How do organisms reproduce

Reproduction is a biological process in which organisms gives rise to new organisms (young ones) similar to itself.
Organisms reproduce to/for ;
 Maintaining existence of species on Earth
 Increasing the population of the species
 Evolution(transmitting favourable variations from one generation to the next)
 Creates similar new individuals

DO ORGANISMS CREATE EXACT COPIES OF THEMSELVES?

Chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell contain information for inheritance in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) for
making proteins. If the information is changed, different proteins will be made, eventually leading to altered body designs.
No biochemical reaction is absolutely reliable. DNA copying will have variation each time. DNA copies will be similar but
may not be identical to the original. Variation during reproduction is the basis of evolution.

Importance of Variation
 Copying of organism is important for maintenance of body design to use particular niche and stability of
particular species.
 If niche were altered , population can be wiped out. Variation can give chance to survive. Eg. When temperature
of water is increased for bacteria living in temperate waters, most of bacteria will die and few with variation will
survive.

Modes of reproduction
Asexual reproduction
The method of reproduction in which an offspring is produced by a single parent with or without the involvement of
gametes (sex cells) is called asexual reproduction.

TYPES of asexual reproduction:

1) Fission
In unicellular organisms, cell division or fission leads to the creation of new individuals
BINARY FISSION- two daughter cells MULTIPLE FISSION- Many daughter cells formed
Amoeba: splitting takes place in any plane Plasmodium vivax causes malaria
Leishmania (causes Kala-azar): splitting takes place in
definite plane

2) Fragmentation
The breaking of the body of simple multicellular organism into pieces on maturing or Organism breaks up into smaller
pieces upon maturation which grow into new individuals
E.g.: Spirogyra
 3) Regeneration
Individual is cut or broken up into many pieces that grow into individuals
These pieces proliferate and make large number of cells an undergo change to become an individual through a organised
sequence known as development.
Regeneration is not the same as reproduction since most organism would not normally depend on being cut up to be able
to reproduce
Examples: Hydra and Planaria

4) Budding
In multicellular or unicellular organisms a bud develops as an outgrowth due to repeated cell division at one specific site.
When fully mature the bud detaches from the parent body to become a new individual. THERE IS FORMATION OF
PSEUDOMYCELIUM AS WELL.
Example: Hydra and yeast

5) Spore Formation
Thick spores help to withstand unfavourable conditions and help in reproduction
Example: Rhizopus (Hyphae- thread like, Sporangia- blobs) on bread
 6) Vegetative Propagation
A process of multiplication in which vegetative part of plant functions as propagule

IMPORTANCE OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ( tsscst)

 Can reduce time of flowering and fruiting. Eg. rose
 Help to propagate seedless plants like banana, orange, rose.
 Produce genetically similar plants to parents. Eg. Sugarcane
 Cheap and easy method. Eg. Pear
 Superior quality plant can be obtained. Eg.Alphanso mango
 Many plants can be obtained in short time . Eg. Bamboo
DISADVANATGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION-
 Vegetative propagated plants are short lived, small compared to seed propagated plants.
 .No new varieties can be produced.
 Skilled persons are required and often expensive compared to seed propagation.
 More susceptible to diseases as the entire plant may get affected as there is no genetic variation

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION BY different plant part :

 Stem: Potato
 Root: Sweet potato/ Dahlia
 Leaves: Bryophyllum
 Cutting: Rose stem, sugarcane stem
 Layering: AIR : Lemon
MOUND: Mint, Strawberry
 Grafting: In Apple( stock- root, scion- stem)

TISSUE CULTURE: Tissue culture is a technique of raising new plants from a small portion of plant tissue in a culture or
artificial medium under aseptic conditions
New plants are grown by removing tissue/ cells from growing tip of plants in artificial medium to form callus(group of
cells).
Callus is transferred to another medium containing hormones for growth and differentiation in disease free conditions.
The plantlets are then placed in soil.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two parents and fusion of gametes forms zygotes (2X)
IMPORTANCE OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
 Combining variations from two individuals creates new combination of variants
 Increased variation helps in adaptation. In favourable climate vegetative propagation can result in overcrowding
but fails to adapt in new one.
 Maintains vigour(strength) and vitality(active). Errors in DNA get accumulated over generations in vegetative
method.
 Harmful traits are suppressed.
 Chances of new species formation is more due to fertilization that help in evolution as copying of DNA is not
absolutely accurate

Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes, formation of gametes involve meotic cell division as they acquire
haploid no. of chromosome (X) from each parent. Fusion of gametes form zygote(2X)
Motile germ cell is called male gamete and germ cell containing stored food is called female gamete
Two types:-
External – occurs outside female body (discharge gametes outside).Eg. fish,frog
Internal – occurs inside female body .Mammals(vivipary) and birds (ovipary)

Sexual reproduction in angiosperms(flowering plants)

Two types of flowers:

Unisexual flower- contains either stamens( male reproductive part) or pistil (female) . Eg. papaya
Bisexual flower – contains both stamens and pistil. Eg. Hibiscus
 Ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell. Male germ cell produced by pollen grains fuses with an
egg(female germ cell) and gives rise to zygote.( zygote begins as a single cell and divides rapidly to become
embryo). Ovule develops a tough coat and is converted into a seed. Ovary grows into a fruit.
Petals- attract insect for pollination and protect reproductive parts
Sepals – provide protection and support to floral organs.
Pollen tube has two male germ cells. Each ovule has two polar nuclei and female germ cell(egg).
One male germ cell fuses with female germ cell to form zygote , the process is called syngamy. Other germ cell
fuses with two polar nuclei, called triple fusion
Pollination – reproductionin flowering plants involves transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma
Self –transfer of pollens from anther to stigma of same flowers or another flower of the same plant
Cross –transfer of pollens from one flower to stigma of another flower of different plant.
Agents of pollination-wind , water and animals
Advantages of seed formation:
1. Seed contains future plants/ embryo that develop into a seedling
2. It is easy to disperse as it is light
3. Edible seeds can stored for long time

Reproduction in Human Beings

Sexual mode of reproduction in humans. Sexual organs develop as we become adult or as we reach puberty (11-
13yrs).Puberty is the period during adolescence when body growth begins to slow down and reproductive tissues
begin to mature
Unisexual: organism bears either male or female sex organs
Bisexual/hermaphrodite: Male and female sex organs in the same individual

Sexual maturation signs in boys: Sexual maturation signs in girls:

Arm pit and pubic hair growth Arm pit and pubic hair growth
Oily skin Oily skin
Enlargement of penis ( male sex organ) Enlargement of breast (mammary glands)
Voice begins to crack Begins to menstruate
Hair growth on face

Male reproductive system:

Sperms are formed in testes in scrotum(low temperature). Testes release testosterones responsible for male maturation
signs.
Vas deferens tube delivers the sperms and unites with tube coming from urinary bladder. (common passage)
Seminal vesicle-alkaline fluid provides nourishment to developing sperms
Prostate gland-milky and alkaline fluid gives nutrition and neutralize the urine for easy transport
Sperms are tiny bodies that contain mainly genetic material and a long tail that helps them to move towards female germ
cell.

Female reproductive system:

Female germ cell or egg are made in the ovaries responsible for production of oestrogen. At birth a girl child has
thousands of immature eggs. On reaching puberty one egg mature every month and is released for fertilization by one
ovary. Sperms may enter vaginal passage through sexual intercourse. Fertilization occurs in fallopian tube. Fertilized egg
(zygote ) starts dividing to form embryo. Embryo is implanted in uterus to become foetus. Embryo gets nutrition and
removes wastes from mother’s blood with the help of placenta. Child develops in nine months inside the mother’s body.
Child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of muscles in the uterus

What happens when the egg is not fertilized:

Uterus also prepares itself for receiving fertilized egg. Thus its lining becomes thick and spongy for nourishing the
embryo. If egg is not fertilized, lining slowly breaks and comes out as blood and mucous. This cycle takes place every
month and is called menstruation.(2-8 days)

Reproductive health
Sexual maturation is gradual, but bringing up children is a major responsibility for which body and mind should be ready.
There are many health consequences of having sex. Sexually transmitted Diseases(STD) are transmitted from person to
person through sexual contact .
1. AIDS(Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome)caused by Human Immunodeficiency virus. It causes loss of
immune system
2. Genital Warts: Caused by Human Papilloma virus. It causes hard Benign outgrowth in genital areas with acute
pain
3. Syphilis: caused by Treponema pallidum bacterium and spreads from mother to infant. It affects the mucus
membrane in genital areas and causes painless ulcers
4. Gonorrhoea: Caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacterium where pus is discharged with pain around genital
areas.
STDs can be prevented by:
Education and awareness about STDs.
Injection of antibodies can help in curing
Uses of condoms.
Sexual act leads to pregnancy which affects the health of a female. There are many contraceptive ways to avoid/ remove
pregnancy.
1. Condoms can be used on the penis
2. Oral pills change hormonal balance of body so that eggs are not released and fertilization does not take place
3. Loop or copper-T are placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy. It causes irritation and other side effects.
4. Blockage: vas deferens or fallopian tube can be blocked to prevent fertilization
5. Surgical methods: it also blocks vas deferens or fallopian tube
Vasectomy : vas deferens is cut
Tubectomy: fallopian tube is cut
Abortion: Surgery for removal of pregnancy: Female foeticide is common in India. Female-male sex ratio must be
maintained, therefore prenatal sex determination has been prohibited by law. The rate of birth and death determines the
population size. The expanding population and illiteracy makes it harder to improve everybody’s standard of living.

Reference:
NCERT BOOK
Biology today, Cordova
http://www.learncbse.in/cbse-notes/
https://youtu.be/r8loV0y4htU (grade booster)