Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.

2: Sequences

Calculus and Numerical Methods

Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series
Lesson 1.2: Sequences

Departamento de Matemáticas
Escuela Superior de Ingenierı́a Informática
UCLM, Albacete

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences

Contents

1 Numbers

2 Sequences
Limits. Basic properties
Type 1∞ . Number e
The geometric sequence
Stolz and root criteria
Stolz criterion
Root criterion
Product of an infinitesimal and a bounded sequence
Sandwich rule

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

What’s a sequence?

Definition of sequence
A sequence of real numbers is a map a : N → R.

The numbers a(1), a(2), a(3), . . . , a(n), . . . are called the terms of
the sequence, and are denoted by subscripts (subı́ndices):
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , . . .
Intuitively, a sequence is an infinite collection of real numbers that
are enumerated following the natural numbers. The whole
sequence is denoted by (an )n∈N or simply (an ) and an is called the
general term of the sequence.
√
 
1
n

Examples: (a), , ( n + 1), 1 + n1 .
n

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Limit of a sequence

We are interested in where and how the terms of the sequence are
approaching to a number or not.
Types of limits
lim an = ℓ (or an → ℓ) where ℓ ∈ R.
n→∞
We say that (an ) is convergent to ℓ (or simply convergent if
we don’t state the limit ℓ).
lim an = +∞ , (an ) is divergent to +∞.
n→∞

lim an = −∞ , (an ) is divergent to −∞.

n→∞

Any sequence that is not convergent is called divergent.

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Limit of a sequence
Classification

Depending on the existence of limit, we will consider the following

types of sequences:
Convergent sequences: when they have a real limit.
Divergent sequences: those that are not convergent. They can
be:
Divergent to ±∞.
The rest (oscillating).

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Properties of a sequence
Uniqueness of the limit
The limit of a sequence, if it exists, is unique.

Boundedness
If a sequence is convergent then it is bounded (definition below).

Definition
A sequence (an ) is bounded if the set {an : n ∈ N} is bounded,
that is, if there exist two real numbers M1 , m1 ∈ R such that
m1 ≤ an ≤ M1 ∀n ∈ N

Alternative definition: (an ) is bounded if, there exists M ≥ 0 such

that
|an | ≤ M ∀n ∈ N
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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Properties of sequences
Terminology: upper and lower bounds of a sequence, bounded above
(below), least upper bound, greatest lower bound, maximum, minimum.
The last proposition can be written as
(an ) convergent ⇒ (an ) bounded

but the converse is not true: for example,

((−1)n ) is bounded because
−1 ≤ (−1)n ≤ 1 ∀n ∈ N
n
and lim (−1) does not exist.
n→∞
(cos(n!)) is bounded because
−1 ≤ cos(n!) ≤ 1 ∀n ∈ N
and lim cos(n!) does not exist.
n→∞

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Limits : to begin with

lim a = a (limit of a constant sequence)

n→∞

1
lim =0
n→∞ n
√
lim n + 1 = +∞
n→∞

lim (−1)n does not exist.

n→∞

lim sin(n) does not exist but lim sin(2πn) = 0.

n→∞ n→∞

Take care: the limits of functions lim sin x and lim sin(2πx)
x→∞ x→∞
don’t exist. Don’t apply function properties to sequences if
you are not sure what are you exactly applying.

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Algebraic properties of limits

Proposition
If (an ), (bn ) are two convergent sequences, then:
1 lim an ± bn = lim an ± lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
2 lim an · bn = lim an · lim bn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
3 lim λan = λ · lim an for every λ ∈ R
n→∞ n→∞

an lim an
4 lim = n→∞ if lim bn ̸= 0
n→∞ bn lim bn n→∞
n→∞

We also know the behaviour of many cases in which one (or both) of the
limits is an infinity: in symbols,
k
(+∞) + (+∞) = +∞, = 0, (+∞) × (−∞) = −∞,
+∞
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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Indeterminate forms

But, in some indeterminate forms:

∞ 0
∞−∞ ∞·0
∞ 0
the final limit (that maybe doesn’t exist) depends on the sequences
we are taking.
For example, the following are three limits of type ∞ · 0:

1 1 1
lim (n2 + 1) · = +∞, lim (n2 + 1) · = 1, lim (n2 + 1) · =0
n→∞ n+7 n→∞ n2 + 7 n→∞ n3 + 7

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Polynomials and quotients of polynomials

lim 2n3 − 4n + 7 = +∞
n→∞

lim −3n2 + 12n + 38 = −∞

n→∞

3n + 6 3
lim =
n→∞ 7n − 2 7
3n + 6 3n + 6
lim = 0, lim =0
n→∞ 7n2 − 21n n→∞ −7n2 − 21n

3n3 + 4n2 − 20 3n3 + 4n2 − 20

lim = +∞, lim = −∞
n→∞ 7n2 − 21n n→∞ −7n2 + 21n

−3n3 + 4n2 − 20
lim = +∞
n→∞ −7n2 + 21n

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Limits and continuous functions

 
1 π 2 π
lim cos = cos 0 = 1, lim sin + 3 = sin = 1
n→∞ n n→∞ 2 n 2
5n2 + 3
 
lim log = log 5
n→∞ n2 − n − 1
√
r
3
lim 2+ 2 = 2
n→∞ n
s r
3 n3 − 3n + 2 3 1 1
lim = =
n→∞ 8n3 + 4n2 + 7 8 2

n2 + 3n + 2
lim √
3
=1
n→∞ n6 + n3 + n + 1

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Some expressions containing nα


 +∞ if α > 0
The limits lim nα = 1 if α = 0
n→∞
0 if α < 0

can be used to notice that the behaviour of powers of n is similar
to that of polynomials (but, watch out, they are not quotients of
polynomials):
n3/2 − 3n + 1
lim √ =0
n→∞ n2 + n − 25

n4 − n2 + 1
lim =1
n→∞ (n5/2 + n)(n3/2 − n)

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

√ √
n2 + n + 1 + n2 − n + 1
lim =2
n→∞ n
3n + 2 3
lim √ √ =
n→∞ n2 +n+ n −n2 2
n2
lim √ √ =0
n→∞ n3 + n + n5 − n
√
3 5
p √
n + 2 + 4 n10 + n5 + n
lim = +∞
n→∞ 7n2 − 3n + 20

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

A subtraction involving a square root

The following limits are of type ∞ − ∞.
The first two limits can be solved multiplying and dividing by the
conjugate:
p p 1
lim 2n2 + 3 − 2n2 − n = √
n→∞ 2 2
p 3
lim n2 − 3n + 2 − n = −
n→∞ 2
But there is no need to use the conjugate process if the sizes of
the subtraction are “not the same” (in case of doubt, the
conjugate technique works):
p p
lim 2n2 + 3 − n2 − n = +∞
n→∞
p p
lim n2 − 3n + 2 − n3 − n2 + n − 1 = −∞
n→∞
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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Powers
The basic technique: compute the limits of the base and the exponent.
 1
1 n
lim 2 + = 20 = 1
n→∞ n
√
lim (n2 + 1) n
= +∞, type (+∞)+∞
n→∞

√
lim (n2 + 1)− n
= 0, type (+∞)−∞
n→∞

  √n
n
lim = 0, type 0+∞
n→∞ n2 + 1
 −√n
n
lim = +∞, type 0−∞
n→∞ n2 + 1

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Powers: general case and indeterminate forms

Having in mind that ab = e b·log a if a > 0 , we can solve many

power-type limits by using the behaviour of the exponential
f (x) = e x and the logarithmic g (x) = log x functions. We will
write
log x = Ln x = loge x
  −n3 +1   −n3 +1
1 n 1 1 n
lim 2 + = 0 and lim + = +∞
n→∞ n n→∞ 2 n
There are three indeterminate forms related to powers:

1∞ ∞0 00

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Type 1∞ . Number e

1 n



The sequence 1 + n is known to be increasing and
bounded above.

There is a theorem, based on the supremum axiom, that

assures that this type of sequences are convergent.
Mathematicians have put a name to this limit: number e,
that is
1 n
 
lim 1 + =e
n→∞ n
In fact,
1 an
 
lim 1 + =e
n→∞ an
if lim an = +∞ or lim an = −∞.
n→∞ n→∞

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

Limits of type 1∞ or 1−∞

The formula
lim bn (an − 1)
lim anbn = en→∞
n→∞

is valid for limits of type 1∞ or 1−∞ .

 2 2n2 +4
n +1
lim = e8
n→∞ n2 − 3

√ !n
n2 + 2n
lim √ =e
n→∞ n2 − 1
 √ 2√n
n+ n+1
lim √ = e4
n→∞ n − n + 1

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Limits. Basic properties

The geometric sequence

The geometric sequence of ratio a, with a ∈ R, is the sequence

(an )n∈N . We have:


 +∞ if a > 1
 1 if a = 1


lim an = 0 if −1 < a < 1
n→∞
oscillating if a = −1




∞ (without sign!) if r < −1


If the limit of a sequence (an ) is ∞ without sign it means that

lim |an | = +∞.
n→∞
Examples: lim 2n = +∞, lim 1n = 1, lim 0.3n = 0,
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
lim (−0.7)n = 0, lim (−3)n = ∞ (with no sign).
n→∞ n→∞

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Stolz and root criteria

Stolz criterion

Proposition (Stolz criterion)

Let (an ) and (bn ) be sequences such that:
1 (bn ) is strictly increasing.
2 lim bn = +∞.
n→∞
an+1 − an an
If the limit lim = α exists, then lim = α,
n→∞ bn+1 − bn n→∞ bn
where α can be a real number, +∞ or −∞.

Examples:
log n3 log n
lim = 0 (also lim = 0). We write log n << n.
n→∞ n n→∞ n
n2
lim n = 0. We write n2 << 5n
n→∞ 5

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Stolz and root criteria

Examples:
1 + 2 + ··· + n 1
lim =
n→∞ n2 2
n2
We write 1 + 2 + · · · + n ≈ 2.

log(12 ) + log(22 ) + · · · + log(n2 )

lim √
n→∞ n

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Stolz and root criteria

Stolz and root criterions

Proposition (Root criterion for sequences)

Let (an ) be a sequence of positive terms such that the limit
an+1 √
lim = α ∈ R exists. Then lim n an = α, where α can be a
n→∞ an n→∞
real number or +∞.

Example:
√
lim n n = 1
n→∞
p
In general, lim n P(n) = 1 for every polynomial P(n) with
n→∞
positive main coefficient.

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Stolz and root criteria

Examples:
pn
(n + 1)!
lim
n→∞ n
s
(2n)!
lim n n
n→∞ 3 · (n!)2

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Product of an infinitesimal and a bounded sequence

Proposition
The product of an infinitesimal sequence by a bounded sequence is
an infinitesimal sequence, that is, if
lim an = 0
n→∞
(bn ) is a bounded sequence.
then lim an · bn = 0.
n→∞

Examples:
cos(n2 + n)
lim
n→∞ n
(−1)n + 3 sin(e n )
lim
n→∞ log n

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Sandwich rule

Sandwich rule

Proposition (Sandwich criterion)

Let (an ), (bn ) and (cn ) be sequences that verify:
1 there exists n0 ∈ N such that if n ≥ n0 , then:

an ≤ bn ≤ cn , (1)

2 lim an = lim cn = ℓ (ℓ ∈ R)
n→∞ n→∞
Then lim bn = ℓ.
n→∞

Note: the result is also true for ℓ = −∞ or ℓ = +∞. In these

cases, one of the inequalities in (1) is not necessary.

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Calculus and Numerical Methods Unit 1: Numbers, sequences and series Lesson 1.2: Sequences
Sequences
Sandwich rule

Sandwich rule

Examples:
1 1 1
lim √ +√ + ··· + √
n→∞ n2 + 1 n2 + 2 n2 + n
 
1 1 1
lim √ + √ + ··· + √
n→∞ 1 2 n
 
1 2 n
lim + + ··· + 3
n→∞ n3 + 1 n3 + 2 n +n

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