Running head: TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 1

Mentoring Styles and Novice Teachers’ Well-being: The Role of Basic Need Satisfaction

Julian Burgera, Henrik Bellhäusera, Margarete Imhofa

a
Department of Psychology in Educational Sciences, Institute of Psychology at the

Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Binger Straße 14-16, 55122 Mainz, Germany.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to:

Julian Burger, Institute of Psychology, Binger Straße 14-16, 55122 Mainz, Germany. Phone:

+49(0)6131 39 39 114, E-mail: [email protected]

Funding:

The evaluation project this study builds upon was commissioned and financially supported by

the Federal Ministry of Science, Continuing Education, & Culture in Rhineland-Palatinate,

Germany. Beyond this financial support, the ministry was not involved in any data curation,

analysis, interpretation, or in writing or submission of this manuscript.

Declaration of competing interests:

The authors declare no potential conflicts of interests with respect to the research, authorship,

and/or publication of this article.

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 2

Abstract

School-based mentoring is a key component of support during the challenging teacher

induction phase, but different counseling approaches vary in their effectiveness in fostering

novices’ well-being. This study investigates effects of two distinct mentoring approaches on

emotional exhaustion by considering their potential to address mentees’ basic needs. Data stem

from 579 beginning teachers enrolled in the German practical training period. Structural

equation modeling indicates that constructivist-oriented mentoring lowers levels of exhaustion

by supporting mentees’ autonomy need satisfaction. Results do not indicate an effect of

transmission-oriented mentoring on mentees’ well-being. Implications for mentoring practice

and future directions are discussed.

Keywords: mentoring, teacher well-being, beginning teacher induction, emotional exhaustion,

self-determination theory, psychological needs

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 3

1. Introduction

Beginning teachers’ entry into teaching practice is frequently characterized as a

challenging and psychologically demanding phase (Chang, 2009; Clandinin et al., 2015; Gold,

1996; Taylor, McLean, Bryce, Abry, & Granger, 2019). High stress and exhaustion levels

experienced by novice teachers (“reality shock”; Friedman, 2000; Dicke et al., 2015; Voss,

Wagner, Klusmann, Trautwein, & Kunter, 2017) result from a plethora of demands, such as

classroom disturbances (Dicke, Stebner, Linninger, Kunter, & Leutner, 2018), communication

with parents (Veenman, 1984), and time pressure (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2017). These may lead

to the perception of one’s own competences as insufficient (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011),

negative emotions and, ultimately, leaving the profession (Harmsen, Helms-Lorenz, Maulana,

& van Veen, 2018; Scheopner, 2010). In the face of increasing attrition rates among early career

teachers (Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

[OECD], 2005), researchers have urged policy makers in the context of teacher education to

implement support structures that foster early career teachers’ health and, ultimately, retention

(Callahan, 2016; Howe, 2006; Ingersoll & Kralik, 2004; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003; Prilleltensky,

Neff, & Bessell, 2016).

School-based mentoring has become a prominent form of support during practical

teacher training worldwide (Howe, 2006). Prospective teachers consider this relationship

among the most essential resources during the induction phase (Marable & Raimondi, 2007).

Regarding the benefits of mentoring programs for novice teachers, studies have found positive

effects on, e.g., motivation (Klassen & Durksen, 2014), job satisfaction (Ingersoll & Strong,

2012), classroom practice (Evertson & Smithey, 2000; Stanulis & Floden, 2009), and well-

being (Richter, Kunter, Lüdtke, Klusmann, & Baumert, 2011; Voss et al., 2017). As a

consequence, mentoring has repeatedly been emphasized as an essential component of high

quality teacher induction and a key factor to retention in the early teaching career (Callahan,
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 4

2016; Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson, 2009; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Pirkle, 2011;

Smith & Ingersoll, 2004).

However, not every kind of mentoring interaction is per se beneficial for beginning

teachers (Wang & Fulton, 2012). Overly judgmental forms can even harm mentees’ self-esteem

and mental health (Hobson & Malderez, 2013; Maguire, 2001). Thus, when conducting

research on the effects of mentoring on novice teachers, it is essential to consider qualitative

differences in a mentor’s counseling style that manifests itself during interactions with the

mentee (Hobson et al., 2009; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Still, few empirical studies in this field

have distinguished between distinct mentoring approaches and established their respective

effect upon the prospective teacher’s health and competence. Furthermore, while there is initial

evidence of the positive influence on prospective teachers’ well-being engendered by certain

mentoring styles, little is yet known about the intrapsychic mediation processes that could

explain why some mentor-mentee interactions appear more beneficial than others (Richter et

al., 2013).

In this study, we aim to contribute to the understanding of qualitatively distinct

mentoring styles by investigating their effects on beginning teachers’ health and exploring the

inner processes involved in a mediational framework. The following section will first outline

central mentoring concepts that apply to the context of teacher induction, before recent findings

on their implications for and effects on mentees’ well-being are briefly reviewed. To explore

the mechanisms underlying these effects, we will then adopt a mediation model framework by

drawing on Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2008) and acknowledge recent findings

on the role of basic needs in teacher training.

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 5

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Concepts of Mentoring

In the context of practical teacher training, a mentor is typically an experienced teacher

assigned to a novice (the mentee) entrusted with the task to “support the mentee’s learning,

development and well-being” (Hobson, 2017, p. 335), as well as “to observe and provide the

new teacher with instructional support and feedback” (Pirkle, 2011, p. 43). Instructional

support aims at enhancing a broad set of skills prospective teachers rely on to successfully

manage lesson planning, classroom interactions, diagnostic assessment, and other job-related

tasks (Gold, 1996). Distinguished from psychological support (i.e. confidence building and

buffering mentees’ self-esteem against ego threats, negative experiences, and isolation; Gold,

1996) and role modeling (i.e. the shaping and development of a professional identity; Richter

et al., 2013), instructional support represents one of three central goals of novice teacher

mentoring. To foster professional competence and buffer against emotional strain, the quality

of instructional support and feedback is crucial (e.g., Hobson, 2017), and may even be of higher

importance than its frequency (Richter et al., 2013).

To conceptualize instructional support as a central component of educative mentoring,

this article builds upon a theoretical framework provided by Richter et al. (2013). Drawing on

learning theory paradigms and integrating two analogous models of mentoring introduced by

Feiman-Nemser (2001) as well as Cochran-Smith and Paris (1995), the authors distinguish

between transmission-oriented (synonymous: transmissive) mentoring and constructivist-

oriented (synonymous: constructivist) mentoring as two qualitatively distinct approaches that

shape learning processes in mentor-mentee interactions. A transmission-oriented mentoring

style is based on a behaviorist concept of learning, in the sense that knowledge is provided by

and transferred from an expert to a rather passive novice in a directive, unidirectional way.

Meanwhile, constructivist-oriented mentoring implies collaborative reflection and inquiry with

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 6

an understanding of learning as a bidirectional and mutual process (Cochran-Smith & Paris,

1995; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Richter et al., 2013; Wang & Odell, 2002). Therefore, the latter

is reflective of a constructivist learning theory, viewing the mentee as an actively organizing

individual that adds, rearranges and interconnects new experience to existing declarative and

procedural knowledge in a dynamic way. In alignment with this qualitative distinction,

Hofmann and Springer (2014) differentiate between informatory and controlling aspects of

mentor communication. Controlling aspects establish a rather asymmetric relationship between

mentor and mentee via, e.g., externally setting developmental goals and the use of

reinforcement and sanctions during the learning process. In contrast, informatory aspects allow

for cooperation on equal terms by providing constructive feedback, free choice and mutual

problem-solving (Hofmann & Springer, 2014). Thus, in the constructivist approach (Richter et

al., 2013) and during informatory-coloured interactions (Hofmann & Springer, 2014)

respectively, a mentor teacher acts as a ‘co-thinker’ to the novice (Feiman-Nemser, 2001;

Wang, Odell, & Schwille, 2008).

According to various authors, the approach a mentor teacher takes to shape counseling

and instructional processes with his or her mentee can have specific effects on the novice’s

success and preservation of well-being during the often challenging process of

professionalization (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Hobson, 2017; Hofmann & Springer, 2014; Howe,

2006; Lindgren, 2005). However, while a large body of evidence underlines the potential

benefits of mentoring within induction for early career teachers’ mental health and retention,

few studies distinguish between different qualities of mentoring support within their analyses.

The following section provides a brief overview on recent findings regarding early career

teacher mentoring and emotional exhaustion, a prominent reverse indicator of teacher well-

being in the international literature and a central component of burnout (Byrne, 1993; Gold,
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 7

Roth, Wright, Michael, & Chin-Yi, 1992; Maslach, Jackson, Leiter, Schaufeli, & Schwab,

1986; Uitto, Jokikokko, & Estola, 2015).

2.2. Effects of Mentoring on Emotional Exhaustion

Mentoring support during the demanding transition from university life to a full

teaching position has been shown to buffer against emotional exhaustion (Kessels, 2010;

Richter et al., 2011). In line with this, mentoring has been found to reduce attrition rates among

beginning teachers (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011), as leaving the profession has been viewed as a

consequence of high exhaustion (Jalongo & Heider, 2006) and lack of mentoring support

(Darling-Hammond, 2003; Ingersoll & Smith, 2003). In contrast, mentors can also affect early

career teachers’ well-being negatively, by provoking rather maladaptive face-saving reactions

by their mentees via critical feedback (Bjørndal, 2020), by being generally unavailable for their

mentees (Oberski, Ford, Higgins, & Fisher, 1999; Smith & McLay, 2007), or engaging in

judgmental and overly critical forms of feedback (‘Judgementoring’; Hobson & Malderez,

2013). Adding to these ambiguous findings, results of a mixed-method study by Klassen and

Durksen (2014) were twofold: incidents of miscommunication, expression of high expectations

and negative feedback were linked to increased stress levels among prospective teachers in a

teaching practicum, whereas positive assistance and informational help was valued (Klassen &

Durksen, 2014).

Considering distinct types of instructional mentor support in the induction phase,

Richter et al. (2013) were able to demonstrate beneficial effects of mentoring that follows

constructivist principles on emotional exhaustion and motivational outcomes in a longitudinal

study; in contrast, transmission-oriented mentoring did not exhibit an impact on participants’

well-being or motivation. Consistent with this, Voss et al. (2017) found a buffering effect of
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 8

constructivist-oriented mentoring on the increase of emotional exhaustion in early career

teachers over the course of one year. Collaborative reflection, as stimulated in the

constructivist-oriented approach, has yielded direct positive associations with prospective

teachers’ mental health as well (Linninger, 2016; Soini, Pietarinen, & Pyhältö, 2016).

To conclude, there is sound evidence for a positive influence of school-based mentoring

on beginning teachers’ well-being in the demanding transition phase from university training

to full teaching load. However, a large body of research on mentoring and mentees’ health

relies on qualitative data and case studies (Hoffman et al., 2015; Orland-Barak, 2014), while

quantitative, correlational investigations are rather scarce. Moreover, there is only preliminary

evidence with respect to the specific communicational skills and strategies mentors require to

effectively promote learning and personal growth in their mentee (Wang et al., 2008; Wang &

Fulton, 2012). Also, as has been stated earlier, little is known about the actual intrapsychic

mechanisms that mediate the effects of some mentoring support forms (e.g., constructivist-

oriented mentoring) on well-being, and hence could explain the difference in how beneficial

specific forms of instructional support are for mentees’ emotional stability (Richter et al.,

2013). To explore these mechanisms in the framework of a mediation model, we draw on Self-

Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002) and its conceptualization of universal intrinsic

needs. After an introduction of the theoretical assumptions and their implications regarding the

two mentoring approaches outlined earlier, findings on the importance of basic need

satisfaction in novice teacher training are briefly reviewed.

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 9

2.3. Mentoring and Basic Need Satisfaction

Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2002) states that individuals have a

genuine, inherent tendency towards personal growth and productive self-actualization,

constantly forging interconnections with surrounding elements of their social, educational or

work-related environments in the process. Embedded in this macrotheory of human motivation,

development, and health, Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET; Ryan & Deci, 2000) posits three

universal basic needs for competence, autonomy, and social relatedness. SDT states that the

fulfillment of these needs is crucial for “integrated and vital human functioning” (Deci & Ryan,

2002, p. 6) in a given social or employee context. Hence, to preserve their well-being, to foster

intrinsic motivation, as well as to stimulate personal or professional development, people need

to firstly perceive their self as effective in and capable of accomplishing their tasks in a given

context. Secondly, they need to be able to organize their behavior and, possibly, problem-

solving in an autonomous way, i.e. not feeling like a pawn that is instrumentalized by other

individuals or institutions that uphold values that he or she cannot identify with, and instead

perceiving themselves as the true initiator of their performance (Hofmann & Springer, 2014).

Lastly, it is stated that individuals have a general need for social relatedness to their contextual

group, team, co-workers or department, a feeling of belonging, acceptance and human

interconnectedness.

According to SDT, satisfaction of these needs should be an essential prerequisite for

novices’ professional development during practical teacher training and the preservation of

well-being in this challenging process. The promotion of professional competence is a major

objective of teacher induction, and higher competence, in turn, is associated with well-being

(Klusmann, Kunter, Voss, & Baumert, 2012). Yet, as novices to the profession, beginning

teachers necessarily lack practical experience and may therefore face distress-evoking

classroom-related situations (Chaplain, 2008). Hence, an initial perception of oneself as lacking

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 10

the competence needed for the job is likely (Tynjälä & Heikkinen, 2011). Furthermore, novice

teachers in practical training need to develop their own authentic and autonomous way of

performing in classrooms, e.g., selecting methods and instructional techniques that they see fit,

to improve their teaching quality (Blömeke & Klein, 2013) and preserve their mental health

(Pearson & Moomaw, 2005). At the same time, they depend on external feedback and

evaluation from their supervisors, they may be required to adapt their teaching according to

this feedback, and they may face a mentor that guides them closely (Richter et al., 2013) or

even engages in heavy criticism towards their in-class performances (Hobson & Malderez,

2013). Finally, fulfillment of their need for relatedness requires them to adapt to a yet

unfamiliar school context, a heterogeneous teaching staff and its implicit social rules.

In CET, environmental factors can be characterized by the degree to which they foster

or thwart the satisfaction of essential, intrapsychic needs (Deci & Ryan, 2002). While need

fulfillment will most likely result in engagement, initiative, joy and productive self-

development, hindered need satisfaction will contrarily entail demotivation, negative affect,

lack of growth, and self-alienation.

From a CET perspective, the qualitatively distinct forms of instructional mentoring

support introduced earlier in this section can thus be characterized as social-contextual factors

in a prospective teacher’s environment of professional and personal development. Drawing on

the theoretical implications of the aforementioned mentoring concepts (Cochran-Smith &

Paris, 1995; Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Hofmann & Springer, 2014; Richter et al., 2013), it can be

hypothesized that the two approaches should promote fulfillment of the mentee’s intrinsic

needs to a varying degree, ultimately exhibiting a stronger or lesser effect on his or her well-

being. Regarding transmission-oriented mentoring, the direct provision of knowledge and

expertise associated with this approach (Richter et al., 2013) may successfully address the

mentee’s need for competence. However, the unidirectional and behaviorist nature of this
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 11

provision, the orientation towards best-practice examples, and the close and directive guidance

of a rather passively acting novice is unlikely to encourage autonomous problem-solving and

performance (Beck & Kosnik, 2000; Yuan, 2016). In contrast, constructivist-oriented

mentoring should be effective in allowing mentees an appropriate degree of autonomy as it

encourages collaborative reflection and inquiry, recognizes the diversity of solutions to a given

problem or situation, and withstands judgmental feedback (Feiman-Nemser, 2001). In line with

this argument, Ryan and Deci (2000) state that “choice, […], and opportunities for self-

direction […] allow people a greater feeling of autonomy” (p. 70). Furthermore, mentees’

expressed ideas, current strategies, and attitudes are valued and integrated into constructivist

coaching interactions, and thereby, expectations of competence on the mentee’s side may be

heightened as well. With respect to the need for social relatedness, we do not assume a

substantial impact of mentor-mentee interactions, as the mentoring relationship assessed in this

study is formally arranged and, therefore, professional by nature. Satisfaction of this particular

need should result from rather informal relationships and interactions, such as positive

experiences with colleagues (Struyve et al., 2016).

2.4. Findings on Basic Need Satisfaction in Teacher Induction

The critical role of basic need satisfaction regarding well-being and professionalization

in teacher training has been emphasized repeatedly (Aelterman, Vansteenkiste, van Keer, &

Haerens, 2016; Ciyin & Erturan-Ilker, 2014; Hobson & Maxwell, 2017; Holzberger, Philipp,

& Kunter, 2014; Korthagen & Evelein, 2016; Uzman, 2014). In a diary study, Aldrup,

Klusmann, and Lüdtke (2017) demonstrated how daily in- and outside class stressors thwarted

beginning teachers’ satisfaction of the needs for competence and relatedness, which in turn

resulted in heightened exhaustion levels and reduced work enthusiasm. This stands in line with

previous findings by Bartholomew, Ntoumanis, Cuevas, and Lonsdale (2014), who found
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 12

hindered basic need satisfaction to mediate the link between job pressure and ill-health, the

need for autonomy emerging as the strongest predictor of emotional exhaustion within the

analysis. Consequently, when the school environment is in turn perceived as autonomy-

supportive, this leads to greater adaptability and lower emotional exhaustion of experienced

teachers (Collie, Granziera, & Martin, 2018). However, fulfillment of the three basic needs

seems to be more difficult for student teachers compared to more experienced colleagues

(Evelein, Korthagen, & Brekelmans, 2008), and thwarted vs. satisfied needs have an impact on

positive and negative affect in student teachers likewise (Hagenauer, Gläser-Zikuda, &

Moschner, 2018).

While the relevance of intrinsic need fulfillment for early career teachers’ mental health

is undoubted, much less is known regarding environmental conditions that may promote (or

diminish) it during induction. In a recent meta-synthesis by Dunst, Hamby, Howse, Wilkie,

and Annas (2019), school-based mentoring was associated with higher quality teaching and

improved beginning teachers’ sense of preparedness to teach. A lack of a sense of competence,

in turn, has been associated with emotional exhaustion (Kaplan & Madjar, 2017). Moreover,

autonomy support by a university supervisor has been shown to lower exhaustion and

depersonalization of student teachers during teaching practicum (Fives, Hamman, & Olivarez,

2007). Underlining faculty instructors’ general potential to address the need for autonomy,

Gonzalez, Conde, Diaz, Garcia, and Ricoy (2018) found autonomy-supportive teaching styles

to enhance self-perceived competences and teacher self-efficacy in prospective teachers.

Moreover, in a non-educative context, supervisory mentoring enhanced basic need satisfaction

in a sample of work newcomers from different organizations (Wang, Chen, Duan, & Du, 2018).
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 13

2.5. Research Questions and Hypotheses

The empirical findings outlined above highlight the importance of successful need

satisfaction for early career teachers’ well-being during the practical training period.

Meanwhile, little is yet known regarding the potential of certain supportive structures within

the induction phase to satisfy these needs. Are the distinct mentoring approaches introduced

earlier capable of eliciting feelings of competence and/or autonomy in beginning teachers? And

can the specific capability to support intrinsic needs explain differences between their

respective influence on well-being that have been observed (Richter et al., 2013)?

To address these research questions, the present study investigates the association between

two qualitatively different forms of instructional mentoring support, satisfaction of the needs

for autonomy and competence, and emotional exhaustion in a mediational framework. Building

upon the theoretical assumptions and previous empirical findings as outlined above, we

hypothesize the following with regards to our sample of beginning teachers undergoing

induction:

H.1 Constructivist-oriented mentoring lowers emotional exhaustion in novice teachers.

H.2 Transmission-oriented mentoring lowers emotional exhaustion in novice teachers

(to a lesser degree than constructivist-oriented mentoring).

H.3 The effect of constructivist-oriented mentoring on emotional exhaustion is mediated

by autonomy need support.

H.4 The effect of constructivist-oriented mentoring on emotional exhaustion is mediated

by competence need support.

H.5 The effect of transmission-oriented mentoring on emotional exhaustion is mediated by

competence need support.

H.6 Transmission-oriented mentoring is not associated with support of the need for

autonomy.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 14

3. Methods

3.1. Participants and Procedures

The database used for this study’s analysis stem from an online survey commissioned

by the ministry of science, continuing education and culture in a federal state (‘Bundesland’)

in Germany, with the intent to evaluate the post-reform practical training phase of beginning

teachers (Author et al., 2020). After graduation from their educational masters studies at

university, prospective teachers complete a federal state-specific, 18 month-long in-service

training before obtaining their final teaching license. This so-called ‘Vorbereitungsdienst’

offers a broad range of practical, classroom-related learning opportunities at an assigned

supervising school, as well as continuous specialization in subject-related and general

pedagogical theory courses at specific teacher training institutions. Moreover, it involves the

formal assignment to a regular mentor teacher at the supervising school, who usually shares

one (or both) subjects with his or her mentee, supports during in-class practical training, and

participates in evaluative feedback meetings formally arranged by representatives of the

training institution in accordance to the curriculum of the training phase (Federal State of

[Region], Germany, 2012).

The data used for this study reflect beginning teachers’ appraisals on entering their

second trimester of practical training (i.e., in the 6th to 8th month of 18 months in total) for

teaching at primary level (26%) or secondary level (74%). Data were obtained anonymously at

every teacher training institution in the federal state (30 in total) via an online self-report

questionnaire presented during course attendance. Participation was voluntary and without

monetary compensation. Due to the repeated-measurement design of the research project, the

sample used in the present analyses consists of four cohorts, each participating in the second
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 15

trimester of their practical teacher training during one out of four measurement periods 1 within

the overall project duration from autumn 2017 to spring 2019. The overall sample comprises

579 individuals with an average age of 27.6 years (SD = 3.4 years) and of whom 68.7% were

female.

3.2. Measures

3.2.1. Independent Variables: Mentoring Styles

To assess the quality of mentoring interactions as perceived by the beginning teachers,

we adapted two scales measuring constructivist- and transmission-oriented mentoring as

developed by Richter et al. (2013). The scale tapping constructivist-oriented mentoring consists

of four items (e.g., “My mentor helps me to improve independently.”), whereas three items

measure transmissive-oriented mentoring (e.g., “My mentor tells me what I need to improve.”).

Prospective teachers were asked to rate their interactions on a Likert scale ranging from 1

(strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Cross-validating the constructs of interest, Richter et

al. (2013) demonstrate a reasonable model fit of a two-factor solution within exploratory and

confirmatory factor analyses. In their study, they also correlate the mentee’s ratings to self-

report ratings of their corresponding mentor teachers and find a substantial overlap between

estimates of both sides (Richter et al., 2013). In our study, both scales showed adequate internal

consistency (constructivist-oriented mentoring: ωT = .88; transmission-oriented mentoring: ωT

= .85; McNeish, 2018).

3.2.2. Mediating Variables: Basic Need Satisfaction

A German adaptation of the Basic Need Satisfaction at Work Scale (Kauper et al., 2012)

was used to capture the support felt by novice teachers in satisfying their basic intrinsic needs.

1
Cohort 1 (N = 231, M (age) = 27.1, SD (age) = 3.3, 73.2% female) participated in autumn 2017; Cohort 2 (N
= 128, M (age) = 28.1, SD (age) = 4.0, 64.1% female) participated in spring 2018; Cohort 3 (N = 95, M (age)
= 27.5, SD (age) = 3.2, 69.5% female) participated in autumn 2018; Cohort 4 (N = 125, M (age) = 28.2,
SD (age) = 3.0, 64.8% female) participated in spring 2019.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 16

It comprises nine items in total, a set of three each intended to capture one of the basic needs

for competence, autonomy, and social relatedness. For the present analyses, only the three

items constituting the subscales of competence (e.g., “I receive precise and detailed feedback

on my performance.”) and autonomy need satisfaction (e.g., “I can manage my working tasks

my own way.”) were included (six items in total). Items were rated on a four-point Likert scale

from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Reliability was acceptable for both the

competence need (ωT = .80) and the autonomy need subscale (ωT = .77).

3.2.3. Dependent Variable: Emotional Exhaustion

To measure the degree of prospective teachers’ exhaustion, we applied an adaptation

(Kunter et al., 2017) of the German version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Enzmann &

Kleiber, 1989). Participants rated their own degree of fatigue and lack of energy at work on a

four item-scale (e.g., “I often feel exhausted at work.”), items ranging from 1 (strongly

disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The scale showed good reliability (ωT = .82).

3.3. Statistical Analysis

To investigate the relationships between the variables of interest at the latent rather than

the observed level, and hence to decompose measurement variances into factor and error

variances, structural equation modeling was applied (Bollen, 1989; Hox & Bechger, 1998;

MacCallum & Austin, 2000). We used the Lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012) for R software (R

Core Team, 2014) to specify the measurement and path models corresponding to our

hypotheses, and to examine parameters and model fit. Missing data was estimated using the

full information maximum likelihood approach (Abraham & Russel, 2004; Enders & Bandalos,

2001). As preliminary analyses challenged the assumption of multivariate normality, a robust

estimator compatible to the applied treatment of missing values (Steinmetz, 2015) in this study
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 17

was adopted to determine the model parameters (Yuan, Chan, & Bentler, 2000). A level of

significance at p < .05 was defined for all hypothesis testing.

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 18

4. Results

4.1. Descriptives and Measurement Invariance

Means, standard deviations, and latent correlations of all variables are depicted in

Table 1. Before testing the hypothetical structures and associations between latent variables, a

combined measurement model including all five variables of interest was specified and

demonstrated acceptable overall fit (CFI = .96, RMSEA = .05 (90% CI [.041, .055]), SRMR =

.05; for cut-off value recommendations, see Hu & Bentler, 1999; Schermelleh-Engel,

Moosbrugger, & Müller, 2003). To assess the degree of measurement invariance across the

four cohorts included in the analyses, we applied a stepwise method, gradually comparing

nested models with added restrictions to the reference model with lesser constraints by usage

of a Likelihood Ratio Test (Van de Schoot, Lugtig, & Hox, 2012). While the latter indicated

metric invariance (Δχ² = 61.3, p = .43) but no scalar invariance (Δχ² = 55.7, p < .05), the gradual

change in alternative fit indices provoked by the growing restrictions across all models was

small (e.g., ΔCFI <.005; see Cheung & Rensvold, 2002; Meade, Johnson, & Braddy, 2006).

Thus, the results support the claim that factor loadings of the included

Table 1
Descriptives, Latent Correlations, and Welch Analyses of Variance
Competence Autonomy
M Constructivist Transmissive Emotional FWelch (df),
Variable Need Need
(SD) Mentoring Mentoring Exhaustion p (4 Cohorts)
Support Support
Constructivist 3.23 1.00 F3, 259.9 = 1.73
.27** .72** .44** -.35**
Mentoring (.75) p = .16
Transmissive 2.74 F3, 253.9 = 2.06
1.00 .35** .11 -.01
Mentoring (.83) p = .11
Competence 3.23 F3, 263.6 = 0.42
1.00 .55** -.38**
Need Support (.67) p = .74
Autonomy 2.86 F3, 263.3 = 1.51
1.00 -.60**
Need Support (.75) p = .21
Emotional 2.23 F3, 267.2 = 1.62
1.00
Exhaustion (.79) p = .19
Note. ** Latent correlations significant at p < .001. F- and p-values in the last column correspond to Welch analyses of
variance across the four cohorts included in our sample.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 19

indicators across groups are comparable and therefore, investigations of overall latent

correlations across subgroups are enabled. Moreover, the small change in absolute fit indices

(CFI and RMSEA) may even reflect scalar and strict invariance, respectively, as the Likelihood

Ratio Test is strongly affected by sample size (Meade, Johnson, & Braddy, 2008; Schermelleh-

Engel et al., 2003). In addition, we thus conducted Welch analyses of variance (Delacre, Leys,

Mora, & Lakens, 2019) for all variables to further investigate mean structures across the

cohorts, and results warranted no attention (also see Table 1). Consequently, data from all

cohorts were integrated and the mediation model was applied to the overall data set.

4.2. Mediation Analyses

We tested our hypotheses in a saturated mediational path model that comprises two

independent variables, two mediators, and one dependent variable (see Figure 1). Within this

model, we treated constructivist- and transmission-oriented mentoring as independent factors

(also see Richter et al., 2013), fixing their covariance to zero to facilitate direct, indirect, and

total effect estimations with regards to the mediation analyses. The latent (error) covariance of

our mediating variables, competence and autonomy need support, was specified to vary freely,

taking into account further variables that may explain additional shared variance beyond the

independent variables in our model, but that could not be included in the current analyses.

The estimated model displayed a reasonable fit (CFI = .96, RMSEA = .05 (90% CI

[.045, .059]), SRMR = .08) and explained 38% of the variance in emotional exhaustion (Figure

1). Along the specified indirect pathways, constructivist-oriented mentoring exhibited a

meaningful indirect effect on emotional exhaustion via autonomy need support, in accordance

with hypotheses 1 and 3 (β = -.24, p < .001). Beyond this, the independent
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 20

co_1 co_2 co_3

cm_1
Competence
cm_2 .69** Need Support
Constructivist
-.03
cm_3 Mentoring
exh_1
R² = .38
cm_4
.20** -.10 exh_2
Emotional
Exhaustion exh_3
.44** .08
tm_1
exh_4
Transmissive
tm_2 -.55**
Mentoring
Autonomy
tm_3 .00
Need Support

au_1 au_2 au_3

Figure 1. Combined measurement and path model. For reasons of parsimony, factor loadings, error variances
and latent (co-)variances are not displayed. Regression weights are completely standardized and, if presented in
bold, significant at p < .001.

variable was not directly associated with exhaustion anymore (β = -.10, p = .15). While

transmission-oriented mentoring showed no effect on autonomy need support (in alignment

with hypothesis 6; β = .00, p = .98), both predictors were positively associated with competence

need support. However, in contrast to the significant latent correlation that was obtained

initially (r = -.38, p < .001), competence need support was no longer associated with emotional

exhaustion (β = -.03, p = .74) in the combined mediation model that included autonomy need

support simultaneously. Thus, contrary to hypotheses 2 and 5, neither an indirect nor a direct

effect of transmission-oriented mentoring on emotional exhaustion could be obtained in this

model. Furthermore, competence need support failed to mediate the significant effect of

constructivist mentoring on exhaustion (in contrast to hypothesis 4). In accordance with the
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 21

obtained latent correlations, constructivist mentoring displayed a negative total effect

(specified as the sum of the direct effect, and both specified indirect effects; β = -.36, p < .001),

whereas transmission-oriented mentoring showed no meaningful total effect (β = .07, p = .15).

Table 2 provides the direct, indirect and total effect estimates obtained within the mediation

analysis.

To further assess the strength of the obtained indirect effect with regards to our

proposed mediators, we conducted a likelihood ratio test and compared the original model to a

restricted version in which the direct effect of constructivist-oriented mentoring on emotional

exhaustion was fixed to zero. With Δχ² = 1.98 (p = .16), the restricted model did not

demonstrate a worse fit than the unrestricted model, indicating (in accordance with the

observation of a non-significant direct effect in the unrestricted model) a full mediation of

autonomy need support in the current analysis.

Table 2
Indirect, direct, and total effects of mentoring styles on emotional exhaustion
IV MV DV ab abps abcs c’ c
cm bn-co emo-exh -.02 -.02 -.02 -.10 -.36**
cm bn-au emo-exh -.25** -.24** -.24** -.10 -.36**
tm bn-co emo-exh -.00 -.01 -.01 .08 .07
tm bn-au emo-exh -.00 -.00 -.00 .08 .07

Note. IV = independent variable, MV = mediator variable, DV = dependent variable, ab = unstandardized indirect

effect, abps = partially standardized indirect effect, abcs = completely standardized indirect effect, c’ = direct effect, c =
total effect; cm = constructivist mentoring, tm = transmissive mentoring, bn-co = competence need support, bn-au =
autonomy need support, emo-exh = emotional exhaustion. **p < .001.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 22

5. Discussion

5.1. The Present Study

The present study investigated relationships between two qualitatively distinct

mentoring approaches, the experience of basic need fulfillment and emotional exhaustion

during early career teachers’ practical training period in Germany. In line with our assumptions

as well as previous findings, constructivist-oriented mentoring had a considerable beneficial

effect on mentees’ levels of emotional exhaustion (Hypothesis 1; Richter et al., 2013; Voss et

al., 2017). Moreover, this effect was fully mediated by the substantial support of prospective

teachers’ need for autonomy (in accordance with Hypothesis 3), whereas competence need

support did not emerge as a mediator (contrary to Hypothesis 4). As predicted further

(Hypothesis 6), a transmission-oriented instructional support could not elicit feelings of

autonomy in the process of being mentored. Meanwhile, the positive effect of transmission-

oriented mentoring on competence need support could be confirmed, but, contrary to our

expectations (Hypothesis 2 and 5), mentor-mentee interactions based on this approach did not

affect beginning teachers’ exhaustion overall. This aligns with a previous finding by Richter et

al. (2013) but remains inconclusive with regards to the observed non-association between

competence need satisfaction and exhaustion in the mediation model, given the postulate of

self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2002). Considering the cross-sectional nature of our

analysis, it could be assumed that prospective teachers’ competence need fulfillment, as

successfully fostered by both mentoring approaches under investigation, may not exhibit a

proximal effect on well-being within the limited time frame considered, but still represent a

meaningful prerequisite for future quality performance and distal job-related health outcomes

when the transition into a full teaching position is completed. Autonomy need satisfaction, in

contrast, was strongly associated with emotional exhaustion in our model, underlining its

crucial role during learning processes within the induction of novice teachers.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 23

Taken together, our findings from the mediational path analyses confirm the meaningful

impact that has been attributed to school-based mentoring during induction (Callahan, 2016;

Hobson et al., 2009; Ingersoll & Strong, 2012; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004) and underline the

relevance of considering the ‘how’ in effectively supporting novice teachers to preserve their

well-being during skill acquisition (Feiman-Nemser, 2001; Hobson, 2017; Howe, 2006;

Lindgren, 2005; Richter et al., 2013; Wang & Odell, 2002). Furthermore, they emphasize the

importance of promoting mentoring practices that allow for a sufficient degree of mentees’

autonomy within the practical teacher training period.

5.2. Practical Implications

School-based mentoring is an established structure within a considerable amount of

international teacher induction programs (Howe, 2006), yet mentor teachers are rarely well-

prepared and often insufficiently compensated for their involvement in training early career

teachers. Mentors have reported that they struggle at deciding how much guidance of their

mentee is adequate (Valencic & Vogrinc, 2007), at integrating their double role as mentor and

teacher (Jaspers, Meijer, Prins, & Wubbels, 2014), and at applying reflection-based counseling

techniques (Lejonberg, Elstad, Sandvik, Solhaug, & Christophersen, 2018). At the same time,

directive and dominant mentoring approaches are still prominent during interactions (Mena,

Hennissen, & Loughran, 2017). Consequently, mandatory mentor training concepts have been

repeatedly demanded to harness the full potential of mentoring beginning teachers (Aspfors &

Fransson, 2015; Bradbury & Koballa, 2008; Hobson et al., 2009; Hoffman et al., 2015; Jaspers,

Prins, Meijer, & Wubbels, 2018; Valencic & Vogrinc, 2007), and indeed some studies have

yielded promising results regarding the effectiveness of mentor preparation programs on role
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 24

clarity and reflective practice (Langdon & Ward, 2015), mentoring beliefs (Ambrosetti, 2014),

and the professional development of the protégés (Evertson & Smithey, 2000).

The present study is in alignment with these previous empirical arguments, emphasizing

the potential of preparation programs that train mentor teachers to apply effective counseling

strategies and gain role clarity during interactions with their novices. In the light of our core

findings, strengthening a constructivist approach in school-based mentors’ practices could

serve as an effective measure to promote a sense of autonomy and health during mentees’

transition into the teaching profession. Therefore, we specifically propose to train mentors in

counseling strategies that reflect constructivist beliefs about learning and preserve mentees’

freedom of choice as part of a mandatory mentor preparation program, to ultimately foster well-

being in novice teachers.

5.3. Limitations & Future Directions

Several limitations of the present study require attention. First, our mediation analyses

are solely based on self-report measures, which are unavoidably at risk of being distorted by

memory biases, sequence effects, or question wording (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, &

Podsakoff, 2003; Schwarz, 1999). Also, due to the design of our investigation, we were not

able to obtain mentors’ self-reports on their mentoring practices and compare them to the

quality of mentoring interactions as rated by the novices. Meanwhile, Richter et al. (2013)

found a substantial overlap between mentors’ and mentees’ ratings, indicating that beginning

teachers’ perceptions of mentoring approaches are a valid source of information in this context.

Another restriction is due to the cross-sectional nature of our analyses, implying that the causal

directions specified in our path model rely on the theory formation established and previous

findings. Hence, the results with regards to these relations should be interpreted cautiously
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 25

(MacCallum & Austin, 2000) and future studies could investigate the mediational patterns

obtained in the framework of longitudinal designs and intervention studies (MacKinnon &

Fairchild, 2009). Moreover, regarding the measures applied in this study, the instrument that

captured mentoring qualities only assesses instructional support (Gold, 1996; Richter et al.,

2013), thus we were not able to determine how other components of school-based mentoring

support, e.g., psychological support, would have affected prospective teachers’ levels of

emotional exhaustion in comparison. Finally, future studies should address influential factors

beyond the scope of this study that are likely to influence the success or not of school-based

mentor-mentee relationships as well. Among those, the consequences of a ‘match’ versus

‘mismatch’ between mentors’ and mentees’ professional beliefs (Hawkey, 1998; Orland-

Barak, 2014), mentees’ willingness to be mentored (Hobson, 2017), mentors’ motives to

mentor (Van Ginkel, Verloop, & Denessen, 2016), higher workload compensation for mentors

(Fletcher & Strong, 2009), and complementary versus compensatory effects of informal mentor

arrangements (Hochberg et al., 2015) have been discussed. Future research should address the

question how these interplaying factors can be further considered to optimize selection, pairing,

and cooperation within the mentoring process.

5.4. Conclusion

This study contributes to understanding the differential effects of distinct mentoring

qualities on early career teachers’ well-being. In a structural equation model framework, we

were able to simultaneously test mediation effects of basic need support within the association

of two types of mentor-mentee interactions and emotional exhaustion. The main finding of

these latent mediation analyses indicated that mentoring support following constructivist rather

than behaviorist principles of learning lowered emotional exhaustion by successfully

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 26

addressing the need for autonomy in beginning teachers. This is in alignment with a range of

theoretical arguments and empirical findings that have emphasized the crucial role of mentors’

counseling approach applied during interactions for novice teachers’ development and health

(overviews in Hobson et al., 2009; Wang & Fulton, 2012). Adding to the existing literature,

this study particularly highlights the importance of effective autonomy need support (Deci &

Ryan, 2002) within mentor-mentee relationships to promote novices’ well-being during the

challenging practical teacher training period.

6. Appendix

The self-report scales applied in this study for data acquisition are available upon request.

Please contact Julian Burger via e-mail: [email protected] .

[No further information provided within the appendix.]

TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 27

7. References

Abraham, W. T., & Russell, D. W. (2004). Missing data: a review of current methods and
applications in epidemiological research. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 17, 315–321.
Aelterman, N., Vansteenkiste, M., van Keer, H., & Haerens, L. (2016). Changing teachers'
beliefs regarding autonomy support and structure: The role of experienced psychological
need satisfaction in teacher training. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 23, 64–72.
Aldrup, K., Klusmann, U., & Lüdtke, O. (2017). Does basic need satisfaction mediate the
link between stress exposure and well-being? A diary study among beginning teachers.
Learning and Instruction, 50, 21–30.
Ambrosetti, A. (2014). Are You Ready to be a Mentor? Preparing Teachers for Mentoring
Pre-service Teachers. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(6), 30–42.
Aspfors, J., & Fransson, G. (2015). Research on mentor education for mentors of newly
qualified teachers: A qualitative meta-synthesis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 48, 75–
86.
Author et al. (2020) [details removed for peer review].
Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Cuevas, R., & Lonsdale, C. (2014). Job pressure and ill-
health in physical education teachers: The mediating role of psychological need thwarting.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 37, 101–107.
Beck, C., & Kosnik, C. (2000). Associate Teachers in Pre-service Education: Clarifying and
enhancing their role. Journal of Education for Teaching, 26, 207–224.
Bjørndal, C. R. (2020). Student teachers’ responses to critical mentor feedback: A study of
face-saving strategies in teaching placements. Teaching and Teacher Education, 91,
103047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2020.103047
Blömeke, S., & Klein, P. (2013). When is a school environment perceived as supportive by
beginning mathematics teachers? Effects of leadership, trust, autonomy and appraisal on
teaching quality. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 11, 1029–
1048.
Bollen, K. A. (1989). Structural equation modeling with latent variables. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons.
Bradbury, L. U., & Koballa, T. R. (2008). Borders to cross: Identifying sources of tension in
mentor–intern relationships. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 2132–2145.
Byrne, B. M. (1993). The Maslach Burnout Inventory: Testing for factorial validity and
invariance across elementary, intermediate and secondary teachers. Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, 197–212.
Callahan, J. (2016). Encouraging retention of new teachers through mentoring strategies.
Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin, 83(1), 6–11.
Chang, M.‑L. (2009). An Appraisal Perspective of Teacher Burnout: Examining the
Emotional Work of Teachers. Educational Psychology Review, 21, 193–218.
Chaplain, R. P. (2008). Stress and psychological distress among trainee secondary teachers in
England. Educational Psychology, 28, 195–209.
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating Goodness-of-Fit Indexes for Testing
Measurement Invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9,
233–255.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 28

Ciyin, G., & Erturan-Ilker, G. (2014). Student Physical Education Teachers’ Well-Being:
Contribution of Basic Psychological Needs. Journal of Education and Training Studies,
2(3), 44–51.
Clandinin, D. J., Long, J., Schaefer, L., Downey, C. A., Steeves, P., Pinnegar, E., . . .
Wnuk, S. (2015). Early career teacher attrition: intentions of teachers beginning. Teaching
Education, 26(1), 1–16.
Cochran-Smith, M., & Paris, C. L. (1995). Mentor and mentoring: Did Homer have it right.
In J. Smyth (Ed.), Critical discourses on teacher development (pp. 181-202). London,
England: Cassell.
Collie, R. J., Granziera, H., & Martin, A. J. (2018). Teachers’ perceived autonomy support
and adaptability: An investigation employing the job demands-resources model as relevant
to workplace exhaustion, disengagement, and commitment. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 74, 125–136.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2003). Keeping good teachers: Why it matters, what leaders can
do. Educational leadership, 60(8), 6–13.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic
dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-
determination research (pp. 3-33). New York, NY: The University of Rochester Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human
motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology, 49, 182–185.
Delacre, M., Leys, C., Mora, Y. L., & Lakens, D. (2019). Taking Parametric Assumptions
Seriously: Arguments for the Use of Welch’s F-test instead of the Classical F-test in One-
Way ANOVA. International Review of Social Psychology, 32(1), 13.
http://doi.org/10.5334/irsp.198
Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., Holzberger, D., Kunina-Habenicht, O., Kunter, M., & Leutner, D.
(2015). Beginning teachers' efficacy and emotional exhaustion: Latent changes,
reciprocity, and the influence of professional knowledge. Contemporary Educational
Psychology, 41, 62–72.
Dicke, T., Stebner, F., Linninger, C., Kunter, M., & Leutner, D. (2018). A longitudinal study
of teachers' occupational well-being: Applying the job demands-resources model. Journal
of Occupational Health Psychology, 23, 262–277.
Dunst, C., Hamby, D., Howse, R., Wilkie, H., & Annas, K. (2019). Metasynthesis of
Preservice Professional Preparation and Teacher Education Research Studies. Education
Sciences, 9(1), 50. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9010050
Enders, C., & Bandalos, D. (2001). The Relative Performance of Full Information Maximum
Likelihood Estimation for Missing Data in Structural Equation Models. Structural
Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8, 430–457.
Enzmann, D., & Kleiber, D. (1989). Helfer-Leiden: Streß und Burnout in psychosozialen
Berufen [Helper‐ordeals: stress and burnout in the human services]. Heidelberg, Germany:
Asanger.
Evelein, F., Korthagen, F., & Brekelmans, M. (2008). Fulfilment of the basic psychological
needs of student teachers during their first teaching experiences. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 24, 1137–1148.
Evertson, C. M., & Smithey, M. W. (2000). Mentoring Effects on Protégés' Classroom
Practice: An Experimental Field Study. The Journal of Educational Research, 93, 294–
304.
Federal State of [Region], Germany (2012) [details removed for peer review].
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 29

Feiman-Nemser, S. (2001). Helping Novices Learn to Teach. Journal of Teacher Education,

52(1), 17–30.
Fives, H., Hamman, D., & Olivarez, A. (2007). Does burnout begin with student-teaching?
Analyzing efficacy, burnout, and support during the student-teaching semester. Teaching
and Teacher Education, 23, 916–934.
Fletcher, S. H., & Strong, M. A. (2009). Full-Release and Site-Based Mentoring of New
Elementary Grade Teachers: An Analysis of Changes in Student Achievement. The New
Educator, 5, 329–341.
Friedman, I. A. (2000). Burnout in teachers: Shattered dreams of impeccable professional
performance. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 595–606.
Gold, Y. (1996). Beginning teacher support: Attrition, mentoring, and induction. In J. Sikula
(Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 548-594). New York, NY:
Macmillan.
Gold, Y., Roth, R. A., Wright, C. R., Michael, W. B., & Chin-Yi, C. (1992). The Factorial
Validity of a Teacher Burnout Measure (Educators Survey) Administered to a Sample of
Beginning Teachers in Elementary and Secondary Schools in California. Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 52, 761–768.
Gonzalez, A., Conde, A., Diaz, P., Garcia, M., & Ricoy, C. (2018). Instructors’ teaching
styles: relation with competences, self-efficacy, and commitment in pre-service teachers.
Higher Education, 75, 625–642.
Hagenauer, G., Gläser-Zikuda, M., & Moschner, B. (2018). University students’ emotions,
life-satisfaction and study commitment: a self-determination theoretical perspective.
Journal of Further and Higher Education, 42, 808–826.
Harmsen, R., Helms-Lorenz, M., Maulana, R., & van Veen, K. (2018). The relationship
between beginning teachers’ stress causes, stress responses, teaching behaviour and
attrition. Teachers and Teaching, 24, 626–643.
Hawkey, K. (1998). Mentor pedagogy and student teacher professional development.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 14, 657–670.
Hobson, A. J. (2017). The terrors of judgementoring and the case for ONSIDE mentoring for
early career teachers. In D. A. Clutterbuck, F. Kochan, L. G. Lunsford, N. Dominguez, &
J. Haddock-Millar (Eds.), The Sage handbook of mentoring (pp. 335-357). Los Angeles,
CA: SAGE Publications.
Hobson, A. J., Ashby, P., Malderez, A., & Tomlinson, P. D. (2009). Mentoring beginning
teachers: What we know and what we don't. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 207–
216.
Hobson, A. J., & Malderez, A. (2013). Judgementoring and other threats to realizing the
potential of school‐based mentoring in teacher education. International Journal of
Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2, 89–108.
Hobson, A. J., & Maxwell, B. (2017). Supporting and inhibiting the well-being of early
career secondary school teachers: Extending self-determination theory. British
Educational Research Journal, 43, 168–191.
Hochberg, E. D., Desimone, L. M., Porter, A. C., Polikoff, M. S., Schwartz, R., &
Johnson, L. J. (2015). A hybrid approach benefits beginning teachers. Phi Delta Kappan,
96(8), 70–72.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 30

Hoffman, J. V., Wetzel, M. M., Maloch, B., Greeter, E., Taylor, L., DeJulio, S., &
Vlach, S. K. (2015). What can we learn from studying the coaching interactions between
cooperating teachers and preservice teachers? A literature review. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 52, 99–112.
Hofmann, F., & Springer, K. (2014). Wie Autonomie unterstützend agieren Mentorinnen und
Mentoren bei ihrer Begleitung von Berufseinsteigerinnen und Berufseinsteigern [How
autonomy-supporting mentors act when attending to young professionals]. In G. Beer, I.
Benischek, O. Dangl, & C. Plaimauer (Eds.), Mentoring im Berufseinstieg - eine
mehrperspektivische Betrachtung [Mentoring at career entry – a multi perspective
approach] (pp. 57-95). Wien, Austria: LIT Publishing.
Holzberger, D., Philipp, A., & Kunter, M. (2014). Predicting teachers’ instructional
behaviors: The interplay between self-efficacy and intrinsic needs. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 39, 100–111.
Howe, E. R. (2006). Exemplary Teacher Induction: An international review. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 38, 287–297.
Hox, J. J., & Bechger, T. M. (1998). An introduction to structural equation modeling. Family
Science Review, 11, 354–373.
Hu, L.‐T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure
analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A
Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Smith, T. M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage.
Educational leadership, 60(8), 30–33.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Kralik, J. M. (2004). The impact of mentoring on teacher retention: What
the research says. Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Strong, M. (2011). The Impact of Induction and Mentoring Programs for
Beginning Teachers. Review of Educational Research, 81, 201–233.
Ingersoll, R. M., & Strong, M. (2012). What the Research Tells Us about the Impact of
Induction and Mentoring Programs for Beginning Teachers. Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, 111, 466–490.
Jalongo, M. R., & Heider, K. (2006). Editorial Teacher Attrition: An Issue of National
Concern. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33, 379–380.
Jaspers, W. M., Meijer, P. C., Prins, F., & Wubbels, T. (2014). Mentor teachers: Their
perceived possibilities and challenges as mentor and teacher. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 44, 106–116.
Jaspers, W. M., Prins, F., Meijer, P. C., & Wubbels, T. (2018). Mentor teachers' practical
reasoning about intervening during student teachers' lessons. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 75, 327–342.
Kaplan, H., & Madjar, N. (2017). The Motivational Outcomes of Psychological Need
Support among Pre-Service Teachers: Multicultural and Self-determination Theory
Perspectives. Frontiers in Education, 2, 42. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2017.00042
Kauper, T., Retelsdorf, J., Bauer, J., Rösler, L., Möller, L., Prenzel, M., & Drechsel, B.
(2012). PaLea– Panel zum Lehramtsstudium: Skalendokumentation und
Häufigkeitsauszählungen des BMBF-Projektes, 2. Welle [PaLea– panel study on pre-
service teachers: technical report of survey instruments and frequency analyses of the
BMBF-project, survey 2]. Leibniz Institute of Pedagogy of Natural Sciences and
Mathematic. Retrieved from http://www.palea.unikiel.de/veroffentlichungen/downloads/
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 31

Kessels, C. (2010). The influence of induction programs on beginning teachers' well-being

and professional development [Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University, Netherlands].
Leiden University Graduate School of Teaching (ICLON).
Retrieved from https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/15750
Klassen, R. M., & Durksen, T. L. (2014). Weekly self-efficacy and work stress during the
teaching practicum: A mixed methods study. Learning and Instruction, 33, 158–169.
Klusmann, U., Kunter, M., Voss, T., & Baumert, J. (2012). Berufliche Beanspruchung
angehender Lehrkräfte: Die Effekte von Persönlichkeit, pädagogischer Vorerfahrung und
professioneller Kompetenz [Occupational stress of beginning teachers: the effects of
personality, pedagogical experience, and professional competence]. Zeitschrift für
Pädagogische Psychologie, 26, 275–290.
Korthagen, F. A.J., & Evelein, F. G. (2016). Relations between student teachers' basic needs
fulfillment and their teaching behavior. Teaching and Teacher Education, 60, 234–244.
Kunter, M., Baumert, J., Leutner, D., Terhart, E., Seidel, T., Dicke, T., . . . Stürmer, K.
(2017). Bildungswissenschaftliches Wissen und der Erwerb professioneller Kompetenz in
der Lehramtsausbildung. Dokumentation der Erhebungsinstrumente der Projektphasen
des BilWiss-Forschungsprogramms von 2009 bis 2016 [Professional teacher knowledge
and acquisition of professional competencies in teacher education. Technical report of
survey instruments in the BilWiss research project phases from 2009 to 2016]. Frankfurt,
Germany: Goethe University. Retrieved from https://www.iqb.hu-berlin.de/fdz/studies/-
BilWiss/#Dokumentation
Langdon, F., & Ward, L. (2015). Educative mentoring: a way forward. International Journal
of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 4, 240–254.
Lejonberg, E., Elstad, E., Sandvik, L. V., Solhaug, T., & Christophersen, K.‑A. (2018).
Mentors of preservice teachers. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in
Education, 7, 261–279.
Lindgren, U. (2005). Experiences of beginning teachers in a school‐based mentoring program
in Sweden. Educational Studies, 31, 251–263.
Linninger, C. A. (2016). Reflexion bei angehenden Lehrkräften: Bedeutung und Förderung
im Professionalisierungsprozess [Reflection in early career teachers: relevance and
promotion during the process of professionalization], [Unpublished doctoral dissertation].
Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany.
MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Applications of structural equation modeling in
psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 201–226.
MacKinnon, D. P., & Fairchild, A. J. (2009). Current Directions in Mediation Analysis.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(1), 16–20.
Maguire, M. (2001). Bullying and the Postgraduate Secondary School Trainee Teacher: An
English case study. Journal of Education for Teaching, 27(1), 95–109.
Marable, M. A., & Raimondi, S. L. (2007). Teachers’ perceptions of what was most (and
least) supportive during their first year of teaching. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in
Learning, 15(1), 25–37.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., Leiter, M. P., Schaufeli, W. B., & Schwab, R. L. (1986).
Maslach burnout inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting psychologists press.
McNeish, D. (2018). Thanks coefficient alpha, we'll take it from here. Psychological
Methods, 23, 412–433.
Meade, A. W., Johnson, E. C., & Braddy, P. W. (2006). The utility of alternative fit indices in
tests of measurement invariance. Academy of Management Proceedings, 2006(1), B1-B6.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 32

Meade, A. W., Johnson, E. C., & Braddy, P. W. (2008). Power and sensitivity of alternative
fit indices in tests of measurement invariance. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93,
568–592.
Mena, J., Hennissen, P., & Loughran, J. (2017). Developing pre-service teachers' professional
knowledge of teaching: The influence of mentoring. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66,
47–59.
Oberski, I., Ford, K., Higgins, S., & Fisher, P. (1999). The Importance of Relationships in
Teacher Education. Journal of Education for Teaching, 25, 135–150.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] (2005). Teachers matter:
Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. Paris, France: OECD Publishing.
Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/education/school/34990905.pdf
Orland-Barak, L. (2014). Mediation in mentoring: A synthesis of studies in Teaching and
Teacher Education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 44, 180–188.
Pearson, L. C., & Moomaw, W. (2005). The relationship between teacher autonomy and
stress, work satisfaction, empowerment, and professionalism. Educational research
quarterly, 29(1), 38–54.
Pirkle, S. F. (2011). Stemming the Tide: Retaining and Supporting Science Teachers. Science
Educator, 20(2), 42–46.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.‑Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method
biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended
remedies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.
Prilleltensky, I., Neff, M., & Bessell, A. (2016). Teacher Stress: What It Is, Why It's
Important, How It Can be Alleviated. Theory into Practice, 55, 104–111.
R Core Team (2014). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation
for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Available from http://www.R-project.org/
Richter, D., Kunter, M., Lüdtke, O., Klusmann, U., Anders, Y., & Baumert, J. (2013). How
different mentoring approaches affect beginning teachers' development in the first years of
practice. Teaching and Teacher Education, 36, 166–177.
Richter, D., Kunter, M., Lüdtke, O., Klusmann, U., & Baumert, J. (2011). Soziale
Unterstützung beim Berufseinstieg ins Lehramt [Social support at career entry for
teachers]. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 14(1), 35–59.
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R Package for Structural Equation Modeling. Journal of
Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Scheopner, A. J. (2010). Irreconcilable differences: Teacher attrition in public and catholic
schools. Educational Research Review, 5, 261–277.
Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the fit of
structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures.
Methods of psychological research online, 8(2), 23–74.
Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions shape the answers. American
Psychologist, 54, 93–105.
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2017). Dimensions of teacher burnout: relations with
potential stressors at school. Social Psychology of Education, 20, 775–790.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 33

Smith, K., & McLay, M. (2007). Curates' eggs? Secondary trainee teachers' experience of the
Graduate Teacher Programme and the Postgraduate Certificate in Education. Journal of
Education for Teaching, 33(1), 35–54.
Smith, T. M., & Ingersoll, R. M. (2004). What Are the Effects of Induction and Mentoring on
Beginning Teacher Turnover? American Educational Research Journal, 41, 681–714.
Soini, T., Pietarinen, J., & Pyhältö, K. (2016). What if teachers learn in the classroom?
Teacher Development, 20, 380–397.
Stanulis, R. N., & Floden, R. E. (2009). Intensive Mentoring as a Way to Help Beginning
Teachers Develop Balanced Instruction. Journal of Teacher Education, 60, 112–122.
Steinmetz, H. (2015). Lineare Strukturgleichungsmodelle: Eine Einführung mit R [Linear
structural equation modeling: an introduction using R]. Mering, Germany: Rainer Hampp
Verlag.
Struyve, C., Daly, A., Vandecandelaere, M., Meredith, C., Hannes, K., & Fraine, B. de
(2016). More than a mentor. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 1, 198–218.
Taylor, M., McLean, L., Bryce, C. I., Abry, T., & Granger, K. L. (2019). The influence of
multiple life stressors during Teacher Training on Burnout and Career Optimism in the
first year of teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 102910.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.102910
Tynjälä, P., & Heikkinen, H. L.T. (2011). Beginning teachers’ transition from pre-service
education to working life. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 14(1), 11–33.
Uitto, M., Jokikokko, K., & Estola, E. (2015). Virtual special issue on teachers and emotions
in Teaching and teacher education (TATE) in 1985-2014. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 50, 124–135.
Uzman, E. (2014). Basic Psychological Needs and Psychological Health in Teacher
Candidates. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 3629–3635.
Valencic, M., & Vogrinc, J. (2007). A mentor’s aid in developing the competences of teacher
trainees. Educational Studies, 33, 373–384.
Van de Schoot, R., Lugtig, P., & Hox, J. (2012). A checklist for testing measurement
invariance. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 486–492.
Van Ginkel, G., Verloop, N., & Denessen, E. (2016). Why mentor? Linking mentor teachers’
motivations to their mentoring conceptions. Teachers and Teaching, 22, 101–116.
Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived Problems of Beginning Teachers. Review of Educational
Research, 54, 143–178.
Voss, T., Wagner, W., Klusmann, U., Trautwein, U., & Kunter, M. (2017). Changes in
beginning teachers’ classroom management knowledge and emotional exhaustion during
the induction phase. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 51, 170–184.
Wang, J., & Odell, S. J. (2002). Mentored Learning to Teach According to Standards-Based
Reform: A Critical Review. Review of Educational Research, 72, 481–546.
Wang, J., Odell, S. J., & Schwille, S. A. (2008). Effects of Teacher Induction on Beginning
Teachers' Teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 59, 132–152.
Wang, J., & Fulton, L. A. (2012). Mentor-novice relationships and learning to teach in
teacher induction: A critical review of research. Multidisciplinary Journal of Educational
Research, 2, 56–104.
Wang, Z., Chen, L., Duan, Y., & Du, J. (2018). Supervisory Mentoring and Newcomers'
Work Engagement: The Mediating Role of Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction. Social
Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 46, 1745–1760.
TEACHER MENTORING: BASIC NEEDS AND WELL-BEING 34

Yuan, E. R. (2016). The dark side of mentoring on pre-service language teachers' identity
formation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 188–197.
Yuan, K. H., Chan, W., & Bentler, P. M. (2000). Robust transformation with applications to
structural equation modelling. The British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical
Psychology, 53, 31–50.