Educational Research CFS 3781 Course Outline (Group 1 and Group 2}

Fulltime Students –Main Campus

University of Namibia

1st Semester 2022

GROUP 1 [Student 1 to 161 in Class List Paulina Shapange to Lahya Mushiisheni):

Lecturer: Prof CN.S. Shaimemanya ([email protected])

Group 1 Class Meetings:

Dates and Times: Monday 11:30; Tuesday 11:30 & Wednesday 11:30 (Based on 2022
Time Table)

Consultation Hours: To be announced by Instructor

GROUP 2 [Student 162 Eliud Hamutenya to the last student in the class list). Any
student Registering LATE must join Group 2]:

Lecturer: Prof H. Kapenda ([email protected])

Group 2 Class Meetings:

Dates and Times: [Monday 16.30 Thursday 13.30 Friday 16.30 [To be confirmed and
implemented starting from 14 March 2022]

Consultation Hours: To be announced by Instructor

NB: Until 23 February 2022 Both Group 1 and 2 to attend classes together via BBB/

Teaching Mode:

1 Educational Research
Online mainly via BigBlueButtton/Teams/Zoom/Moodle Discussion Forum due to
COVID-19

Practicals: Library and Research Proposal-based)

Note that the Practicals will be Library-based (every second week (as per School of

Education Prospectus); that is, you will be given practical work to do in the Library. The

Practical activities will also be Research Proposal-based). As you work on your

practicals you will interact with your lecturer via Moodle/BBB or through group

consultations because you will do practical work in groups due to the class size.

Students are advised to take practicals very seriously because completion of practical

activities is a requirement for this course. Most importantly, practicals are designed to

enhance your learning.

Consultation Hours

Due to COVID-19, Educational Research teaching/learning activities will be offered

Online. Research advice will be provided through online group consultations, e-mails

since face-to-face consultations are off limits at this time due to Corona virus. As a class,

you are encouraged to develop supports within the group so that you can get together

online or work via e-mail, social media or Moodle.

You should all make sure that your names are on the module WhatsApp group once it is

formed. WhatsApp groups with Student Class Representatives help to ease

communication.

Prerequisite: None

Course Rationale and Objectives

2 Educational Research
The purpose of the course is to equip education students with research skills to become

knowledgeable about research types and techniques. The course focuses on theory and

methodology in educational research and will cover types and purpose of research;

formulation of research problems/ problem statement; selection of a research topic;

reviewing literature; planning and designing research investigations; preparation of a

research proposal outline; data collection techniques; data analysis techniques,

presentation of the results, referencing techniques, designing data collection

instruments, etc.

3 Educational Research
Exit Learning Outcomes (ELO):

Upon the completion of this module students should be able to:

1. Discuss types and purposes of educational research (C 3

2. Identify and formulate research problems (C 3, C 27)*

3. Demonstrate the ability to do a research literature review (C 3, C 15, C 27)

4. Demonstrate the ability to conduct a preliminary investigati

5. Plan, design and conduct research investigations /evaluate a

research project (C 3, C 27)

6. Develop an understanding for appropriate data analysis techniques (C 3, C 15,

C 17)

7. Apply appropriate referencing techniques (C 3, C 15, C 16, C 27)

8. Prepare/draft an outline for a research proposal (C 3, C 27)*

9. Demonstrate knowledge of research ethics

10. Demonstrate the ability to collect data

11. Demonstrate an understanding for appropriate data analysis techniques

12. Demonstrate the ability to write academically

13. Apply appropriate referencing techniques

14. Become critical consumers of research, including interpretation, evaluation and

critique of research documents.

15. Plan, conduct, report, and evaluate a research project

Learning Outcomes

ELO 1. Discuss types and purposes of educational research (C 3)*

ELO 2. Identify and formulate research problems (C 3, C 27)*

ELO 3. Demonstrate the ability to do a research literature review (C 3, C 15, C27)

ELO 4. Plan and design research investigations in education (C 3, C 27)

4 Educational Research
ELO 5. Develop an understanding for appropriate data analysis techniques (C 3, C 15,
C 17)

ELO 6. Apply appropriate referencing techniques (C 3, C 27)

ELO 7. Draft an outline for a research proposal (C 3, C 2

5 Educational Research
Course Requirements

Students will be assigned group practical activities due to the class size. These

practical activities are designed to enhance your learning and must be taken seriously.

Each group member must actively participate in the research activities which will form

part of the course discussions on Moodle Discussion Forum. Groups will be expected to

share their findings/solutions to research problems via Moodle Discussion Forum.

Topics that will be covered during practicals include the following topics that are
essentially components of a Research Proposal:

1. Formulation of a Research Topic

2. Problem Statement/Formulation of a Research Problem

3. Literature Review (how to review literature)

5. Preparation of a research instrument (e.g. questionnaire)

6. Data collection

7. Data analysis

8. Interpretation, evaluation and critique of research documents, etc.

Research articles and online theses will be critiqued to help students interprete, evaluate

and critique research documents. Evaluation criteria will be discussed. Class attendance

and completion of Practical activities are requirements for this course. The School of

Education has adopted APA (7th Ed) for scholarly writing. Please consult the American

Psychological Association (APA) website at www.apastyle.org.

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Course topics include the following

1. Meaning , Goals, types, and paradigms of Research

2. Literature Review
3. Research Methodology: Quantitative Research Design
4. Research Methodology: Qualitative Research Theories/Perspectives and Designs
5. Research Methodology: Population and Sampling
6. Methods of Data Collection
7. Data analysis
8. Survey Research
9. Research Ethics and Writing a Research Proposal
10. Ethical Considerations in conducting Research
11. Research Proposal
12. Research Report
13. Academic writing

Teaching Schedule:

1. Week beginning 14th Feb 2022 (Sessions 1 and 2)

2. Week beginning 21Feb 2022 (Sessions 3 and 4)
3. Week beginning 28th Feb 2022 to 11 March 2022 Teaching Practice Supervision
(Course Instructors will go on mission to supervise 4th Year students on TP.
Students will work on Practicals 1 and 2).
4. Week beginning 14th March 2022 (Sessions 5, 6 and 7)
5. Week beginning 21st March 2022 (Sessions 7 and 8)
6. Week beginning 28th March (Sessions 9, 10 and 11)
7. Week beginning4th April 2022 (Sessions 12, 13 and 14)
8. 11 to 18 April 2022 BREAK
9. Week 18th April 2022 (Sessions 15 and 16)
10. Week beginning 2nd May 2022 (Sessions 17, 18 and 19)
11. Week beginning 9th May 2022(Sessions 20 and 21)

7
Course Assessment

Students expecting to receive course credits will need to attend all (or nearly all of the

course classes/ Practicals, work their way through the suggested readings; and complete

course activities.

Continuous Assessment 50% A. Practicals

B. Online Test (3 May 2022)

Examination 50% (1 X 3 hour Paper)

Grading

1. Practicals and Online Test: 50%

2. Final Exam 50%

Course Methodology:

 Group Practicals
 Discussions via Moodle Discussion Forum
 Zoom/BBB Meetings and
 Research time

Practicals

As indicated already, Practicals not only enhance your learning but they will also
contribute to your CA. You are therefore urged to take all Practicals seriously whether
they are given for learning purposes only or to be graded. Each student must always
check whether his/her name is indicated on the Practical Cover before the Group
Leader submits the Practical to facilitate the computation of the CA marks.
Remember, if your CA is not captured in the system, your Examination Score cannot
also be capture. One is captured before the other.

8
Class List/Registration Status

It is each student’s responsibility to make sure that his/her name is in the Class or
Module List. If your name is not in the Class/Module list, it is an indication that all is
not well with your registration status and it is your responsibility to consult the Faculty
Officer to attend to your registration status. Lecturers cannot put students in the
system. Remember, if your name is not in the system, your marks cannot also be put
in the system.

Test

All students will write an Online-test

Tentative Test date is 3 May 2022

Outline of Research Proposal

Chapter 1: Introduction

(a) Background/Study Context

(b) Statement of the problem. Formulate your Research problem
(c) Research questions. Formulate your Research questions
(d) Significance of the study; to whom is the study important and in what way?
(e) Study limitations

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Review related literature. Identify and understand the research that has already been

done on the topic of interest. The review of literature involves locating, reading, and

evaluating reports of research as well as reports of casual observation and opinion that

are related to your planned research project.

Chapter 3: Methodology

(a) Describe your research design / research techniques;

(b) Describe the Proposed population;

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 (c) Sampling procedures and description of the proposed sample;

(d) Research instruments (interview schedule, questionnaires, Observation schedules

etc.);

(e) Data collection procedures including ethical considerations,

(f) Data Analysis. Provide plans for carrying out analysis of data to be collected.

(g) References (APA style).

Required Textbooks:

1. Brynard, D.J.; Hanekom, SX and Brynard, PA. (2014). Introduction to Research.

ISBN: 9780627030178. ( Van Schaik Bookstore)
2. Bertram C, Christiansen, I (2014). Understanding Research: An Introduction to
Reading Research: ISBN: 9780627031175. ( Van Schaik Bookstore)

Recommended Textbooks

Kobus Maree (Editor) ((2016). First Steps in Research (Second Edition). Van Schaik
Publishers. ISBN 978 0 627 03369 8. (Will be ordered through Van Schaik Bookstore)

Quinlan, C.; Babin, B.; Carr, J.; Griffin, M. & Zikmund, W.G (2015). Business Research
Methods (1st Edition) Cengage Learning EMEA, UK. ISBN: 978-1-4737-0485-5 (Available
at Van Schaik Bookstore)

Willemse, I., Nyelisani, P. ((2015). Statistical Methods and Calculation Skills. (Fourth
Edition). Juta and Company, Cape Town, SA. ISBN 978-1-48510-276-2. (Will be ordered
through Van Schaik Bookstore)

Reference Texts:

American Psychological Association (2010). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (6th Ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.

Cook, T. D. and Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-Experimentation: Design and Analysis

Issues for Field Settings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

10
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research (4th .ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches, 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

Gall, M. D., Borg, W. R. and Gall, J. P. (2006). Educational Research: An Introduction

(8th.ed.). New York: Longman.

Gay, L. R., Mills. G. E. and Airasian, P. (2006). Educational Research: Competencies for
Analysis and Application (8th.ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall.

Kerlinger, F. N. (1986). Foundations of Behavioural Research (3rd. Ed.). New York: Holt,
Rinehart, and Winston.

McMillan, J. H. and Schuacher, S. (2004). Research in Education: A Conceptual

Introduction (6th.ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman.

Patten, M. L. (2007). Understanding research methods: An overview of the essentials,

6th ed. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishers.

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CFS 3781 Class 1 of 2022
Via BBB

15th February 2022

Meaning, Goals, Types, Modes and Paradigms
of Research
• The Educators should do research to gain a better understanding of
the education process and eventually improve their educational
practice.
• You should do research as research experience makes you become
competent professional educators.
• To do research, you must acquire some skills
Research Skills are needed on
• How the research problem is identified;
• What procedures apply in pursuing the solution of the specific
problem;
• How the data are to be collected and interpreted; and
• How a satisfactory, lucid report can be produced
• To address these questions you need to have certain skills and the
only way to become competent in research is by doing it.
Simple Definition of Research
• A study or investigation in order to discover facts or gain information.
It is a universal activity by which a specific phenomenon in reality is
studied objectively in order to create a valid concept of that
phenomenon.
Research methodology
• The indication of the procedure to be followed for data collection and
analysis, and reporting of the findings.
Research design
• Refers to a research structure that shows the different parts of
research, how they connect with each other and in what sequence.
What is research and why do research?

• Chilisa and Preece (2005: 4) define research as “a systematic method

of inquiry to expand our knowledge about a particular issue of
interest. Systematic means that you have a system for, or recognizable
pattern of, doing things.”
• Research is a systematic process of collecting and analysing
information (data) for some specific purpose.
• It is a systematic, controlled, empirical, public, and a critical
investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses
about the presumed relations among such phenomena.
• We conduct research because we want to explore ideas and find
solutions that make sense
Research Types
• What determines the type of research we do is the purpose.
• When carrying out research our purposes are different. Therefore,
research types vary according to our purposes.
• The major research types will fall under application, objectives,
inquiry mode, and sometimes we may use mixed method research.
1. Applied research
• Applied Research : involves using knowledge to solve problem
• Applied research is “hands-on”, which means that the researcher is
actually working with the topic/subjects while conducting the
research.
• Generally, applied research focuses on “practical problems” such as
climate change in order to come up with solutions to better or
improve an existing condition. Therefore, the purpose of applied
research is to solve immediate and practical problems.
2. Basic or Pure research
• Basic Research : To generate new knowledge
• Basic research is often called ‘pure’ research and is considered the
foundation for applied research. Why? The researcher should have a
theory/knowledge which is developed by basic/pure researchers.
• Pure research is often considered researching for the sake of
increasing knowledge as opposed to applied where the research truly
is intended to solve a problem.
• Basic research has a more general orientation.
• It adds to the existing body of knowledge in the discipline.
• Basic research does not necessarily provide results of immediate,
practical use, although such a possibility is not ruled out. If this result
does occur, however, it is usually supplemental and not the primary
purpose.
3. Action Research

• Action Research is a research conducted at local level, typically by a

practitioner focused on solving a specific problem, and/or to aid in
decision making in the local institution.
• It can be defined as the process of studying a real
institution/organisation/agency situation to understand and improve
the quality of actions.
• It is a systematic and orderly way for practitioners to observe their
practice or to explore a problem and a possible course of action.
• Action research is also a type of inquiry that is pre-planned,
organised, and can be shared with others.
• Action research involves studying a real problem in an authentic
setting such as the classroom
• The essential impetus for carrying out action research is to change
the system.
• Action research may in fact be concerned with innovation and change
and the way in which these may be implemented in on-going systems.
• Action research usually is less rigorous in terms of design and
methodology than other educational research.
• Often, established groups are used; but in some cases only one
individual, such as a trainer/educator conducting research at the
place of work to research several individuals or a single group, is
involved in the study.
4. Evaluation Research
• Evaluation Research is a type of applied research.
• Typically, the function of evaluation is to assess the merits of a
product, programme, or practice.
Goals of Research
a. Description
b. Correlation
c. Exploration
d. Explanation
a. Description

• This is when the main goal of the research is to describe the data and
characteristics of what is being studied.
• The idea behind the research is to study frequencies, averages, and
other statistical calculations.
• Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the
causes behind a situation.
• This research does not explore why and how, but mostly what. For
example, the research aims to describe the characteristics of poverty.
b. Correlation
• This is when the goal of research is to measure the relationship
between two or more variables or gives an indication of how one
variable may predict another. For example, the research aims to
identify the relationship between poverty and education.
c. Exploration
• This is when the research is conducted because a problem has not
been clearly defined. For example, the previous research findings
identified the existence of diseases in some regions of the country but
did not clearly indicate the affected region(s) neither explain the
types of diseases.
• Furthermore, exploratory research helps to determine the best
research design, data collection methods, and selection of subjects.
• Given that it is fundamental in nature; exploratory research often
concludes that a perceived problem does not actually exist.
d. Explanation

• This is when the research’s purpose is to investigate and explain ‘why’.

• It builds on descriptive and exploratory research and further identifies
the reasons for something that occurs.
• This research looks for causes and reasons. For example, the research
aims to explain the causes of diseases in those specific regions.
• NB: Both basic and applied research are important.
References
• Vithal, R & Jansen, J. 2010. Designing your first research proposal. A
Manual for researchers in education and the social sciences.
Claremont:Juta & Company Ltd. (ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 784 2).
• Maree, L & Van der Westhuizen, C. 2009. Head Start in Designing
Research Proposals in the Social Sciences. Lansdowne, Cape Town:
Juta & Company Ltd. (ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 4).
Readings
• Do further readings in any Research Textbook
CFS 3781 Session 2 of 2022
Via BBB
Groups 1 and 2
15 February 2022
Research Approaches
• Also referred to as Inquiry Modes/Formats
• The inquiry mode of research/research approaches can be
categorized as qualitative or quantitative
A. Qualitative Approach
• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH : Systematic , subjective approaches used to
describe life experiences and give the meaning
• Qualitative research is a research undertaken to gain insights
concerning individuals’
- attitudes;
- beliefs;
- motivations; and
- behaviours;
and explore a social or human problem.
Qualitative Approach (continued)
• You can use a qualitative mode to study past events or current events.
• When you use a qualitative mode for past events, that research is
specifically called historical research.
Characteristics/features of qualitative research

The salient/prominent features of qualitative research are:

• The research is conducted to have an insight and better
understanding of not only about what the current situation is but
also why it is so.
• The research is open and responsive to the research participants.
• The research uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies.
• The research offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory
studies.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH VS QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
Qualitative Quantitative
1. Soft science Hard science
2. Focus: complex and broad Focus: concise and narrow
3. Holistic Reductionstic
4. Subjective Objective
5. Reasoning: dialectic inductive Reasoning: logistic deductive
6. Meaning and discovery Basis of knowing: cause, effect and relationship
7. Develops theory Tests theory
8. Shared interpretation Control
9. Use communication and observation Use instruments
10. Basis element of analysis : words Basic element of analysis: number
11. Individual interpretation Statistical analysis
12. Uniqueness Generalization
Distinguishing Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
.1.Inductive inquiry
2. Understanding social phenomena
3. A theoretical or Grounded theory
4. Holistic inquiry
5. Context inquiry
6. Observer participant
7. Narrative description
B. Quantitative Approach
• QUANTITATIVE : A formal, objective, systematic process to describe
and test the relationship and examine cause and effect
interaction among the variables
• Quantitative research concerned with the measurement of
• - attitudes,
• - behaviours, and
• - perceptions.
Salient/prominent features of quantitative
research
• The salient/prominent features of quantitative research are:
• It involves the collection of numerical data.
• It predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis.
• It uses the numerical method to analyse and interpret the results.
• It finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the
results are inferred.
Distinguishing Characteristics of Quantitative
Research
1. Deductive inquiry
2. Relationships, effects, causes
3. Theory – based
4. Focused on individual variables
5. Context-free (generalisations)
6. Detached role of researcher
7. Statistical analysis
C. MIXED METHOD /TRIANGULATION
• MIXED METHOD /TRIANGULATION: The use of two or more
approaches theories, methods, data sources, investigators or
analysis methods in a study
Classification of Research
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:
• Descriptive Design/Research
• Correlation Design/Research
• Quasi – Experimental Design/ Research
• Experimental Design/ Research

TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

• Phenomenological Design/Research
• Grounded Theory Design/Research
• Ethnographic Design/Research
• Historical Design/Research
• Philosophical Inquiries
• Case Studies
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH: examining human experience

through descriptions that are provided by people involved , lived
experiences, considered humanness: individualism, self –
determination, wholeness, uniqueness and open system. Experience
and perception of the participants are considered;
bracketing(researcher)
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (continued)
• GROUNDED THEORY RESEARCH: Data are collected and analysed and
then the theory or model will be developed, inductive and deductive
approach are used, construction of the concepts, hypothesis is tested,
purposive sampling procedure is used, data are gathered in a natural
setting through observation and interviews; data are recorded
through hand writing and type recording; data collection and data
analysis are done simultaneously, coding; concepts analysis
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (continued)
• ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH: collection and analysing of the data
about cultural group, involve observing, detailing, describing,
documentation and analysing the lifeway or particular partners of a
cultural group, researcher frequently lives with the people and come
a part of their culture
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH (continued)
• Historical Research: Identification, location, evaluation and synthesis of the
data from the past; primary data(oral history, written record, dairies,
eyewitness and physical evidence
• Philosophical Inquiries: using intellectual analysis to clarify meaning, make
value manifest, identify the ethics, study the nature of knowledge
• Case Studies: in –depth examination of people or groups, Quantitative or
qualitative , method can be questionnaire, interview , observation or
written account by the subjects
• Conceptual studies : Study and Understand concepts, and that it aims to
add to our existing body of knowledge and understanding – generate
knowledge [ concepts analysis]
RESEARCH PARADIGMS

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PARADIGM?

• A research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements
shared between scientist about how problems should be understood
and addressed” (Kuhn, 1970)
Research Paradigms
Conventionally, there are three research paradigms:

• 1. Positivist/Post-Positivist (realism) Paradigm

• 2. Interpretive Paradigm
• 3. Emancipatory Paradigm
 Positivism paradigm’s main ideas

• The Positivism paradigm holds that the scientific method is the only
way to establish truth and objective reality.
• The Positivism paradigm is based upon the view that natural science
is the only foundation for the true knowledge.
• The Positivism paradigm’s methods, techniques and procedures used
in natural science offer the best framework for investigating the social
world.
Positivism paradigm’s main ideas

• The Positivism paradigm’s theory should be tested, measured

quantitatively and the results verified.
• The Positivism paradigm’s basic tenet is that if something exists in
nature, it exists in quantity and can be measured.
Positivism paradigm’s main ideas

• The Positivism paradigm states that the senses and empirical data are
the most important sources of knowledge (empiricism);
• believe that people know things through their sense i.e. by seeing,
hearing, touching, smelling and observing them (empiricists).
• The Positivism paradigm uses deductive method.
Post-Positivism paradigm’s main idea

• Post-positivists have a lot in common with positivists.

• Post-positivists believe that there is reality independent of our
thinking that can be studied through the scientific method.
• Post-positivists believe that all observation is fallible and has error.
• Post-positivists believe that all theory is revisable.
• Post-positivists believe that reality cannot be known with certainty.
• Post-positivists believe that observations are theory laden and
influenced by researchers’ biases and worldviews.
• NB. Positivists and Post-positivists believe in quantitative inquiry
mode
Interpretive paradigm’s main idea

• In contrast to the positivism/post-positivism paradigm, interpretive

paradigm’s main idea is based on Phenomenology and Hermeneutics
philosophies.
• - Phenomenologists use human thinking, perceiving, and other mental and
physiological acts, and spirituality to describe and understand human
experience.
• - Hermeneutics involves a reading and interpretation of some kind of
human text. It is the process whereby it is possible to come to an
understanding of a given social text and choose between two or more
competing interpretations of the same text.
• Phenomenology and hermeneutics largely inform assumptions on the
nature of reality, knowledge and values in the interpretive paradigm.
• Interpretivists believe that research should produce individualized
conceptions of social phenomena and personal assertions rather than
generalisations and verifications.
Positivists’ purpose of research

• To predict, test a theory, and find the strength of relationships

between variables or cause and effect relationship (a variable is a
trait, concept or characteristic that the researcher is interested in
measuring or observing). For example, a relationship between hours
spent studying and students’ performance in school
Interpretivist’s purpose of research:
• To understand peoples’ experiences.
• The research takes place in a natural setting where the participants
make their living.
• Research questions evolve as the study progresses. They are generally
open-ended, descriptive and non-directional.
Emancipatory paradigm’s main idea

• Emancipatory paradigm is labeled as critical participatory and

feminist design it
• - Aims to emancipate and
• - Values knowledge produced local
Emancipatory’s purpose of research
• to destroy myth, illusions and false knowledge, and to empower people to
act to transform society.
• How emancipatory research paradigm emerged:
• Scholars argue that the dominant research paradigms (positivist/post-
positivist and interpretivist) have marginalised African communities’ ways
of knowing and have thus led to the design of research-driven
development projects that are irrelevant to the needs of people.
• Therefore, a third paradigm has emerged, which has been labeled:
• - critical social science research,
• - action participatory research, and
• - feminist research.
• Emancipatory research aims to:
• - emancipate,
• - transform, and
• - explain the dominance of Western-based research paradigms and
the marginalisation of knowledge produced in other cultures,
• - explore oppressive ideologies, myths that support and reproduce
the status quo, and distortions and false appearances that stand in
the way of change, thus unmask surface reality and revealing
inequalities.
CFS 3781 Session 3 of 2022
Literature Review
Groups 1 and 2
Via BBB
16 Feb 2022
Literature Review

• Literature review is an important part of any research.

• It provides an underpinning for the research by enlightening the
researcher about the process. Any research, no matter at what scale,
requires reading.
• A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other
sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and
by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation
of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.
Terminology
• Research problem: refers to issues or difficulties that researchers
experience within either a practical or theoretical situation and to
which they need to find solutions.
• A Theory: is a set of interrelated propositions, concepts and
definitions that present a systematic point of view of specifying
relations between variables with a view to predicting and explaining
phenomena.
Terminology (continued)
• Sources of information are often categorized as primary or secondary
depending upon their originality.
• Primary sources: are first-hand sources, entailing the direct reporting
of research and experience.
• A primary source provides direct or first hand evidence about an
event, object, person, or work of art.
• Secondary sources: in a certain sense, are removed from the actual
research, where at least one additional individual is introduced into
the production of the data.
Primary Sources
• Primary sources provide the original materials on which other
research is based
• Primary sources enable students and other researchers to get as
close as possible to what actually happened during a particular event
or time period.
• Published materials can be viewed as primary resources if they come
from the time period that is being discussed, and were written or
produced by someone with firsthand experience of the event.
Primary Sources
• Primary sources reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or
observer.
• Primary sources can be written or non-written (sound, pictures,
artifacts, etc.).
• In scientific research, primary sources present original thinking,
report on discoveries, or share new information
Examples of Primary Sources

• Autobiographies and memoirs

• Diaries, personal letters, and correspondence
• Interviews, surveys, and fieldwork
• Internet communications on email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups
• Photographs, drawings, and posters
• Works of art and literature
• Books, magazine and newspaper articles and ads published at the
time
• Public opinion polls
• Speeches and oral histories
• Original documents (birth certificates, property deeds, trial transcripts)
• Research data, such as census statistics
• Official and unofficial records of organizations and government agencies
• Artifacts of all kinds, such as tools, coins, clothing, furniture, etc.
• Audio recordings, DVDs, and video recordings
• Government documents (reports, bills, proclamations, hearings, etc.)
• Patents
• Technical reports
• Scientific journal articles reporting experimental research results
Secondary Sources

• Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon, analyze,

evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources.
• A secondary source is generally one or more steps removed from the event
or time period and are written or produced after the fact with the benefit
of hindsight.
• Secondary sources often lack the freshness and immediacy of the original
material.
• On occasion, secondary sources will collect, organize, and repackage
primary source information to increase usability and speed of delivery,
such as an online encyclopedia.
• Like primary sources, secondary materials can be written or non-written
(sound, pictures, movies, etc.).
Examples of secondary sources

• Bibliographies
• Biographical works
• Reference books, including dictionaries, encyclopedias, and atlases
• Articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers after the event
• Literature reviews and review articles (e.g., movie reviews, book reviews)
• History books and other popular or scholarly books
• Works of criticism and interpretation
• Commentaries and treatises
• Textbooks
• Indexes and abstracts
Purpose of Literature Review
• The purpose of reviewing literature is for you to:
• - learn what other people have done in the area of your interest;
• - learn how they have done it;
• -; identify gaps in the existing knowledge base (any new production of
knowledge is necessarily based on existing and previous knowledge),
and finalise your research topic
• - distinguish what has been done from what needs to be done and
how it should be done;
• - collect information needed to support or refute your arguments and
write about your findings;
• - look for evidence that is needed for you to prove that you are aware
of the current trends and issues in your area of interest and are
cognizant of the current state of knowledge on the subject;
• - form the basis for choosing your research topic;
• - form the basis for choosing your research methodology;
• - embed your research in the right approach i.e. how to classify and
present your data;
• - synthesise your ideas and gain perspectives to look at your research
problem with different lens.
2. Literature Review and the Research
Problem
• Look at the following example of how to present your argument
based on the findings from the literature and defend your research
problem:
• Based on 4th Year Research Project Titled:
• An Evaluation of the Impact of Geography Excursions/Fieldtrips on
Third Year Geography Education Students studying Geography at the
University of Namibia, Windhoek Main Campus.
Literature Review (Summary Part of
Geography Group Project)
• This section highlighted the impact of excursion on students
Geography learning. Based on the literature reviewed, most
researchers focused on the effects that fieldwork has on students
doing Geography. However, the views of students as to whether
there is a need or not of integrating fieldworks or excursions into
pedagogic strategies to benefit students learning is not considered
by most researchers. Therefore, this study will focus on the views of
Geography students on how excursion impacts their learning, as well
as the ways to integrate fieldwork into a teaching strategy.
Statement of the Problem
• According to (Kipkirui, 2011), there is a need to use a variety of teaching
strategies in Geography to improve learning, as students are unable to
relate theory and practice in Geography, because of the lack of exposure to
geographical reality in the field, that is why they need to do field trips to
improve their learning and experiences. Excursion helps student teachers
to experience real things in real life and know exactly what to teach when
they are out there. Daniels (2005) pointed out that it is unknown whether
or not students are learning sufficiently or gaining experience from field
trips, hence the importance of the present study. This study aims to find
out the impacts of Excursion on Third Year Education Students studying
Geography at the University of Namibia Windhoek Main Campus. What led
to the study is that past excursions were more social and not academically
conducted, so this study will help improve future excursions. .
Research questions (Geography Group
Project)
• The research questions under this study are as follows:
• 1. To what extent has the Excursion (field trip) helped students gain
a broader understanding in geographical themes and concepts
covered through the course of their study?
• 2. What aspects of Excursion should be improved to perfect how
Excursion should be conducted to increase students’ knowledge?
NOTE
• At the outset of your research, make sure you have identified a
worthwhile problem which has not been previously answered.
• Since research is always about some problem(s), identification and
selection of this problem is most crucial in designing a research
proposal.
• Although selecting the research problem is one of the most difficult
step in the research process, it is unfortunately the one for which the
least guidance can be given.
• Research problems are issues or difficulties that researchers experience
within either a practical or theoretical situation and to which they need to
find solutions.
• A problem is a hypothesis (i.e. postulate/assumption/premise) or question
of interest to education which can be tested or answered through the
collection and analysis of data.
• It is essential that the research problems be clearly formulated and stated
and a choice made of the resultant question(s) that are going to be
scientifically examined.
• You cannot start planning and collecting data before you have reviewed
literature and have a clear idea of what the actual problem is.
3. Literature Review and Research Questions
• Research questions are questions that guide the research study.
Good research questions have the following features:
• Directly linked to the statement of the problem, i.e. the answering of
the research questions results in answering the statement of the
problem;
• They should not be used in a research as a ploy to achieve self-
enlightenment;
Features of Good research questions
(continued):
• They are connected logically to one another
• They are linked conceptually through key terms that appear in each
question;
• They should not result in a yes or no answer
• They should be clear, plainly understandable, self-explanatory
apparent to outside readers, and are able to stand alone as
researchable questions;
• They should convey relationships between two (or more) variables.
4.Plagiarism
• Plagiarism refers to copying others’ work. Plagiarism is an act of
fraud. It includes:
• Stealing and passing off others’ ideas and words as your own;
• Using others’ production without crediting the source;
• Giving incorrect information about the source of quotation
Some of the ways of plagiarism
• The following are some of the ways of plagiarism:
• Deliberately miscues: providing inaccurate information regarding the
sources making it impossible to find them.
• Intentional plagiarism: cutting and pasting, or presenting others’ work
as your own.
5. Referencing
• The formal and recommended way of referencing as per UNAM policy
is the American Psychological Association (APA).
• There is a book on this format of referencing: Publication manual of
the American Psychological Association (6th Edition).
• Get yourself a copy and read it thoroughly. (It should also be
available online)
Examples of how to use APA format:
IN THE TEXT
• - Robson (2012) argues that mixed methods research incorporates the
strengths of both methodologies and produces superior products.
• - In support, Sechrest and Sidana (1995) maintain that mixed method
design embodies strengths of both quantitative and qualitative
methodologies and results in outstanding outcomes.
In Text citations (continued)
• - Jonson and Onwuegbuzie (2004, p. 15) concur as they state that
“taking a non-purist or compatibilist or mixed position allows
researchers to mix and match design components that offer the best
chance of answering their specific research questions”
• - An inductive process means that categories and patterns emerge
from data, rather than being imposed on data prior to the data
collection (MacMillan & Schumacher, 1997).
Examples of how to use the APA format when
writing your list of REFERENCES

• Barton, A. C., Drake, C., Perez, J.G., St Louis, C. & George, M. (2012).
Ecologies of parental engagements in urban education. Educational
researcher. Vol. 33 (4): p. 3-12.
• McMillan, J.H. & Schumacher, S. (2013). Research in Education.
Boston: Longman.
• Robson, C. (2011). Real world research. Oxford: Blackwell.
References
• Chilisa, B. and Preece, J. (2005) research methods for Adult Educators
in Africa. Cape Town: PEARSON
• Fox, W. & Bayat, M.S. (2007). A Guide to Managing Research. Cape
• Town: JUTA.
• De Vos, A.S. et al. 2011. Research at grass roots. For the social
sciences and human service professions 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik
Publishers.
• Fox, W & Bayat, M.S. 2007. A Guide to Managing Research.
Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta & Co Ltd. (ISBN 978 070 217 68 45)
References (continued)
• Maree, L & Van der Westhuizen, C. 2009. Head Start in Designing Research
Proposals in the Social Sciences. Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta& Company
Ltd. (ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 4).
• Primary Sources on the web:
https://www.sccollege.edu/Library/Pages/Primary-Sources.aspx
• Stake, R.E. (2000). Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.),
Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd ed.): p. 435-450. Thousand Oaks:
Sage Publications, Inc.
• Vithal, R & Jansen, J. 2010. Designing your first research proposal. A
Manual for researchers in education and the social sciences. Claremont:
Juta & Company Ltd. (ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 784 2).
Research Methodology:
Population and Sampling

CFS 3781 Session 4

Groups 1 and 2

21February 2022
Session Objectives
Upon completion of this session you will be able to:
• describe quantitative research approach and designs.
• identify appropriate research design for your research study.
• characterise a good quantitative research design.
• formulate a research hypothesis
• explain the difference between dependent variable and
independent variable
• explain the difference between internal validity and external
• validity.
Introduction
• When conducting research, you collect data in order to solve the
problem under investigation.
• To collect data, you need to create an appropriate research design.
• A research design is the actual plan in terms of which you obtain
research participants or subjects and collect data from them
Under research methodology, the researcher specifies a number of things:
• the approach;
• design;
• population;
• participants and how to choose them (samples and sampling procedure),
• how the researcher will collect data from participants (research instruments);
• how the researcher will test whether the instruments are reliable;
• how to administer the instruments; and
• how the collected data will be analyzed (read through the data, find the answer
to your research questions) to get answers to your research questions.
Terminology
• Research Design: a plan for addressing the research question the
researcher posed.
• Hypothesis: assumed answer to the question posed in a research problem
statement.
• Dependent variable: is the factor which is observed and measured by the
researcher in order to determine how it was affected by the independent
variable
• Variable: is an attribute or a characteristic of the object of research. The
object of research could be individuals, groups, organisations, events or
human products, or the conditions to which they are exposed. (e.g, height,
weight, eye color, ethnic group, political affiliation, etc.)
Terminology
• Reliability: refers to the extent to which one’s findings can be
replicated. That means be sure that if another investigator follows
exactly the same research procedure as the one you have described
and conducts the same study again, s/he will arrive at the same
findings and conclusion.
• Internal validity: deals with the question of how one’s findings match
reality.
• External validity: concerns with the extent to which the findings of
one study can be applied to other situations.
• Triangulation: using multiple investigators, multiple sources of data,
or multiple methods to confirm the emerging findings.
1. Different Study Designs

• Based on the number of contacts

• Based on the number of contacts the following are the most
commonly used research study designs:
• (a) Longitudinal study design
• (b) Cross-sectional study design
• Longitudinal research design employs the following characteristics:
• - It tracks participants over an extended amount of time (5yrs, 10 yrs,
15 yrs, etc.).
• - Same people are studied at more than one time to record the
developments in growth, etc
• Cross-sectional research design employs the following
characteristics:
• - It involves studying many people at one point in time.
• - It involves less time period and cost as compared to longitudinal
method.
• - It describes the direct relationship (positive or negative) between
• the variables
• Based on the reference period
• The historical study design is a commonly used design under the
category of reference period. The following are the historical study
design’s main characteristics:
• - Also known as ‘historiography’ is related to the interpretation of the
events which can be in the form of issues or the movements that
have occurred in the past and factual analysis.
• It is longer than other types of research because the researcher has to
search for the documents and has to do a deep analysis of these
documents.
• - After the identification of issue, data is collected through:
• Primary sources
• Secondary sources
• "Materials (are studied, information is synthesized, facts
• are analysed, and the results are drawn)
• Based on the nature of investigation
• According to the nature of investigation, research designs have the
following categories:
• 1. The experimental study design
• 2. The non-experimental study design
• 3. The quasi-experimental study design
• Experimental study designs involve the control and the treatment
group to check the causes and effect relationship. In experimental
design, the researcher chooses some element to try it out and to
check its effect on something else. Both the treatment technique (i.e.
independent variable) and its effect on the specific subject on which
the treatment is applied are termed as the independent and
dependent variables respectively. Researchers opt for this design
when they need to show that method A produces better results than
method B.
• Non-experimental designs include a variety of different methods that
describe relationships between variables. They do not set out or test,
any causal relationship between variables
• In Quasi-experimental design the researcher assign the participants to
groups based on some characteristics or qualities that these people
bring to the study. It is also called post-hoc or after fact design.
• Quantitative research has its roots in positivism, which is defined as
“the epistemological doctrine that physical and social reality is
independent of those who observe it, and that observations of this
reality, if unbiased, constitute scientific knowledge” (Gall & Borg,
2003, p. 632).
• Thus, research design in quantitative research tends to be structured
and prescriptive, much more so than in qualitative research.
• The most important part of quantitative research and its design is to
explain variance, i.e. explaining why individuals are different or
explaining why their characteristics are different. For example,
variance in students’ achievement, motivation, attitude, age, and
family background can be considered.
• This means that variance in achievement, for example, may be due to
aptitude and motivation, to mention two possible factors.
• Procedures are used in quantitative research design to control
variance.
• Controlling variance means creating conditions that allow the
researcher to get a clear look at the variable of interest by limiting or
eliminating the influence of some variables and explaining the
influence of others
• Many quantitative techniques or methods may be used. The widely
used ones are the following:
• a) Experimental method: when researchers need to show that
method A produces better results than method B
• b) Observation techniques: when researchers wish to systematically
record occurrences or the patterns of behaviour of subjects, or to
communicate with them in a particular way
• c) Survey research: when researchers wish to conduct research on
a large scale and where a sample of respondents is drawn from a
given population.
• In experimental research certain variables are manipulated, i.e.
changed or influenced, to enable the researcher to observe the effect
of the manipulation on other variables in an objective, a precise and
scientifically responsible manner.
• Variables are classified according to their relationship with each other.
There are two variables: the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
• The independent variable is the condition or element that is being
investigated.
• The independent variable is the cause, and may be regarded as the
treatment.
• The dependent variable is the criterion with which the independent
variable is being evaluated. The dependent variable is the effect, and
may be regarded as the result.
Example
• For example, in a research project to appraise the causal relationship
between smoking (independent variable) and lung cancer (the
dependent variable), researchers explore rates of the occurrence of
lung cancer among various groups of smokers and non-smokers to
assess the degree of relationship that exists.
• Only those research problems that allow researchers to manipulate
conditions are appropriate in experimental research.
• Researchers usually do three things in experiments:
• 1. They start with a hypothesis.
• 2. They manipulate something within the situation.
• 3. They compare the results with, and without, the manipulation.
Control and the Factors it Threatens
• If the factors that could affect an experiment are not effectively
controlled, it is not possible to come to a valid conclusion. The two
factors that could affect an experiment are those that threaten
internal validity and those that threaten external validity.
• What is meant by internal validity and external validity?
• Internal validity refers to the fact that there are no errors internal to
the design of the research project.
• Without internal validity, researchers do not know whether the
differences between the two groups were caused by the independent
variable or some other uncontrolled factor.
• External validity refers to the ability to generalize findings from a
specific setting and small group to a broad range of settings and
people.
 Variables
• A variable is a concept- a noun that stands for variation within a class of objects
e.g. gender, eye color, achievement, motivation, etc.
• Individual members in the class of objects however, must differ or vary to qualify
the class as a variable. If all members of a class are identical, we do not have a
variable (but rather a constant)
Variables are of different types:
• Dependent variables
• Independent variables
• Controlled variables
• Extraneous variables
• Moderator variables
• Dependent variables are the variables that researchers measure to determine if
the independent variables have an effect;
• Dependent variable is a variable that is potentially influenced by the
independent variable, a variable that is influenced by and to some extent
depends on the independent variable.
• Independent variables often simply are classifying variables, classifying the
individuals of the research study. For example, if we are looking at the students’
achievement in Educational Research subject using a new teaching method, then
the ‘new teaching method’ would be an independent variable and the
achievement of students is a dependent variable.
• Independent variables are the treatment or manipulated variables i.e. those
variables the investigator chooses to study and often manipulate) in order to
assess their possible effects) on one or more other variables
• Controlled variables are independent variables. They are controlled
variables only if their effects are determined, i.e. controlled. In the
example of students’ achievement in Principles of Research, the
learning style of students is an organismic variable, as it would
probably appear as an intervening variable.
• Extraneous variable/confounding variable is related to the
dependent or independent variable, but is not part of the
experiment. Moderator variable is related to the independent and
dependent variable and has an impact on dependent variable. In such
a situation, it becomes an interacting variable also.
• Confounding/Extraneous variables are independent variables that
have not been controlled. (e.g. in the research question: “Will
students who are taught by a team of three teachers learn more
science than students taught by one individual teacher?’ what might
be some other variables that could have an effect on the learning of
students in a classroom situation?)
Quantitative – Descriptive (Survey) Design
• The survey designs are often of a more quantitative nature, requiring
questionnaires as a data collection method. Respondents are ideally
selected by means of randomized sampling methods.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
• Researchers want research not only to be “do-able”, but also to yield
results that can be interpreted with confidence.
• The following characteristics enhance research design:
(a) Free from bias
• The design should provide data that allow fair, unbiased comparison
among groups. This means that care should be taken to ensure that any
differences between groups can be attributed to the independent
variables under study. For instance, a bias would have been introduced in
the PPE example in the higher ability students were all assigned to one
teaching method. Random assignment of students to groups would
eliminate the bias of putting the higher ability students in one method.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
(continued)
(b) Freedom from confounding
• Another way that bias can enter the data is through confounding. Two
(or more) independent variables are confounded if their effects
cannot be separated. A good research design eliminates confounding
of variables or keeps it to a minimum so that effects can be separated
and results can be interpreted without confusion.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
(continued)
c. Control of Extraneous variables
• Although extraneous variables are not the variables of primary
interest in a research study, they may have an effect on the
dependent variable. To control such variables is to be able to identify,
balance, minimize, or eliminate their effects. The effects are
manifested as they influence the variance in the dependent variable,
so the control of extraneous variables is accomplished through the
control of variance, as described earlier.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
(continued)
(d) Statistical Precision for testing hypotheses
• It is important to have appropriate data with enough precision so
hypotheses can be tested with confidence. Statistical precision is
increased with larger samples and when additional independent
variables are built into the research design.
 Research Methodology:
Qualitative Research Theories
and Designs

CFS 3781 Session 5

Group 1 and 2
22 Feb 2022
Session Objectives
Upon completion of this session you will be able to:
• explain reasons for opting to do qualitative research
• discuss theories of qualitative research
• describe qualitative research designs
• describe the strengths and weaknesses of mixed method
• research
• Qualitative research is the predominant paradigm of research in the
social sciences.
1. The Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research is an approach to research. The following are the
underlying assumptions and basic ideas of how research is conducted, i.e.
the underlying epistemology of qualitative research:
• a) Phenomenon should be viewed holistically.
• b) The researcher operates in a natural setting because of the concern for
context and, to the extent possible, should maintain openness about what
will be observed, collected, etc., in order to avoid missing something
important.
• c) It is the perceptions of those being studied that are important and, to
the extent possible, these perceptions are to be captured in order to
obtain an accurate “measure” of reality. “Meaning” is a perception or
experiences of those being studied; it is not imposed by the researcher.
• A priori assumptions, and certainly a priori conclusions, are to be
avoided in favor of post hoc conclusions.
• Assumptions and conclusions are subject to change as the research
proceeds.
2. Theories (perspectives) of Qualitative Research

• A number of perspectives are usually associated with qualitative

research: critical theory, feminist theory and postmodernism. These
are inclined to guide research by providing a rational basis of thought
about a phenomenon, as well as creating issues for further
investigation within the process of qualitative research.
a. Critical theory
• Critical theory covers themes with methodological implications and
promotes certain methods above others. Case studies are often used
in this context. An ethnographic research project may be designed to
include changes in the way people think. The respondents are then
encouraged to interact, from networks and action-oriented groups, as
well as to assist individuals in examining the conditions of their
existence.
b. Feminist theory
• Feminist research approaches aims at establishing collaborative, non-
exploitative relationships, at placing the researcher within the area of
research, and at conducting transformative research. Gender is
regarded as a basic organising principle that shapes the conditions of
human life.
c. Postmodernism theory
• Postmodernism does not have a single definition but is distinguished
by a number of related characteristics. The related characteristics
could form the basis of various methodologies in qualitative research,
especially in biographies, case studies and ethnographies.
Postmodern social theory supports the search for concrete, context-
specific and historically positioned narratives that are not separated
from the social and political interests of actual people.
3. Qualitative Research Designs
a. Biography
• A biography is the theory of a particular person’s life, written by
someone else.
• As a branch of literature, a biography may be scientifically written or
as a minutely or largely fictional publication.
• Biography is used to report on and document an individual’s life and
his or her experiences as told to the researcher or found in
documents and archival material
b. Historical
• Historical research is a systematic process of describing, analyzing,
and interpreting the past based on information from selected sources
as they relate to the topic under study.
c. Phenomenology
• Phenomenology is the study of phenomenon; it stresses the careful description of phenomenon
from the perspective of those experiencing the phenomenon.
• This design aims to understand and interpret the meaning that subjects give to their everyday
lives.
• A phenomenological study describes the meaning of experiences of a phenomenon, topic or
concept for various individuals.
• The researcher should enter the subjects’ “life world” or “life setting” and place himself in the
shoes of the subjects.
• The researcher should believe that reality consists of the meaning of experiences by those being
studied. This is mainly done by means of naturalistic methods of study, analyzing the using the
conversations and interaction that researchers have with subjects.
• Researchers using this strategy design should mainly utilize participant observation and long
interviews as methods of data collection.
d. Grounded theory
• Grounded theory refers to the creation of theory based more (but
not exclusively) on observation.
• The researcher generates an abstract analytical schema of a
phenomenon, i.e. theory that explains some action, interaction or
process. This is an analytical strategy. The approach stresses that a
theory be built from the ground up.
• A grounded theory is one that is inductively derived from the
phenomenon it represents, i.e. it is discovered, developed and
provisionally verified through systematic data collection and analysis
of data pertaining to that particular phenomenon.
e. Ethnography
• The term ethnography refers both to a research process and the product of
that process.
• The product is a written account, i.e. the ethnography of what was studied.
Therefore, ethnography is a study of an intact cultural or social group (or
an individual or individuals within that group) based primarily on
observations over a prolonged period of time spent by the researcher in
the field.
• The ethnographer examines the group’s observable and learned patterns
of behaviour, customs and way of life, and listens to and records the voices
of informants. The final product of this study is a descriptive and
interpretive, holistic cultural portrait of the group. (Recall the Epupa
Hydropower Dam Construction vs Ovahimba in Kunene example)
f. Case Study
• A case study is an exploration or in-depth analysis of a “bounded system”
(bounded by time and/or place), or a single or multiple case, over a period of
time.
• The sole criterion for selecting cases for a case study should be “the opportunity
to learn”.
• The exploration and description of the case takes place through detailed, in-
depth data collection methods, involving multiple sources of information that are
rich in context. These may include interviews, documents, observations or
archival records.
• The product of this research is an in-depth description of a case or cases. Case
study researchers, in contrast to grounded theories, seek to enter the field with
knowledge of the relevant literature before conducting the field research.
• Qualitative research incorporates various methods of data collection
and of data analysis. It could involve reaching audiences receptive to
qualitative approaches as well as fieldwork for prolonged periods of
time.
• Prolonged time spent in research contributes to the trustworthiness
of research and the methods of verification affect its accuracy.
• Data collection is often carried out simultaneously with data analysis
and fieldwork. The researcher could therefore be overwhelmed by
the amount of data collected during this process.
4. Mixed Method Research Design

• Mixed methods research is the third research paradigm in educational

• research.
• The field moves beyond quantitative versus qualitative research
• arguments because, as recognised by mixed methods research, both
quantitative
• and qualitative researches are important and useful.
• The goal of mixed methods research is not to replace either of these
approaches but rather to draw from the strength and minimise the
weaknesses of both in single research studies and across studies.
• Mixed methods research can also help bridge the separation between
quantitative and qualitative research.
To construct a mixed-method design, you must make two primary
decisions:
• a) Whether you want to operate largely within one dominant
paradigm or not, and
• b) Whether you want to conduct the phases concurrently or
sequentially
• In contrast to mixed-model designs, mixed-method designs are similar
to conducting a quantitative mini-study and a qualitative mini-study
in one overall research study.
• To be considered a mixed-method design, the findings must be mixed
or integrated at some point (e.g. a qualitative phase might be
conducted to inform a quantitative phase, sequentially, or if the
quantitative and qualitative phases are undertaken concurrently the
findings must, at a minimum, be integrated during the interpretation
of the findings).
• a. Mixed Methods Research Process Model
• A mixed methods research process model may comprise eight (8) distinct
steps:
• Determine the research question;
• Determine whether a mixed design is appropriate;
• Select the mixed-method or mixed-model research design;
• Collect the data;
• Analyse the data;
• Interpret the data;
• Legitimise the data; and
• Draw conclusions and write the final report.
• There are five (5) major purposes or rationales for conducting mixed
methods research:
• 1. Triangulation
• 2. Complementary
• 3. Initiation
• 4. Development
• 5. Expansion
c. Strengths and Weaknesses of Mixed Research
• Strengths
• Words, pictures and narrative can be used to add meaning to numbers.
• Numbers can be used to add precision to words, pictures and narrative.
• Can provide quantitative and qualitative research strengths.
• Research can generate and test a grounded theory.
• Can answer a broader and complete range of research questions because
the researcher is not confined to a single method or approach.
• A researcher can use the strength of an additional method to
overcome the weaknesses in another method by using both in a
research study.
• Can provide stronger evidence for a conclusion through convergence
and collaboration of findings.
• Can add insight and understanding that might be missed when a
single method is used.
• Can be used to increase the generalisability of the results.
• Qualitative and quantitative research used together to produce more
complete knowledge necessary to inform theory and practice.
Weaknesses
• Can be difficult for a single researcher to carry out both qualitative
and quantitative research, especially if two or more approaches are
expected to be used concurrently; it may require a research team.
• Researcher has to learn about multiple methods and approaches and
understand how to mix them appropriately.
• More expensive.
• More time consuming.
References
• Fox, W. & Bayat, M.S. (2007). A Guide to Managing Research. Cape Town: JUTA.
• De Vos, A.S. et al. 2011. Research at grass roots. For the social sciences and
human service professions 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
• Fox, W & Bayat, M.S. 2007. A Guide to Managing Research. Lansdowne, Cape
Town: Juta & Co Ltd. (ISBN 978 070 217 68 45)
• Maree, L & Van der Westhuizen, C. 2009. Head Start in Designing Research
Proposals in the Social Sciences. Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta & Company Ltd.
(ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 4).
• Stake, R.E. (2000). Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
Qualitative Research (2nd ed.): p. 435-450. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
Inc.
• Vithal, R & Jansen, J. 2010. Designing your first research proposal. A Manual for
researchers in education and the social sciences. Claremont: Juta & Company Ltd.
(ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 784
Research Methodology:
Population and Sampling

CFS 3781 Group 1 and 2

Session 6 of 23 Feb 2022
Session Objectives
Upon completion of this session you will be able to:
• define basic concepts of sampling procedure
• differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling
• explain techniques for drawing probability samples
• explain techniques for drawing non-probability samples
 Terminology

• Population: The total collection of all the units of analysis (the

members or elements of a population) about which a researcher
requires to reach distinct conclusions.
• Units of analysis: Refers to members or elements of a given
population. In the behavioural sciences they refer to what of the
investigation: what object, phenomenon, entity, process or the event
the researcher is interested in investigating.
• Sampling is a technique employed to select a small group (the
sample) with a view to determine the characteristics of a large group
(the population)
• Well selected, the sample should have the same properties as the
population
• Sample: Refers to any subset of the elements of the population that is
obtained (by some process) for the purpose of being studies.
• Due to lack of time/finance, the researcher selects a small portion of
the population/sample to study
• Sample to be representative of the population
• The larger the sample, the more representative it is of a pop or
universe and the more accurate the conclusions drawn will be.
• The more heteregenous a pop is, the larger the sample should be
1. Population (where applicable) and
Sampling
• Population: All the objects, subjects, individuals, events/or objects ,
phenomena, activities or cases which the researcher wishes to
research in order to establish new knowledge/ that share common
characteristics and represents the whole or sum total of cases
involved in a study is called the “universum” or population.
• A population is the full set of cases from which samples are taken,
and in research these cases need not necessarily be people.
Examples of Population
• University students
• Organizations, e.g., banks, universities, government departments
• Social activities/events e.g. murder, robbery
• Television programs
• Training programs
• Etc.
Types of Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Probability sampling
• Non-probability sampling
• Simple random sampling
• Criterion sampling
• Convenience Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
2. Probability Sampling
• A probability sample is a sample in which each element in the
population has a known and no-zero probability (chance) of being
included in the sample.
• There are various techniques for drawing probability samples:
random sampling, systematic sampling, and cluster sampling.
• There are two types of random sampling: simple random- and
stratified random sampling
• Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which a sample from
a larger population is chosen using a method based on the theory of
probability. For a participant to be considered as a probability sample,
he/she must be selected using a random selection.
2.1 Random sampling
• (a) Simple random sampling
• A sample drawn from the population in such a way that each element
of that population has the same ‘chance’ of being drawn during the
first and each successive draw is called a simple random sample.
• Simple random sampling is not always the best method of drawing
samples, as it is not always a good reflection of the population as a
whole (it is not always representative).
• A Simple random sample is a subset of a statistical population in
which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being
chosen. An example of a simple random sample would be the names
of 25 employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250
employees.
• (b) Stratified random sampling
• A population that is very heterogeneous (dissimilar) regarding the
phenomenon studied is first divided into a number of natural and non-
overlapping groups or strata that are more or less homogeneous regarding
the phenomenon being studied. A number of elements are then drawn
randomly from each group.
• Pop should have sub-pop or strata e.g first years, 2nd years, 3rd year
students and 4th years
• Under representation of strata or non-response of element in the sample
could result in bias in the conclusions drawn by the researcher.
• Elements for the sample should be selected randomly from each of the
strata of the population
c. Systematic sampling
• This is a sampling method that is often applied because of its
simplicity and involves drawing a particular number (say, the n-th
element) from a list of items arranged in sequence on some
predetermined basis. However, this method of sampling does not
yield a random sample in the sense in which randomness is defined.
d. Cluster sampling
• In Cluster sampling, units are grouped together to form a cluster. The
entire population is divided into a number of such groups or clusters.
The first stage of the sampling consists of randomly selecting a
number of clusters. All the units in the selected cluster will then be
included in the sample, or a second stage of sampling may be carried
out in which units are drawn randomly to form the clusters to be
included in the sampling. NB. Schools are currently clustered. Using a
cluster sampling would mean that if a research wants to use a cluster
sampling then he/she has to include all schools in that particular
cluster.
3. Non-Probability Sampling
• This method of sampling is often used in studies because it is convenient
and inexpensive. The best-known techniques for drawing non-probability
samples are:
• a) Accidental sampling
• b) Convenience sampling
• c) Judgment sampling
• d) Snowball sampling
• e) Self-selection sampling
• f) Quota sampling
• g) Purposive sampling
Accidental sampling
An accidental sample is the most convenient collection of units of
analysis for purposes of research that are readily available in the
population.
• For example, people who happen to be at a particular shopping
Centre at a specific time where and when you are conducting
interviews, or conducting interviews in organisations that are close to
your own.
• Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where
subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and
proximity to the researcher.
• A convenience (or accessibility) sample is obtained when the most
convenient or accessible units of the population are selected. It is not
representative of the population.
Judgmental sampling
• Researchers base the selection of their units of analysis on their own
expert opinion of the population. Therefore, they select those units that
they regard as being ‘typical’ of the population.
Example
• For example, you wish to establish some aspect of new information on
caring for Covid-19 patients in communities. You approach a number of
health centres and ask the opinion of some of the professional health
workers, because you ‘know’ that they are able to provide you with the
information. You argue that asking the same questions to a group of, say,
teachers will not serve your purpose.
Snowball sampling
• Snowball sampling is where research participants recruit other
participants for a test or study. It is used where potential participants
are hard to find. It is called snowball sampling because (in theory)
once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the way
and becomes larger and larger.
• Snowball sampling is done in phases. In the first phase you approach a few
individuals from the population concerned. They then act as informants
and identify other members from the same population for inclusion in the
sample. Those identified individuals, in turn, may identify a further set of
relevant individuals for inclusion. So the sample snowballs and grows in
size until saturated.
• Example
• For example, a principal who has obtained his Diploma in Leadership from
the Faculty of Education may identify someone else or a few other
individuals with the same academic background. That person or they, in
turn, may put you in touch with another similar individual or other similar
individuals, and so on until you obtain the required numbers.
Self-selection sampling
• In self-selection sampling you allow units, which are usually individuals, to
identify their wish to participate in the research. Therefore, you do the
following:
• Publicise your need for participants, either by advertising through the
media or by direct request
• Collect data from those who respond
• Participants who freely elect to take part often do so as a result of their
perceptions or opinions about the research questions or research
objectives. In many instances this is what you may really need.
Quota sampling
• In this case, researchers use a priori (previously known) information
about the population to divide it into groups. A quota sample
therefore consists of the members of each group so that each group
features proportionally in the sample.
• However, the groups are not selected randomly.
Purposive sampling
• Purposive sampling is the most important type of non-probability
sampling. You rely on your experience, ingenuity and/or previous
research experience and findings to deliberately obtain units of
analysis in such a way that the sample you obtain may be regarded as
being representative of the relevant population.
Representativeness of the Sample
• Once again, the sample should be representative of the population
• The larger the sample, the more representative it is of a pop or
universe and the more accurate the conclusions drawn will be.
• The more heteregenous a pop is, the larger the sample should be
Size of samples

• The size of a sample will depend on a variety of practical

considerations, such as the size of the population.
• In addition, the homogeneity of the population and the degree of
reliability required in the investigation, as well as the method of
sampling, will affect the size.
• Therefore, it is not possible to state categorically what the size of a
sample should be. Your choice of sample size is regularly regulated by:
• The confidence that you have in your data, i.e. the level of certainty
that you need for the characteristic of the collected data to represent
the characteristics of the total population
• The margin of error that you can tolerate, i.e. the accuracy that you
require for any estimates made for your sample
• The types of analysis that you are going to carry out, especially the
number of categories into which you wish to sub-divide your data,
because many statistical techniques have a minimum threshold of
data cases for every variable
Guidelines to be followed in determining
sample size
• The more homogenous the population, the smaller the sample
required, e.g, the 2nd year Accounting majors from UNAM (since they
are all majoring in Accounting and are from UNAM only and none
from other higher learning institutions, even if a small sample is
selected, chances of it being representative are very high)
• The more heterogenous the population, the larger the sample
required, e.g. the 2nd year Accounting majors from all the universities
in Namibia
• If the sample error is a probability, the sample should be as large as
possible. Meaning that if your sampling is not accurately done, you
are better off having a larger sample to increase the
representativeness of your sample.
• The larger the sample, the more accurate the conclusions drawn will
be.
• If the population is small e.g. is 20 objects/individuals/cases, then
study each one, hence pop will be equal to sample (20 participants).
That is, it makes no sense to choose 5 individuals from a small sample
of 20 persons; rather include everyone in your study. Hence, in this
case, your sample is the same as your population.
Randomness in sampling
Random Selection vs. Random Assignment: What’s
the Difference?
• Random selection is when each element of a population has the
same chance of being selected for the sample.
• This process is an important research tool used in research, allowing
scientists to create representative samples from which conclusions
can be drawn and applied to the larger population.
• Random selection is not the same thing as random assignment. While
random selection involves how participants are chosen for a study,
random assignment involves how those chosen are then assigned to
different groups in the experiment. Many studies and experiments
actually use both of these techniques.
Response rate

• The most essential aspect of a probability sample is that it represents

the relevant population.
• When it is a perfectly representative sample, it will exactly represent
the population from which it is drawn. If 60% of your sample were
secondary schools, you would expect 60% of the population to be
secondary schools. Therefore, you should obtain as high a response
rate as possible to ensure a representative sample
• In research, you are likely to experience non-responses. These non-
respondents differ from the rest of the population because for
various reasons they refuse to be involved in the research.
• Therefore, the respondents (those who have participated) will not be
representative of the relevant population, and the collected data may
be biased.
• Besides, non-responses require a further quest for respondents in
order to reach the necessary sample size, which means higher costs
being incurred
• Therefore, it is important that you analyse the non-responses to
individual questions, as well as to the entire questionnaire, in order to
check for bias. There may be four reasons why people do not
respond:
• Refusal to respond
• Not being eligible to respond, for example being too young
• The inability to locate the respondent
• Not being able to make contact with the respondent
• The most common reason for non-response is the refusal to answer
individual or all questions. This can be minimized by either paying
attention to the data collecting methods or ensuring that the selected
participants meet the research requirements.
• However, the objective is to obtain a 100% or total response rate.
• The most common way of ensuring this is by excluding ineligible
respondents as well as those who could not be reached.
Sampling error

• It has been demonstrated that it is almost impossible to decide on a

sample that is perfectly representative of the total population. One
way is not to sample but to select the whole population. Sampling
error defines the lack of fit between the sample and the population,
i.e. the difference between the selected characteristics of the sample
and the characteristics of the population.
Access to and rapport with respondents

• When an individual is used as a respondent, access could be obtained

directly or, in the case of a minor, through a third party, such as
parents, professional body or an institution in order to guard against a
harmful impact on the respondent.
• Respondents should be informed of the following (ethical
considerations):
• Comments about protecting the confidentiality of the respondents
• The individual’s right to withdraw from the research project and any
time
Ethical Considerations (continued)
• The main purpose of the investigation and the procedures to be used
in data collection
• A statement about the known risk associated with participation in the
research
• The expected benefits to accrue to the participants in the research.
Ethical Considerations (continued)
• Informed consent. Informed consent is the major ethical issue in
conducting research. According to Armiger (1997):"it means that a
person knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently, and in a clear and
manifest way, gives his consent.
• Respect for privacy. “Privacy is the freedom an individual has to
determine the time, extent, and general circumstances under which
private information will be shared with or withheld from others “
(Kelman, 1977)
• In certain research projects, such as ethnographic studies, a
researcher may have to make use of a gatekeeper to gain access to
participants. This is an individual who is a member of or who has
insider status among a cultural group or within a society. She or he
could be a community leader/chief/headman in an informal
settlement. Such a person is the initial contact for the researcher and
leads the researcher to other informants. Although this may be a slow
and tedious process, it is an important aspect of data collection.
References
• Armiger B. Ethics in Nursing Research: Profile, Principles, Perspective.
Nursing Research, 1997;26 (5): 330-333.
• Fox, W. & Bayat, M.S. (2007). A Guide to Managing Research. Cape
Town: JUTA.
• Kelman H.C. Privacy and Research with Human Beings. Journal of
Social Issues, 1977;33: 169?195
• Stake, R.E. (2000). Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.),
Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd ed.): p. 435-450. Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.
Methods of Data Collection
CFS 3781
Group 1
Session 7 of 28 February 2022
Session Objectives
Upon completion of this session you will be able to:
• identify and describe types of observation
• explain how to record observation
• explain benefits of conducting interviews
• explain challenges of face-to-face interviews
• explain drawbacks to email interviews
• explain how to conduct a successful focus group interview
• This section will more clearly define the major ways of doing
qualitative research – observation, interview, focus groups discussion,
and surveys with open-ended questions – what they involve and how
to conduct research using each of these methods.
• Observation: a procedure of gathering data through senses: the
researcher listens to what the participants say, sees, smells and
touches as s/he interacts with participants.
• Complete observer: when the researcher does not take part in the
setting
• Participant observer: the researcher becomes marginally involved in
the situation.
• Individual interview: a conversation between a researcher and a
research participant
• Focus group interview: a discussion-based interview in which
multiple research participants simultaneously produce data on a
specified issue.
1. How to Do Observation

• Observation differs depending on the observer’s degree of

participation or involvement in the scene. Observation also differs
depending on if the observer is an insider or an outsider to that
scene.
(a) Nonparticipation
• In nonparticipation, the observer is not even present at the scene. This
type of observation occurs, for example, when someone is observing
sport events on television
(b) Passive Participation
• In passive participation, the observer is present at the scene but is
not participating at all in the scene. In fact, the observer may not
even be noticed by other people there. For example, taking
observation notes of an activity that you are not a part of would be a
form of passive participation. In passive participation, it is quite easy
for the observer to take notes while he or she is at the scene.
(c) Active Participation
• In active participation, the observer seeks to do the activities he or
she is observing and to fully interact as much as possible with the
other participants at the scene.
(d) Total Participation
• In total participation, the observer is observing a cultural community
in which he or she already belongs. Consequently, the researcher
already understands the cultural customs of that community and
actively participates in them often.
• There are many benefits to observing a scene as an outsider.
• Because the researcher does not have close, emotional ties with this
scene, the researcher is less likely to let personal relationships
influence how he/she sees a culture or event.
• Also, the more familiar we are with something, the more we tend to
take it for granted, and even forget about it.
• Someone who is brand new to the scene is more apt to record details
that natives might find so common that they become invisible to
them. However, these normal details might be extremely important in
understanding the culture of that scene.
• There are disadvantages to observing as an outsider as well.
Observers might not understand all of the cultural practices going on
in a scene and might misinterpret them. Furthermore, having
personal ties to a particular scene might help an observer have insight
into the inner cultural working of that place.
2. Recording Observation

• Good observation usually takes time. It is virtually impossible for a

researcher to become completely familiar with the scene after only
observing it once. In fact, most ethnographers will conduct
observations for several years. Of course, you don’t have to observe
for that long, but plan your observations ahead of time so that you
can schedule more than one observation into your schedule. Also, the
more time you spend observing in one setting, the better data you will
have. A good rule of thumb is to observe for at least an hour at a
time. Finally, make note of what time you observe and how long it
takes. Why? Because, the time of day affects many scenes.
Some more tips to keep in mind as you conduct
your observation and write your observation
notes:
Record with your five senses.
• Record what you see, hear, smell, and feel.
• If your observation entails observing some places that serves food or drink,
record what this food or drink tastes like as well.
• Record the time.
• Record the weather.
• Record what the place you are observing physically looks like.
• In fact, you might want to draw a diagram of the layout of the place or area under
observation. The layout of an area can greatly influence how people interact with
each other.
• Record what people are wearing.
• Definitely record what they say, their facial expressions, and body language.
• Don’t interpret.
• This can be tricky because we naturally tend to interpret everything around us,
especially other’s emotions, without realizing it. For example, someone may
appear happy. They may smile, laugh, and tell many jokes. However, because we
cannot directly observe this person’ happiness internally, it is impossible through
only observation to know if this person is actually happy or not. Some people are
good at hiding unhappiness.
• There could possibly be other factors that contribute to this person appearing
happy when he or she actually is not. Consequently, just describe in your
observation notes what you can see of this person: laughter, facial expressions,
and jokes.
• Also, avoid assigning motivations to people while you observe – unless you can
hear as they describe their motivations while they talk to someone else.
• Be exhaustive (thorough, comprehensive, in-depth, meticulous).
Record
• everything you can, even if it may not seem relevant to your study.
You never know which details will become relevant as you look at
your observational data later. The important thing is to record as
much of the context – the big picture –as possible so that you can see
more clearly how everything works together. Even a seemingly
insignificant detail, such as the time of day, could have a tremendous
influence on what people do and why in this particular setting. For
example, the time of day at a restaurant greatly impacts what people
order and why.
• We all notice different details than one another. In qualitative
research, this is fine. , observers will differ slightly in what details they
record.
3. How to Conduct Interviews
Interview can take many forms.
• For qualitative research purposes, the face-toface interview is may be the best.
• In a face-to-face interview, the researcher has the benefit of:
• (a) reading his interview participant’s facial expression, tone of voice, and body
language. In this way, the researcher
• (b) can learn even more about the interview participants. Furthermore, with the
aid of these nonverbal cues and the context of a more natural conversation, the
researcher will be
• (c) better able to tell how to interpret the interview participant’s responses. The
researcher can also quickly
• (d) find out if a question was misunderstood and rephrased appropriately, or if a
response is particularly rich, the interviewers
• (e) can immediately ask follow-up questions
• Time and resources are always challenge/limitations in research.
Faceto-face interviews demand the most time of both the researcher
and the participant.
• The researcher may not have the money or time to travel to a face-
toface interview.
• How can this challenge be addressed?
• schedule a phone interview
• In a phone interview, at least the researcher has the benefit of tone of
voice and the context of a normal conversation. Plus, the researcher
can still quickly clarify questions or ask productive follow-up
questions.
• conduct an email interview:
• If the interview participant is unable to schedule a phone interview or
you would like to interview so many participants that you do not have
time to speak with them all
• You can interview many people by just mass emailing your list of
questions.
• Also, with email you have the benefit of easily obtaining verbatim
(exact/precise) responses from your participants without the difficulty
of transcribing them (taping a response and writing that response
down word for word).
Drawbacks/Disadvantages to email interviews:
• 1.There is a good chance that many of your questions will not be
answered emailed back.
• 2. In an email interview, nonverbal cues are lost, so most humor such
as sarcasm and irony is lost as well, unless you know the interview
participant well.
• 3. The context of a normal conversation is lost, reducing the
spontaneity (naturalness) of responses and potentially creating more
confusion
• 4.It is more difficult to ask follow-up questions or clarify original
questions that may have been misunderstood.
• 5. Email is not a secure medium. Anybody along the email’s route can
read your email, so some authority offices will forbid certain types of
questions via email.
• 6. You also cannot guarantee confidentiality with an email interview.
4. Writing Effective Interview Questions
• The quality of information gathered during an interview depends
largely on how you design your questions and how you conduct the
interview session. Keep the following advice in mind to help you get
the best results from this type of qualitative research:
• Avoid questions that are worded confusingly. For instance, avoid
using words that could create two possible meanings for your
question.
• Use words that you know your interview participant will understand.
Use clear, straight-forward language and avoid jargon, unless you are
interviewing a professor or expert in the particular field that uses that
jargon.
• Avoid asking a question that is actually asking more than one
question. For instance, if you are conducting research about how
lecturer’s comments on paper affects revision, avoid asking a
question such as:
• “How do your lecturer’s comments affect your revision and which
comments do you think are the best?” the participant will probably
only remember one of the questions and will only answer one.
• Avoid questions that are too broad or vague. Interview participants
could easily get overwhelmed and then only give general or vague
responses in return. A question like this would be:
• “What do you enjoy about the extracurricular activities at your
institution?”
• There are too many options here a better idea would be to narrow
the extracurricular activities down to just one:
• what do you enjoy about your school choir or Soccer team?
• Avoid double negative when phrasing questions. Double negatives
tend to confuse people. An example of a double negative question is:
• “what do you not dislike about the new curriculum reform?”
• Avoid biased questions. Do not use biased or leading questions that give
away your perspective. For example, if you are researching coaching
strategies in college soccer and you are interviewing a soccer player, do not
ask a question such as:
• “So, what did you think of that horrible practice today?” sometimes bias
can be subtle. Things as subtle as body language and tone of voice give
away our bias.
• Also, the more strongly we believe in or feel about something, the more
likely we are going to be to let our bias show. However, in phrasing and
then asking questions, do your best to appear as impartial as possible.
Remember, you are trying to discover your interview participant’s
perspective and not your own.
5. Basic Advice for Most Interview Situations

• Schedule a time for the interview that is convenient for the interview
participant well in advance.
• Make eye contact with your interview participant through the
interview.
• Thank the interview participant for their time before and after the
• interview.
• Make the interview participant comfortable before the interview
begins. Small talk, jokes, etc., can go a long way in making the
interview participant comfortable. Also, feel free to explain a little bit
about yourself, your research project, and what your research project
will be used for before the interview begins.
• Address your interview participant appropriately for his or her
position.
• Don’t make the interview too long. Respect your participant’s time
and design your interview questions with your appointment
limitations in mind. You may try to reschedule if the interview is
running long and the interview participant looks tired.
• Start off with the easy questions first and then warm up to harder
questions. This will put your interview participant at ease and give
you a chance to get to know each other better by the time you ask
the tougher question.
6. Interview Advice
• You can be redundant in your questions, but rephrase them
productively. To get the most information possible out of your
interview participant, you can ask the same question over again –
especially if it is an important question to your research. If you ask the
question in different ways, you might get different perspectives on it
or get a lengthier response.
• Don’t give away your research question. You don’t want your
interview participant to tell you what he or she thinks you want to
hear. Instead, you want your interview participant to answer honestly
according to his or her own experience. You may explain the basics of
what your research is about, but you do not need to go into the
specifics of your research question
• Clarify interview questions if needed. To get the best information
possible from your interview participant that he or she is not
confused in any way. If he or she seems confused or hesitant in
answering your question, feel free to rephrase it in simpler terms or
explain it more.
• Ask follow-up questions if the interview is headed in a direction that
is productive for your research.
• If the interview participant gives a lengthy response that has many
interesting facets or sides to it, feel free to ask follow-up questions
that explain the interview participant’s perspective even more.
• Let the research participant do most of the talking. You want to learn
as much as possible about the interview participant’s perspective. A
good rule of thumb to follow is not to talk more than 10% of the time.
7. Conducting a Focus Group Interview
• The first step in doing a focus group is finding a problem that needs
the insight of many individuals to solve.
• In a focus group interview, an interviewer will develop a list of
discussion questions and then let the discussion of the group develop
from there.
• Focus groups are much more free-form than a traditional interview
because you need to let the discussion develop naturally and take its
normal course.
• The benefits of focus groups are that they allow a lot of responses from many
different individuals in a short amount of time.
• Also, because the interviewer is only developing discussion questions (not direct
interview questions) and the intimidation some participants might feel from the
interviewer is minimized by being part of a group, most focus group participants
feel more comfortable and are often more forthcoming that they would be in a
one-on-one interview.
• A problem with focus groups is that group dynamics can change dramatically
from group to group. It can be a challenge to get a cohesive group together that
cannot only offer pertinent insights for answering your research question but also
feels comfortable enough together to talk freely in a short amount of time.
• In a focus group, it is essential that the researcher gets insights from all the
participants.
7.1Writing Focus Group Questions
• Follow the same guidelines for writing qualitative interview
mentioned above.
• For example, make sure that your questions are clear, direct, and
understandable to everyone in your focus group.
• Start with the general questions first and then move to the specific
ones.
• Start with the most important questions first and end with the least
important
• 7.2 Creating Conversation in a Focus Group
• Start the focus group with a brief welcome. This will help your group
feel more relaxed. You might also ask everyone in the group to
introduce themselves to further break the ice.
• Second, briefly summarise what the topic under discussion will be.
• Understanding the point of the discussion will help orient the group
quickly so that they give you pertinent information right away.
• However, just like in an interview, remember not to give away your
research questions.
• Next, you may want to establish any rules for the conversation if you
think they apply. This will help the conversation get off to a smoother
start.
• Ask the first question and let the conversation develop on its own, if
possible. You may want to mediate to some extent by acknowledging
people who seem to have something to say while another person is
talking or asking follow-up questions if the conversation stalls.
• Remember to be relaxed and conversational in a focus group and act
just as you would in a normal conversation.
• Keep the conversation focused on the question at-hand. In other
words, don’t let the conversation stray and go off-track.
References
• Fox, W. & Bayat, M.S. (2007). A Guide to Managing Research. Cape Town: JUTA.
• De Vos, A.S. et al. 2011. Research at grass roots. For the social sciences and
human service professions 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
• Fox, W & Bayat, M.S. 2007. A Guide to Managing Research. Lansdowne, Cape
Town: Juta & Co Ltd. (ISBN 978 070 217 68 45)
• Maree, L & Van der Westhuizen, C. 2009. Head Start in Designing Research
Proposals in the Social Sciences. Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta & Company Ltd.
(ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 4).
• Stake, R.E. (2000). Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
Qualitative Research (2nd ed.): p. 435-450. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
Inc.
• Vithal, R & Jansen, J. 2010. Designing your first research proposal. A Manual for
researchers in education and the social sciences. Claremont: Juta & Company Ltd.
(ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 784 2).
Survey Research
CFS 3781
Group 1
Session 8 of 01 March 2022
Session Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of survey research
• discuss the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaire
• discuss basic question formats used in questionnaires
• describe types of closed questions
• explain aspects to be avoided when compiling questions for a
questionnaire
• define a pilot study and discuss its importance
Introduction
• Survey research involves collecting data by putting a set of pre-
formulated questions, in a pre-determined sequence in a structured
questionnaire, to a sample of individuals drawn so as to be
representative of a given population.
• The discussion in this unit will be limited to questionnaire surveys.
Terminology
• Survey research: research that gathers information to describe a
population with respect to identified variables
• Questionnaire survey: involves the gathering of data from a
population or sampled population through the use of a questionnaire.
• Triangulation: Seeking convergence and collaboration of results from
different methods and designs studying the same phenomenon.
1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey
Surveys have many advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
• 1. Questions are designed so that answers from individuals can be added
together to produce results that apply to the whole sample
• 2. The research is based on interviews with a representative sample of
respondents
• 3. The questions are designed to be unbiased
• 4. Surveys lend themselves to future replication
• 5. Large surveys can often be broken down
• 6. The cost of surveys is reasonable considering the amount of data
collected
Disadvantages:
• 1. Independent variables cannot be manipulated as they can in
experimental research
• 2. Wording of questions and the placement of items within
questionnaires can have biasing effects on survey results
• If the sampling is largely unrepresentative, the results will have little
relevance to other situations, even though the sample size may be
quite large
2. Questionnaires
• This is a list of questions on a specific topic compiled by a researcher
and to which answers and information are required.
• Questionnaires have many advantages, but you should also note their
disadvantages.
Advantages
• 1. They are very cost-effective when compared to face-to-face
interviews, especially for investigations involving large sample sizes,
and large geographic areas, and when the number of questions
increases.
Questionnaire Advantages (continued)
• 2. They are easy to analyse. Data entry and tabulation for nearly all
surveys can be easily done with many computer software packages.
• 3. They are familiar to most people.
• 4. They reduce bias. There is uniform question presentation and no
middleman bias.
• 5. They are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-face surveys.
Disadvantages
• 1. There is a possibility of low response rates.
• 2. There is the inability to probe responses.
• 3. As they are structured instruments, they allow little flexibility to the
respondent in respect of the response format
• 4. They may be completed by someone who was not intended, such
as other employees or by managers, wives for their husbands, or
• young people as a prank.
• 5. They are simply not suited to some people, for example a written
questionnaire to poorly educated people may not work because of
reading skill problems.
• When opting for a questionnaire, the following should be borne in
mind:
• a) Availability of time and money
• b) Clear indications on which questions respondents should answer
• c) Research area and objectives
• d) Feasibility
• e) Respondents’ temptation to mislead
• f) Use of different formats
• g) Irritating questions
• Availability of Time and Money
• The available time and finance will determine
• How many respondents are possible
• The size of the geographic area that can be covered during the
research
• What other methods of data collection (telephone, post) will be used
Completion by respondents themselves
• The questionnaire should be user-friendly, i.e. respondents should
find the questionnaire easy to complete.
• For example, a question could be asked about gender, and the two
blocks would obviously show male and female. A question could also
be asked about home language, and a whole range of blocks would
list the various indigenous languages, with one labeled ‘other’. The
boxes would also contain numerical numbers (e.g. 1 for male and 2
for female)
• Clear indications on which questions respondents should answer
• It should be clearly stated which questions will be answered by which
respondents. Often a question consists of a main question and one or
more dependent or sub-questions.
• For example:
• 1 (a) Are you employed on a permanent basis? Tick in your right box.
•
For example:
1 (a) Are you employed on a permanent basis?
Tick in your right box
Yes 1

No 2
• If you answered ‘yes’ to question 1(a), also complete question 1(b)
• If you answered ‘no’ to question 1(a), go directly to question 2
• 1 (b) When did you get a permanent appointment? Tick the year in which
you got your permanent appointment.
• 2010
• 2011
• 2012
• 2013
• 2014
• 2. How do you feel about being a temporary employee?
Research area and objectives
• The questions in a questionnaire should correspond to the problem
formulation, and the real problem should be distinguished from the
apparent problem.
• Once the objective has been formulated and before a question is
included in the questionnaire, questions such as:
• ‘What do I want to know and why do I want to know this?’
• ‘What can be achieved by this?’ and
• ‘Is this worthwhile?’ should be asked regarding each question.
Feasibility
• Questions should be feasible and should be directed at those
respondents who:
• May be able to answer
• Will probably remember the events, even if this is only with the aid of
some form of recall/memory method
• Will understand what the issue is about, according to the researcher’s
convictions, and will express a meaningful opinion on it.
Respondents’ temptation to mislead
• Questions must be creatively formulated in order to overcome
respondents’ natural temptation to overstate, mislead, exaggerate or
understand. For example, some people underestimate their age,
smoking habits or alcohol consumption; or overrate the extent of
their training or academic schooling.
Use of different formats
• Attention should be paid to additional matters such :
• the length of individual questions,
• the number of response alternatives,
• the use of different question formats and
• the phrasing of questions, for example too long questions may make
them (questions) unintelligible, or too many alternatives could lead to
confusion.
Irritating questions
• Irritating questions may prevent respondents from wanting to
participate. For example, a question such as ‘if you are above 40 years
old and have never attended an in-service training course, make a
cross (x) in the block marked
• ‘UNTRAINED’, as well as the block marked ‘OLD’. This instruction will
obviously impede further co-operation
Question formats
• Two basic question formats are generally used in questionnaires:
• Open questions, and Closed questions.
• Open questions are also called free or unstructured questions.
Respondents are encouraged to comment freely on the topics that
have been put to them.
• Open questions are used specifically to find reasons for particular
respondent opinions or attitudes.
• An example of such question:
• Describe the weakness in lecturer A’s teaching style.
• Closed questions are also called structured or multiple-choice questions. A
closed question is one containing specific, mutually exclusive response
categories from which respondents must select a category that best fits
their answers or responses.
• This means that the questions are phrased in such a way that respondents
are guided or requested to choose an answer from among or more
specifically stated alternatives.
For example:
• What in your opinion is the most outstanding shortcoming in lecturer A’s
teaching style? Indicate your answer by making a clear x in the appropriate
box.
Autocratic 1

Authoritative 2

Unresponsive 3

Biased 4

Traditional 5
3.Types of closed questions
3.Types of closed questions:
• 1. Multiple-choice questions
• 2. Combination questions
• 3. Dichotomous questions
• 4. Checklists questions
• 5. Scaled questions
• 6. Rank order questions
• 7. Filter and follow-up questions
Multiple-choice questions
• In multiple choice questions there is usually a choice of three or more
answers or answer categories. For a question about a respondent’s
marital status the box could contain:
Married 1

Divorced 2

Living Together 3

Widow/widower 4

Single 5
Guidelines on formulating multiple-choice questions:
• There should not be too many categories.
• The aim of the alternatives is to force the respondents to give an
answer.
• The alternatives should, as far as possible, cover the total range of
possible answer.
• The alternatives should be mutually exclusive.
• The answers to certain questions may results in a series of numerical
values known as numerical response variable.
• Numerical response variable is when the respondents indicate their
responses in a category than in precise details. For example,
respondents are asked to indicate their age, income or number of
cigarettes smoked per day in categories.
• For example: the category for a question about the respondent’s age
could have the categories:
• Less than 18 years old
• 18-25 years old
• 26-30 years old
• 31-35 years old
• Above 35 years old
Combination questions
• These questions are ones that are, for example, closed for a few
general responses and then open for the rest.
Dichotomous questions
• As the term suggests, a dichotomous question can accommodate only
two answer possibilities. Examples of this are questions such as ‘State
your gender’ (two possibility of male or female) or ‘Do you own a
motor vehicle?’ (two possibilities of yes or no).
Checklists questions
• A common multiple choice form is a checklist containing a number of
items, such as words, terms, phrases, characteristics and qualities,
which may be arranged in different ways, for example from high to
low, well to poor and favorable to unfavorable.
Scaled questions
• These questions are framed in such a way that the respondents can provide their answer by marking a certain score on scale, for
example in a question on respondents’ feelings about their salaries the answer could range from
• ‘completely satisfied=1,
• somehow satisfied=2,
• somehow unsatisfied=3,
• completely unsatisfied=4, unacceptable=5.
• The summated or Likert scale: it consists of a collection of statement about the object. Concerning each statement, respondents
have to indicate the degree in which they agree or disagree with its content on, for example a five-point scale, for instance:
• Strongly disagree;
• disagree;
• undecided;
• agree;
• strongly agree).
Rank order questions
• This type of question is used to assign numerical value to a series of
aspects.
• Rank ordering occurs when persons, objects or events are ranked in
terms of specific characteristics. For example, on a question about the
most important aspects leading to job satisfaction, employees could
be requested to arrange a list of ten aspects of importance within
each of their job situations.
Filter and follow-up questions
• A filter question is used to divide the sample into subclasses in terms of the
phenomenon or aspects of the phenomenon being researched. Once sub
classification has been done, additional information is obtained by way of follow-
up questions. For example, an investigation about a respondent’s project
management skill may contain the question whether she or he has held or is
holding any managerial position. If the answer is yes, the follow-up question
would be about details of that position.
For example:
• The question ‘Are you this project’s manager?’ has only the possibilities of yes or
no, but should the question be aimed at more information about managers, the
respondents who answered yes are requested to answer some more questions,
while the other are requested to proceed to later questions.
4. Aspects to be Avoided When Compiling
Questions for a Questionnaire:
• 1. Language: Involved dictionary definitions should be avoided
wherever words, terms and phrases can be kept as simple and
descriptive as possible, without sacrificing the specific information
that is required. Technical terms and jargon should be avoided.
Double negatives should be avoided, as this construction makes
questions unnecessarily long and more difficult to interpret.
• 2. Ambiguity: When a question is phrased ambiguously, different
respondents will interpret it differently and, in fact, will be answering
different questions. Therefore, no meaningful analysis and
comparison of the answers can then be done.
• 3.Vagueness: Questions that are too vague produce vague, unclear
and meaningless responses, resulting in meaningless analysis. In
order to avoid vague answers, words and expressions such as the
following should be avoided: sort of, in general, basically, often,
approximately, reasonably, very, etc.
• 4. Leading questions: Leading questions are ones that guide
respondents in a specific direction by means of its content, structure
or wording. For example: ‘Should something not be done about ….?’
• 5. Loaded questions: Loaded questions include words, terms or
phrases that exert a subtle influence. They often contain a reason why
something should be done. A loaded question is a leading question
where social acceptability or unacceptability may influence
respondents to reply in a particular manner, for example: ‘Is it correct
that affirmative action should be used to compensate certain people
for past injustice?’
• 6.Questions containing assumptions: In general, questions should
not make any explicit assumptions about any opinion, habit or dislike
of the respondents. This means that questionnaire items should not
assume that a respondent necessarily knows anything about a
particular subject or necessarily behaves in ways stated in the
questionnaire.
• 7. Length of questions: The wording of questions should be as brief
as possible, as these forces researchers to express their thoughts
clearly and eliminates unnecessary words. It also reduces the
possibility of information overload as far as respondents are
concerned
4. Personal Interviews

• Personal interviewing is a survey technique in which a trained interviewer

visits the respondent and administers the questionnaire in a face-to-face
setting.
• When questions are structured, asked in a predetermined order that allows
interviewers relatively little freedom, they are usually part of quantitative
research.
Advantages:
• The opportunity for feedback to the respondent is a distinct advantage
• There is an opportunity to reassure the respondent should he or be
reluctant, and the interviewer can also clarify certain instructions or
questions
• The interviewer has the opportunity of probing the answers by asking the
respondent to clarify or expand on a certain response
• The interviewer can supplement answers by recording her or his own
observations, for example there is no need to ask respondents’ gender or
the time of day or where the interview took place
• The interview can last longer and be more complex than in the case of
other survey techniques. Despite this, the researcher is assured that the
responses are actually provided by the relative person and that no
questions are skipped
• Failure to answer a question (non-response) is far less likely to occur in
personal interviews than in self-administered surveys
• Visual aids can be used. Written response alternatives could be provided
where a question is complex
Disadvantages:
• Personal interviews can be costly. Transportation and labour costs
generally make this an expensive method of data collection
• Personal interviews provide significant scope for interview error or bias
when the interviewer’s behaviour, appearance or actions in some way
influence the respondents to such an extent that they provide an
inaccurate answer. Whether it is a tone of voice, the way a question is
phrased when clarified or the gender or appearance of the interviewer, all
have been shown to potentially influence a respondent’s answers.
• Interviewers should be well trained and a certain amount of control should
be exercised over them to ensure proper handling of the interview process.
This makes the interview process one of the mostcostly process.
• 5. Pilot Studies
• A pilot study is a trial run of an investigation conducted on a small scale to
determine whether the research design and methodology are relative and
effective.
• The best way to determine whether a research instrument is adequately designed
is to pretest it. This means conducting a pilot study to check for any problems.
Conducting a pilot study makes it easy to correct areas of misunderstanding or
confusion without wasting time or money. This is one way of improving the
reliability of a project.
• Based on pilot study results, researchers may:
• Delete or rewrite questions
• Change open-ended questions to closed or vice-versa
• Verify that all response options have been provided
References
• Fox, W. & Bayat, M.S. (2007). A Guide to Managing Research. Cape Town: JUTA.
• De Vos, A.S. et al. 2011. Research at grass roots. For the social sciences and
human service professions 4th ed. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
• Fox, W & Bayat, M.S. 2007. A Guide to Managing Research. Lansdowne, Cape
Town: Juta & Co Ltd. (ISBN 978 070 217 68 45)
• Maree, L & Van der Westhuizen, C. 2009. Head Start in Designing Research
Proposals in the Social Sciences. Lansdowne, Cape Town: Juta & Company Ltd.
(ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 4).
• Stake, R.E. (2000). Case Studies. In N.K. Denzin, & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of
Qualitative Research (2nd ed.): p. 435-450. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
Inc.
• Vithal, R & Jansen, J. 2010. Designing your first research proposal. A Manual for
researchers in education and the social sciences. Claremont: Juta & Company Ltd.
(ISBN 978 – 0 – 70217 – 784
Research Ethics and Writing a
Research Proposal

CFS 3781
Group 1
Session 9 of 02 Marc h 2022
Session Objectives
• Upon completion of this session you should be able to:
• discuss standard of ethics and ethical practice in the conduct of
educational research
• write a research proposal
Introduction
• When conducting research, you have to follow the application of fundamental
ethical principles to a variety of topics in scientific research.
• Different disciplines and professions have norms for behaviour that suit their
particular aims and goals.
• Some of the norms promote the aims of research, such as pursuit of knowledge
and truth as well as avoidance of error.
• The research ethics maintain prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data. It helps to promote the truth and avoids error.
• The ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative
work, because research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
coordination among different participants, disciplines, and institutions.
• The ethical norms such as data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer
review are designed to protect intellectual property interest while encouraging
collaboration.
Terminology
• Ethics: in the context of research refers to a set of standards that can
guide adult education researchers on how they should interact with
the researched and how research problems could be conceived and
formulated.
• Ethical principles: a set of standards that guides researchers on how
they should interact with research participants.
• Research proposal: an outline, a sketch, or a blueprint of a building
that you want to build.
1. Ethics Concerning Research Participants in
the Procedure of Data Collection
• 1.1 Information for participants
• In contexts of all research, there is the need for cooperation and
collaboration from the participants who may belong to different
disciplines and institutions. The first and foremost thing is to seek
their cooperation. They have rights and they cannot be forced into
participation. It is their voluntary participation that is needed. This
will only happen on the assurance of honouring and upholding their
rights.
• 1.2 Informed consent
• The second research ethic is to get information from the people who
are to be your participants. You cannot work with them unless you
have their consent. You get their consent by informing them about
what you are going to do. You give this information through an
informed consent form, which is on the official letter pad and carries
clear, straightforward and to-the point information.
• 1.3 Maintaining confidentiality
• The third very important research ethic is the participants’ right of
privacy through our assurance of confidentiality. The participants
need the assurance that their information will not be made available
to anyone who is not directly connected with research. The
information provided by the participants should in no way reveal their
identity. This means they will remain anonymous throughout the
study.
• 1.4 Application of research ethics
• Because qualitative research relies on gathering in-depth and often
personal information from real people, it is important to research
ethically and treat your research participants with respect, no mat
what qualitative research method you use.
• The research participants have full autonomy, meaning that they
have the right to understand the research you are asking them to
consent to participate in your research before you can do it.
• This also means that the research participants should be informed
any physical or emotional risks involved in participating in your
research. They have the right to end participation in your
research at any time and for any reason. They also have the right to full
confidentiality if they want it.
• Before you conduct any qualitative research involving people, make
sure you get permission from all relevant authority. The institutional
ethics committee protects the rights of human research participants.
However, every institution has slightly different rules for research
conducted as part of a class, so check with your
institution/agency/organisation first before conducting your research.
1.5 Observing ethically
• Because you often do not interact with others while observing, it is not
usually necessary to inform participants of your observation or get their
consent. The only exception to this is if you intend to record your
observations using video or audio; then, you do need to obtain your
research participants’ consent.
• You should never, secretly record an observation using video or audio.
• However, even if you are not recording, still check with the relevant
authority before you conduct any observational research, especially if you
intend to fully interact with the people you are observing.
• Remember, you want to hide in plain sight when doing observations.
• 1.6 Interviewing Ethically
• Because your interview participants are human beings with their own set
of rights, issues, and potential problems, make sure to respect them during
the interview. In order to respect your interview participants’ rights
during the interview:
• Make sure your interview participant is aware of his or her options for
confidentiality before the interview begins and abide by those conditions.
• When interviewing a person, you will know the identity of the person, but
when you write it up for your research, the participant has a right to have
his or her identity remain confidential from the audience you are writing
for.
• The interview participant can have full confidentiality where you refer
to him or her by pseudonym.
• The interview participant can have partial confidentiality where you
refer to him by his or her title or position but do not disclose his or
her name.
• Finally, the interview participant can have full disclosure. In this case,
you can refer to the research participant by his or her full name.
• Make sure your interview participant is aware of his or her rights as a
research participant. Make sure your research participant knows that
he or she must give consent to be interviewed before you begin the
interview.
• Request that the interview participant sign a consent form that
states that the participant understands his or her rights as a research
participant and that, by signing the form, the research participant is
giving his or her consent to be interviewed.
• Always ask the interview participant for permission first if you are
going to tape record the interview. If the interview participant
declines, do not record the session.
• If the interview participant is uncomfortable answering a question,
do not pressure or force him or her to answer. As an autonomous
research participant, the interview participant has the right to not
answer any question that he or she does not wish to answer. If this
happens, just move on to the next question.
• Do not ask interview questions that could directly incriminate
(implicate/blame) the participant for illegal activity. For example,
don’t ask a question such as “How often do you smoke marijuana?”
You can ask questions about the participants’ attitudes and beliefs
about an illegal activity but not a question that directly asks if they
have participated in the illegal activity.
• So, you could ask a question about whether the interview participant
thinks marijuana should be legalized and why.
• Get institutional permission before the interview begins.
• .7 Creating Ethical Group Conversations
• Follow the same principals for creating ethical focus group discussion
questions as you would for interview questions.
• Make sure all focus group participants are aware of their rights as research
participants and know that they must give consent to be part of the focus
group before the focus group begins.
• Make sure your focus group participants are aware of their options for
confidentiality and abide by those conditions. Request that the focus group
participants sign a consent form that states that they understand their
rights as research participants and that, by signing the form, they give their
consent to be part of the focus group.
• Always ask the focus group participants for permission first if you are
going to tape record or videotape the focus group discussion.
• If any focus group participants are uncomfortable answering a
question, do not force them to answer.
• Do not ask interview questions that could directly incriminate any of
the participants in illegal activity. Finally, get permission from the
Institutional Ethical Clearance Committee before the focus group
begins.
• The broader goal of ethical review of research proposals in the
faculty of education are the following:
• To develop among students and researchers a high standard of ethics
and ethical practice in the conceptualization and conduct of
educational research.
• To cultivate an ethical consciousness among scholars especially in
research involving human respondents.
• To promote among researchers a respect for the human rights and
dignity of human respondents in the research process.
1.8 Principles common to research involving
human respondents
• The principle of voluntary participation in research, implying that the
participants might withdraw from the research at any time.
• The principle of informed consent, meaning that research participants must at all
times be fully informed about the research process and purposes, and must give
consent to their participation in the research.
• The principle of safety in participation; put differently, that the human
respondents must not be placed at risk or harm of any kind e.g., research with
young children.
• The principle of privacy, meaning that the confidentiality and anonymity of
human respondents must be protected at all times.
• The principle of trust, with implies that human respondents will not be
respondent to any acts of deception or betrayal in the research process or its
published outcomes
2. Guidelines for Writing a Research Proposal
• The very first thing you should have and specify is your research topic. A
well defined research topic gives focus, sets boundaries, and provides
direction. The topic should:
• Define and identify the focus of the research.
• Define the nature of the research endeavor – whether the aim is to
discover, explore, explain, describe, or compare.
• Define the areas of interest – whether the interest is why, when, where,
what, or how.
• Indicate if a relationship is foreseen between concepts being explored –
whether looking for impacts, decreases, causes, correlations, etc.
• A title of your research is the first introduction of the reader to your
work which implies it should clearly convey the intended message.
Preparing a good title means:
• Having the most important words appear toward the beginning of
your title;
• Limiting the use of ambiguous or confusing words;
• Looking for and eliminating unnecessary words when you have too
many words; and
• Including key words that will help future researchers
• Writing a research proposal is a different experience than any other type of
writing. It involves more clarity of mind as well as a more systematic
approach towards the writing process itself. Do not abruptly start writing
your research proposal; think well before you write. Thorough and detailed
thinking would reduce the number of attempts to revise the proposal.
‘Thinking about it stage’ can be helpful if you:
• Are inclusive with your thinking
• Write down your ideas
• Are not overly influenced by others – it’s your research
• Try and set a realistic goal
• Set appropriate time lines
• Once you start thinking, your line of thought should be in the following sequence:
• 1. Idea
• 2. Topic
• 3. Problem statement
• 4. Hypothesis/research question(s)

You can divide your whole research work into three stages:

• Thinking about the research

• Preparing the research proposal
• Conducting the research
2.1 Statement of the problem
• Make sure you have identified a worthwhile problem (in Orientation of the
study) which has not been previously answered. Since research is always
about me problem(s), identification and selection of the problem is most
crucial in designing a research proposal.
• Although selecting the research problem is one of the most difficult steps
in the research process, it is unfortunately the one for which the least
guidance can be given.
• However, a problem statement must be identified by its characteristics:
• A good problem statement makes clear to the reader what issue the
research is dealing with.
• It is to the point, focused and measurable; it is not ambiguous and abstract.
• In most cases it is stated in question form (or, alternatively, in the
form of an implicit question such as, the purpose of this study was to
determine whether ….).
• It should be testable by empirical methods i.e. it should be possible to
collect data to answer the question(s) asked.
• It should not represent a moral or ethical position
Activity (for study purposes)
• Identify a research topic and
• Formulate a problem statement for your proposed study.
2.2 Hypothesis/Research questions/Objectives

• 2.2.1 Hypothesis
• Once you have identified and stated a problem, the next step is to
create a hypothesis.
• Putting it in a simple way, a hypothesis is a wise or educated guess.
• It is an assumed answer to the question posed in a research problem
statement.
• However, it is only an ‘assumed’ answer or an expectation that is
tested in the study later on.
• A hypothesis describes in concrete (rather than theoretical) terms
what you expect will happen in research. Not all studies have
hypotheses. Sometimes research is designed to be exploratory. In
such a case, there is no formal hypothesis. A single study may have
one or many hypotheses.
How to form a hypothesis
• Focusing on your research problem, you can create the hypothesis.
Simply try to give a direct answer to the question posed in the
problem statement.
• For example, Research question:
• What is the relationship between Motivation and achievement?
• Hypotheses could be: Motivation and achievement are positively related
or
• Motivation and achievement are negatively related
• Thus, a hypothesis shows some (positive or negative) relationship between
the variables. As far as the question of structuring a hypothesis is
concerned, there can be varieties of ways.
• It is also important here to introduce you to a ‘Null hypothesis’. Null
hypothesis is a small and little creature who says: ‘I represent no
relationship between the variables that you are studying’.
Activity (for study purposes)
• Formulate a hypothesis to the question: ‘Do students learn more
from a learner centred or teacher centred approach’?
• b) Formulate a null hypothesis to the question: ‘What is the
relationship between motivation and achievement’?
• c) Formulate hypotheses (one must be null hypothesis) for the
following research question: ‘Are poverty and diseases related’?
NEXT
• Limitations of the Study
Research Ethics and Informed
Consent
CFS 3781 Session 10 and Session 11
of 7 March 2022
Session Objectives
• Identify various ethical considerations in conducting research
• Discuss ethical principles
Research Ethics and Informed Consent
• As researchers, we are bound by rules of ethics. For example, we
usually cannot collect data from minors without parental or guardian
permission.
• All research participants must give their permission to be part of a
study and they must be given pertinent information to make an
“informed” consent to participate. This means you have provided
your research participants with everything they need to know about
the study to make an “informed” decision about participating in your
research. https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/ethics-and-
informed-consent/
• Researchers must obtain a subject’s (and parents’ if the subject is a
minor) permission before interacting with the subject or if the
subject is the focus of the study. Generally, this permission is given in
writing; however, there are cases where the research participant’s
completion of a task (such as a survey) constitutes giving informed
consent. Research participants have the right to refuse to participate
without penalty if they wish.
https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/ethics-and-informed-
consent/
The consent form subject sign should cover
the following main points:
• 1. It should tell the participants what they are being asked to do, by
whom, and for what purpose. Participants must know the identity of
the researcher, his or her affiliations if any, and whom to contact for
information if they have problems with the research process. This not
only includes contact information for the researcher, but also contact
information for the university Research Ethics Committee.
• 2.It should inform the participants of any risks they might be taking by
participating in the research.
• 3.It should inform the participants what rights they have in the
process, particularly the right of review of material and the right to
withdraw from the process/study
• 4.It should indicate whether or not participants’ names will be used in the study,
whether any other names will be used, or whether pseudonyms will be
substituted.
• 5.It should indicate how the results of the study will be disseminated and
whether participants can expect to benefit in any way, monetarily or otherwise,
from participating in the study.
• 6.It should indicate that participants are free to participate or not participate in
the research without prejudice to them.
• 7.In the case of children, it must be signed by the child’s legal guardian. Children
cannot be expected to give total informed consent.
• 8.The consent form should be written in the second person (e.g., “You have the
right to …”) and in easy to understand language
• https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/ethics-and-informed-consent/
What are Research Ethics?
• Ethics are the moral principles that a person must follow, irrespective
of the place or time. Behaving ethically involves doing the right thing
at the right time. Research ethics focus on the moral principles that
researchers must follow in their respective fields of research
• Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of
research. In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting
research to ensure a high ethical standard. The following is a general
summary of some ethical principles
Researchers are bound by a code of ethics/ethical
principles that includes the following protections
for subjects:
• 1. Human Subjects Protection-
• Protected from physical or psychological harm (including loss of dignity, loss of
autonomy, and loss of self-esteem)
• When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
• 2.Protection of privacy and confidentiality
• Confidentiality - Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants
submitted for publication, personnel records, any other confidential info.
• 3.Protection against unjustifiable deception
• 4.The subject must give voluntary informed consent to participate in research.
Guardians must give consent for minors to participate. In addition to guardian
consent. https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/ethics-and-informed-
consent/
More ethical principles:

• 5.Honesty:
• Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and
publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
• 6.Objectivity:
• Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research.
• 7. Integrity:
• Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.
• 8.Carefulness:
• Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine
your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of
research activities.
• 9. Openness:
• Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and
new ideas.
• 10. Respect for Intellectual Property:
• Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property.
Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
• 11. Animal Care:
• Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in
research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal
experiments.
https://libguides.library.cityu.edu.hk/researchmethods/ethics
 CFS 3781 Session 12 of
8 March 2022
Sample Research Proposal
 TITLE

An exploration of the perceptions and

experiences of negotiating employment and
caring responsibilities of fathers in post-
divorce/separation co-parenting situations
 Introduction

• Despite some thirty years of social scientific

research into fatherhood and masculinity, and the
recent increase in the public and political
‘visibility’ of fathers, key researchers such as
Lamb (2004), Morgan (2002) and Lewis (2000)
continue to argue that our understanding of
men’s experiences as fathers remains limited.
“There are substantial gaps in our current
knowledge about fatherhood” (Lewis, 2000).
• One such gap is in the relative lack of
empirical insight into the experiences of
working class fathers. In theoretical terms
fatherhood is increasingly recognised as
complex and dynamic, as an identity and a
‘practice’ which is played out in a range of
social contexts and which is both enabled and
constrained by (often-contradictory) social
institutions and norms
 Introduction (continued)
• More research is needed that attempts to
chart the processes by which men perceive
and negotiate their identity and activity as
fathers. In addition, a growing recognition of
the importance and ‘reality’ of post-divorce
parenting has focused both academic and
political attention on the roles, involvement
and identity of fathers after divorce or
separation.
 Introduction (continued)
My research will contribute to a growing sociology of 'family
practice', building on existing fatherhood research and adding to
the insightful and innovative work on post divorce parenting
developed by sociologists such as Rosalind Edwards, Simon
Duncan, Jane Ribbens McCarthy, Carol Smart and Judith Glover.
In different ways such writers have sought to present a more
accurate and grounded knowledge of family life together with a
critical investigation into both contemporary parenting and,
importantly, the social policy and legal frameworks which
surround this.
• Their research emphasises the complex, often
moral, dilemmas involved in making and re-
making families (Ribbens McCarthy, Edwards
& Gillies, 2003) and asserts the creativity of
family members in such processes. Also
offered is an arguably more constructive
approach to divorce/separation
 Introduction (continued)

suggesting that it may provide a catalyst for

thinking and acting differently about parenting
and about gender roles. In this way it could be
that divorced/separated fathers, together with
many lone-mothers, have the potential (not
necessarily by choice) to challenge the enduring
gendered model for organising earning and
caring, and are therefore sociologically and
politically significant.
• My study seeks to investigate the practice and
processes of negotiating employment and
caring responsibilities for divorced or
separated fathers who have regular physical
care of their children. It will focus on the
experiences and perceptions of fathers’ in
relation to their roles and identity as fathers,
their relationships with their children and
their working lives.
 Research Questions
• In the light of the above discussion my work
aims to contribute to the process of more
accurately documenting what families and
family members actually 'do' as a basis for
more appropriate and egalitarian social policy
and to offer an analysis of the experiences and
practice of post-divorce/separation
fatherhood. Broadly, my research questions
will be organised to investigate three main
areas:
 Research Questions (continued)
• 1. Fathering work:
• How do fathers’ describe and experience the work
of being a father after divorce/separation?
• What aspects of their roles and relationships with
their children generate satisfaction or
dissatisfaction?
• How does post-divorce fatherhood compare with
pre-divorce experience?
• These questions will involve an engagement with,
and evaluation of, current research on
fatherhood and on post-divorce parenting.
 Research Questions (continued)
• 2. Role adaption/perception:
• How do fathers negotiate and manage carrying
out the work of fatherhood after
divorce/separation and what are the factors
influencing such negotiations?
• To what extent do such processes involve
questions of moral identity, rationalisation or
presentation?
• These questions will involve a consideration and
application of theoretical and moral philosophical
literature on gender, rationality, and ethics.
 Research Questions (continued)
• 3. Orientation to Paid Employment:
• To what extent and in what ways do men negotiate
their orientation to paid employment alongside their
position as fathers?
• Is divorce or separation a catalyst for thinking/acting
differently about combining paid employment and
unpaid caring work?
• These questions will require consideration of the
impact of differing occupational positions of men
together with an examination of the range of
sociological and non-sociological literature on 'life-
work balance.
 Data Collection
• Because insight into post-divorce/separation
fatherhood is limited and because of a
commitment to a grounded approach to
knowledge production in policy-relevant
areas, my research will be inductive and
iterative. It will consist predominantly of
individual semi-structured interviews with
fathers in post-divorce/separation situations,
• in a range of ccupations, who have regular
physical care of their children. It will also
involve more ethnographic methods, such as
participant observation, informal group
discussion and reflexive interviewing, as a
mechanism to disseminate information about,
and generate interest in, the research.
 Data Collection (continued)
• An ethnographic approach offers particular
opportunities to ‘get close’ to fatherhood as a
routine activity and as an aspect of identity,
and could provide the tools to explore father’s
perspectives in some of the contexts in which
they are lived.
 Data Collection (continued)
• My sample will only include fathers’ who have
been divorced/separated for at least one year, in
order to be attentive to the emotional distress
involved in adjustment to post-divorce roles
(Madden-Derdich & Leonard, 2000). Occupation,
organisational culture and employment status
will also be key variables in order to explore
orientation to work, father identity and levels of
control over organising earning and caring
responsibilities.
• There will be a specific focus on self-
employment as it applies to a wide range of
occupations, with arguably different
(gendered) organisational cultures, and may
present particular constraints or flexibility for
working life. Overall I will be developing a
theoretical sample from the geographical
region of East Anglia
 Data Collection (continued)
• There are a number of possible contexts for
obtaining participants for this research. I
intend to approach a range of
organisations/places of work formally, but also
to try and develop a snowball sample through
work-related or informal contacts. This may
allow me to engage fathers via social or leisure
settings.
• This strategy, in itself, I feel would be revealing
in terms of the extent to which fatherhood is
experienced or negotiated between men's
own social and contextual networks. I have
also established some initial contacts with
Fathers’ Workers in agencies such as ‘Sure
Start’ which are likely to be particularly helpful
in reaching working class fathers.
 Data Analysis
• In general terms, the three main research
questions will provide an important analytical
framework for studying the data collected. This
will entail exploring the structural, cultural and
subjective dimensions and implications of the
interview material. Given that my research is
largely exploratory and is committed to an
inductive approach, the data analysis will require
an open and reflexive engagement with existing
literature in order to allow for the emergence of
concepts or participant terms, rather than a
‘theory-testing’ strategy.
 Data Analysis (continued)
• My analytic approach then, will involve many
of the processes described as ‘grounded
theorising’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). I aim to
produce an account of the personal &
practical processes involved in adjusting to
post-divorce/separation fatherhood, and to
develop a typology of strategies and/or
orientations towards earner and carer roles.
• Whilst I may not be able to make highly
generalised claims, I will offer a model(s) for
understanding post-divorce/separation
fatherhood and its wider social and political
significance, which could be expanded or
developed
 Data Analysis (continued)
• However, because of its experiential nature, I
cannot treat my data only as a resource or as a
reflection of an ‘objective reality’. My analysis
will need to involve coding on different levels,
about both the phenomenon being described
(fatherhood) and the perspective(s) shaping
the account given. Treating the interviews as
both a resource and a topic is another aspect
of a reflexive research style, which I believe to
be important and valuable.
 Question
• What is missing in this Proposal?
Qualitative Data Analysis

CFS 3781 Session 13

Group 1
9 March 2022
• In contrast to quantitative data, qualitative data does not simply
count things, but is a way of recording people's attitudes, feelings
and behaviours in greater depth.
Qualitative data analysis is:
• Often based on grounded theory practices (link to explanation of
grounded theory)
• Answers the 'why?' questions
• Pays greater attention to individual cases
Sources of qualitative data analysis
• We can gather qualitative data in a variety of ways, for example:
• Questionnaires/Surveys: a series of questions and other prompts for
the purpose of gathering information from respondents..
• Interviews: a conversation between two or more people (the
interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the
interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.
Sources of qualitative data analysis (continued)
• Focus Groups: a group of people are asked about their attitude
towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or
packaging.
• Observation: a group or single participants are manipulated by the
researcher, for example, asked to perform a specific task or action.
Observations are then made of their user behaviour, user processes,
workflows etc, either in a controlled situation (e.g. lab based) or in a
real-world situation (e.g. the workplace).
• Discourse Analysis: a general term for a number of approaches to
analyzing written, spoken or signed language use.
Why we do qualitative data analysis
• Looks further than precise numerical evidence
• Looks for categories such as events, descriptions, comments,
behaviour
• An inductive process - developing theories from the data you have
gathered
• Coding of categories and sub-categories identified
• Compares codes, looking for consistencies, differences, patterns etc.
• Looks for new and emerging categories
Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative
Data Analysis
• Qualitative data provides a rich, detailed picture to be built up about
why people act in certain ways, and their feelings about these
actions. However, it is important to be aware of the advantages and
disadvantages of qualitative data analysis as this may influence your
choice of data collection.
Advantages of qualitative data analysis:
• Provides depth and detail : looks deeper than analysing ranks and
counts by recording attitudes, feelings and behaviours
• Creates openness: encouraging people to expand on their responses
can open up new topic areas not initially considered
• Simulates people's individual experiences: a detailed picture can be
built up about why people act in certain ways and their feelings about
these actions
• Attempts to avoid pre-judgements: if used alongside quantitative
data collection, it can explain why a particular response was given
Disadvantages of qualitative data analysis:
• Usually fewer people studied: collection of qualitative data is generally
more time consuming than quantitative data collection and therefore
unless time, staff and budget allows it is generally necessary to include a
smaller sample size.
• Less easy to generalise: because fewer people are generally studied it is
not possible to generalise results to that of the population. Usually exact
numbers are reported rather than percentages.
• Difficult to make systematic comparisons: for example, if people give
widely differing responses that are highly subjective.
• Dependent on skills of the researcher: particularly in the case of
conducting interviews, focus groups and observation
Qualitative research issues
• Establishing Trustworthiness: In qualitative research data must be
auditable through checking that the interpretations are credible,
transferable, dependable and confirmable.
• Credibility improved through long engagement with the respondents
or triangulation in data collection (internal validity)
• Transferability achieved through a detailed description of the
research process to allow a reader to see if the results can be
transferred to a different setting (external validity)
• Dependability examined through the audit trail (reliability) e.g.
member checking.
• Confirmability audit trail categories used e.g. raw data included, data
analysis and reduction processes described, data reconstruction and
synthesis including structuring of categories and themes, process
notes included, instrument development information included
• Dependability examined through the audit trail (reliability) e.g.
member checking.
• Confirmability audit trail categories used e.g. raw data included, data
analysis and reduction processes described, data reconstruction and
synthesis including structuring of categories and themes, process
notes included, instrument development information included
Thinking about qualitative data analysis
• Below is a list of actions you might complete as part of some
qualitative data collection and analysis.
• 1. Transcription of notes - This is usually the first action after you
have collected your data from questionnaires, interviews, observation
etc
• 2. Initial processing - This is usually done once you transcribed you
notes, it usually involved reading and re-reading your notes looking
for categories and themes
• 3. Return to observe or ask further questions - This is usually done
after you have done some initial processing, and can then be done at
any time during your study if and when required
• 4. Summary sheets for each response - This is usually done after you
have transcribed your notes, summaries can then be used as a
memory jogger when your are looking for categories and themes, or if
you need to return to observe or ask further questions
• 5. Identify categories relating to patterns or themes identified - This
is usually done after you have identified the core categories of your
study, which are found in your transcribed notes
• 6. Coding - This is usually done after you have identified categories
relating to the patterns or themes identified.
• 7. Discussion - This usually takes place after you have done some
analysis of your data, when you have found out if any interesting
patterns or themes have emerged
• 8. Conclusions - Conclusions sum up the analysis you have done of
your data and any interesting discussions
• 9. Recommendations - Recommendations tend to come at the end of
you study, they may include specific recommendations relating to the
findings of your study or may suggest where extra data collection and
analysis activities are required
Coding of data
• Data can be coded according to categories and sub-categories
identified by reading and re-reading the data collected.
• Categories and sub-categories provide information relevant to the
topic studied and used to help explore and clarify the research
question.
• Coding usually starts with a summary of the text you are examining.
This kind of coding is called descriptive coding because it essentially
forms a summary description of what is in the transcript or text.
• This process should then move on to develop codes that go beyond
description and start to categorise and analyse the data. This is called
Analytic or Theoretical coding
Codes can be based on:
• Themes, Topics
• Ideas, Concepts
• Terms, Phrases
• Keywords
Quantitative Data Analysis
CFS 3781 Session 14
14 March 2022
Prof C.N.S Shaimemanya
• Quantitative data analysis is a systematic approach to investigations
during which numerical data is collected and/or the researcher
transforms what is collected or observed into numerical data.
• It often describes a situation or event, answering the 'what' and 'how
many' questions you may have about something.
• This is research which involves measuring or counting attributes (i.e.
quantities).
• Quantitative methods are ideally suited for finding out who, what,
when and where.
• A quantitative approach is often concerned with finding evidence to
either support or contradict an idea or hypothesis you might have.
• A hypothesis is where a predicted answer to a research question is
proposed, for example, you might propose that if you give a student
training in how to use a search engine it will improve their success in
finding information on the Internet.
• You could then go on to explain why a particular answer is expected -
you put forward a theory.
Sources of quantitative data
• We can gather quantitative data in a variety of ways and from a
number of different sources. Many of these are similar to sources of
qualitative data, for example:
• Questionnaires - a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents
• Interviews - a conversation between two or more people (the
interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the
interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee - a more
structured approach would be used to gather quantitative data
• Observation - a group or single participants are manipulated by the
researcher, for example, asked to perform a specific task or action.
Observations are then made of their user behaviour, user processes,
workflows etc, either in a controlled situation (e.g. lab based) or in a
real-world situation (e.g. the workplace)
• Documentary research - analysis of documents belonging to an
organisation
Why do we do quantitative data analysis?
• Once you have collected your data you need to make sense of the
responses you have got back. Quantitative data analysis enables you
to make sense of data by:
• organising them
• summarising them
• doing exploratory analysis
• And to communicate the meaning to others by presenting data as:
• tables
• graphical displays
• summary statistics
• We can also use quantitative data analysis to see:
• where responses are similar , for example, we might find that the
majority of students all go to the university library twice a week
• if there are differences between the things we have studied, for
example, 1st year students might go once a week to the library, 2nd
year students twice a week and 3rd year students three times a week
• if there is a relationship between the things we have studied. So, is
there a relationship between the number of times a student goes to
the library and their year of study?
Advantages and Disadvantages of Quantitative
Data Analysis
• Advantages of quantitative data analysis
• allow for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and
enhancing the generalisation of the results
• can allow for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally,
quantitative methods are designed to provide summaries of data that
support generalisations about the phenomenon under study. In order
to accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few
variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to
ensure validity and reliability
Advantages of quantitative data analysis
(continued)
• using standards means that the research can be replicated, and then
analysed and compared with similar studies. Kruger (2003) confirms
that 'quantitative methods allow us to summarize vast sources of
information and facilitate comparisons across categories and over
time'
• personal bias can be avoided by researchers keeping a 'distance' from
participating subjects and employing subjects unknown to them
Disadvantages of quantitative data analysis
• collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset
• results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than
detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of
human perception
• the research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial
environment so that a level of control can be applied to the exercise.
This level of control might not normally be in place in the real world
yielding laboratory results as opposed to real world results
Disadvantages of quantitative data analysis
(continued)
• in addition preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people
really feel about a subject and in some cases might just be the closest
match.
• the development of standard questions by researchers can lead to
'structural' bias and false representation, where the data actually
reflects the view of them instead of the participating subject
Quantitative research issues
• There are four main issues in quantitative data analysis, these are:
• 1. Hypotheses
• 2. Causality
• 3. Generalisability
• 4. Reliability
• When we conduct quantitative research we will often be concerned
with finding evidence to either support or contradict, an idea or
hypothesis you might have.
• To recap, a hypothesis is where a predicted answer to a research
question is proposed, for example, you might propose that if you give
a student training in how to use a search engine it will improve their
success in finding information on the Internet.
• You could then go on to explain why a particular answer is expected -
you put forward a theory.
• 1. Hypothesis
• In hypothesis testing we generally have two hypotheses:
• 1) a null hypothesis (which usually indicates no change or no effect)
and 2) an alternative hypothesis (which is usually our experimental
hypothesis). The evidence from the sample is taken to support either
the null or the alternative hypothesis.
• When a researcher is interested in hypothesis testing they will
conduct an experiment to gather their data.
• So, we could take one sample from our population of students, give
them some training in how to search and then ask them to find some
specific information.
• We ask another sample of students to search for the same specific
information but don't give them training - and we see which group
did better through a variety of different measures, some subjective
and some objective.
• So, does the data we gather contain evidence that agrees with the
alternative (experimental) hypothesis or the null hypothesis?
• In testing a hypothesis we never actually prove or disprove a hypothesis, all
we ever get is evidence from a sample that either
• 1) supports a hypothesis or
• 2) contradicts a hypothesis.
• The Hypothesis contains concepts which need to be measured.
• To do this we need to:
• Translate concepts into measurable factors
• take these measurable factors and treat them as variables
• identify measurement scales to quantify variables
• We'll look at variables in more detail later
• 2. Causality - cause and effect
• This is essentially concerned with showing how things come to be the
way they are. To do this we need to identify our variables:
• Independent variable - the variable that is deliberately manipulated
by the researcher
• Dependent variable - the variable that is measured to find out the
effect of the manipulated (independent) variable
• Control variables - may be potential independent variables, but are
held constant during the experiment
• So, following on with our example, students are timed whilst
searching for information to assess the effectiveness of their
searching behaviour, some were given prior search training.
• Independent variable = training - manipulate by varying training given
to different students
• Dependent = time taken to find information - which we can measure
by timing how long to search
• Control = searching behaviour may be affected by previous use, age,
educational level, and even time of day. Some of these may be
controllable but others may not be, e.g. degree of frustration
• So, our experimental (or alternative) hypothesis is that if we give
more training it will take less time to search and conversely if we
give less training it will take more time to search - we have a cause
(training) and effect (time taken). The null hypothesis is that there
will be no change or effect.
• Independent variables are assumed to have a causal impact on the
dependent variable
• 3. Generalizability or external validity
• The pursuit of findings that can be generalised beyond the specific
research - the degree to which the results of a study or research can
be extrapolated to other circumstances.
• So, generalizability or external validity involves the extent to which
the results of a study can be generalized (applied) beyond the sample
to the larger population. In other words, can you apply what you
found in your study to other people (population validity) or settings
(ecological validity)
• 4. Reliability or internal validity
• Reliability or internal validity is concerned with repeating a piece of
research in order to establish the reliability of its findings.
• Reliability is the consistency and dependency of a measure.
Sometimes it is referred to as the repeatability or the test-retest
reliability . This means that a reliable test should produce the same
results on successive trials
Variables and Quantitative Data
Analysis
CFS 3781 Session 15
15 March 2022
Variables and organization of the data
[Weiss (1999), Anderson & Sclove
(1974) and Freund (2001)]
• Variables
• A characteristic that varies from one person or
thing to another is called a variable, i.e, a
variable is any characteristic that varies from
one individual member of the population to
another. Examples of variables for humans are
height, weight, number of siblings, gender,
marital status, and eye color.
 Variables

The first three of these variables (height,

weight, number of siblings) yield numerical
information (yield numerical measurements)
and are examples of quantitative (or numerical)
variables, last three (gender, marital status, and
eye color) yield non-numerical information
(yield non-numerical measurements) and are
examples of qualitative (or categorical)
variables.
 Quantitative variables
• Quantitative variables can be classified as either
discrete or continuous
• Discrete variables. A discrete variable is a
numeric variable. Observations can take a value
based on a count from a set of distinct whole
values. Some variables, such as the numbers of
children in family, the numbers of car accident on
a certain road on different days, or the numbers
of students taking Educational Research course
(CFS 3781) are the results of counting and thus
these are discrete variables.
• Typically, a discrete variable is a variable
whose possible values are some or all of the
ordinary counting numbers like 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . .
As a definition, we can say that a variable is
discrete if it has only a countable number of
distinct possible values. That is, a variable is
discrete if it can assume only a finite
numbers of values or as many values as there
are integers.
 Quantitative variables
• Continuous variables. A continuous variable is
a numeric variable. Observations can take any
value between a certain set of real numbers.
Examples of continuous variables include
height, time, age, and temperature.
 Categorical variables
• Categorical variables have values that
describe a 'quality' or 'characteristic' of a data
unit, like 'what type' or 'which category'.
Categorical variables fall into mutually
exclusive (in one category or in another) and
exhaustive (include all possible options)
categories. Therefore, categorical variables are
qualitative variables and tend to be
represented by a non-numeric value.
 Categorical variables may be further
described as ordinal or nominal:
•
An ordinal variable is a categorical variable.
Observations can take a value that can be logically
ordered or ranked. The categories associated with
ordinal variables can be ranked higher or lower than
another, but do not necessarily establish a numeric
difference between each category. Examples of ordinal
categorical variables include academic grades (i.e. A,
B, C), clothing size (i.e. small, medium, large, extra
large) and attitudes (i.e. strongly agree, agree,
disagree, strongly disagree).
• A nominal variable is a categorical variable.
Observations can take a value that is not able
to be organised in a logical sequence.
Examples of nominal categorical variables
include gender, business type, eye colour,
religion and brand.
 Scales
• Scales for Qualitative Variables. Besides being
classified as either qualitative or quantitative,
variables can be described according to the
scale on which they are defined. The scale of
the variable gives certain structure to the
variable and also defines the meaning of the
variable.
 Scales for Qualitative Variables
• The categories into which a qualitative
variable falls may or may not have a natural
ordering. For example, occupational
categories have no natural ordering. If the
categories of a qualitative variable are
unordered, then the qualitative variable is said
to be defined on a nominal scale, the word
nominal referring to the fact that the categories
are merely names.
 Scales for Qualitative Variables
• If the categories can be put in order, the scale is
called an ordinal scale. Based on what scale a
qualitative variable is defined, the variable can be
called as a nominal variable or an ordinal
variable. Examples of ordinal variables are
education (classified e.g. as low, high) and
"strength of opinion" on some proposal
(classified according to whether the individual
favors the proposal, is indifferent towards it, or
opposites it), and position at the end of race
(first, second, etc.).
 Scales for Quantitative Variables
• Quantitative variables, whether discrete or
continuous, are defined either on an interval
scale or on a ratio scale. If one can compare
the differences between measurements of the
variable meaningfully, but not the ratio of the
measurements, then the quantitative variable
is defined on interval scale.
 Scales for Quantitative Variables
• If, on the other hand, one can compare both the
differences between measurements of the variable and
the ratio of the measurements meaningfully, then the
quantitative variable is defined on ratio scale. In order
for the ratio of the measurements to be meaningful,
the variable must have natural meaningful absolute
zero point, i.e, a ratio scale is an interval scale with a
meaningful absolute zero point for example,
temperature measured on the Centigrade system is an
interval variable and the height of person is a ratio
variable.
What type of statistical test do I want
to do?
 Continuous Data
• If comparing 2 groups (treatment/control)
- t-test
• If comparing > 2 groups
- ANOVA (F-test)
• If measuring association between 2 variables
- Pearson r correlation
If trying to predict an outcome
- Regression or multiple regression
 Ordinal Data
• Beyond the capability of Excel – just FYI
• If comparing 2 groups
- Mann Whitney U (treatment vs. control)
- Wilcoxon (matched pre vs. post)
• If comparing > 2 groups
- Kruskal-Wallis (median test)
• If measuring association between 2 variables
- Spearman rho (ρ)

• Likert-type scales are ordinal data

 Categorical Data
• Called a test of frequency – how often something
is observed (also known as: Goodness of Fit Test,
Test of Homogeneity)
• Chi-Square (χ2) – used to analyse categorical
data
• Examples of burning research questions:
• Do negative ads change how people vote?
• Is there a relationship between marital status and
health insurance coverage?
• Do blonds have more fun?
 Describing data by tables and graphs
[Johnson & Bhattacharyya (1992),
Weiss (1999) and Freund (2001)]
• Qualitative variable
• The number of observations (data set/data
matrix) that fall into particular class (or
category) of the qualitative variable is called
the frequency (or count) of that class. A table
listing all classes and their frequencies is
called a frequency distribution.
 What is a frequency distribution?
• Frequency distributions are visual displays that
organise and present frequency counts so that
the information can be interpreted more easily.
• Frequency distributions can show absolute
frequencies or relative frequencies, such as
proportions or percentages.
 How do we show a frequency
distribution?
• A frequency distribution of data can be shown
in a table or graph. Some common methods
of showing frequency distributions include
frequency tables, histograms or bar charts.
•
 Frequency Tables

• A frequency table is a simple way to display

the number of occurrences of a particular
value or characteristic.
• For example, if we have collected data about
height from a sample of 50 children, we could
present our findings as:
 Frequency Table

Heght of Children

Height of Children
Height (cm) of children Absolute Relative
frequency frequency
120 – less than 130 9 18%
130 – less than 140 10 20%
140 – less than 150 13 26%
150 – less than 160 11 22%
160 – less than 170 7 14%
Total 50 100%
• From this frequency table we can quickly
identify information such as 7 children (14%
of all children) are in the 160 to less than 170
cm height range, and that there are more
children with heights in the 140 to less than
150 cm range (26% of all children) than any
other height range.
Quantitative Data Analysis
(continued)
 Graph/s
• Data can also be presented in graphical form.
• Histograms and bar charts are both visual
displays of frequencies using columns plotted
on a graph. The Y-axis (vertical axis) generally
represents the frequency count, while the X-
axis (horizontal axis) generally represents the
variable being measured.
 Histogram
• A histogram is a type of graph in which each
column represents a numeric variable, in
particular that which is continuous and/or
grouped.
• A histogram shows the distribution of all
observations in a quantitative dataset. It is
useful for describing the shape, centre, and
spread to better understand the distribution
of the dataset.
 Features of a histogram
• The height of the column shows the frequency for a specific range
of values.
• Columns are usually of equal width, however a histogram may
show data using unequal ranges (intervals) and therefore have
columns of unequal width.
• The values represented by each column must be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive. Therefore, there are no spaces between
columns and each observation can only ever belong in one column.
• It is important that there is no ambiguity in the labelling of the
intervals on the X-axis for continuous or grouped data (e.g. 0 to less
than 10, 10 to less than 20, 20 to less than 30).
• To draw the histogram based on the data in
the above frequency table (in the Example of
weight measurements for 50 children), you
will plot the Number of Children (frequency)
on the Y-axis and Height (cm) on the X-axis.
• Intervals on the x-axis for grouped data
 A Bar chart
• A bar chart is a type of graph in which each
column (plotted either vertically or
horizontally) represents a categorical variable
or a discrete ungrouped numeric variable.
• It is used to compare the frequency (count) for
a category or characteristic with another
category or characteristic.
 Features of a bar chart
• In a bar chart, the bar height (if vertical) or
length (if horizontal) shows the frequency for
each category or characteristic. The distribution
of the dataset is not important because the
columns each represent an individual category or
characteristic rather than intervals for a
continuous measurement. Therefore, gaps are
included between each bar and each bar can be
arranged in any order without affecting the data.
• In addition to frequencies, we are often
interested in the percentage of a class. We
find the percentage by dividing the frequency
of the class by the total number of
observations and multiplying the result by
100. The percentage of the class, expressed as
a decimal, is usually referred to as the relative
frequency of the class (refer to the example of
children’s weight given earlier).
• Relative frequency of the class = Frequency in
the class/Total number of observations
• A table listing all classes and their relative
frequencies is called a relative frequency
distribution. The relative frequencies provide the
most relevant information as to the pattern of
the data. One should also state the sample size,
which serves as an indicator of the creditability of
the relative frequencies. Relative frequencies sum
to 1 (100%).
• A cumulative frequency (cumulative relative
frequency) is obtained by summing the
frequencies (relative frequencies) of all classes
up to the specific class. In a case of qualitative
variables, cumulative frequencies makes sense
only for ordinal variables, not for nominal
variables.
• The qualitative data are presented graphically
either as a pie chart or as a horizontal or
vertical bar graph.
• A pie chart is a disk divided into pie-shaped
pieces proportional to the relative frequencies
of the classes. To obtain angle for any class,
we multiply the relative frequencies by 360
degrees, which corresponds to the complete
circle
• A horizontal bar graph displays the classes on the
horizontal axis and the frequencies (or relative
frequencies) of the classes on the vertical axis.
The frequency (or relative frequency) of each
class is represented by vertical bar whose height
is equal to the frequency (or relative frequency)
of the class.
• In a bar graph, its bars do not touch each other.
At vertical bar graph, the classes are displayed on
the vertical axis and the frequencies of the
classes on the horizontal axis.
• Nominal data is best displayed by pie chart
and ordinal data by horizontal or vertical bar
graph.
 Level of Measurement | Basic
Statistics
• In statistics, data can be classified according to
level of measurement, dictating the
calculations that can be done to summarize
and present the data (graphically), it also
helps to determine, what statistical tests
should be performed.
Levels/Scales of Measurement | Basic
Statistics
• For example, suppose there are six colors of
sweets in a bag and you assign different
numbers (codes) to them in such a way that
brown sweet has a value of 1, yellow 2, green
3, orange 4, blue 5, and red a value of 6.
• Does this mean that the average color is green
or orange? Of course not. When computing
statistic, it is important to recognize the data
type, which may be qualitative (nominal and
ordinal) and quantitative (Interval and ratio).
• The level of measurements has been
developed in conjunction with the concepts of
numbers and units of measurement.
• Statisticians classified measurements
according to levels/scales. There are four level
of measurements, namely, nominal, ordinal,
interval and ratio, described below.
 Nominal Level of Measurement
• In nominal level of measurement, the
observation of a qualitative variable can only
be classified and counted. There is no
particular order to the categories. Mode,
frequency table, pie chart and bar graph are
usually drawn for this level of measurement.
 Ordinal Level of Measurement
• In ordinal level of measurement, data
classification are presented by sets of labels or
names that have relative values (ranking or
ordering of values). For example, if you survey
1,000 people and ask them to rate a restaurant
on a scale ranging from 0 to 5, where 5 shows
higher score (highest liking level) and zero shows
the lowest (lowest liking level). Taking the
average of these 1,000 people’s response will
have meaning. Usually graphs and charts are
drawn for ordinal data.
 Interval Level of Measurement
• Numbers also used to express the quantities,
such as temperature, dress size and plane ticket
are all quantities. The interval level of
measurement allows for the degree of difference
between items but no the ratio between them.
There is meaningful difference between values,
for example 10 degrees Fahrenheit and 15
degrees is 5, and the difference between 50 and
55 degrees is also 5 degrees. It is also important
that zero is just a point on the scale, it does not
represent the absence of heat, just that it is
freezing point.
 Ratio Level of Measurement
• All of the quantitative data is recorded on the
ratio level. It has all the characteristics of the
interval level, but in addition, the zero point is
meaningful and the ratio between two numbers
is meaningful. Examples of ratio level are wages,
units of production, weight, changes in stock
prices, distance between home and office, height
etc.
• Many of the inferential test statistics depends on
ratio and interval level of measurement.
 Quantitative variable
• If the discrete variable can have a lot of
different values or the quantitative variable is
the continuous variable, then the data must
be grouped into classes (categories) before
the table of frequencies can be formed.
 Sample and Population Distributions
• Frequency distributions for a variable apply both
to a population and to samples from that
population. The first type is called the population
distribution of the variable, and the second type
is called a sample distribution.
• One way to summarize a sample or population
distribution is to describe its shape. A group for
which the distribution is bell-shaped is
fundamentally different from a group for which
the distribution is U-shaped, for example.
• The bell-shaped and U-shaped distributions
are symmetric.
• A nonsymmetric distribution is said to be
skewed to the right or skewed to the left,
according to which tail is longer.
• NB: If the distribution is positively skewed,
the tail is to the Right.
• If the distribution is negatively skewed, the
tail is to the left
Quantitative Data Analysis
(continued)
 Statistics:
• Statistics: a group of computational
procedures that enable us to find patterns and
meaning in numerical data
• Who is doing a study that involves statistical analysis of data?
• What type of (quantitative) data are you collecting?
• Will there be enough data to achieve statistical significance?
– Descriptive statistics
- Inferential statistics
 Functions of Statistics

• Two Major Functions of Statistics

• They describe what the data look like; this is
the function of descriptive statistics.
• They allow us to make inferences about large
populations by collecting data on relatively
small samples; this is the function of
inferential statistics.
•
 Measures of Central Tendency
• The arithmetic mean is the standard average,
often simply called the 'mean'. It is often
confused with the median (the middle value)
and the mode (the most occurring or likely
value).
 Measures of Central Tendency

• Mode: the single number or score that occurs

most frequently.
• Median: the numerical center of a set of data.
• Mean: the arithmetic average of the scores
within the data set/The mean is the arithmetic
average of a set of values, or distribution.
• However, for skewed distributions, the mean
is not necessarily the same as the middle
value (median), or the most likely (mode).
• Geometric Mean: a measure of central tendency
based on a geometric progression, such as
growth.
• Variance: Variance is a measure of how spread
out a data set is. It is calculated as the average
squared deviation of each number from the
mean of a data set. The variance (symbolized by S
squared) and standard deviation (the square root
of the variance, symbolized by S) are the most
commonly used measures of spread.
 The Mean
• Mean (μ)-The arithmetic average (add all of the scores
together, then divide by the number of scores)
• μ = ∑x / n
• For example seven students are timed whilst searching for
information on the Internet. What is the arithmetic mean
time taken to search?
• Assuming the 7 students’ search time is as follow:
• 2 minutes + 2 minutes + 3 minutes + 5 minutes + 5 minutes
+ 7 minutes + 8 minutes = 32 minutes
• There are 7 values, so you divide the total by 7:
• 32 ÷ 7 = Arithmetic mean = (to 2 decimal places). 4.57
minutes
 Median
• The median time taken to search calculated by
putting the values in order, then find the
middle value. If there are two values in the
middle then you find the mean of these two
values, so:
• 2 , 2 , 3 , (5) , 5 , 7 , 8
• The middle value is marked in brackets, and it
is 5. So the median is 5 .
• Median is used when data is not normally
distributed
 Mode
• The most frequently occurring number (score,
measurement, value, cost)/The values which appear
most often
• On a frequency distribution, it’s the highest point
• In our example, the mode time taken to search is the
value which appears the most often in the data. It is
possible to have more than one mode if there is more
than one value which appears the most. So:
• 2,2,3,5,5,7,8
• The values which appear most often are 2 and 5. They
both appear more time than any of the other data
values. So the modes are 2 and 5 .
 The Range
• To find the range, you first need to find the
lowest and highest values in the data. The
range is found by subtracting the lowest value
from the highest value.
• The data values: 2 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 7 , 8
• The lowest value is 2 and the highest value is
8. Subtracting the lowest from the highest
gives: 8 - 2 = 6. So the range is 6
 Measures of Variability: Dispersion
and Deviation
• Range: indicates the spread of data from lowest to
highest value (Range = highest score – lowest score or
Range = Max −Min.)
• Average Deviation: the average of differences of each
score in a set of scores and the mean score.
• Standard Deviation: the measure of variability most
commonly used in statistical procedures, the square of
the score-mean differences. It is a measure of how
much the data deviate from the mean. It indicates the
mean of the variability of the scores around the
mean. Or said differently, how far the data on average
is from the mean.
• Norm-Referenced Scores: scores that reflect
where each person in the group is relative to
other members of the group.
• Standard Score: tells us how far an individual’s
performance is from the mean with respect to
standard deviation units.
 Choosing Appropriate Statistics

• Statistics related to central tendency and

variability provides a beginning point from
which to view data.
• Statistical manipulation of the data is not
research.
• Research demands interpretation of the data.
(i.e., interpretations are very important!)
 Measures of Association: Correlation

• Correlation: a measure of the relationship between two variables;

correlation indicates the strength of the relationship.
• Correlation Coefficient: a number between -1 and +1 most
correlation coefficients are decimals (positive or negative)
somewhere between these two extremes.
• Positive Correlation: as one variable increases, the other variable
also increases.
• Negative Correlation: as one variable increases, the other variable
decreases.
• Pearson r: the most widely used statistic for measuring correlation.
• Note: Correlation does not necessarily indicate
causation/association does not imply causation. That is, just
because A is related to B does not mean that A causes B.
 Inferential Statistics

• Two main functions of inferential statistics:

• To estimate a population parameter from a
random sample.
• To test statistically based hypotheses.
 Estimating Population Parameters

• In conducting research, we use a sample to learn about

the larger population from which the sample was drawn.
• Inferential statistics inform how closely sample statistics
approximate parameters of the overall population.
• Statistical estimates of population parameters are based on
the assumption that the sample is randomly chosen and
representative of the total population.
• Error: the difference between the population mean and the
sample mean.
• Standard Error of the Mean: indicates how much a
particular mean is likely to vary from one sample to
another when all samples are the same size and are drawn
randomly from the same population.
 Testing Hypotheses
• Null Hypothesis: a statistical hypothesis which
postulates that any result observed is the result
of chance alone.
• Testing the Null Hypothesis: the process of
comparing observed data in a research study with
what we would expect from chance alone.
• Significance Level: the probability that researcher
use as a cutoff point to decide that a result has
not occurred by chance.
• p-value
• Calculated AFTER we gather the data
• The calculated probability of a mistake by
saying it works
• Also known as: level of significance
• Describes the percent of the population/area
under the curve (in the tail) that is beyond our
statistic
 We Make Mistakes!
Alpha level
• Set BEFORE we collect data, run statistics
• Defines how much of an error we are willing
to make to say we made a difference
• If we’re wrong, it’s an alpha error or Type 1
error
 Making Errors in Hypothesis Testing

• Type I Error: the erroneous conclusion that a

result was not due to chance when in fact it was
due to chance; incorrectly rejecting the null
hypothesis.
• Type II Error: the erroneous conclusion that a
result was due to chance when in fact it was not;
incorrectly failing to reject a null hypothesis that
is actually false; also known as a betta error.
• Recall Type I and Type II errors are Errors in
Hypotheses, i.e. two types of mistakes possible
while testing the hypotheses
 Type I and II Errors
Example
The doctor says you are sick and you actually are;
Doctor confirms it RIGHT
The doctor says you are sick but you are actually
well! Get scared for nothing! WRONG-Type I error
Doctor says you are well but you are actually sick.
Doctor missed your real illness! WRONG-Type II
error.
Doctor says you are well and you are really well.
You’re really not sick! RIGHT
 Type I Error:
• A Type I error occurs when the null hypothesis
(H0) is wrongly rejected.
• For example, A Type I error would occur if we
concluded that the two drugs produced
different effects when in fact there was no
difference between them.
 Type II Error:
• A Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis
H0, is not rejected when it is in fact false.
• For example: A Type II Error would occur if it
were concluded that the two drugs produced the
same effect, that is, there is no difference
between the two drugs on average, when in fact
they produced different ones.
• A Type I error is often considered to be more
serious, and therefore more important to avoid,
than a Type II error.
Why is reference made to hypothesis?
• Identifying a research question/problem/hypothesis
is the point of departure for all scientific investigation.
• The hypothesis/research question/problem also serves
as an instrument for control or measurement, which
the researcher can use to determine whether he or she
is collecting relevant data or not.
• The research question/problem/hypothesis also
serves as an instrument of control against which
findings, based on the interpretation of data can be
tested.
 Interpretation of the Data
Interpreting the data means several things:
• Relating the findings to the original research
problem and to the specific research questions
and hypotheses.
• Relating the findings to pre-existing literature,
concepts, theories, and research studies. i.e.
linking your Chapter 5 to Chapter 2
• Determining whether the findings have practical
significance as well as statistical significance.
• Identifying limitations of the study.
Statistical versus Practical Significance
What is STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE?
• Statistical significance refers to the
unlikelihood that mean differences observed
in the sample have occurred due to sampling
error. Given a large enough sample, despite
seemingly insignificant population differences,
one might still find statistical significance
 What is PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE?

• Practical significance looks at whether the

difference is large enough to be of value in a
practical sense.
 Statistical Significance
• Significance Level: Overview
• H0: Also known as the null hypothesis, it is a
statement of "no effect“ or "no difference"
used in tests of significance. The test of
significance is used to obtain substantial
evidence against H0.
• Ha: Also known as the alternative hypothesis,
is what we hope to be correct in rejection of
the null hypothesis.
Statistical Significance (continued)
• P-Value: A p-value is essentially the
probability that the test statistic you compute
would acquire a value as extreme or more
than what you actually observe. This is after
making the assumption that H0 is true.
• A common rule is, the smaller the p-value, the
stronger the evidence is against H0.
 What does the P-value have to do
with significance level?
• We can compare the p-value calculated with a
fixed value. This fixed value is called the
significance level.
• Significance Level: Is denoted by the Greek
letter alpha (α). If the p-value we calculate is
as small or smaller than α, we say the data is
statistically significant at level α.
• If we chose α= 0.05, we are insisting that
evidence against H0 is so strong that it would
happen no more than 5% of the time when H0
is true.
• If we chose α= 0.01, we are demanding even
stronger evidence against H0, evidence so
strong that it would appear only 1% of the
time (1 time in 100) if H0 is true.
 What does “statistically significant”
mean?
• When we use the term "significant", we are not
automatically implying that the data is
"important". It is simply a term that is used to
assess whether the evidence against the null
hypothesis has reached the standard set by α
only.
• For example, significance level at 0.05 is often
expressed by the statement: "The results were
significant at (p< 0.05)", where p stands for the P-
value.
 What does “statistically significant”
mean? (continued)
• The p-value is helpful in providing basic
information rather than a statement of
significance, because we can then assess
significance at any level we choose.
Skewed and Normal
Distributions
What does it mean to have a skewed
distribution?
• A distribution is skewed if one of its tails is
longer than the other. A positively skewed
distribution has a positive skew meaning that
it has a long tail in the positive direction. The
negatively skewed distribution has a negative
skew since it has a long tail in the negative
direction.
 Negatively Skewed Distribution
• A distribution is negatively skewed, or skewed
to the left, if the scores fall toward the higher
side of the scale and there are very few low
scores. In positively skewed distributions, the
mean is usually greater than the median,
which is always greater than the mode
Negatively Skewed Distribution
 Positively Skewed Distributions
• In positively skewed distributions, the mean is
usually greater than the median, which is
always greater than the mode
Negative and Positive Skeweness
• Negatively and Positively skewed distributions
are asymmetric.
• Asymmetrical distribution is a situation in
which the values of variables occur at irregular
frequencies and the mean, median and mode
occur at different points. An asymmetric
distribution exhibits skewness.
• A distribution is skewed if one of its tails is
longer than the other. The first distribution
shown has a positive skew. This means that it
has a long tail in the positive direction. The
distribution has a negative skew if it has a
long tail in the negative direction
 What causes a skewed distribution?
• The reason for this skewness is that the mass
of the distribution occurs on the left side of
the positively skewed distribution curve. This
means that most values of the distribution
occur on the left side. Positively skewed
distributions are more common than
negatively skewed ones
Normal Distribution of Pizza Delivery
Times
 Normal or Bell-shaped Distribution
• The term bell curve is used to describe the mathematical
concept called normal distribution, sometimes referred to
as Gaussian distribution or Gaussian curve after the
mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss . "Bell curve" refers to
the shape that is created when a line is plotted using the
data points for an item that meets the criteria of normal
distribution.
• A bell curve is the most common type of distribution for a
variable, and is therefore considered to be a normal
distribution.
• Normal distributions are symmetric with relatively more
values at the center of the distribution and relatively few in
the tails.
 What does it mean to have a normal
distribution?
• When data are normally distributed, plotting
them on a graph results in an image that is
bell-shaped and symmetrical. In such a
distribution of data, the mean, median, and
mode are all the same value and coincide with
the peak of the curve.
Analysing and presenting qualitative
data
 Inductive data analysis
• First step in data analysis is to reduce the data
and to organise it so that the researcher can start
to see the patterns or themes that emerge.
• Data must be organised in some way. If taking the
inductive approach, researchers start to do this
by looking for topics or categories in the data and
coding these.
• Once researcher has developed a way of
classifying the data, s/he then looks for patterns
in the data.
 Inductive data analysis
• In searching for patterns, researchers try to
understand the complex links between various
aspects of people’s situations, mental
processes, beliefs and actions (McMillan &
Schumacher, 1993).
 Deductive data analysis
• Deductive analysis takes place when the
researcher starts the process with a set of
categories that have already been established
by a model or a theory.
Inductive vs deductive approaches to
data analysis
• Inductive reasoning works from specific
observations to broader generalisations and
theories. In inductive reasoning, we begin
with specific observations and measures- that
is, we start with the raw data that we have
collected. Then we begin to detect patterns
and regularities in the data and start to
formulate some tentative hypotheses that we
can explore, and finally end up developing
some general conclusions or theories
Inductive vs deductive approaches to
data analysis
• In contrast to inductive approach, it is possible for
the researcher to have a clear theoretical
framework or set of concepts beforehand, and
use this framework to analyse the data. This
would be deductive approach.
• Deductive reasoning works from the more
general to the more specific. You might begin
with the theory about your topic of interest.
Based on the theory, categories are developed for
organizing or classifying the data. This allows the
researcher to look for patterns and connections.
Inductive vs deductive approaches to
data analysis (continued)
• The key difference between these approaches
is that in inductive reasoning, the categories
emerge from the data, while in deductive
reasoning, the researcher starts with a set of
categories, which are then used to categorise
and organise the data.
 Inductive vs deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning by its very nature, is more
open-ended and exploratory, especially at the
beginning. Deductive reasoning is narrower in
nature but thereby often also more
theoretically informed and focused.
Researchers often can make use of both of
these approaches in their analysis.
 Conceptual and Theoretical
framework
• A theoretical framework will influence how
you design the study, how you collect the
data and how you analyse the data. You will
use certain ideas from the theory to help you
make sense of the data that you have
collected.
• Your chosen framework must link clearly with
the research purpose and research questions.
 Conceptual and Theoretical
framework
• What is a Conceptual framework?
• A conceptual framework is “the system of
concepts, assumptions, expectations, beliefs and
theories that supports and informs your research
(Maxwell, 2006).
• A conceptual framework as both a process and a
framework that helps to direct and ground
researchers, is an argument about why the topic
of a study matters, and why the methods
proposed to study it are appropriate and
rigorous.
 Conceptual and Theoretical
framework
• Some studies may not have an explicit
theoretical framework or a theoretical
position. However, they will still be informed
by a set of ideas or concepts that guide the
research. We call this the conceptual
framework.
• Each study has a particular area of focus and
this area is framed by certain key ideas or
concepts.
 What is a Conceptual framework?

• A set of concepts and aspects of theories that

assist in establishing coherence in research
• Less developed than theories
• Giving direction to research, just as the
theoretical framework does.
• A diagrammatic representation of concepts
and their relationship in a specific research
context and
• Linking abstractions to empirical data
 What is a Conceptual framework?

• A conceptual framework “stems from a theoretical

framework and concentrates usually on one section of
that theoretical framework which forms the basis of a
research” (Kumar, 2005).
• In other words, the conceptual framework is an
aspect/s that is drawn from the theoretical framework
and becomes the basis for a research problem (Kumar,
2005).
• There could be many theories related to a construct,
but the researcher may be interested in testing some
aspect/s of the theory or theories and this becomes
the conceptual framework of the study.
 What is a Conceptual framework?

• A conceptual framework can be distinguished

from a theoretical framework in that it is a
less well-developed explanation for events.
For example, it might link two or three key
concepts or principles without being
developed into a full-blown theory (Jansen &
Vithal, 1997).
 Theory and Theoretical Frameworks
• A theory could be described as a well-developed,
coherent explanation for an event (Jansen &
Vithal, 1997).
• Theories provide a possible explanation for why
things happen or they can provide models for
how things happen.
• For example, Jean Piaget’s 4 stage theory of
Cognitive Development is an example of a model
of how cognitive development takes place.
 Theory and Theoretical Frameworks
• Many studies have been done using this model,
and there are certainly critiques of Piaget’s
model.
• Some researchers approach their study with a
clear theory and intend to verify or prove that a
particular theory is true or false.
• Other researchers may use a theory as a way of
broadly framing their study. They do not set out
to prove or disprove a theory, but they use the
principles of a particular theory to broadly inform
their study.
 Interpreting and drawing conclusions
• The researcher must interprete the data
• Researchers draw conclusions about the data
they have collected-they decide what the data
mean or what kind of story the data tell.
• NB:
• 1. Interpretation will clearly depend on the
soundness and trustworthiness of the data
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Interpreting and drawing conclusions
• 2. Researchers need to be aware of whether the
conclusions they make are based on all the data.
For example using the drawings on p.132 to 135
of Bertram and Christiansen Textbook, we may
draw a conclusion from learners’ drawings of
Mathematics teachers that some Mathematics
teachers hit their learners. This is because 5 of
the 8 drawings depict a teacher hitting his/her
learners. We can probably conclude that for
these learners, Mathematics classrooms are not
very happy or positive places to be.
Interpreting and drawing conclusions
• However, you need to remember that you
cannot generalise your conclusions from such
a small number of drawings. The pictures
shown on p.132 to 135 are only a very small
sample of the 332 drawings that were
collected for this study. We would need to
analyse all the drawings before drawing any
conclusions about this sample of learners.
Interpreting and drawing conclusions
• 3. Interpretation of data in interpretivist and
critical research is also influenced by the
theoretical framework of the project and the
experience of the researcher. For instance a
researcher may interprete data differently
because of his/her administrative experience
as a principal and another researcher may
draw from his/her gender experience to
interprete data .
 Interpreting and drawing conclusion
• One way of increasing the trustworthiness of a
particular interpretation is to use “thick description” in
qualitative data. Thick description is a term used in
qualitative research to refer to the depth or the
“thickness” of the description that a researcher needs
to report.
• By using thick description the researcher provides
enough detail so that the reader can judge whether the
findings can be transferred to another context (Scott,
1996).
• In large studies, results can be generalised if the
sample has been randomly selected.
 Presenting the Findings
• Researchers to present their findings in more
succinct (i.e. in a clear and short way) ways.
• Qualitative data are usually presented by using
quotes, short case studies or narratives but may
use graphs, tables, diagrams and matrices.
• Qualitative data can also sometimes be
quantified, e.g. 5 of the 8 children’s drawings
showed teachers hitting their learners (refer to
drawings on p.132 to 135 in your textbook).
 Presenting the Findings
• Often words are used to convey quantity, e.g.
“most teachers said…or some learners were
absent, etc.
• Many qualitative researchers use quotes from the
respondents to illustrate the points which they
are making. Using verbatim quotes is one way of
presenting data. (Verbatim means in exactly the
same words as were used originally).
• Quotes are a way of ensuring that the voice of
participants is heard.
CFS 3781 Session 20 of
23 March 2022
Academic Writing
What is Academic writing?
• Academic writing is a formal style of writing used in universities and
scholarly publications. You'll encounter it in journal articles and books
on academic topics, and you'll be expected to write your essays,
research papers, research project, thesis and dissertation in academic
style.
• Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured and backed
up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the reader's understanding. It
has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not
require the use of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.
https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14011/writing/106/academic_writing
Nine Basic Ways to Improve Your Style in
Academic Writing
• 1. Use ACTIVE VOICE
• Don't say: "The stepmother's house was cleaned by Cinderella." (Passive.)

• Say instead: "Cinderella cleaned the stepmother's house." (Active voice.)

• Passive voice construction ("was cleaned") is reserved for those occasions

where the "do-er" of the action is unknown.

• Example: "Prince Charming saw the glass slipper that was left behind."
• 2. Mix it up in terms of PUNCTUATION
• Here are a few commonly misused punctuation marks that a lot of
people aren't sure about:
• The semi-colon (;) separates two complete sentences that are
complementary.
• Example: "She was always covered in cinders from cleaning the
fireplace; they called her Cinderella."

•
• 2. Mix it up in terms of PUNCTUATION
• Here are a few commonly misused punctuation marks that a lot of
people aren't sure about:
• The semi-colon (;) separates two complete sentences that are
complementary.
• Example: "She was always covered in cinders from cleaning the
fireplace; they called her Cinderella."
• The colon (:) is used...
• a. preceding a list.
• Example: "Before her stepmother awoke, Cinderella had three chores
to complete: feeding the chickens, cooking breakfast, and doing the
wash."
• b. as a sort of "drum roll," preceding some big revelation.
• Example: "One thing fueled the wicked stepmother's hatred for
Cinderella: jealousy."
• The dash (--) is made by typing two hyphens (-). No spaces go in
between the dash and the text. It is used...
• a. to bracket off some explanatory information.
• Example: "Even Cinderella's stepsisters-who were not nearly as lovely
or virtuous as Cinderella--were allowed to go to the ball."
• b. in the "drum roll" sense of the colon.
• Example: "Prince Charming would find this mystery lady--even if he
had to put the slipper on every other girl in the kingdom."
• 3. Vary your SENTENCE STRUCTURE
• Don't say: "Cinderella saw her fairy godmother appear. She was dressed in blue.
She held a wand. The wand had a star on it. She was covered in sparkles.
Cinderella was amazed. She asked who the woman was. The woman said, 'I am
your fairy godmother.' She said she would get Cinderella a dress and a coach. She
said she would help Cinderella go to the ball."
• Instead say: (there are multiple correct ways to rewrite this, but here's one)
"Amazed, Cinderella watched as her fairy godmother appeared. The woman
dressed in blue was covered in sparkles and carried a star-shaped wand.
Cinderella asked the woman who she was, to which the woman replied, 'I am
your fairy godmother." The fairy godmother would get Cinderella a dress and a
coach; she would help Cinderella get to the ball."

•
• 4. Closely related to this, avoid CHOPPINESS
• Don't say: "She scrubbed the floors. They were dirty. She
used a mop. She sighed sadly. It was as if she were a servant
."
• Instead say : (again, there are multiple ways to do this) "She
scrubbed the dirty floors using a mop, as if she were a
servant. She sighed sadly.
• 5. Avoid REPETITION.
• Don't say: "The stepsisters were jealous and envious ."
• Instead say : "The stepsisters were jealous ." (...or envious. Pick one.)
• 6. Be CONCISE
• Don't say: "The mystery lady was one who every eligible man at the
ball admired."
• Instead say : "Every eligible man at the ball admired the mystery
lady."
• 7. Use the VOCABULARY that you know.
• Don't always feel you have to use big words. It is always better to be
clear and use simple language rather than showing off flashy words
you aren't sure about and potentially misusing them. This is not to
say, however, that you should settle for very weak vocabulary choices
(like "bad" or "big" or "mad").

•
• 8. But also work on expanding your VOCABULARY.
• When reading, look up words you don't know. See how
they're used. Start a list. Incorporate them into your writing
as you feel comfortable and as they are appropriate.
• 9. Keep language FORMAL and avoid language of everyday speech.
• Don't say: "Cinderella was mellow and good. She never let her
stepmother get to her ."
• Say instead: "Cinderella was mild-mannered and kind. She never let
her stepmother affect her high spirits ."
References
• https://slc.berkeley.edu/writing-worksheets-and-other-writing-
resources/nine-basic-ways-improve-your-style-academic-writing
CFS 3781 Session 21 Research Report Writing
Technical details: Style, Format and
Organization of the Research Report
• Your Research Report will have 5 Sections/Chapters:
• Chapter 1 Introduction
• Chapter 2 Literature Review
• Chapter 3 Research Methodology
• Chapter 4 Presentation of Results and Discussion
• Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendations
• The Research Report will be written in PAST TENSE unlike the
Research Proposal which is written in FUTURE TENSE and has only 3
Chapters( Chapter 1 to Chapter 3)
• Chapter 1 Introduction – Practical 1 [Identify a research topic in your
subject area and formulate 3 research questions based on your topic.
You should also formulate a research problem/problem
statement/statement of the problem based on your chosen research
topic].
• Chapter 2 Literature Review [Covered in CFS 3781 Class 3 with
Examples from past Research Project). NB: Class 3 also covered APA
in Text citations and how to use the APA format when writing your
list of REFERENCES].
• Chapter 3 Methodology – Practical 2 [Based on your identified topic
and formulated research problem, you should: Work on the
Methodology for your proposed study. Clearly indicate the Research
design for your study (focus on either quantitative, OR qualitative OR
mixed methods design as appropriate to your research
problem/questions). Clearly indicate what kind of say qualitative
study you will do; the sample and sampling method; Ethical
considerations; provide a reference list for your practical].
• [Research Instrument development – Practical 3];
• Assignment 1 -interpretation, evaluation and critique of research
document.
Technical details of the Research Report

Planning a Research Report

Four Objectives of a Research Report:
• It should give readers a clear understanding of the research problem and
why it merited an in-depth investigation.
• It should describe exactly how data were collected in an attempt to resolve
the problem.
• It should present the data precisely and completely. The data presented in
the report should substantiate all the interpretations and conclusions that
the report contains.
• It should interpret the data for the reader and demonstrate exactly how
the data resolve the research problem.
Technical details of the research report (continued)

Description of the Research Problem

• Statement of the problem and other information needed to
understand it should comprise the first section of the final report.
• The main purpose of the first section of the research report is to
create a meeting of the minds between the writer and the readers of
the report.
• The research report provides no opportunity for imprecise thought or
inexact expression.
Technical details of the research report (continued)

Description of the Method

• The method used to collect data, including the sample, assessment
instruments, and procedures should be described with utmost
precision.
• The design of the study should be clear. In particular, the researcher
should state whether quantitative or qualitative methods (or both)
were used and what particular research traditions were followed
Technical details of the research report (continued)
Presentation of the Data
• The data are presented in terms of the problem.
• There is a one-to-one correspondence between the data and the problem
and each of the sub-problems.
• A separate section should be devoted to each sub-problem and its
pertinent quantitative and/or qualitative data.
• Aside from the data, present all other items of interest.
• Use figures and tables to display certain types of data.
• Present a rationale for the statistical approaches that were used.
• Present data as evidence for the conclusions that you draw.
• Indicate whether or not data supported the hypotheses.
Technical details of the research report (continued)

Interpretation of the Data

• Interpretation of the data is the essence of research.
• Without inquiring into the intrinsic meaning of the data, no resolution of
the research problem or its sub-problems is possible.
• Exploit the data fully.
• Don’t go too far beyond the data and lose sight of actual findings.
• Don’t draw conclusions about causation or influence when the design of
the study doesn’t warrant such conclusions.
• Avoid the word “prove.”
• Report honestly what the data have revealed.
Technical details of the research report (continued)
Concluding the Report
• Conclusion should bring closure to the interpretation of the data.
• Concluding discussion is often in a separate section or entitled “Summary,
Conclusions and Recommendations.”
• All loose threads should be gathered together.
• Conclusions should be entirely supported by the data presented.
Final steps:
• State whether or not the hypotheses have been supported,
• Identify weaknesses and limitations in the study,
• Identify possible practical implications of the results,
• Make recommendations for further research.
• READ Research Reports. READ, READ and then WRITE