Motivation towards Compression

• Digital images require huge amounts of space for

storage and large bandwidths for transmission.
– A 640 x 480 color image requires close to 1MB of
space.
• Calculate the space required for a SD ( Standard
Definition 720 * 480) movie of 2 hours running at
30 fps…!! (Answer = 224 GB)
• Imagine how movies came in two CD’s / DVD’s of
very less size than required 224 GB size…?
 Motivation Continued…
• Have you checked the size of any image when
its clicked by your camera and compared it to
the ones you share on social media…?
• Imagine the network congestion if all images
shared over Whatsapp or any social media did
not have any provision for compression.
• What would have been the cost of data
transmission then?
 Data Compression
• It aims at reducing the amount of data
required to represent a given quantity of
information.
• Data is the means by which information is
conveyed.
• Information are said to contain redundant
data.
 Data vs Information
• The same amount of information can be represented by
various amount of data.

• For example:-
• Your wife, Helen, will meet you at Logan Airport in Boston
at 5 minutes past 6:00 pm tomorrow night

• Your wife will meet you at Logan Airport at 5 minutes past

6:00 pm tomorrow night

• Helen will meet you at Logan at 6:00 pm tomorrow night

• All 3 statements represent the same information with
different levels of data redundancy, the first line
containing maximum redundant data.
Compression Ratio

compression

Compression Ratio:
 Data Redundancy

• Relative data redundancy:

Example:
 Types of Data Redundancy

(1) Coding
(2) Interpixel
(3) Psychovisual

• Compression attempts to reduce one or

more of these redundancy types.
 Image Compression
• It is the art and science of reducing the
amount of data required to represent an
image.

Fig 1: Idea of Compression

 Coding Redundancy
• A code is a system of symbols used to represent a
body of information or set of events.
• Each piece of information or event is assigned a
sequence of code symbols called code word.
• The number of symbols in each codeword is
called its length.
• For eg:- Each pixel in a gray scale image is
represented by 8-bits binary. ( Pixel value = 255,
code = 11111111, code length per pixel= 8)
 Spatial & Temporal Redundancy
• Spatial Redundancy means the neighbouring
pixels are correlated in a 2-D image and hence
it is redundant to store all the pixel values.

• Temporal Redundancy is observed in case of

videos where the adjacent frames are similar
to each other i.e. the frames are correlated in
time.
 Psychovisual Redundancy
• The human eye does not respond with equal
sensitivity to all visual information.

• It is more sensitive to the lower frequencies

than to the higher frequencies in the visual
spectrum.

• Idea: Discard data that is perceptually

insignificant to human eyes.
 Types of Image Compression
• Based on the loss incurred in the compression
scheme, it is classified into the following:-
• Lossless
– Information preserving
– Low compression ratios

• Lossy
– Not information preserving
– High compression ratios

• Trade-off: image quality vs compression ratio

 Fidelity Criteria

• How close is to ?

• Criteria
– Subjective: based on human observers
– Objective: mathematically defined criteria
Subjective Fidelity Criteria
 Objective Fidelity Criteria
• Root mean square error (RMS)

• Mean-square signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)

Lossless Compression
Lossless Methods: Taxonomy
Types of Lossless Coding Techniques
(Entropy Coding)
1. Repetitive Sequence Encoding (Ex:- Run
Length Encoding)
2. Statistical Encoding (Ex:- Huffman,
Arithmetic, LZW)
3. Lossless Predictive Coding (Ex:- DPCM)
4. Bit plane Encoding
 Huffman Coding (coding redundancy)

• A variable-length coding technique.

• Optimal code (i.e., minimizes the number
of code symbols per source symbol).
• Assumption: symbols are encoded one at a
time!
 Huffman Coding (cont’d)
• Forward Pass
1. Sort probabilities per symbol
2. Combine the lowest two probabilities
3. Repeat Step2 until only two probabilities remain.
 Huffman Coding (cont’d)
Backward Pass
Assign code symbols going backwards
 Huffman Coding (cont’d)
• Lavg (Bits per symbol) using Huffman coding:

• Lavg assuming binary codes:

 Huffman Coding/Decoding
• After the code has been created,
coding/decoding can be implemented using
a look-up table.
• Note that decoding is done unambiguously
in this case.
 Arithmetic (or Range) Coding
(coding redundancy)
• No assumption on encoding source symbols
one at a time.
– Sequences of source symbols are encoded
together.
– There is no one-to-one correspondence
between source symbols and code words.

• Slower than Huffman coding but typically

achieves better compression.
 Arithmetic Coding (cont’d)
• A sequence of source symbols is assigned a
single arithmetic code word which
corresponds to a sub-interval in [0,1].

• As the number of symbols in the message

increases, the interval used to represent it
becomes smaller.

• Smaller intervals require more information

units (i.e., bits) to be represented.
 Arithmetic Coding (cont’d)

Encode message: a1 a2 a3 a3 a4

1) Assume message occupies [0, 1)

0 1

2) Subdivide [0, 1) based on the probability of αi

3) Update interval by processing source symbols

Example of Arithmetic Coding

Encode
a1 a2 a3 a3 a4

[0.06752, 0.0688)
or,
0.068
 Example contd…
• The message a1 a2 a3 a3 a4 is encoded using
3 decimal digits or 3/5 = 0.6 decimal digits
per source symbol.

• The entropy of this message is:

-(3 x 0.2log10(0.2)+0.4log10(0.4))=0.5786 digits/symbol

Note: finite precision arithmetic might

cause problems due to truncations!
 Arithmetic Decoding
1.0 0.8 0.72 0.592 0.5728
a4
0.8 0.72 0.688 0.5856 0.57152

Decode 0.572
a3

0.4 0.56 0.624 0.5728 056896

a2
a3 a3 a1 a2 a4
0.2 0.48 0.592 0.5664 0.56768
a1
0.0 0.4
0.56 0.56 0.5664
 Combining Huffman Coding
with Run-length Coding

• Assuming that a message has been

encoded using Huffman coding, additional
compression can be achieved using run-
length coding.

e.g., (0,1)(1,1)(0,1)(1,0)(0,2)(1,4)(0,2)
 JPEG ( Joint Photographic Experts Group )

-> It is a compression standard for still images

-> It defines three different coding systems :

1. A lossy baseline coding system based on DCT (adequate for
most compression applications )

2. An extended system for greater compression, higher

precision, or progressive reconstruction applications

3. A lossless independent coding system for reversible

compression.
Steps of JPEG Compression
 JPEG – Baseline Coding System

1. Computing the DCT: the image is divided into 8 X 8 blocks

The blocks of component are then transformed into
frequency components.
2. Each block is represented by 64 frequency components,
one of which (the DC component) is the average color of
the 64 pixels in the block.
3. Applying FDCT to change the blocks from spatial domain
into frequency domain.
4. Roughly speaking , F(0,0) is the average value within the
block (called DC component).
5. Other values stores the variation within a block (AC
components).
 Example Fast DCT
183 160 94 153 194 163 132 165
183 153 116 176 187 166 130 169
179 168 171 182 179 170 131 167
f=
177 177 179 177 179 165 131 167
178 178 179 176 179 164 130 171
179 180 180 179 182 164 130 171
179 179 180 182 183 170 129 173
180 179 181 179 181 170 130 69
 Example : Level Shifting
55 32 -34 25 66 35 4 37
55 25 -12 48 59 38 2 41
51 40 43 54 51 42 3 39
fs=f-128 49 49 51 49 51 37 3 39
50 50 51 48 54 36 2 43
51 52 52 51 55 36 2 43
51 51 52 54 55 42 1 45
52 51 53 51 53 42 2 41
 Example : Computing the DCT
312 56 -27 17 79 -60 26 -26
-38 -28 13 45 31 -1 -24 -10
-20 -18 10 33 21 -6 -16 -9
dcts=round(dct2(fs))
-11 -7 9 15 10 -11 -13 1
-6 1 6 5 -4 -7 -5 5
3 3 0 -2 -7 -4 1 2
3 5 0 -4 -8 -1 2 4
3 1 -1 -2 -3 -1 4 1
 Example : The Normalization Matrix

16 11 10 16 24 40 51 61

12 12 14 19 26 58 60 55

14 13 16 24 40 57 69 56
qmat=
14 17 22 29 51 87 80 62

18 22 37 56 68 109 103 77

24 35 55 64 81 104 113 92

49 64 78 87 103 121 120 101

72 92 95 98 112 100 103 99

 Example : Normalization Table

16 11 10 16 24 40 51 61

12 12 14 19 26 58 60 55

14 13 16 24 40 57 69 56

14 17 22 29 51 87 80 62

18 22 37 56 68 109 103 77

24 35 55 64 81 104 113 92
312/16
49 64 78 87 103 121 120 101
= 20
72 92 95 98 112 100 103 99

312 56 -27 17 79 -60 26 -26 20 5 -3 1 3 -2 1 0

-38 -28 13 45 31 -1 -24 -10 -3 -2 1 2 1 0 0 0

-1 -1 1 1 1 0 0 0
-20 -18 10 33 21 -6 -16 -9
-1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
-11 -7 9 15 10 -11 -13 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-6 1 6 5 -4 -7 -5 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 3 0 -2 -7 -4 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 5 0 -4 -8 -1 2 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4/ 9/ 2020 Pr of. K.P. Nayak 50
3 1 -1 -2 -3 -1 4 1 Quantized value
 Example : Thresholding

20 5 -3 1 3 -2 1 0

-3 -2 1 2 1 0 0 0

-1 -1 1 1 1 0 0 0

t=round(dcts. /qmat)= -1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Zig- Zag Scanning of the Coefficients

20 5 -3 1 3 -2 1 0

-3 -2 1 2 1 0 0 0

-1 -1 1 1 1 0 0 0
t= round(dcts./qmat)=
-1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

[ 20,5,-3,-1,-2,-3,1,1,-1,-1,0,0,1,2,3,-2,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,0,1,1,0,1,0,EOB ]
 Decoding the Coefficients

320 55 -30 16 72 -80 51 0

-36 -24 14 38 26 0 0 0

-14 -13 16 24 40 0 0 0

-14 0 0 29 0 0 0 0
t X qmat=
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Computing the IDCT
67 12 -9 20 69 43 -8 42

58 25 15 30 65 40 -4 47

46 41 44 40 59 38 0 49

41 52 59 43 57 42 3 42
fs_hat=round(idct2(ds_hat))

44 54 58 40 58 47 3 33

49 52 53 40 61 47 1 33

53 50 53 46 63 41 0 45

55 50 56 53 64 34 -1 57
 Shifting Back the Coefficients
195 140 119 148 197 171 120 170
186 153 143 158 193 168 124 175
174 169 172 168 187 166 128 177
169 180 187 171 185 170 131 170
f_hat=fs_hat+128 172 182 186 168 186 175 131 161
177 180 181 168 189 175 129 161
181 178 181 174 191 169 128 173
183 178 184 181 192 162 127 185

183 160 94 153 194 163 132 165

183 153 116 176 187 166 130 169
179 168 171 182 179 170 131 167
f= 177 177 179 177 179 165 131 167
178 178 179 176 182 164 130 171
179 180 180 179 183 164 130 171
179 179 180 182 183 170 129 173
180 179 181 Pr of. K.P. Na 1ya7k0 130 169
JPEG as Block Transform Encoding
 Quantization
Two important observations:

1. Natural images in general have a low pass spectrum, so the

wavelet coefficients will, on average, be smaller in the higher
subbands than in the lower subbands.

2. Large wavelet coefficients are more important than smaller

wavelet coefficients.