses s1 and s2 may decrease in addition to
dependent upon the pre-existing stress state and the size or the decrease of s3 causing a larger area of caving or this
hydraulic radius of the hanging-wall [21]. The shape of the may bring stable hanging-walls to failure.
stope hanging-wall also influences the total volume, or The zone of relaxation defines an envelope within which
average depth of the relaxation zone in the hanging-wall gravity-driven block failures may occur. It can be assumed
[22,23]. Diederichs and Kaiser [24] have also shown that that the volume of hanging-wall relaxation represents a
relaxation, causing near-zero stress conditions tangential to potential volume of unplanned dilution. Sloughage poten-
excavation spans, reduces the self-supporting capacity of tial is assumed to be a function of loss of confinement,
an excavation in fractured ground. This relaxation can also which results in the creation of zones of relaxation, and the
drastically reduce the performance of cablebolts, which are exploitation of this confinement loss by structures or planes
often used to support hanging-walls [25]. Tannant et al. of preferential weakness within that zone. The nature of the
[22] reported that tension can manifest itself as delamina- structures determines the tensile strength of the rockmass
tion of foliation planes and dilation of cross jointing, in question. In massive to moderately jointed rock, residual
leading to unravelling failure in laminated rock. tensile load bearing strength arising from incomplete
fracturing or from rock bridges separating non-persistent
4. Numerical modelling jointing is a key factor in the control of ultimate gravity-
driven failure of jointed or stress damaged ground [18].
Most underground excavations are complex three- The notion that a simple confining stress (tensile
dimensional (3-D) shapes with irregular form. Complexity strength) criterion can be used to assess hanging-wall
increases on a larger, mine-wide, scale since these stability and dilution potential has been reported by many,
individual mine openings are frequently grouped close to including [28,29]. A potential for sloughage exists in the
other excavations. region of confinement loss (s3 ¼ 0 MPa iso-contour).
The sensitivity of controlling stope geometry and stope However, not all of this zone will fail if the rockmass
setting on potential overbreak was examined parametri- has some self-supporting capacity. The occurrence and
cally using the 3-D numerical modelling program Map3D potential severity of this sloughage is influenced by the
[26]. Map3D is capable of constructing 3-D geometries, tensile strength of the rockmass. In turn, the tensile

a b

σ3
σ1

σ3
Excavation
Ore
σ2
σ1 σ2

Initial condition After excavation

Fig. 1. Principal stress orientation before and after stope excavation, after [27].
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strength depends on the material properties of the rock and decreases as the structure of the exposed rock face becomes
the structures present within it. less interlocked. Rockmass quality is further diminished as
A common practice is to reconcile stope overbreak, quality of the joint surfaces is reduced. Hoek–Brown
measured from CMS survey, using numerical modelling. In strength parameters mb and s; as well as elastic modulus E,
a case example described by Martin et al. [30], the can be determined from GSI values for design purposes.
distribution of three principal stresses within a hanging- Equations for obtaining generalized Hoek–Brown criterion
wall, obtained from 3-D elastic modelling, was plotted for jointed rock masses are described in [36]. Input
against the surveyed stope profile. Results from this study parameters for numerical modelling are summarized in
suggested that the contours of minimum principal stress at Table 2. For the parametric study a uniaxial compressive
s3 ¼ 0 best reflected the observed geometry. strength value of sc ¼ 175 MPa was used, which corre-
sponds to a mid-range strong rock.
With blasthole mining, in order to maximize ore
4.2. Modelling parameters recovery, it is common to mine pillars following primary
mining recovery. As this is done, large surface areas of
For the parametric study, values representative of the backfill may be exposed as a free standing wall. It is
Canadian Shield mining environment were adopted for necessary that the backfill has sufficient strength to remain
modelling input parameters. Parameters were examined free standing during and after pillar extraction. For the
under a range of conditions, as indicated below. parametric study, mined stopes were backfilled using
Pre-mining or in situ stresses are usually reported in parameters listed in Table 3.
terms of principal stresses s1, s2 and s3 and their associated
orientations in terms of trend and dip. In the Canadian
4.3. Modelled stope geometry
Shield the major and intermediate principal stresses s1 and
s2 tend to be near horizontal with plunges between zero
Numerical modelling was undertaken to examine the
and approximately 101, and the minor principal stress s3 is
influence of mine depth, hanging-wall dimensions, hang-
approximately vertical [31]. Consequently, the maximum
ing-wall dip angle, the orientation of pre-mining stress with
and minimum horizontal stresses sH and sh and the
respect to stope hanging-wall, and stope type on ore
vertical stress sv are used synonymously with s1, s2 and s3,
dilution.
respectively. For the parametric study, stress regimes at
Stope geometries common to Canadian long-hole mining
three depths were considered, separated in 750 m intervals
operations were selected for the numerical model. For this
of depth. Shallow depth corresponds to a 750 m depth. A
parametric study, stope dimensions varying from 10 to
depth of 1500 m was considered moderate; while deep
40 m in both strike length and vertical stope height were
mining was represented by stopes at a depth of 2250 m, see
assessed. Modelled stopes were assigned a width of 10 m.
Table 1. Horizontal-to-vertical stress ratio decreases from
Two values of hanging-wall dip were assessed: 801 and 601.
1.9 to 1.5 with depth. Stress magnitudes were determined
Footwall dip was kept parallel to the modelled hanging-
from relationships suggested by Diederichs [20], based on a
wall dip angle, to maintain the tabular nature of the
re-evaluation of documented stress data.
orebody.
Three categories of rockmass quality were considered for
A ‘typical’ stope with an 801 hanging-wall and footwall
the parametric study, ranging across the spectrum of
dip, and dimensions measuring 30 m high  10 m thick,
rockmass qualities common to Canadian mines employing
with a strike range of 10–40 m was selected as a base case;
long-hole mining [32,33]. They are: very good quality rock,
see Fig. 2. The setting of the base-case stope was at
good quality, and fair quality rock. Rockmass conditions
moderate depth (Z ¼ 1500 m), in moderately strong rock,
were classified using the Geological Strength Index (GSI)
with mid-range rockmass quality (GSI ¼ 65) for both the
system, developed for Canadian mining and described in
orezone and host rock.
[34]. The GSI system considers the qualitative character-
istics of the rockmass as a whole, rather than assessing the
quantitative characteristics of discrete joint sets. With the 4.3.1. Stope type
GSI approach, the rockmass is assessed by the visual A stoping sequence common to many Canadian mines
geological description of its block size and joint surface employing blasthole methods uses a pyramidal or chevron
condition or by its typical block size [35]. Rockmass quality mining front. Stopes are sequenced to maintain a

Table 1
Pre-mining stress magnitudes associated with shallow, moderate and deep mining

Depth category Depth below surface K sH sh sv

Shallow 750 m 1.9 37.3 MPa 25.2 MPa 19.5 MPa

Moderate 1500 m 1.6 64.2 MPa 47.1 MPa 39.0 MPa
Deep 2250 m 1.5 89.3 MPa 68.4 MPa 58.5 MPa
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Table 2
Model parameters for host and orezone rock

Very good rockmass quality Good rockmass quality Fair

rockmass
quality

Material values
GSI 80 65 50
Uniaxial compressive strength, (sc) 175 MPa 175 MPa 175 MPa
Hoek-Brown constant for intact rock, (mi) 25 25 25

Rockmass values calculated with GSI value

Rockmass elastic modulus (Erm) 56,234 MPa 23,713 MPa 10,000 MPa
Hoek–Brown ‘m’ 12.24 7.16 4.19
Hoek–Brown ‘s’ 0.108 0.021 0.004
Rockmass tensile strength, (st) 1.55 MPa 0.50 MPa 0.16 MPa
Global rockmass compressive strength, (scm) 91.5 MPa 64.6 MPa 47.5 MPa

Table 3 orezone
Model parameters for consolidated rockfill

Parameter Material value

Uniaxial compressive strength, sc 3 MPa

80° HW
Elastic modulus, E 2500 MPa dip
Cohesive strength 0.1 MPa
Internal angle of friction 351
30m

10 to 40m
triangular shape to the mined-out area by mining vertically 10m
with a lead stope, then outward along the rill of the triangle
towards its base. The lead primary stope, subjected to
elevated stresses as a result of the high level of confinement,
creates a ‘bow wave’ effect that tends to distress adjacent
primary stopes and shed stresses to the abutments. This Fig. 2. ‘‘Typical’’ stope geometry used for the model parametric study.
‘halo’ of failed ground in the bow wave of the lead stope
should allow improved ground conditions in subsequent
panels [37]. With careful scheduling, adjacent primary
stopes are mined and filled for two vertical lifts before
mining of the secondary stope between them is started Sub Level
[32,38].
An important, sometimes overlooked, parameter affect- P3
ing unplanned dilution is the local stope setting within the Sub Level
mining sequence. Depending on its placement within a
planned mining sequence, a stope may be bound by rock P2 S2 P2 S1
on both walls (a primary stope), or it may have backfill on Sub Level
one or both walls (a secondary stope). Five stope categories
were identified, based on their setting within the orezone P1 S2 P1 S2 P1 S2 P1 S1
mining sequence; see Fig. 3. The stope categories consisted
Main Level
of three primary (Type P1, P2 and P3) and two secondary-
type stopes (Type S1 and S2). Type P1 stope refers to an Fig. 3. Stope categories within mining block.
isolated primary stope, with rock on both side walls. Type
P2 stope refers to a primary stope, located above a
backfilled P1-type stope, with rock on both side walls. A Type S1 stope refers to a secondary stope, with rock on
rock pillar of height equal to two stopes occurs on at least one side and above. Other side wall is against backfill. S1-
one side wall of the stope. Lastly, Type P3 stope refers to a type stopes are common to pillarless stope sequence
primary stope, located above a backfilled P2-type stope, extraction sequences and to longitudinal mining methods.
with rock on both side walls. A rock pillar of height equal The other secondary stope, Type S2, refers to a secondary
to three stopes occurs on at least one side wall of the stope. stope having both side walls against backfilled primary
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
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stopes. S2-type stopes are common to transverse mining

methods.
For the parametric study, a block of equally dimen-
sioned stopes measuring three stopes high by three stopes
wide were generated in Map3D. Individual stopes were
modelled in accordance to the five stope categories.

5. Numerical model parametric study

5.1. Estimation of overbreak volume

As mentioned in Section 2, stope width influences the

calculated value of percent dilution. To express dilution
independently of stope width, Dunne and Pakalnis [39] and
Clark and Pakalnis [40] suggest that dilution values be
calculated average metres of wall slough per square metre of
wall (m3/m2), rather than percent dilution. Equivalent
Linear Overbreak/Slough (ELOS) is a method of converting
the volumetric CMS measurement into an average slough-
age depth over the entire stope surface. An advantage of
reporting stope sloughage in terms of ELOS is that the Fig. 4. Grid plane position at stope mid-height and mid-span. Secondary
source of unplanned dilution can be associated with (S2) stope model shown.
individual stope walls, such as hanging-wall or footwall.
For a given stope surface, ELOS is calculated as follows:
ELOS ðmÞ
Volume of measured overbreak from stope surface ðm2 Þ
¼ .
Area of stope surface ðm3 Þ
ð3Þ
In this study, relaxation depth was determined from iso-
contours of minimum principal stress (s3), located on a
vertical plane located at the stope mid-spans. For the
parametric study, hanging-wall relaxation depth was defined
as the maximum depth of the s3 ¼ 0 contour relative to the
excavation boundary, measured from the center of the stope
wall.
With the Map3D models, hanging-wall stresses were
plotted onto grids placed at the mid-span and mid-height
of the stope, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Grid planes were
orientated normal to the hanging-wall dip, and extend a
distance of 15 m away from the stope boundary. The extent
of the potential relaxation zone associated with a given Fig. 5. Illustration of overbreak envelope in a stope hanging-wall.
stope geometry of setting was determined from contours of
minimum stress. A potential for overbreak exists within the envelope of
The volume of potential hanging-wall relaxation simu- confinement loss, defined by s3p0 MPa.The height of such
lated by a 3-D elastic numerical model for a given 3-D envelope was determined from iso-contours of minimum
stope geometry was estimated using an approach described principal stress (s3), located on a vertical and horizontal
in [41], in which the overbreak volume was represented as planes located at the stope mid-span and mid-height,
the volume of half a prolate ellipsoid, illustrated in Fig. 5. respectively, as illustrated in Fig. 5.
The volume (V) of hanging-wall relaxation, represented by To quantify modelled ore dilution from the 3-D
the half-prolate ellipsoid, is calculated as simulations, the ore Dilution Density (DD) is a term
introduced in this study to denote potential hanging-wall
V ¼ ð2p=3Þr1 r2 r3 ðm3 Þ. (4)
overbreak.
In Eq. (4), r1, r2 and r3 correspond to the perpendicular,
vertical and horizontal radius distances from center (mid- Volume of half prolate ellipsoid ðm3 Þ
DD ¼ . (5)
span and mid-height) of stope hanging-wall contact. Surface area exposed ðm2 Þ
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Such a definition allows for the estimation of dilution 1.4

density at any location in the stope wall—the inherent 1.2 40m Strike length
feature of this definition is that DD is not constant over the 1 30m Strike length
surface area examined. Thus, referring to Fig. 5, it can be

DD (m)
0.8
seen that DD ¼ 0 along the edges of the stope wall and is 20m Strike length
maximum at the centre where DD ¼ r1, the height of the 0.6
prolate ellipsoid. DD as calculated from the above equation 0.4 15m Strike length
is similar to the parameter ELOS, in that both express a 0.2 10m Strike length
measure of overbreak. As for the estimation of the size of
0
the overbreak zone, typically the zero stress contour 750 1500 2250
(s3 ¼ 0 MPa) or the rockmass tensile strength contour Mining Depth (m)
(s3 ¼ st) are used to define the boundary of such zone.
Fig. 6. Modelled dilution density trend lines as a function of mining
depth, s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour.
5.2. Modelling results

Parametric modelling was performed to examine rela-

tionships of hanging-wall dilution with depth, stope 1
dimension, dip angle, stress setting and stope type. 0.8

DD (m)
0.6
5.2.1. Effect of mining depth Strike length
40 m
The influence of mining depth (or stress setting) on the 0.4 30 m
envelope of potential overbreak was assessed using 20 m
0.2
Map3D. The base-case stope (30 m vertical height, 801 15 m
dip, GSI ¼ 65, s11 perpendicular to hanging-wall, P1 type 0 10 m
750 1500 2250
primary stope), with strike lengths ranging from 10 to 40 m,
was modelled across the shallow, moderate and deep Mining depth (m)
mining range of stope settings described in Section 4.2. Fig. 7. Modelled dilution density trend lines as a function of mining
Results were expressed as modelled DD. Two DD values depth, s3 ¼ 0.5 MPa contour.
were calculated: (i) The s3 ¼ 0 MPa, represents the volume
of relaxed ground available for overbreak, assuming the operator, stope dimensions are a variable factor that
rockmass has no tensile strength; (ii) DD values were also influences overbreak, which can be established during the
determined for the s3 ¼ st contour, which accounts for initial mine design. Selection of stope dimensions, and in
rockmass tensile strength. For GSI ¼ 65, rockmass tensile particular stope height, represents a compromise between
strength was calculated to be st ¼ 0.5 MPa (Table 2). ‘acceptable’ overbreak and the cost and time required to
Trends associated with DD for the s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour establish additional lateral infrastructure in order to mine
are presented in Fig. 6. For a given stope dimension, the stress smaller, more stable blocks. For example, mining of a
model suggests that the DD remains relatively uniform. 120 m high orezone in 30 m vertical increments would
Trend lines between the data points show only marginal require four lateral mine horizons. Mining of the same
increase, in the range of 0.02 m DD per 500 m increase in block in 20 m vertical increments may generate a more
depth. Of greater impact on DD increase is the influence of stable hanging-wall, resulting in less overbreak, but would
strike length, which is examined further in Section 5.2.2. require six mine levels, or 50% more lateral development.
Trends associated with DD for the s3 ¼ 0.5 MPa The influence of stope hanging-wall dimensions (height
contour, shown in Fig. 7 show a relationship influenced and strike length) on potential overbreak was assessed
by depth. The envelope defined by the s3 ¼ 0.5 MPa using Map3D. The results from the study into the effect of
contour, representing the rockmass tensile strength of a mine depth on dilution density suggest that mining depth
good quality (GSI ¼ 65) rockmass, increases with depth. does not play a significant role in the extent of s3 ¼ 0 MPa
At shallow depth, this contour generates minimal (near- contour within the hanging-wall. When investigating
zero) DD values. However, with depth the value of DD trends associated with varying stope dimensions, data
increases. The s3 ¼ 0.5 MPa contour also varies with from stopes in a shallow, moderate and deep mine setting
strike length. At stope strike lengths of 15 m or less, was collected. As there was little scatter in the data points,
minimal (near-zero) DD occurs. Increased strike length analysis is based on averaged values. The base-case stope
leads to increased DD values. was applied across a range of dimensions. Results for the
s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour were expressed in terms of DD values.
5.2.2. Dilution density relationship with varying stope height Trends associated with DD for the s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour
and strike length as a function of strike length and vertical stope height are
Unlike factors such as mine depth and hanging-wall dip presented in Fig. 8. Fig. 8 represents a design tool, plotting
angle, which are outside of the control of the mine contours of anticipated dilution density against stope
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
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dimension for the base case stope. Villaescusa [42] DD =1.0m DD = 0.50m
qualitatively described a similar hyperbolic curve defining 40
a stable/unstable region. Fig. 8 suggests that stope wall DD = 0.75m DD = 0.25m
stability (with minimal dilution) improves by either

Stope Height (m)

excavating openings having long vertical and short 30
horizontal dimensions, or openings having long horizontal
and short vertical dimensions. Similarly, Fig. 9 plots
20
dilution density values for the range of stopes modelled
against stope geometry. Here, stope geometry is described
by its aspect ratio (see Eq. (6)) and vertical height. From 10
this plot, it can be seen that stopes with a small vertical
height or tall stopes with a short strike length generate the
lowest DD. Severity of DD increases as the aspect ratio of
2:1 1:1 0.5:1 0.33:1
the hanging-wall approaches unity.
Aspect Ratio (length/height)
Strike length of exposed wall
Aspect ratio ¼ . (6) Fig. 9. Dilution Density associated with stope height and aspect ratio for
True height of exposed wall the base case stope, s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour.

5.2.3. Effect of hanging-wall dip angle The influence of hanging-wall dip angle on the envelope
The influence of the hanging-wall dip angle on overbreak of potential overbreak was assessed using Map3D. Stopes
has been discussed by others, including [17,43]. With a with true height of 20, 30 and 40 m were examined in the
shallower hanging-wall dip, the distribution of low s3 stress base-case model setting at moderate (1500 m) depth.
contours becomes increasingly asymmetric, as illustrated in Hanging-wall dip angles of 801 and 601 were considered.
Fig. 10, leading to a favorable orientation for release of DD results, defined by the s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour, were
unstable wedge intersections from the exposed hanging- determined.
wall. Another factor to consider is the true height of Trends associated with DD for varying hanging-wall dip
exposed hanging-wall, which increases as the hanging-wall angles are presented in Fig. 11. DD values cluster together
dip angle decreases. True height can be calculated from dip for strike lengths p20 m. As shown previously, smaller
angle and vertical height using. stopes have more stable geometry. Hanging-wall dip
True height ¼ Vertical height=sin f (7) influences stope overbreak as strike length increases
beyond 20 m. At a 30 m strike length, the DD associated
where f is the hanging-wall dip angle (measured from with a 30 m stope height increased by 28% with the
horizontal). shallower hanging-wall dip. At a 40 m strike length, the
DD increased by 52% with the shallower hanging-wall dip
0.1m 0.2m 0.5m 0.75m 1.0m
of 601.
40

5.2.4. Effect of pre-mining stress orientation

The influence of major principal stress orientation with
respect to the stope hanging-wall was assessed using
30 Map3D. Base case stopes with hanging-wall dip angles of
801 and 601 were examined. Two major principal stress
Vertical height (m)

1.0m
orientations were considered: (i) s11 perpendicular to stope
0.75m strike, and (ii) s11 parallel to stope strike.
20 DD trends, defined by the s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour, asso-
0.5m ciated with varying s1 orientations are found in Fig. 12.
DD values cluster together for strike lengths p20 m. Major
principal stress orientation influences stope overbreak as
10 0.2m strike length increases beyond 20 m. DD is reduced when s1
0.1m is parallel to the strike of the stope. The amount of DD
reduction ranged from 14% for a stope with an 801
hanging-wall dip angle, to 17% for a stope with a 601
hanging-wall dip angle.
10 15 20 30 40
Strike length (m) 5.2.5. Effect of stope type
Fig. 8. Dilution Density (DD) as a function of stope hanging-wall A parameter affecting unplanned ore dilution is the local
dimension for the base-case stope, s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour. stope setting within the mining sequence. Depending on its
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700 J.G. Henning, H.S. Mitri / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 692–703

Fig. 10. Distribution of relaxation zone under varying hanging-wall dip angles.

1.8 Vertical Height

40m
1.6
30m 60° dip
1.4
20m
1.2
40m
DD (m)

1 30m
80° dip
0.8
0.6 20m
0.4
0.2
0
10 20 30 40

Strike Length (m)

Fig. 11. Influence of hanging-wall dip on overbreak. Base-case stope, s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour.

1.6

1.4 σ1° perpendicular

60° dip
1.2
σ1° parallel
1
DD (m)

σ1° perpendicular
0.8 80° dip
σ1° parallel
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
10 20 30 40
Strike Length (m)

Fig. 12. Influence of major principal stress orientation on overbreak. Base-case stope, s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour.

placement within a planned mining sequence, a stope may GSI ¼ 65, s11 perpendicular to the hanging-wall) was
be bound by rock on both walls (a primary stope), or it modelled over strike lengths ranging from 10 to 40 m. A P1
may have backfill on one or both walls (a secondary stope). stope is an isolated mine block, and is the basis for other
The base-case stope setting (30 m vertical height, 801 dip, parametric modelling described in this chapter. With the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J.G. Henning, H.S. Mitri / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 692–703 701

P2, P3, S1 and S2 stope types, previously mined stopes 6. Discussion

were backfilled.
Two DD values were calculated: (i) defined by the Parametric numerical modelling studies were undertaken
s3 ¼ 0 MPa, represents the volume of relaxed ground to examine the impact of a variety of factors on hanging-
available for overbreak, assuming the rockmass has no wall ore dilution. The parametric study considered two
tensile strength; (ii) DD values were also determined for the criteria for overbreak: (i) the volume of relaxed ground
s3 ¼ st ¼ 0.5 MPa contour, which accounts for rockmass available for overbreak, assuming the rockmass has no
tensile strength. Trends associated with DD for the tensile strength, represented by the s3 ¼ 0 MPa; and (ii) the
s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour are presented in Fig. 13. Compared s3 ¼ st contour, which considers rockmass tensile strength.
against the P1 stope, extraction of the P2 and P3 stopes is Modelling results found that these two criteria did not
associated with greater values of DD. For a 20 m long parallel each other. When comparing overbreak associated
stope, a DD increase of 32% occurred between P1 and with the s3 ¼ 0 MPa and s3 ¼ st contours against depth
P2 mining. Subsequent extraction of the P3 stope resulted (Fig. 14), it was found that the s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour
in only a minor DD increase of 3% over the P2 stope, or remained near-constant with depth for a given stope
36% greater than the P1 stope. geometry or hanging-wall dip. Conversely, potential over-
DD values for the secondary stopes are significantly break associated with the contour of rockmass tensile
greater than those associated with the P1 stope. For the strength increased with depth for a given stope geometry or
20 m long stope, DD associated with the S1 stope increased hanging-wall dip.
by 0.67 m or 132% compared against the P1 stope. The S2 To quantify modelled overbreak, two terminologies,
stope generated a DD increase of 1.6 m or 320% compared illustrated schematically in Fig. 15, are introduced. No-
against the P1 stope. Compared to averaged DD values for tension overbreak (DD0), corresponding to the s3 ¼ 0 MPa
20 m long primary stopes, the S1 stope overbreak increased contour represents overbreak that may happen, assuming
by 0.55 m or 90%, while S2 stope overbreak increased by that the rockmass has no inherent strength. The No-
1.49 m or 244%. tension overbreak contour varies with stope geometry and
hanging-wall dip, and is roughly independent of depth.
Confinement overbreak (DDT), corresponding with the
s3 ¼ st contour represents slough that will happen. The
3 extent of Confinement overbreak increases with depth for a
given stope geometry or hanging-wall dip angle. DDT is a
2.5
less conservative estimate of ore dilution density than DD0.
2 P1
P2 DDT oDD0 . (8)
DD (m)

P3
1.5
S1
Several observations of the sensitivity of individual
S2 factors on potential overbreak were made. It was found
1
that mine depth does not play a significant role in
0.5 increasing the volume of potential dilution corresponding
to the s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour, (DD0). For example, as the
0
mining depth increases from 750 to 2250 m, the increase in
10 15 20 30 40
DD is only 0.05 m or 8.6% for a 20 m long stope. However,
Strike Length (m)
for stopes with strike lengths exceeding 15 m, located at
Fig. 13. Influence of stope type on Dilution Density. Base-case stope at moderate and greater mining depths, the severity of
s3 ¼ 0 MPa contour. potential dilution associated with the s3 ¼ st contour,

1.2
40m Strike length
1
30m Strike length
0.8
σ3= 0 MPa
DD (m)

20m Strike length

0.6
40 m
0.4 30 m
15m Strike length Strike σ3= τt=-0.5 MPa
20 m
0.2 length
10m Strike length
15 m
0 10 m
750 1500 2500
Mining depth (m)

Fig. 14. Map3D results for stope of 30 m vertical height. Values associated with s3 ¼ 0 and s3 ¼ st ¼ 0.5 MPa contours plotted.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
702 J.G. Henning, H.S. Mitri / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 44 (2007) 692–703

σ3 = 0 contour σ3 = 1t contour
“No-tension overbreak” DD0 “Confinement overbreak” DDT

Mined Mined Mined

stope stope stope

a b c
Fig. 15. Schematic illustration of influence of mining depth on hanging-wall overbreak regimes: (a) shallow depth, (b) moderate depth, (c) deep.

(DDT) increased. With a 20 m long stope, DDT increases overbreak. External Factors (DDE) represent physical
from 0.02 to 0.2 m between shallow and moderate depth. conditions of the stope setting that influence hanging-wall
As mining depth increases from 1500 to 2250 m depth, stability. These conditions include rockmass quality,
DDT increases from 0.2 to 0.28 m. orientation of principal stress, and stope type. Construc-
Varying stope dimensions influences the magnitude of tion Factors (DDCf) are human influences impacting
DD0. Stopes with large or small axial ratios are more stable overbreak. Construction Factors include blasting, drillhole
than large rectangular stopes. Rectangular stopes with deviation, and undercutting.
vertical height and strike lengths of 15 m or less are more
stable than large rectangular stopes. 7. Conclusion
Severity of overbreak increases as the hanging-wall dip
angle became increasingly shallow. For a 30 m high  30 m New terminologies have been introduced to quantify
long stope, overbreak increases by 0.22 m or 29% when the modelled overbreak. No-tension overbreak (DD0) repre-
dip angle changes from 801 to 601. The influence of sents overbreak that may happen, depending largely on the
hanging-wall dip angle on overbreak is more pronounced severity of Construction Factors (DDCf) in damaging the
as strike length increases. tensile capacity of the rockmass. Confinement overbreak
Major principal stress orientation influences stope over- (DDT), which increases with depth, represents dilution that
break as strike length increases beyond 20 m for a 30 m will occur as a result of tensile failure of the hanging-wall
high stope. The severity of overbreak was reduced in a rock into the mined stope. The magnitude of overbreak
mine setting where the orientation of principal pre-mining may be further increased by External Factors (DDE).
stress is parallel to the strike of the orebody. A decrease in The numerical modelling methodology presented in this
DD by 0.08 m or 16% occurs when pre-mining stresses are paper has proven to account for what might be considered
parallel rather than perpendicular on a 20 m long stope. the most critical parameters for stope design and ore
Stope type influences severity of modelled overbreak. dilution estimation. Such methodology can be adopted to
Five stope types were identified, based on their position develop mine-specific design tools for the estimation of ore
within a tabular blasthole mining sequence. Three stope dilution associated with a proposed mine design. This can
types are classified as primary (P1, P2 and P3) and two are prove extremely helpful in the process of underground
secondary stopes (S1 and S2). Overbreak potential mine planning and optimization.
increased slightly between the three primary stope types,
and increased significantly when comparing the primary
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