8.

Nonlinearity

This chapter discusses nonlinear structural analysis in Abaqus. The differences between linear and
nonlinear analyses are summarized below.

Linear analysis

All the analyses discussed so far have been linear: there is a linear relationship between the applied
loads and the response of the system. For example, if a linear spring extends statically by 1 m under
a load of 10 N, it will extend by 2 m when a load of 20 N is applied. This means that in a linear
Abaqus/Standard analysis the flexibility of the structure need only be calculated once (by assembling
the stiffness matrix and inverting it). The linear response of the structure to other load cases can be
found by multiplying the new vector of loads by the inverted stiffness matrix. Furthermore, the
structure's response to various load cases can be scaled by constants and/or superimposed on one
another to determine its response to a completely new load case, provided that the new load case is
the sum (or multiple) of previous ones. This principle of superposition of load cases assumes that the
same boundary conditions are used for all the load cases.

Abaqus/Standard uses the principle of superposition of load cases in linear dynamics simulations,
which are discussed in Chapter 7, “Linear Dynamics.”

Nonlinear analysis

A nonlinear structural problem is one in which the structure's stiffness changes as it deforms. All
physical structures exhibit nonlinear behavior. Linear analysis is a convenient approximation that is
often adequate for design purposes. It is obviously inadequate for many structural simulations
including manufacturing processes, such as forging or stamping; crash analyses; and analyses of
rubber components, such as tires or engine mounts. A simple example is a spring with a nonlinear
stiffening response (see Figure 8–1).

Figure 8–1 Linear and nonlinear spring characteristics.

Since the stiffness is now dependent on the displacement, the initial flexibility can no longer be
multiplied by the applied load to calculate the spring's displacement for any load. In a nonlinear
implicit analysis the stiffness matrix of the structure has to be assembled and inverted many times
during the course of the analysis, making it much more expensive to solve than a linear implicit
analysis. In an explicit analysis the increased cost of a nonlinear analysis is due to reductions in the
stable time increment. The stable time increment is discussed further in Chapter 9, “Nonlinear
Explicit Dynamics.”

Since the response of a nonlinear system is not a linear function of the magnitude of the applied load,
it is not possible to create solutions for different load cases by superposition. Each load case must be
defined and solved as a separate analysis.
8.1 Sources of nonlinearity

There are three sources of nonlinearity in structural mechanics simulations:

• Material nonlinearity.
• Boundary nonlinearity.
• Geometric nonlinearity.

8.1.1 Material nonlinearity

This type of nonlinearity is probably the one that you are most familiar with and is covered in more
depth in Chapter 10, “Materials.” Most metals have a fairly linear stress/strain relationship at low
strain values; but at higher strains the material yields, at which point the response becomes nonlinear
and irreversible (see Figure 8–2).

Figure 8–2 Stress-strain curve for an elastic-plastic material under uniaxial tension.

Rubber materials can be approximated by a nonlinear, reversible (elastic) response (see Figure 8–3).

Figure 8–3 Stress-strain curve for a rubber-type material.

Material nonlinearity may be related to factors other than strain. Strain-rate-dependent material data
and material failure are both forms of material nonlinearity. Material properties can also be a function
of temperature and other predefined fields.

8.1.2 Boundary nonlinearity

Boundary nonlinearity occurs if the boundary conditions change during the analysis. Consider the
cantilever beam, shown in Figure 8–4, that deflects under an applied load until it hits a “stop.”

Figure 8–4 Cantilever beam hitting a stop.

The vertical deflection of the tip is linearly related to the load (if the deflection is small) until it contacts
the stop. There is then a sudden change in the boundary condition at the tip of the beam, preventing
any further vertical deflection, and so the response of the beam is no longer linear. Boundary
nonlinearities are extremely discontinuous: when contact occurs during a simulation, there is a large
and instantaneous change in the response of the structure.

Another example of boundary nonlinearity is blowing a sheet of material into a mold. The sheet
expands relatively easily under the applied pressure until it begins to contact the mold. From then on
the pressure must be increased to continue forming the sheet because of the change in boundary
conditions.

Boundary nonlinearity is covered in Chapter 12, “Contact.”

8.1.3 Geometric nonlinearity

The third source of nonlinearity is related to changes in the geometry of the structure during the
analysis. Geometric nonlinearity occurs whenever the magnitude of the displacements affects the
response of the structure. This may be caused by:

• Large deflections or rotations.

• “Snap through.”
• Initial stresses or load stiffening.

For example, consider a cantilever beam loaded vertically at the tip (see Figure 8–5).

Figure 8–5 Large deflection of a cantilever beam.

If the tip deflection is small, the analysis can be considered as being approximately linear. However, if the tip
deflections are large, the shape of the structure and, hence, its stiffness changes. In addition, if the load does
not remain perpendicular to the beam, the action of the load on the structure changes significantly. As the
cantilever beam deflects, the load can be resolved into a component perpendicular to the beam and a
component acting along the length of the beam. Both of these effects contribute to the nonlinear response of
the cantilever beam (i.e., the changing of the beam's stiffness as the load it carries increases).

One would expect large deflections and rotations to have a significant effect on the way that
structures carry loads. However, displacements do not necessarily have to be large relative to the
dimensions of the structure for geometric nonlinearity to be important. Consider the “snap through”
under applied pressure of a large panel with a shallow curve, as shown in Figure 8–6.

Figure 8–6 Snap-through of a large shallow panel.

In this example there is a dramatic change in the stiffness of the panel as it deforms. As the panel
“snaps through,” the stiffness becomes negative. Thus, although the magnitude of the displacements,
relative to the panel's dimensions, is quite small, there is significant geometric nonlinearity in the
simulation, which must be taken into consideration.

An important difference between the analysis products should be noted here: by default,
Abaqus/Standard assumes small deformations, while Abaqus/Explicit assumes large deformations.