Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

CHAPTER-2
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Introduction
George Boole is a mathematician who invented logic gates to design the building
blocks of all the circuits in a computer.
Binary Valued Quantities - Variable and Constants
The sentence which can be determined to be true or false is called logical
statement or (Truth function).
The results TRUE or FALSE of a logical statement are called truth values.
Truth values TRUE and FALSE are depicted by 1 and 0 respectively, are called
logical constants.
The variables which can store truth values (0 and 1) are called logical
variables(Binary valued variables).
The decision which results into either YES or NO is called a Binary Decision.
LOGICAL OPERATIONS
Logical function or Compound statement:
Algebraic variables like a, b, c or x, y, z etc. are combined with the help
ofmathematical operators like +, -, x, / to form algebraic expressions.
For example,
2 x A + 3 x B - 6 = (10 x Z) /2 x Y
i.e., 2A + 3B - 6C = 10Z/2Y
Similarly,logic statements or truth functions are combined with the help
ofLogicalOperators like AND, OR and NOTto form a compound statement or
logicalfunction.These logicaloperators are also used to combine logicalvariables and
logicalconstants to form logical expressions.
For example, assuming that x, y, and z are logical variables, the logicalexpressions are
NOTYORZ
YANDXORZ
Logical Operators
Truth Table is a table which represents all the possible values of
logicalvariables/statements along with all the possible results for the given
combinationof values.
Example for Truth Table
X Y R
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Tautology
If result of any logical statement or expressionis always TRUE or 1.
Fallacy
If theresult of any logical statement or expression is always FALSE or 0.
NOT Operator
 This operator operates on single variable.
 Operation performed by NOToperatoris called complementation
 The symbol we use for it is ̅ (bar) or ~ (negation).
Rules
0̅ = 1 or NOT (FALSE)= TRUE
̅1 = 0 or NOT (TRUE)= FALSE

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Truth Table Venn Diagram

X ̅
𝐗
0 1
1 0
OR Operator
 This operator operates on twovariable.
 Operation performed by ORoperatoris called logical addition
 The symbol we use for it is ‘+’ (plus).
Rules
0+0=0 Venn Diagram
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
Truth Table
X Y R
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
AND Operator
 This operator operates on twovariable.
 Operation performed by ANDoperatoris called logical multiplication.
 The symbol we use for it is ‘.’ (dot).
Rules
0.0=0 Venn Diagram
0.1=0
1.0=0
1.1=1
Truth Table Venn Diagram
X Y R
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Evaluation of Boolean Expressions Using Truth Table
Logical variables are combined by means of logical operators AND, ORand NOT to form
a Boolean expression.
Eg: X + ̅̅̅̅̅
Y. Z + Z̅
Or can be written as X + ̅YZ
̅̅̅ + Z̅
A Boolean expression will be evaluated using precedence rules. The order of
evaluationof an expression is called as precedence. The precedence is, firstly NOT,
then AND and thenOR. If there is parenthesis, then the expression-in parenthesis is
evaluated first.
A truth table of n input variables will have 2n input combinations. Ex: A four variable
truthtablewill have 24= 16 input combinations.
Construct the table for evaluating an expression.
1. X + ̅YZ
̅̅̅ + Z̅
Here, there are 3 variables. Therefore the possible combinations will be 23= 8.
Truth Table

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

X Y Z YZ ̅̅̅̅
𝐘𝐙 𝐙̅ 𝐗 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐘𝐙 + 𝐙̅
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 1

Example: Verify the Boolean algebra using Truth Table.

1.Verify X+XY=X
X Y XY X+XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
Comparing X and X+XY. Contents of both the columns are identical. Hence verified.

2. Verify ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y = ̅ X. ̅
Y
X Y X+Y ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y ̅
X ̅
Y ̅. Y
X ̅
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
Comparing X + Y and X. Y. Contents of both the columns are identical. Hence verified.

Example:Prepare a table of combinations for the following Boolean

algebraexpressions.
a) ̅
X ̅Y + X̅ Y
b) X Y Z̅ + X̅ ̅
YZ
c) X̅ Y Z̅ + X Y
̅
a) Truth Table for X̅ Y
̅+X ̅Y is as follows.
X Y ̅
X ̅
Y ̅
X. ̅
Y ̅
XY X̅ ̅
Y+̅ XY
0 0 1 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
b) Truth Table for X Y Z̅ + X̅ Y
̅ Z is as follows.
X Y Z X̅ ̅
Y Z̅ X Y Z̅ X̅ ̅
YZ X Y Z̅ + X̅ ̅
YZ
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
c) Truth Table for X̅ Y Z̅ + X Y
̅ is as follows.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

X Y Z X̅ ̅
Y Z̅ X̅ Y Z̅ X̅
Y X̅ Y Z̅ + X ̅
Y
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Example: Prepare a table of combinations for the following Boolean

algebraexpressions.
a) X (̅
Y + Z̅) + X ̅Y
̅(Z̅ + Y Z̅) + Z̅
b) X Y
̅ + C ) + C̅ ]
c) A [ (B

a) Truth Table for X (̅

Y + Z̅) + X ̅
Y is as follows.
X Y Z ̅
Y Z̅ (̅
Y + Z̅) ̅ + Z̅)
X (Y ̅
XY ̅ + Z̅) + X Y
X (Y ̅
0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

b) Truth Table for X ̅

Y(Z̅ + Y Z̅) + Z̅ is as follows.
X Y Z ̅
Y Z̅ Y Z̅ (Z̅ + Y Z̅) ̅
XY ̅(Z̅ + Y Z̅)
XY ̅(Z̅ + Y Z̅) + Z̅
XY
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

c) Truth Table for A [ (B̅ + C ) + C̅ ] is as follows.

A B C ̅
B C̅ ̅+C)
(B ̅ + C ) + C̅
(B ̅ + C ) + C̅ ]
A [ (B
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1
BASIC LOGIC GATES

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Definition:
Gates are digital (two-state) circuits because the input and output signals are either
low voltage (denotes 0) or high voltage (denotes 1).
Gates are often called logic circuits because they can be analyzed with Boolean
algebra.
There are three types of logic gates:
 NOTgate or Inverter
 OR gate
 ANDgate

Inverter (NOT Gate)

An inverter (NOT gate) is a gate with only one input signal and one output signal. The
output state is always the complement (opposite) of the input state.
Truth Table NOT gate symbol (Logic gate)
X ̅
X
0 1 X ̅
X
1 0

OR Gate
The OR Gate has two or more input signals, but only one output signal.
Thisgategivesthe logical addition of the inputs. If any of the input signals or both is
1(high),the output signal is 1 (high). The output will be 0(low) if all the inputs are
0(low).
Truth Table
X Y F X Y Z F
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
F=X+Y F=X+Y+Z

OR gate symbol (Logic gate)

A
F A
B B F
C
a) 2 input OR gate b) 3 input OR gate
A
B
F
C
D

c) 4 input OR gate

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

AND gate
The AND Gate can have two or more than two input signals and produceaone output
signal. When all the inputs are 1 or high only then the output is 1or high,otherwise
output is 0 (low).
Truth Table
X Y F X Y Z F
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
F=X.Y F = X .Y . Z

AND gate symbol (Logic gate)

A
A
F B F
B C
a) 2 input AND gate b) 3 input AND gate
A
B
F
C
D

c) 4 input AND gate

BASIC POSTULATES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

The fundamental laws of Boolean algebra are known as Basic Postulates of Boolean
algebra.
The Boolean postulates are:
1. If X ≠ 0 then X = 1; and IfX ≠ 1 then X = 0
2. OR Relations (LogicalAddition)
0+0=0
0
0 0
0+1=1

0
1 1

1+0=1
1
0 1

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

1+1=1
1
1 1

3. ANDRelations (Logical Multiplication)

0.0=0
0
0
0

0.1=0 0
0
1

1
1.0=0 0
0

1
1.1=1 1
1
4. Complement Rules
̅=1
0
0 1

̅=0
1
1 0

PRINCIPLEOF DUALITY
This states that starting with a Boolean relation another Boolean relation can be
derived by
i. Changing each OR sign (+) to an AND sign (.)
ii. Changing each AND sign (.) to an OR sign (+)
iii. Changing each 0 by 1 and each 1 by 0.
The derived relation using duality principle is called dual of original expression.
Example:
(a) 0 + 0 = 0 (b)0 + 1 = 1 (c) 1 + 0 = 1 (d) 1 + 1 = 1
The dual of these expressions are:
(a) 1 . 1 = 1 (b)1 . 0 = 0 (c) 0 . 1 = 1 (d) 0 . 0 = 0
Basic theorems of Boolean algebra
Basic postulates of Boolean algebra are used to define basic theorems of Boolean
algebra that provide all the tools necessary for manipulating Booleanexpressions.
Although simple in appearance, these theorems may be used toconstruct the Boolean
algebra expressions.
Boolean theorems can be proved by substituting all possible values of thevariables
that are 0 and 1. This technique of proving theorems is called as proof by perfect
induction. Boolean theorems can also be proved using truth tablemethod.
Properties of 0 and 1
a) 0 +X=X 0
X X

b) 1 +X= 1 1
X 1

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

c) 0 .X= 0 0
0
X

d) 1 .X= X
1
X
Proof a) 0+x= x X
If x = 0, thenLHS =0+x
=0+0
=0 {By OR relation}
=x
=RHS
If x = 1, thenLHS =0+x
=0+1
=1 {By OR relation}
=x
=RHS
Thus, for every value of X, 0 + X = X is always true.
Truth Table
0 X R=0+X
0 0 0
0 1 1
AsX can have values either 0 or 1 both the values ORed with 0 produce the same
output as that of X. Hence proved.
Proof b) 1+x= 1
If x = 0, thenLHS =1+x
=1+0
=1 {By OR relation}
=RHS
If x = 1, thenLHS =1+x
=1+1
=1 {By OR relation}
=RHS
Thus, for every value of X, 1 + X = 1isalways true.
Truth Table
1 X R=1+X
1 0 1
1 1 1
AsX can have values either 0 or 1 both the values ORed with 1 produce the output as
1. Hence proved.
Note: 1+x=1 is a tautology.
Proof c) 0.x= 0
If x = 0, thenLHS =0.x
=0.0
=0 {By AND relation}
=RHS
If x = 1, thenLHS =0.x
=0.1
=0 {By AND relation}
=RHS

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Thus, for every value of X,0.x= 0 isalways true.

Truth Table
0 X R=0.x
0 0 0
0 1 0
AsX can have values either 0 or 1 both the values ANDed with 0 produce the output as
0. Hence proved.
Note: 0.x=0 is a Fallacy.
Proof d) 1.x= x
If x = 0, thenLHS =1.x
=1.0
=0 {By AND relation}
=x
=RHS
If x = 1, thenLHS =1.x
=1.1
=1 {By AND relation}
=x
=RHS
Thus, for every value of X,1.x= xisalways true.
Truth Table
1 X R=1.x
1 0 0
1 1 1
AsX can have values either 0 or 1 both the values ANDed with1produce the same
output as that of X. Hence proved.
Indempotence Law
This law states that when a variable is combines with itself using OR or AND operator,
the output is the same variable.
a) X+X=X
X
X X

b) X.X=X X
X
Proof: X
a) x+x=x
If x = 0, consider LHS =x+x
=0+0
=0 {By OR relation}
=x
=RHS
If x = 1, consider LHS =x+x
=1+1
= 1 {By OR relation}
=x
=RHS
Thus, for every value of x, x + x = x isalways true.
Truth Table

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

X X X+X
0 0 0
1 1 1
Proof:
b) x.x=x
If x = 0, consider LHS =x.x
=0.0
=0 {By AND relation}
=x
=RHS
If x = 1, consider LHS =x.x
=1.1
= 1 {By AND relation}
=x
=RHS
Thus, for every value of x, x . x = x isalways true.
Truth Table
X X X.X
0 0 0
1 1 1
Involution
Thislaw states that the complement of a variable is complemented again,we get the
same variable.
̅
X
̿=𝐗
𝐗
X 1 ̿
X=X
i.e.,
Proof:

̅=1
If x = 0, then X
and X̿ = 1̅ = 0 = X
If x =1, then ̅
X=0
and X = 0̅ = 1 = X
̿
Thus, if a variable is complemented twice, we get the same variable.
TruthTable
X ̅
X ̿
X
0 1 0
1 0 1
First column represents possible values of X, second column represents
complementof X (i.e., X ̅ ) and the third column represents complement of X
̅
̿)whichis same as that of X. Hence proved.
(i.e.,X
This law is also called double-inversion rule.

Complementarity Laws
Here, we will combine a variable with its complement.
These laws states that
a) X + ̅
X= 1
X
̅
X ̅
X+X

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

b) X . ̅
X= 0 X
̅
X X. ̅
X
Proof:
a) X + X ̅= 1
If x = 0, consider LHS = X+̅ X
=0 + 1
=1 {By OR relation}
=RHS
If x = 1, consider LHS = X+̅ X
=1 + 0
=1 {By OR relation}
=RHS
̅ = 1isalways true.
Thus, for every value of X, X + X
TruthTable
X ̅
X X+̅ X
0 1 1
1 0 1
The equation X + ̅
X = 1 holds true for both the values of X. Hence proved.
̅ = 1 is a Tautology.
Hence X + X

̅= 0
b) X . X
If x = 0, consider LHS = X .̅
X
=0 . 1
=0 {By AND relation}
=RHS
If x = 1, consider LHS ̅
= X .X
=1 . 0
=1 {By AND relation}
=RHS
̅ = 0isalways true.
Thus, for every value of X, X . X
TruthTable
X ̅
X X .̅
X
0 1 0
0 0 0
The equation X . ̅
X = 0 holds true for both the values of X. Hence proved.
Hence X . ̅
X = 0 is a Fallacy.
̅ = 0 is a dual of X + X
NOTE:-X . X ̅=1
Commutative Law
These laws state that
a) X + Y = Y + X X Y
Y X+Y= Y+X
X

b) X. Y = Y.X X Y
X.Y= Y.X
Y X

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Proof:-
a) X + Y = Y + X
If X = 0, consider LHS =X+Y
=0+Y
=Y {By Property 0 + X = X}
consider RHS =Y+X
=Y+0
=Y {By Property X + 0 = X}
Therefore, for X = 0, X + Y = Y + X

If X = 1, consider LHS =X+Y

=1 + Y
=1 {By Property 1 + X = 1}
consider RHS =Y+X
=Y+1
=1 {By Property X + 1 = 1}
Therefore, for X = 1, X + Y = Y + X
Truth Table
X Y X+Y Y+X
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
Compare the columns X + Y and Y + X, both are identical. Hence proved.
Proof:-
b) X . Y = Y . X
If X = 0, consider LHS =X.Y
=0 . Y
=0 {By Property 0 . X = 0}
consider RHS =Y.X
=Y . 0
=0 {By Property X .0 = 0}
Therefore, for X = 0, X . Y = Y . X

If X = 1, consider LHS =X.Y

=1 . Y
=Y {By Property 1 . X = X}
consider RHS =Y.X
=Y . 1
=Y {By Property X . 1 = X}
Therefore, for X = 1, X . Y = Y . X
Truth Table
X Y X.Y Y.X
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
Compare the columns X . Y and Y . X, both are identical. Hence proved.
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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Associative Law
These laws state that
(a) X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (associative Law of addition)
X X X+Y
Y Y+Z Y
X+Y +Z= X+Y+Z
Z Z

(b) X (Y Z) = (X Y) Z (associative Law of multiplication)

X X X.Y
Y Y.Z Y
X.Y.Z= X.Y.Z
Z Z

a) X+(Y+Z) = (X+Y)+Z
Proof:
Ifx = 0 then LHS = X + (Y + Z)
= 0 + (Y+ Z)
= Y+Z {By Property 0 + X = X}
RHS = (X+Y)+Z
= (0+Y)+Z
= Y+Z {By Property 0 + X = X}
Therefore for X=0, X+(Y+Z) = (X+Y)+Z
IfX=l, then LHS =X+(Y+Z)
= 1+(Y+Z)
=1 {By Property 1 + X = 1}
RHS = (X+Y)+Z
= (1+Y)+Z
=1+Z {By Property 1 + X = 1}
=1 {By Property 1 + X = 1}
Therefore for X=1, X+(Y+Z) = (X+Y)+Z
Truth Table
X Y Z Y+Z X+Y X+(Y+Z) (X+Y)+Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Compare the columns X+(Y+Z) and (X+Y)+Z, both of these are identical.Hence
proved.
b) X.(Y.Z) = (X.Y).Z
Proof:

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Ifx = 0 then LHS = X . (Y . Z)

= 0 . (Y. Z)
=0 {By Property 0 . X = 0}
RHS = (X .Y) . Z
= (0 .Y) . Z
=0.Z {By Property 0 . X = 0}
=0 {By Property 0 . X = 0}
Therefore for X=0, X (Y Z) = (XY)Z
IfX=l, then LHS =X.(Y.Z)
= 1.(Y.Z)
= YZ {By Property 1 . X = X}
RHS = (X .Y) . Z
= (1 .Y) . Z
= YZ {By Property 1 . X = X}
Therefore for X=1, X(YZ) = (XY)Z
Truth Table
X Y Z YZ XY X(YZ) (XY)Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Compare the columns X+(Y+Z) and (X+Y)+Z, both of these are identical.Hence
proved.
Distributive Law
This law states that
(a)X (Y + Z) = XY+XZ
X
X
Y X.Y
Y Y+Z X(Y+Z)= XY+XZ
Z
X X.Z
Z
b)X + Y Z = (X+Y).(X+Z)
X
X
Y X+Y
Y Y.Z X+YZ= (X+Y)(X+Z)
Z
X X+Z
a) X(Y+Z) = XY+XZ Z
Proof:-
IfX=0, LHS = X(Y+Z)

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

= 0(Y+Z)
=0 {By Property 0 . X = 0}
RHS = XY + XZ
= 0.Y + 0.Z
=0+0 {By Property 0 . X = 0}
=0 {By OR relation}
If X=1, LHS = X(Y+Z)
= 1(Y+Z)
= Y+Z {By Property 1 . X = X}
RHS = XY + XZ
= 1.Y + 1.Z
=Y+Z {By Property 1 . X = X}
Therefore, for every value of X, LHS = RHS. i.e., X(Y+Z) = XY + XZ
Truth Table
X Y Z Y+Z XY XZ X(Y+Z) XY+XZ
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Both the columns X(Y+Z) and XY+XZ are identical. Hence proved.
b) X+YZ = (X+Y)(X+Z)
Proof:-
RHS = (X+Y)(X+Z)
=XX+XZ+XY+YZ
=X+XZ+XY+YZ {By the theorem XX=X}
=X(1+Z+Y)+YZ
=X(1)+YZ {By the theorem 1+X=1}
=X+YZ {By Property 1. X = X}
=LHS.

Truth Table
X Y Z YZ X+Y X+Z X+YZ (X+Y)(X+Z)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Both the columns X+YZ and (X+Y)(X+Z)are identical. Hence proved.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Absorption Law
According to this law
a) X+XY=X
X
X.Y X+XY=X
Y

X
b) X(X+Y)=X X+Y X(X+Y)=X
Y

Proof: a) X+XY = X
LHS = X + XY
= X(1 + Y)
=X.1 {By Property 1 + X = 1}
=X {By Property 1. X = X}
=RHS
Truth Table
X Y XY X+XY
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
ColumnX and X+XY are identical. Hence proved.

Proof:b) X(X+Y) = X
LHS = X(X+Y)
= XX + XY {Bytheorem X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ}
=X+XY {By theoremXX=X}
=X(1+Y)
=X(1) {By Property 1 + X = 1}
=X {By Property 1 . X = X}
=RHS
Truth Table
X Y X+Y X(X+Y)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
ColumnX and X+XY are identical. Hence proved.
Some other Rules of Boolean Algebra
X+X̅Y=X+Y
X
X ̅ X+Y
X ̅
XY X+̅
XY= Y
Y =X

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Proof:
LHS = X + X ̅Y
= (X + X̅ )(X + Y) {By theorem X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z)
=1.(X+Y) {By theorem X + X̅ = 1
=X+Y {By Property 1 . X = X}
=RHS
Truth Table
X Y ̅
X ̅
X Y X+̅ X Y X+Y
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
̅
ColumnX + X Y and X+Y are identical. Hence proved.
De Morgan'stheorems
De Morgan's First Theorem
It states thatX̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+Y =X ̅Y
̅
X ̅
X
X ̅
X̅
Y
X+Y ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y = =
Y Y X
̅
Y
=X
Proof:-Consider the complementarity laws:
X+̅ X = 1 and
̅=0
X. X
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
If X + Y’s complement is X + Y,if it is true,X ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+Y=̅ X̅
Y then,it must be true that,
̅ ̅
a) (X + Y) + XY = 1 and
b) (X + Y) . X̅Y̅=0
a) Let us prove that (X + Y) + ̅ X̅
Y=1
L.H.S = (X + Y) + X ̅Y
̅
= ((X + Y) + X ̅). ((X + Y) + Y
̅) {By law X+YZ = (X+Y)(X+Z)}
̅
=( X + X + Y) . (X + Y + Y) ̅ {By law X+Y=Y+X}
=(1+Y).(X+1) {By law X + ̅
X = 1}
=1.1 {By law X + 1 = 1}
=1 {By AND relation}
= RHS.
b) Let us prove that (X + Y). ̅ X̅
Y=0
L.H.S = (X + Y). X ̅Y̅
=̅ X̅Y . (X + Y ) {By law X .Y =Y. X}
̅ ̅
=XY X + XY Y ̅ ̅ {By law X(Y+Z) = XY+XZ
=XX ̅Y̅+ X ̅YY ̅ {By law X . Y = Y .X }
̅ ̅
=0. Y + X .0 {By law X . ̅
X = 0}
=0+0 {By law X . 0 = 0}
=0 {By OR relation}
=RHS
Therefore, (X + Y) + ̅ X̅Y = 1 and (X + Y). ̅X̅
Y=0
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
Therefore, X + Y = XY. Hence proved.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Truth Table
X Y X+Y ̅
X ̅
Y ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y ̅
X̅
Y
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
Compare the columns X + Y and XY, both are identical.
Thus, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y =X ̅Y̅. Hence proved.
De Morgan's Second Theorem
̅̅̅̅̅
It states thatX. Y=X̅+ Y
̅
X ̅
X
X X+Y ̅̅
XY
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y = =
Y X
̅
Y Y
=X
Proof:-Consider the complementarity laws:
X+̅ X = 1 and
X. X ̅=0
If X Y’s complement is XY,if it is true, XY = ̅
̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ X+ ̅ Y then,it must be true that,
a) XY + (X ̅+Y ̅) = 1 and
̅+̅
b) XY . (X Y) = 0
a) Let us prove that XY + (X ̅+̅ Y) = 1
L.H.S = XY + (X ̅+Y ̅)
= (̅X+̅ Y) + XY {By law X+Y=Y+X}
=(X ̅+Y ̅ + X)(X ̅+Y̅ + Y) {By law X+YZ = (X+Y)(X+Z)}
̅ ̅ ̅
=(X + X + Y)(X + Y + Y) ̅ {By law X+Y=Y+X}
( ̅
= 1+Y X+1 )( ̅ ) {By law X + ̅
X = 1}
=1.1 {By law X + 1 = 1}
=1 {By AND relation}
= RHS.
b) Let us prove that XY. (X ̅+̅Y) = 0
L.H.S = XY. (X ̅+Y ̅)
= XYX ̅ + XYY ̅ {By law X(Y+Z) = XY+XZ}
̅
= XXY + XYY ̅ {By law X.Y=Y.X}
=0. Y + X .0 ̅ = 0}
{By law X . X
=0+0 {By law X . 0 = 0}
=0 {By OR relation}
=RHS
Therefore, XY + (X ̅+Y ̅) = 1 and XY. (X ̅+Y ̅) = 0
̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ ̅
Thus,X. Y = X + Y. Hence proved.
Truth Table
X Y X.Y ̅
X ̅
Y ̅̅̅̅
XY̅
X+ ̅Y
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Compare the columns ̅̅̅̅̅
X. Y ̅+̅
and X Y, both are identical.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Thus,̅̅̅̅̅
X. Y = ̅ X+̅ Y. Hence proved.
Steps to transform into De Morgan’s theorem:
(i) Complement the entire function
(ii) Change all the ANDs (.) to ORs (+) and all the ORs (+) to ANDs (.)
(iii) Complement each of the individual variables.
This process is called De Morganization.
Solveusing De Morgan's Theorem
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅̅̅̅
AB + A ̅ + AB =𝐴𝐵 ̿̿̿̿. 𝐴̿. ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
=𝐴𝐵. 𝐴. 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
= 𝐴𝐴𝐵. 𝐴𝐵 ̅̅̅̅
= 𝐴𝐵. ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵
=0.
Applications of De Morgan's Theorem
1. De Morgan's theorem is useful in the implementation of the basic gate
operations with alternative gates particularly with NAND and NOR gates which
are readily available in IC form.
2. DeMorgan's theorem is used in the simplification of Boolean expressions.
3. De Morgan's laws commonly apply to text searching using Boolean operators
AND, OR, and NOT. Consider a set of documents containing the words "cars" or
"trucks". De Morgan's laws hold that these two searches will return the same
set of documents.
4. DeMorgan's laws are an example of a more general concept of mathematical
duality.
Basic Duality of Boolean algebra
Ex1: X+XY=X
Dual expression is: X(X+Y)=X
Ex2: (X+Y)+Z=X+(Y+Z)
Dual expression is: (X.Y).Z=X.(Y.Z)
Ex3:X+0=X
Dual expression is: X.1=X
̅
Ex4: X . X = 0
Dual expression is: X + ̅ X=1
Ex5: (X + Y). (X + Z̅). (Y + Z)
̅
Dual expression is:(X. Y) + (X ̅. Z̅) + (Y. Z)
Can be written as: XY + X ̅Z̅ + YZ
DERIVATIONOF BOOLEANEXPRESSION
Boolean expressions which consist of a single variable or its complement e.g., X or Yor
Z are known as literals.
Minterms
Minterm is a product of all the literals (with or without the bar) within the logic
system.
It states that any Boolean function can be expressed as the sum of products of all the
variables within the system. For example, X+Ycan be expressed as the sum of several
products, each of the product containing letters Xand Y.These products are called
Minterms and each contains all the literals with or without the bar.
For variable with a value 0, take its complement and the one with value 1, multiply as
it is.
Eg: if X=0, Y=1, Z=0 then minterm will be ̅ XYZ̅
Eg: if X=1, Y=0, Z=0 then minterm will be XY ̅Z̅

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Truth Table for minterm (2-input) Truth Table for minterm (3-input)
X Y Minterm X Y Z Minterm
0 0 ̅
X̅Y 0 0 0 ̅
X̅YZ̅
0 1 ̅
XY 0 0 1 ̅̅
XY Z
1 0 XY̅ 0 1 0 ̅ Y Z̅
X
1 1 XY 0 1 1 ̅YZ
X
1 0 0 X̅YZ̅
1 0 1 XYZ̅
1 1 0 X Y Z̅
1 1 1 XYZ
Method to perform minterm expansion of expression
Steps involved in minterm expansion of expression (Converting an expression into
minterm)
1. First convert the given expression in sum of products form.
2. In each term, if any variable is missing multiply that term with (missing variable +
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
missing variable) factor.
3. Expand the expression.
4. Remove all duplicate terms.
Example 1: Convert X+Y to minterms.
Solution: X+Y=X.l +1.Y {By law X.1=X}
̅ ̅
=X . (Y + Y) + (X + X). Y {By law X + ̅
X = 1}
=XY + XY ̅ + XY + X
̅Y {By Law X(Y+Z)=XY+XZ}
=XY + XY + XY ̅+̅XY {By law X+Y=Y+X}
̅
= XY + XY + XY̅ {By law X + X = X}
Note that each term in the above example contains all the letters used:
XandY.The terms XY, X and Y are therefore minterms. This process is
calledexpansionof expression.
Shorthand minterm Notation
Steps for shorthand minterm notation
1. Copy original terms.
2. Substitute 0's for barred (complemented) letters and l's for non-barred
(uncomplemented) letters.
3. Express the decimal equivalent of binary word as a subscript of m.
Example: To find the minterm designation of X Y ̅Z̅.
Solution:
1. Copy original term - X ̅ YZ̅
2. Substitute l's for non-barred and 0's for barred letters.
Binary equivalent: 100
3. Decimal equivalent of 100 = lx22 + 0x21 + 0x20
=4+0+0
=4
4. Express as decimal subscript of m.
Thus, X Y ̅Z̅= m4.
Example: To find the minterm designation of AB ̅CD̅
Solution:
Copy Original Term:AB ̅CD̅
Binary equivalent: 1010
Decimal equivalent= lx23 + 0x22 + lx21 + 0x20

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

=8+0+2+0
= 10
Express as subscript ofm: Thus, AB ̅CD̅ = mlO
Maxterms
A maxterm is a sum of all the literals (with or without the bar) within the logic system.
Eg: For two variables and three variables maxterm can be formed as follows:
 For a literals with a value 1, the variable is complemented
 and the literals with a value 0 add it as it is.

Truth Table for maxterm (2-input) Truth Table for maxterm (3-input)
X Y Maxterm X Y Z Maxterm
0 0 X+Y 0 0 0 X+Y+ Z
0 1 X+ Y ̅ 0 0 1 X + Y + Z̅
1 0 ̅
X+Y 0 1 0 X+̅ Y+ Z
1 1 ̅
X+̅ Y 0 1 1 X+̅ Y + Z̅
1 0 0 ̅+Y+Z
X
1 0 1 ̅ + Y + Z̅
X
1 1 0 ̅
X+̅ Y+Z
1 1 1 ̅
X+̅ Y + Z̅
Short hand maxterm Notation
Maxterms can also be written as M (Capital M) with a subscript which is decimal
equivalent of given input combination.

Steps for shorthand maxterm notation

1. Copy original terms.
2. Substitute 1's for barred letters and 0's for non-barred letters.
3. Express the decimal equivalent of binary word as a subscript ofM.

Eg. To find the maxterm designation of X + ̅Y + Z̅ + W

CopyOriginal Term: X + ̅Y + Z̅ + W
Binaryequivalent: 0110
Decimalequivalent=0x23 + 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x2°
=0+4+2+0
=6
Expressas subscript ofM: Thus, X + ̅Y + Z̅ + W= M6

Canonical Expression
Booleanexpression is composed of entirely either of minterms or maxterms is referred
to as canonical expression.
Canonical expression can be represented in following two forms:
(i) Sum-of-Products (SOP)
(ii)Product-of-Sums (POS)

(i) CanonicalSum-of-Products (SOP)

When a Boolean expression is represented purely as sum of minterms it is said to be
in canonical Sum-of-Products form. This form of expression is also referred to as
Mintermcanonical form of Boolean expression.
There are 2 methods to derive a canonical SOP expression: ~

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

1. Truth table method

2. Algebraic method

1. Truth table method

Steps to derive SOP expression from truth table:
1. For a given expression, prepare a truth table for all possible combinations of inputs.
2. Add a new column for minterms and list the minterms for all the combinations.
3. Add all the minterms for which the output is 1.

Example:
A logical network has two inputs X and Y and an output Z. The relationship between
inputs and outputs is to be as follows:
(i) When X=0 and Y=0 then Z= 1
(ii) When X =0 and Y=1 then Z=0
(iii) When X =1 and Y=0, then Z=l
(iv) When X=1 and Y=l, then Z=l
Truth table for the above relations:
X Y Z Minterm
0 0 1 ̅
X̅Y
0 1 0 ̅Y
X
1 0 1 X̅Y Truth table for product terms (2-input)
1 1 1 XY Adding all the minterms for which the output Z=1. we
get following expression:
̅
X̅
Y+ X̅ Y+XY =Z
Example: A Boolean function F defined on three input variables X, Y and Z is 1 if and
onlyifthenumber of 1 (one) inputs is odd (e.g., F is 1 ifX=1, Y=0, Z=0). Draw the truth
table fortheabove function and express it in canonical sum of product form.
Solution: The output is 1, if the number of 1 (one) inputs is odd i.e
X=l,Y=0,Z=0
X=0,Y=l, Z=0
X=0,Y=0,Z=l
X=l,Y=l, Z=l
Truthtable for the above relation:
X Y Z F Minterm
0 0 0 0 ̅
X̅YZ̅
0 0 1 1 ̅̅
XY Z
0 1 0 1 ̅ Y Z̅
X
0 1 1 0 ̅
XYZ
1 0 0 1 X̅YZ̅
1 0 1 0 XY ̅Z
1 1 0 0 X Y Z̅
1 1 1 1 XYZ
Addingall the minterms for which output is 1, we get following expression:
F=X̅Y
̅Z+ X ̅ Y Z̅ + X Y
̅Z̅ + X Y Z
2. Algebraic method
Rules:
1. Simplify the given expression using appropriate theorems/rules.
2. Wherever a literal is missing, multiply that term with( missing variable +
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
missing variable) factor.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

3. Remove duplicate terms.

Example: Convert ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅Y + X
X ̅Z̅into canonical SOP form.
Solution:
1. Simplify the given expression using appropriate theorems/rules.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅Y + X
X ̅Z̅=(X ̅̅̅̅
̅ Y)(X ̅̅̅̅Z̅) {By law ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
X+Y =X ̅Y
̅}
=(X ̿+Y ̅). (X̿ + Z̿) {By law ̅̅̅̅
XY = X̅+Y ̅}
=(X + Y ̅). (X + Z) {By law X ̿ = X}
=X+Y ̅Z {By law (X+Y)(X+Z)=X + YZ}
2. Wherever a literal is missing, multiply that term with( missing variable +
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
missing variable) factor.
X+Y ̅Z = X (Y + Y ̅)(Z + Z̅) + (X + X ̅)Y̅Z
=(X Y + X Y)(Z + Z) + X Y Z + ̅
̅ ̅ ̅ X̅YZ
=X Y Z + X Y Z + X Y Z + X YZ + X ̅
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ YZ+̅ X̅YZ
3. Remove duplicate terms, we get
X Y Z + X Y Z̅ + X ̅
YZ+X̅ YZ̅ + ̅
X̅
YZ
Shorthand notation for SOP expression
Consider the canonical SOP expressionX Y Z + X Y Z̅ + X Y ̅Z+XY ̅Z̅ + X
̅Y
̅Z
Here, X Y Z=m7 X Y Z̅=m6 XY̅ Z=m5 XY̅Z̅=m4 ̅Y
X̅ Z=m1
Shorthand notation is written as
F = m1+m4+m5+m6+m7
or
F=∑(1,4,5,6,7)
Here F is a variable function and m is a notation for minterm. This specifies that
output Fsum of 1st,4th,5th,6th and 7thminterms.
Converting shorthand notation to SOP
Rules:
1. Find binary equivalent of decimal subscript.
2. For every 1’swrite the variable as it is and for 0's write variable's complemented
form.
Example:
Convert the following three input function denoted by the expression F=m0+m1+m2+m5
intocanonical SOP form.
Solution: If three input are X, Y and Z and F=m0+m1+m2+m5
m0 = 000 =>X ̅Y̅Z̅
m1 = 001 =>X ̅Y̅Z
m2 = 010 =>X Y Z̅ ̅
m5 = 101 =>X Y ̅Z
Canonical SOP form of the expression is X ̅Y
̅Z̅ + X
̅Y̅Z+ X ̅ Y Z̅ + X Y
̅Z
CanonicalProduct-of-sum form (POS):
When a Boolean expression is represented purely as product of Maxterm it is said to
becanonical Product-of-Sum form. This form of expression is alsoreferred to as
Maxterm canonical form of Boolean expression.
Thereare 2 methods to derive a canonical POS expression:
1. Truth table method
2. Algebraic method
Method 1: Truth table method
Stepsto derive as expression from truth table:
1. For a given expression, prepare a truth table for all possible combinations of inputs.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

2. Add a new column for maxterms and list the maxterms for all the combinations.
3. Multiply all the maxterms for which the output is 0.
Example: Express in the product of sums form, the Boolean function F(X, Y, Z) and
the truthtablefor which is given below:
X Y Z F
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Solution:Add a new column containing Maxterms. Now the table is as follow:
X Y Z F Maxterms
0 0 0 1 X+Y+Z
0 0 1 0 X + Y + Z̅
0 1 0 1 X+Y ̅+Z
0 1 1 0 X+̅ Y + Z̅
1 0 0 1 ̅
X+Y+Z
1 0 1 0 ̅ + Y + Z̅
X
1 1 0 1 ̅+Y
X ̅+Z
1 1 1 1 ̅
X+̅ Y + Z̅
Now by multiplying maxterm for the output O's, we get the desired product of
sumsexpressionwhich is F=(X + Y + Z̅)( X + Y ̅ + Z̅)(X
̅ + Y + Z̅)
Method2: Algebraic Method
Rules:
1. Simplify the given expression using appropriate theorems/rules
2. To convert into product of sums form, apply the Boolean algebra rule.
X + Y Z = (X + Y) (X + Z)
3. If any literal is missing, add (missing variable. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
missing variable)
4. Keep on simplifying the expression using the rule, X+YZ=(X+Y)(X+Z) until
you get product of sum terms.
5. Remove all the duplicate terms.
Example. Express ̅ X Y + Y (Z̅(Z̅ + ̅ Y))into canonical product of sums form:
Solution:
Rule 1: Simplify the given expression using appropriate theorems/rules
̅ Y + Y (Z̅(Z̅ + Y
X ̅))=X ̅ Y + Y (Z̅Z̅ + Y
̅Z̅)
=X Y + Y Z+YZ̅)
̅ ( ̅ ̅ {By law X X =X}
̅ Y + Y Z̅( 1 +Y
=X ̅)
̅ Y + Y Z̅
=X (By law 1 + X = X}
Rule2: To convert into product of sums form, apply the Boolean algebra rule,
X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)
̅ Y + Y Z̅ = (X
X ̅ Y + Y )( X̅ Y + Z̅ ) {By Law X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)}
=( Y + X ̅ Y )( Z̅ + X̅Y) {By Law X + Y = Y + X }
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
=( Y + X)( Y + Y )(Z + X)( Z + Y ) {By Law X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z)}
=(̅ X + Y )( Y )(̅ X + Z̅)( Y + Z̅ ) {By law X+X=X and X+Y=Y+X}
Rule 3: If any literal is missing, add (missing variable. ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
missing variable)
(̅
X + Y + Z Z̅)( X ̅X + Y + Z Z̅)(̅ X+Y̅ Y + Z̅)( X ̅
X + Y + Z̅ )

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Rule 4: Expand and Simplify the expression.

=(̅X+Y+Z )(̅ X+Y+Z̅)( X +Y+Z Z̅)(̅
X+Y+Z Z̅)(̅X+Y +Z̅)(̅
X+Y̅+Z̅)( X +Y+Z̅) ( ̅
X+Y+Z̅ )
= (X̅+Y+Z )(X ̅+Y+Z̅)( X +Y+Z )( X +Y+ Z̅)(X̅+Y+Z )(X̅+Y+ Z̅)(X̅+Y +Z̅)(X̅+Y̅+Z̅)( X +Y+Z̅)(
̅+Y+Z̅ )
X
Rule 5: Remove all the duplicate terms.
(̅
X+Y+Z )(̅ X+Y+Z̅)( X +Y+Z )( X +Y+ Z̅)(̅ ̅+Z̅)
X+Y
Shorthand notation for POS expression
Consider canonical POSexpression:
(̅
X+Y+Z ) = 100 = M4
(̅
X+Y+Z̅) = 101 = M5
( X +Y+Z )= 000 = M0
( X +Y+ Z̅)= 001 = M1
(̅
X+Y ̅+Z̅)= 111 = M7
Therefore, F=M0.M1.M4.M5.M7
OR
F=П(0,1,4,5,7)
OR
F=ПM(0,1,4,5,7)
Converting shorthand notation to POS expression
Rules:
1. Find binary equivalent of decimal subscript.
2. For every 0's write the variable as it is and for l's write variable's complemented
form.
Example:
Convert the following three input function denoted by the expression
F=M0.M1.M2.M5into canonical POS form.
Solution: If three input are X, Y and Z and F= M0.M1.M2.M5
M0=000=X + Y + Z
M1=001= X + Y + Z̅
M2=010= X + ̅ Y+Z
M5=101=X ̅ + Y + Z̅
Canonical pos form of the expression is(X + Y + Z)(X + Y + Z̅)(X + ̅ Y + Z)( ̅
X + Y + Z̅)
Converting shorthand SOP to shorthand POS expression
Rules:
1. Create truth table from a given expression
2. Derive other form of expression from the truth table
Convert the function F=∑(0,1,3,5) into canonical product of sum form.
Truth table:
X Y Z F
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0

F(X,Y,Z)=ПM(2,4,6,7)=M2.M4.M6.M7

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

M2=010=X + ̅ Y+Z
M4=100=X ̅+Y+Z
M6=110=X ̅+Y ̅+Z
M7=111=X + ̅
̅ Y + Z̅
̅
F= (X + Y + Z)(X̅ + Y + Z)(X ̅+̅ ̅+̅
Y + Z)(X Y + Z̅)
Sum term V/s Maxterm and product term V/s Minterm
Sum term means sum of the variables. It does not necessarily mean that all the
variables must be included.
Maxterm means a sum-term having all the variables.
For Example:
For 3 Variables F(X,Y,Z) functions(X + Y), (X + Z), (X ̅ + Y), (X + Y ̅) are sum terms and
(X + Y + Z), (X + Y + Z̅), (X + ̅
Y + Z) are maxterms.
Product term means product of the variables. It does not necessarily mean that all
the variables must be included.
Minterm means product term having all the variables.
For example:
For a 3 variable F(a, b, c) functionab, ab ̅ , a̅c, ac̅, bc̅ and abc, ab̅ c, a̅bc, a̅b
̅ c are minterms.

Minimization of Boolean expression

Boolean operations are practically implemented in the form of gates. A minimized
Boolean expression means less number of gates which means simplified circuitry.

Two methods of simplification of Boolean expression are

1. Algebraic Method
2. Karnaugh map method

Algebraic Method
This method makes use of Boolean postulates, rules and theorems to simplify the
expressions.
Example1: Simplify AB ̅CD̅ + AB
̅CD + ABCD̅ + ABCD
Solution: AB̅CD̅ + AB
̅CD + ABCD ̅ + ABCD
̅ ̅ ̅
= ABC(D + D) + ABC(D + D)
̅C. 1 + ABC. 1
= AB {By law X + ̅X = 1}
̅C + ABC
= AB {By law X. 1 = X}
̅ + B)
= AC (B
=AC.1 {By law X + ̅X = 1}
=AC {By law X. 1 = X}
Example2: Reduce the expressionX ̅̅̅̅ ̅+XY
Y+X
Solution:
̅̅̅̅
XY+̅ X + X Y = (X̅+ ̅Y) + ̅
X+XY {By law ̅̅̅̅
X Y = (X̅+ ̅Y)
=X̅+ Y̅+X ̅+XY
=̅X+̅X+ ̅ Y+XY {By law X + Y = Y + X}
=X+ ̅
̅ Y+XY {By law X + X = X}
=X̅+XY+ Y ̅ {By law X + Y = Y + X}
=X̅+Y+ Y ̅ {By law X + X̅ Y = X + Y}
̅
=X+1 ̅
{By law X + X = 1}
=1 {By law X + 1 = 1}
Example3: Minimize A B + ̅̅̅̅ AC+AB ̅C(AB+C)
Solution:

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

A B + ̅̅̅̅
AC+AB ̅ C ( A B + C )= A B + ̅̅̅̅
AC+AB ̅C AB+AB ̅ C C {By law X+YZ=XY+XZ}
̅̅̅̅
=AB+AC+AABBC +AB ̅ ̅ C {By law X + Y = Y + X and X X = X}
= A B + ̅̅̅̅
AC+A 0C +AB ̅C {By law X X̅ = 0 and X X = X}
̅̅̅̅ ̅
= A B + A C + 0 + A B C {By law X 0 = 0}
= A B + ̅̅̅̅
AC +AB ̅C {By law X + 0 = X}
=AB+A ̅ + C̅ + A B ̅C {By law ̅̅̅̅
XY=X ̅+Y ̅}
̅ ̅
=A + A B + C + A B C ̅ {By law X + Y = Y + X}
̅ + B + C̅ + A B
=A ̅C {By law X + ̅ X Y = X + Y}
= B + C̅ + A ̅+AB ̅C {By law X + Y = Y + X }
= B + C̅ + A ̅+B ̅C {By law X + ̅ XY = X + Y}
̅
= B+BC+C +A ̅ ̅ {By law X + Y = Y + X }
= B + C + C̅ + A ̅ {By law X + X ̅Y = X + Y}
= B+1+A ̅ {By law X + ̅X = 1}
= 1 {By law X + 1 = 1}
Example4: Reduce X ̅Y
̅Z̅ + X
̅ Y Z̅ + X Y ̅Z̅ + X Y Z̅
Solution:
̅
X̅
YZ̅ + ̅X Y Z̅ + X ̅
YZ̅ + X Y Z̅=X
̅Z̅(̅
Y + Y ) + X Z̅ ( ̅ Y +Y)
=XZ̅ . 1 + X Z̅ . 1
̅ {By law X + ̅X = 1}
̅Z̅ + X Z̅
=X {By law X. 1 = X}
=Z̅ ( X + ̅ X)
=Z̅ .1 {By law X + ̅X = 1}
=Z̅ {By law X. 1 = X}
Simplification using Karnaugh Maps (K-Map)
K-map is named after its originator Maurice Karnaugh.K map are also called as Veitch
diagram.
Definition
Karnaugh Map or K-Map is a graphical display of the fundamental product in a truth
table.Karnaugh map is a rectangle made up of certain number of squares, each square
representing a Maxterm or Minterm.

Sum of products Reduction using Karnaugh Map

In SOP reduction each square of K-Map represents a minterm of the given function.
Thus, for a function of n variables, there would be a map of 2 n square each
representing a minterm.
Given a K- Map, for SOP reduction the map is filled in by in squares whose minterms
leads to an output 1.

Y ̅
Y Y YZ ̅Z̅
Y ̅Z
Y YZ Y Z̅
X [0] [1] X [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅
X [0] ̅
X̅Y ̅
XY ̅
X [0] ̅
X̅YZ̅ ̅
X̅YZ ̅
XYZ ̅
X Y Z̅
0 1 0 1 3 2

X [1] X̅
Y XY X [1] X̅
YZ̅ X̅
YZ XYZ X Y Z̅
2 3 4 5 7 6

2-variable K-Map representing minterms 3-variable K-Map representing minterms

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] ̅̅
WXY̅Z̅ ̅̅
WXY̅Z ̅̅
WXYZ ̅X
W ̅ Y Z̅
0 1 3 2

̅ X [01]
W ̅ XY
W ̅Z̅ ̅ XY
W ̅Z ̅ XYZ
W ̅ X Y Z̅
W
4 5 7 6

W X [11] ̅Z̅
WXY ̅Z
WXY WXYZ W X Y Z̅
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
WX ̅Y
WX ̅Z̅ ̅Y
WX ̅Z ̅YZ
WX ̅ Y Z̅
WX
8 9 11 10

4-variable K-Map representing minterms

The number written in the square denotes corresponding minterm. The binary number
at thetopofK-Map differs by only one place when moving from left to right. i.eonly one
variable changes from complemented to uncomplementedor vice versa. For 2variable it
will be ̅
X̅Y, ̅
X Y, X Y, X ̅
Y
Gray code
It is the binary code in which each successive number differs only in one place. Eg. 00,
01, 11,10.
How to Map in K- Map
Given a K-map, for SOP reduction the map is filled in by placing 1's in squares whose
minterms lead to a 1 output and the remaining squares should be filled by 0.
Eg: Map K-Map using following truth table.

X Y F
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1

CanonicalSOP expression is F = X ̅
Y + X Y or F = ∑ (2,3)
Forminterms m2 and m3 output is 1. Thus mark 1 in the squares for m2 and m3 and
enter 0's inallblank squares.

Y ̅
Y Y
X [0] [1]

̅ [0]
X 0 0
0 1

X [1] 1 1
2 3

Reduction of Boolean expression in SOP form

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

1. For reducing the expression, we have toencircle pairs, quads, and octets.
Pair: Pair is formed by encircling 2 adjacent 1's
Quad: Quad is formed by encircling 4 adjacent 1's
Octet: Octet is formed by encircling 8 adjacent 1's
2. While encircling groups of 1's first search for octets, then for quads and last for
pairs.
Pair Reduction Rule:
Removes one variable which changes its state from complemented to uncomplemented
or viceversa.
YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 1 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

̅ X [01]
W 1 0 0 0
4 5 7 6

W X [11] 0 0 1 1
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
WX 0 0 0 0
8 9 11 10
Here, Pair-1 =m0+m4 and Pair-2= m14+m15
In Pair-1, X is changing its state from ̅ ̅̅
Xto X (ieWX̅
YZ̅ to W
̅ X̅
YZ̅).So the variable X can be
removed.
Thus, the reduced expression for Pair-l is W̅Y
̅Z̅
InPair-2, Z is changing its state from Z to Z̅(ie WX YZ to W X Y Z̅ ).So the variable Z
canbe removed.
Thus, the reduced expression for Pair-2 is WXY.

We can prove the same algebraically as follows:

Pair-1 = m0+m4
=W̅X̅Y
̅Z̅ + W̅ XY
̅Z̅
=W̅Y̅Z̅ ( X
̅+X)
=W̅̅YZ̅ .1 {By LawX + ̅
X = l}
̅
=WYZ̅ ̅ {By LawX . 1 = X}
̅Y
Thus, the reduced expression for Pair-l is W ̅Z̅

Pair-2 = m14+m15
=W X Y Z̅ + W X Y Z
= W X Y ( Z̅ + Z )
=WX Y .1 {By LawX + ̅
X = l}
=WXY {By LawX . 1 = X}
Thus, the reduced expression for Pair-2 is WXY

Quad Reduction Rule:

Removes two variables which changes its state from complemented touncomplemented
or vice versa.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 1 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

̅ X [01]
W 1 0 1 1
4 5 7 6

W X [11] 1 0 1 1
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
WX 1 0 0 0
8 9 11 10
Quad1= m0 + m4 + m12 + m8
Quad2= m7+ m6+ m15+ m14
In Quad-1 variables Wand X changes its state. So these two variables are removed.
Thus the reduced expression for Quad-1 is YZ.
In Quad-2variables Wand Z changes its state. So these two variables are removed.
Thus the expression for Quad-2 is XY

Octet Reduction Rule

Removes the three variables which changes its state from complemented to
uncomplementor vice versa.
YZ ̅Z̅
Y ̅Z
Y YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 0 0 0
0 0 1 3 2
0
̅ X [01]
W 0 0
4 5 0 7 6

W X [11] 1 1 1 1
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
WX 1 1 1 1
8 9 11 10
Octet-1 = m12 + m13 + m15 + m14 + m8 + m9 + m11 + m10
In Octet-1variables X, Y and Z are changing their states. So these three variables are
removed.Thus the reduced expression for Octet- 1 is W

Map Rolling
Map Rolling means roll the map. The opposite edges squares and corner
squaresconsidered contiguous. Therefore, while making the pairs, quads and octets,
map must be roll.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 0 1 0
0 0 1 3 2
̅ X [01]
W
1 0 1
4 5 0 7 6

W X [11] 0 0 0 0
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
WX 0 0 1 0
8 9 11 10
Marked K-Map after Map Rolling (Opposite edges are considered contiguous)

Here,
Pair-1 = m4+ m6
Pair-2= m3+ m11

̅ X Z̅
Reduced expression for Pair-1 is W
̅YZ
Reduced expression for Pair-2 is X

YZ ̅ ̅
YZ
YZ̅ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 1 1 0
0 0 1 3 2

̅ X [01]
W 1 0 1
4 5 0 7 6

W X [11] 1 0 0 1
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
WX 0 1 0
8 9 1 11 10
Marked K-Map after Map Rolling (Opposite edges are considered contiguous).

Here,
Quad-l= m4+ m12+m6+ m14
Quad-2= m1+ m3+m9 + m11

Reduced expression for Quad-1 is X Z̅

̅Z
Reduced expression for Quad-2 is X

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 1 0 0 1
0 1 3 2

̅ X [01] 0 0 0 0
W 4 5 7 6

W X [11] 0 0 0 0
12 13 15 14

W̅
X [10] 0 0 1
1 8 9 11 10
Marked K-Map after Map Rolling (Corner edges are considered contiguous).

Here,
Quad-l= m0+ m2+m8+ m10

Reduced expression for Quad-1 is ̅

XZ̅

Overlapping Groups

Overlapping means same 1 can be encircled more than once. For example,

YZ ̅Z̅
Y ̅Z
Y YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

0 1 1
̅ X [01]
W 4 1 5 7 6

W X [11] 0 0 1 1
12 13 15 14

̅ [10] 0 0 1 0
WX 8 9 11 10
Here,
Quad-l= m7+ m6+m15+ m14
Pair-l= m5+ m7
Pair-2= m15+ m11
Reduced expression for Quad-1 is X Y
̅ XZ
Reduced expression for Pair-1 is W
Reduced expression for Pair-2 is W Y Z

Reduntant Groups
Reduntant group is a group whose all 1's are overlapped by other groups (i.e., pairs,
quads,octets).

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

0 1 0
̅ X [01]
W 4 1 5 7 6

W X [11] 0 0 1 0
12 13 15 14

0 0 1 0
W̅
X [10] 8 9 11 10
Pair-l= m5+ m7
Pair-2= m7+ m15
Pair-3= m15+ m11
̅ XZ
Reduced expression for Pair-1 is W
Reduced expression for Pair-2 is X Y Z
Reduced expression for Pair-3 is W Y Z

Withreduntant group, the reduced expression is W̅ XZ+ XYZ+ WYZ

̅ XZ + WYZ
Afterremoving reduntant group, the reduced expression is W
After removing the redundant group, we get the K-map as shown in following figure.
YZ ̅Z̅
Y ̅Z
Y YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

̅ X [01]
W 0 0
4 1 5 1 7 6

W X [11] 0 0 1 0
12 13 15 14

̅ [10] 0 0 1 0
WX 8 9 11 10

Rules for S-O-P reduction using K-map

1. Prepare the truth table for given function.
2. Draw an empty K-map for the given function.
3. Map the given function by entering 1's for the outputs as 1 in the corresponding
squares,
4. Enter '0'for the remaining empty squares.
5. Encircle adjacent 1's in form of octets, quads and pairs. Roll the map and overlap.
6. Remove reduntant groups, if any.
7. Write the reduced expressions for all the groups and OR(+)them.
Example1:
Reduce F (a, b, c, d)=∑(0,2,7,8,10,15) using Karnaugh map.

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Solution:
Mapping the given function in a K-map
cd c̅d̅ c̅ d cd c d̅
ab [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅ [00]
a̅b 1 0 0 1
0 1 3 2

0 0 1 0
a̅ b [01] 4 5 7 6

a b [11] 0 0 1 0
12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
ab 0 0 1
1 8 9 11 10
In the above K-map 1 Quad and 1 Pair have been marked.
Here, Quad-1= m0+ m2+ m8+ m10 and
Pair -1 = m7+ m15
Reduced expression for Quad-l is b̅ d̅
Reduced expression for Pair -1 is bcd
̅ d̅ + b c d
Thus, final reduced expression is b

Example2:
What is the simplified Boolean equation for the function
F(A,B,C,D)=∑ (7,9,10, 11, 12, 13,14,15)?
Solution:
Mapping the given function in a K-map
CD C̅D
̅ C̅ D CD ̅
CD
AB [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅B
A ̅ [00] 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

̅ B [01]
A 0 0 1 0
4 5 7 6

A B [11] 1 1 1
1 12 13 15 14

̅ [10]
AB 0 1 1 1
8 9 11 10
Here,
Quad-1 = m12+m13+m14+m15
Quad-2 = m13+m15+m9+m11
Quad-3 = m15+ m14+ m11+m10
Pair-l = m 7+ m 15
Reduced expression for Quad-1 = AB
Reduced expression for Quad 2 =AD
Reduced expression of Quad-3=AC

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Reduced expression for Pair-1= BCD

Thus, the final reduced expression will be AB+AD+AC+ BCD

Example 3:
Obtain a simplified expression for a Boolean function F (X,Y,Z)the Karnaugh map for
which is given below:
YZ
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

[0] [1] [1]

[1] [1] [1]

Solution:
Completing the given K-map, we get as follows:
YZ ̅
YZ̅ ̅
YZ YZ Y Z̅
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅ [0]
X 0 1 1 0
0 1 3 2

X [1] 0 1 1 0
4 5 7 6
Here, Quad -1 = m1+m3+m5 +m7
Reduced expression for Quad-1 = Z
Hence final reduced expression will be Z

Example 4:
Minimize the following function using a Karnaugh map:
F (W, X, Y, Z) = ∑ (0,4,8,12)
Mapping the given function in a K-map
YZ ̅Z̅
Y ̅Z
Y YZ Y Z̅
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅̅
WX [00] 1 0 0 0
0 1 3 2

̅ X [01]
W 1 0 0 0
4 5 7 6

W X [11] 1 0 0 0
12 13 15 14

̅ [10] 1 0 0 0
WX 8 9 11 10
Here, Quad -1 = m0+m4+m12+ m8
Reduced expression for Quad-1 is 𝑌𝑍

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Thus, final reduced expression is 𝑌𝑍.

Example 5: Using the Karnaugh technique to obtain the simplified expression as sum
products for the following map:
YZ
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

[0] 0 0 1 1
0 1 3 2

[1] 0 0 1 1
4 5 7 6
Solution:
Completing the given K-map, we get as follows:
YZ ̅Z̅
Y ̅Z
Y YZ Y Z̅
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

̅
X [0] 0 0 1 1
0 1 3 2

X [1] 0 0 1 1
4 5 7 6
Here, Quad -1 = m3+m2+m7+ m6
Reduced expression for Quad -1 is Y
Thus, final reduced expression is Y
Product -of - Sum Reduction using Karnaugh Map
In POS reduction each square of K-map represents a Maxterm. For a function of
variables, map would represent 2 n squares. For POS reduction map is filled by placing
0's in squares whose Maxterm lead to output 0. The binary progression in the top of
K-map is in grey code only. In POS, K-Map, complemented letters represent 1's and
uncomplemented letters represent 0's.
Y Y ̅
Y
X [0] [1]

X [0] 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋+𝑌

0 1

̅
X [1] 𝑋+𝑌 𝑋+𝑌
2 3

2-variable K-Map representing Maxterms

YZ 𝑌+ 𝑍 Y + Z̅ ̅
Y + Z̅ ̅
Y+Z
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

X [0] X+Y+Z X + Y + Z̅ 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍

0 1 3 2

̅ [1]
X 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍 𝑋+𝑌+𝑍 𝑋+𝑌 +𝑍
4 5 7 6

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

3-Variable K-map representing maxterms

YZ
𝑌+ 𝑍 Y + Z̅ ̅
Y + Z̅ ̅
Y+Z
WX [00] [01] [11] [10]

W + X [00] 𝑊+𝑋+𝑌+𝑍 𝑊+𝑋+𝑌+ 𝑍 𝑊+𝑋+𝑌+ 𝑍 𝑊+𝑋+ 𝑌+𝑍

0 1 3 2

̅ [01]
W+X 𝑊 + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑊 + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑊 + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍 𝑊 + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍
4 5 7 6

̅ +X
W ̅ [11] ̅ + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍
𝑊 ̅ + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍
𝑊 ̅ + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍
𝑊 ̅ + 𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍
𝑊
12 13 15 14

̅ + X [10]
W ̅ +𝑋+𝑌+𝑍
𝑊 ̅ +𝑋+𝑌+ 𝑍
𝑊 ̅ +𝑋+𝑌+ 𝑍
𝑊 ̅ +𝑋+ 𝑌+𝑍
𝑊
8 9 11 10
4-Variable K-map representing maxterms
Rules for deriving POS Boolean expression
1. Prepare the truth table for a given function.
2. Draw an empty K-map for given function
3. Map the given function by entering 0's
4. Enter 1's in all left out empty squares.
5. Encircle adjacent 0's in the form of octets, quads, and pair. Roll the map and
overlap.
6. Remove redundant groups, if any.
7. Write the reduced expressions for all the groups and AND (.) them.
Example 1:
Reduce the following Karnaugh map in Product of sums form
YZ
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

[0] 0 0 0 1
0 1 3 2

[1] 0 1 1 1
4 5 7 6
Solution: To reach at POS expression, we'll have to encircle all possible groups
adjacent O's encircling we get the following K-map.
YZ 𝑌+ 𝑍 Y + Z̅ ̅
Y + Z̅ ̅
Y+Z
X [00] [01] [11] [10]

X [0] 0 0 0 1
0 1 3 2

̅ [1]
X 0 1 1 1
4 5 7 6
Here, Pair-1= M0.M1
Pair-2= M0.M4
Pair-3= M1.M3
Reduced Expression for Pair-1 is X+Y

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 Chapter 2 Boolean Algebra

Reduced Expression for Pair-2 is Y+Z

Reduced Expression for Pair-3 is X+𝑍
Pair-1 is a redundant group. Thus removing this redundant pair-1, we have only two
groups.
Thus , Final Reduced Expression is
F= ( Y + Z). ( X + 𝑍)
Example 2:
Find the minimum POS expression of F(A,B, C, D) = π(0, 1,3,5,6, 7 10, 14, 15).
Solution:
CD
𝐶+ 𝐷 C+D ̅ C̅ + D
̅ C̅ + D
AB [00] [01] [11] [10]

A + B [00] 0 0 1
0
0 1 3 2

̅ [01]
A+B 1 0 0 0
4 5 7 6

̅+B
A ̅ [11] 1 1 0 0
12 13 15 14

̅ + B [10]
A 1 1 1 0
8 9 11 10
Here,
Quad-1= M1 .M3. M5. M7
Quad-2 =M7.M6.M15.M14
Pair -1 = M0.M1
Pair-2= M14.M10

Reduced expressions are given below:

For Quad-1 is 𝐴 + 𝐷
For Quad-2 is 𝐵 + 𝐶
For Pair-1 is 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
For Pair-2 is 𝐴 + 𝐶 + 𝐷

Hence final POS expression will be

Y(A, B, C, D) = (𝐴 + 𝐷)(𝐵 + 𝐶) ( 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 ) (𝐴 + 𝐶 + 𝐷)

SBC/II PUC/Computer Science/Notes Page 38