Parts of Speech

Contents:

1. Noun and its Kinds

2. Pronoun and its Kinds

3. Adjective and its Kinds

4. Verb and its Kinds

5. Adverb and its Kinds

6. Preposition and its Kinds

7. Conjunction and its Kinds

8. Interjection and its Kinds

 1. Noun and its Kinds
Noun:
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, or idea. In a
properly structured sentence, a noun can perform the function of the indirect
object, direct object, and object complement, subject complement,
appositive, subject, or adjective.
Kinds of Nouns:
1) Proper Noun
2) Common Noun
3) Countable Noun
4) Uncountable Noun
5) Collective Noun
6) Compound Noun
7) Abstract Noun
8) Concrete Noun
1. Proper Noun: A proper noun is a name which refers to a particular
person, place, animal or thing. A proper noun always begins with capital
letters.
Examples:
 Umar is an intelligent boy.
 Faisal Masjid is in Islamabad.
 Amal is playing in a garden.
2. Common Noun: A common noun is a name for something which is
common for many things, person, or places. It denotes a general name for
something.
Examples:
 This is my favourite cartoon character.
 This flower is very beautiful.
 The man is standing behind the tree.
3. Countable Noun: The nouns that can be counted are called countable
nouns. Countable nouns can take an article: a, an, The. They have
 singular and plural forms. In plural form these nouns can be used with a
number.
Examples:
 There are 15 apples in a basket.
 An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
 My mobile is not working properly.
4. Uncountable Noun: The nouns that cannot be counted are called as
uncountable noun. They can only be used in singular form.
Examples:
 Do you drink tea in the morning?
 I like orange juice very much.
 My mother will cook rice today.
5. Collective Noun
Collective nouns are names for a collection or a number of people or
things.
Examples:
 A basket of fruits
 A flock of camels.
 A fleet of ships
6. Compound Nouns: Compound Nouns are formed when two or more
words are joined together to create a new noun that has an entirely new
meaning.
Examples:
 Sun+ Flower= Sunflower
 Straw + Berries = Strawberries
 Tooth+paste= Toothpaste
7. Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a feeling, concept, idea, quality or
condition that you cannot touch, taste, hear, see or smell.
Examples:
 Ali is very curious about the results.
 Opportunity never knocks twice at any man's door.
 There is no wealth above the wealth of health.
8. Concrete Noun: Concrete nouns are people, places, or things that we
can experience with our five senses (taste, touch, sight, hearing, or
smell).
Examples:
 An apple is placed on the dining table.
 I like reading Newspapers daily early in the morning
 His uncle is working on the agricultural farmland.
 2. Pronoun and its Kinds:
Pronoun:
Pronouns are used in place of nouns. The purpose of pronouns is to avoid
repetition and make sentences easier to understand. Some of the most
common pronouns are he, she, it, they, and this.
Kinds of pronoun:
1. Personal pronouns
2. Demonstrative pronouns
3. Interrogative pronouns
4. Relative pronouns
5. Indefinite pronouns
6. Reflexive pronouns
7. Intensive pronouns
1. Personal pronouns:
Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or thing. Their form changes
to indicate a person, number, gender, or case.
Subjective personal pronouns
Subjective personal pronouns are pronouns that act as the subject of a
sentence. Subjective personal pronouns are I. you, she, he, it, you, and
they.
For example:
 I walked directly to the party.
 You showed up late; she was annoyed.
 He thought you had forgotten; we know you were just behind.
Objective personal pronouns
Objective Personal Pronouns are pronouns that act as the object of a
sentence. Objective personal pronouns are me, you, her, him, it, us, you,
and them.
For example:
 The police officer told my brother and me to slow down.
 He pointed to the pedestrians and said to be careful of them.
  The police officer said there are a lot of speedy motorists like us.
Possessive personal pronouns
Possessive Personal Pronouns are pronouns that show possession. They
define a person for a number of people) who owns a particular object.
Possessive personal pronouns are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and
theirs.
For example:
 Is this book yours or his?
 All the books are mine.
 Nobody's house has as many books as theirs, not even ours.
2. Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns point to and identify a noun or a pronoun. This
and these refer to things that are nearby in space or time, while that and
those refer to things that are farther away in space or further away in time.
For example:
 This is the dress I will wear, that is the one I wore yesterday.
 That is not true.
 Please pay for those.
3. Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The interrogative
pronouns are who, whom, which, and what. Who and whom are used to
refer to people, while which is used to refer to things and animals. Who
acts as the subject, while whom acts as the object.
For example:
 Which is the best restaurant?
 What did he tell you?
 Whom should we invite?
4. Relative pronouns:
Relative pronouns are used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase
or clause. The relative pronouns are who. whom, that, and which. The
compounds whoever, whomever. and whichever are also commonly used
relative pronouns.
For example:
 Whoever added the bill made a mistake.
  The bill, which included all our meals, was larger than expected.
 The waiter who served us doesn't know how to add.
5. Indefinite pronouns:
Indefinite pronouns refer to an identifiable, but not specified. person or
thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some.
Indefinite pronouns are all, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything,
each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none, one.
several, some, somebody, and someone.
For example:
 Everybody got lost on the way there.
 Somebody forgot to bring the map.
 No wonder so few showed up.
6. Reflexive pronouns:
Reflexive pronouns refer hack to the subject of the clause or sentence. The
reflexive pronouns used are myself, yourself. herself, himself, itself ourselves,
yourselves, and themselves.
For example:
 She baked a cake for herself.
 We decided to eat it ourselves.
 We heard her say, they should be ashamed of themselves.
7. Intensive pronouns
Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize their antecedent. Intensive
pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.
For example:
 I myself find pronouns fascinating.
 They themselves think everyone should know about pronouns.
 You yourself should tell everyone how great pronouns are.
 3. Adjective and its kinds:
Adjective:
An adjective is a word that describes and modify a noun. And they are
usually used before a noun to describe them. Adjectives are words that
modify (change) nouns, pronouns. and other adjectives. Adjectives are words
qualifying nouns or describing words. They qualify or describe nouns.
Examples:
 Your English is good enough.
 Brazil is the world's largest producer of coffer.
 The quick cat caught the mouse.
Kinds of Adjective:
1. Adjective of Quality or Descriptive Adjective
2. Adjective of Quantity
3. Adjective of Number/ Numeral Adjective
4. Demonstrative Adjective
5. Interrogative Adjective
6. Possessive Adjective
7. Distributive Adjective
8. Proper Adjective
9. Indefinite Adjectives
1. Adjective of Quality or Descriptive Adjective:
Adjective showing the kind or quality of nouns or pronouns are called
Adjective of Quality.
Examples:
 We had a wonderful time last night.
 You look very smart in that suit.
 Did you lave a nice time?
2. Adjective of Quantity:
The adjective which shows the quantity of noun or pronoun is called the
Adjective of Quantity.
Examples;
 I didn't have enough clothes to last a week.
 There's still some wine in the bottle.
 I have got hardly any money.
3.. Adjective of Number/Numeral Adjective:
Adjective which expresses the number of persons or things is called the
Adjective of Number or Numeral Adjective.
Examples:
 Italy scored a second goal just after half-time.
 I stood first in class.
 There are ten students in the classroom.
4. Demonstrative Adjective:
This Adjective straight= away points out the person or thing concerned.
The four words this, that, these and those are called demonstratives.
Examples:
 I think you’ll find these more comfortable than those.
 How long have you been living in this country?
 Is that your bag?
5. Interrogative Adjective:
Interrogative Adjectives are used with nouns to ask questions.
Examples:
 Which of the applicants has got the job?
 It's the house whose door is painted red.
 What is your name?
6. Possessive Adjective:
This Adjective expresses the state of possession of nouns is known as a
possessive adjective. Possessive adjectives show possession or ownership:
my, her, his, its, our, their, your.
Examples:
 Where is my passport?
 The cat is sitting on its tail.
  Please concentrate on your mistakes.
7. Distributive Adjective:
This Adjective expresses the distributive state of nouns. Or Distributive
adjectives describe specific members out of a group. These adjectives are used
to single out one or more individual items or people. Some of the most
common distributive adjectives include Each, Every, Either. Neither. and
Any.
Examples:
 The answers are worth 20 points each.
 Every day is a good day if you think of positive changes.
 You can park on either side of the street.
8. Proper Adjective:
An adjective that is formed from a proper noun is called Proper Adjective.
Examples:
 I want to talk about American culture and tourists.
 He is an Australian citizen.
 I like Pakistani dishes.
9. Indefinite Adjectives:
An adjective which is not definite is known as the indefinite adjective.
Examples:
 Some of the players were tired after the match.
 A few people wanted to get the tickets.
 Many people feel that the law should be changed.
 4. Verb and its Kinds
Verb:
A word that shows an action, state or an event is called a verb. It is an
essential part of a sentence and is known as the soul of language.
Examples:
 They study English grammar. (Action)
 We celebrate Independence Day. (Event)
 I sleep at night. (State)
Kinds of verb:
Following are the different kinds of verbs.
1. Action verbs
2. Stative verbs
3. Transitive verbs
4. Intransitive verbs
5. Linking verbs
6. Helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs)
7. Modal verbs
8. Regular verbs
9. Irregular verbs
10. Phrasal verbs
1. Action verbs:
Action verbs, as their name says, are used to refer to actions. These can refer
to physical actions that are performed with bodies or objects, such as jump,
hit, or sing, or mental actions that we use our brains to perform, such as
think, consider, or memorize. Most verbs you will find are action verbs.
Examples:
 I work at a factory.
 Cats chase mice.
 We listened to the woman's amazing story.
2. Stative verbs:
Unlike action verbs, stative verbs refer to conditions or states of being.
Generally speaking, we use stative verbs to describe things like qualities, states
of existence, opinions, beliefs, and emotions. When used in a sentence, stative
verbs do not refer to actions. It is important to know that some verbs can be
used as either action or stative verbs depending on their meaning in the
sentence. We are less likely to use stative verbs in the continuous verb tenses.
Examples:
 Ali loves her younger sisters.
 My cur needs an oil change.
3. Transitive verbs;
A transitive verb is a verb that is accompanied by a direct object in a
sentence. The direct object is the noun, pronoun, or noun phrase that is having
something done to it by the subject of the sentence. Both action and stative
verbs can have direct objects, which means they can both be used as transitive
verbs.
Examples:
 Ali ate a delicious pepperoni pizza.
 The wealthy man bought three paintings.
 She really hates broccoli.
4. Intransitive verbs:
A verb is an intransitive verb if it is not used with a direct object. Remember,
only nouns, pronouns, and noun phrases can be direct objects. Prepositional
phrases, adjectives, and adverbs cannot be used as direct objects. Once again,
both action and stative verbs can be used as intransitive verbs.
Examples:
 Airplanes fly.
 The children slept while the adults worked.
 The terrified monkeys hid in the trees after they saw the gigantic hungry
snake.
5. Linking verbs:
Linking verbs are used to link a subject with a subject complement. A
subject complement describes or identifies the subject of the sentence or clause.
Linking verbs can function as intransitive verbs, which do not take direct
objects.
Examples:
 Mike is a great dancer.
 That gold watch looks expensive.
 Suddenly, the mall got really crowded.
6. Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs);
Helping verbs, also called auxiliary verbs, are helpful verbs that work with
other verbs to change the meaning of a sentence. A helping verb combines
with a main verb in order to accomplish different goals. These include
changing the tense of the verb or altering the mood of a sentence.
Examples:
 The musician has performed in concerts all over the world.
 My cat is getting slow in her old age.
 Cheetahs can run incredibly fast.
7.. Modal verbs:
Modal verbs are a subgroup of helping verbs that are used to give a
sentence a specific mood. Each modal verb is used differently, and they can
express concepts such as ability, necessity, possibility, or permission.
Examples:
 Once you finish your homework, you may play outside.
 We must carefully add two eggs to the mixing bowl.
 I would go to the movies if I wasn't busy working.
8. Regular verbs:
A verb is considered a regular verb if its past tense form and past participle
ends in -ed, -d, or the verb is a -t variant verb. For example, the verb look is
a regular verb because both its past tense form and past participle is looked.
Sometimes, regular verbs may slightly change spelling. For example, the past
tense and past participle of cry is cried.
Examples:
 He walked two miles to the post office.
 We purchased all of the supplies that we needed for the camping trip.
 Tiffany had noticed something strange about Marcus's story.
9. Irregular verbs:
An irregular verb is a verb whose past tense and past participle form doesn't end
in -ed, -d, and doesn't use the -t variant. Often, the spelling of these verbs
changes dramatically or may not even change at all.
Examples:
 Cindy knew all of the right answers.
 This junky computer has given me nothing but headaches since I bought
it.
 The workers took the furniture out of the moving truck.
10.Phrasal verbs:
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb with prepositions and/or adverbs
that have a different meaning from the individual words used to form
them. For example, the verb shut means "to close, and the adverb down means
"not up" or "in a descending direction." However, the phrasal verb shut down
means to stop the operation of something.
Examples:
 The frustrated business owner closed down his store.
 Dave loves to show off his baseball trophies.
 My mother always told me it is a good idea to put some money away in
case of emergencies.
 5. Adverb and its Kinds:
Adverb:
An adverb is a word/a set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. It tells when, where, and how an action is performed or indicates the
quality or degree of the action.
Examples:
 He is running fast.
 Alex works hard.
 He wrote that willingly.
Kinds of Adverb
1. Adverb of Manner and Quality
2. Adverb of Place
3. Adverb of Time
4. Adverb of Quantity and Range
5. Adverb of Number and Frequency.
6. Adverb of Affirmation or Negation
1. Adverb of Manner and Quality:
When we have to describe the way of doing a job or action, we use the
Adverb of Manner and Quality. By using an Adverb of Manner and Quality it
becomes more clear how the action is being performed.
Examples:
 She damaged her car badly.
 She speaks French very fluently.
 This article is written beautifully.
2. Adverb of Place:
If we want to describe the occurrence place of action, then we use the adverb
of place. This type of adverb gives a rough or sometimes an exact idea about
the place of action.
Examples:
 The aircraft landed near the banyan tree.
 I couldn't find the book anywhere.
 She took the child outside.
3. Adverb of Time:
This type of adverb defines the time of occurrence of an action. In other
words, the Adverb of Time explains when a particular action has happened
or going to happen.
Examples:
 I will go to the cinema tomorrow.
 My teacher will contact you shortly.
 I completed the assignment yesterday.
4. Adverb of Quantity and Range:
In a sentence, whenever it is required to explain how much or up to what
extent an action is completed then we use the Adverb of Quantity and Range.
Examples:
 This vessel is filled partially.
 He was completely exhausted.
 The amount of money sent was enough for them.
5. Adverb of Number and Frequency:
In many sentences, we see words like, once, Twice, etc. These types of words
are termed Adverb of Number and Frequency and explain the no. of times a
particular action has occurred.
Examples:
 I go to the cinema twice a week.
 My mother visits the nearby temple every day.
 They come to their ancestral village occasionally.
6. Adverb of Affirmation or Negation:
In some sentences, there is a sense of complete acceptance or denial. Adverb
of Affirmation or Negation is used for this purpose.
Examples:
 Surely, He will complete the race.
  This hard-working person is not going to fail this time.
 The weather will certainly get better.
6. Preposition and its Kinds:
Preposition:
A Preposition is a word which is placed before a noun (or a pronoun) to
show the relation in which the person or thing denoted by the Noun stands
to something else.
Examples:
 The book is on the table.
 The pen is in the pen stand.
 The sky is above us.
Kinds of preposition;
1. Prepositions of Time
2. Prepositions of Place
3. Prepositions of Direction
4. Prepositions of Location
5. Prepositions of Spatial Relationship
1. Prepositions of Time:
It is used to show when something is happening.
Examples:
 We will be meeting on Friday.
 The supermarket will be closed from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m.
 We have been asked to work from home until the end of May.
2. Prepositions of Place:
It Indicate the place or position of something.
Examples:
 I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.
 Henry hid behind the door.
 Can you place the red roses in between the white daisies?
3. Prepositions of Direction:
It is used to denote the direction in which something travels or moves.
Examples:
 The girl ran toward her father the moment she saw him.
 Jerry jumped into the river to help his sister.
 Neena lives across the street.
4. Prepositions of Location:
It is employed to denote the location of a particular object.
Examples:
 Kenny would be staying at his cousin's place for the weekend.
 Make sure you keep all the toys back in its place after you play.
 I lay on the floor for a really long time.
5. Prepositions of Spatial Relationship:
It is used to denote an object's movement away from the source and
towards a source.
Examples:
 The circus was stationed opposite the children's park.
 Lakshmi sat beneath the trees.
 Shankar sat beside the stairs.
 We spent the evening walking around the lake.
 7.. Conjunctions and its Kinds:
Conjunctions:
A word or group of words that connect two or more words, clauses,
phrases or sentences are called conjunctions. Conjunctions are called
joining words.
Examples:
 She is good at both cooking and dancing.
 If we leave now, we can be home by 11 p.m.
 Neither her friends nor relatives joined for the party.
Kinds of conjunctions:
1. Coordinating Conjunction
2. Subordinating Conjunction
3. Correlative Conjunction
4. Conjunctive Adverbs
1. Coordinating Conjunction:
These join the elements that are the same. Coordination conjunction words
are only seven and people remember them by an acronym FANBOYS, i-e.
(For. And, Nor, But, Or. Yet, So).
Examples:
List of conjunctions:
Coordinating Sentences Conjunction Examples
Conjunction Words
For He needs to find a job, for he is unemployed.
And Maria loves both ice cream and pizza.
Nor Neither Tuesday nor Wednesday is good for the party.
But She scored good marks but she is not satisfied.
Or Which fruit do you like: mango or apple?
Yet She dances well yet she hesitates to take part in the
competition.
So He is unwell so he will not come with us to the movie.

2. Subordinating Conjunction;
It joins the dependent adverb clause with the independent clause.
Understand it this way, instead of joining two independent clauses of equal
importance, Subordinating conjunction words make one clause less
important than another.
Examples:
I will drink milk after having this chocolate (I will drink milk is an
independent clause; after having this chocolate is a dependent adverb
clause).
2. Similarly, He will come to my home after attending the wedding (here, he
will come to my home is an independent clause; after attending the
wedding is a dependent adverb clause).
3. Although the sun was shining it wasn't warm.
3. Correlative Conjunctions;
These work in pairs to join two clauses or sentences.
Examples:
 Either you cook me lunch, or I leave.
 Either eat the cake right now or it will be finished.
 Her poetry wasn't so boring as he had thought.
 She is such a beautiful actress that everyone is her fan.
4. Conjunctive Adverbs;
These are also called transition words. They join sentences or words or
phrases just like words on the standard conjunction list can. A few
examples of such type include; in addition, as a result, however, hence, etc.
Examples:
 In addition, all his planning is paying off.
 As a result of the new job, he relocated to a new city.
 He will buy that car, however, he will have to use all his savings.
 Schools are closed due to lockdown. Hence, teachers are taking online
classes.
 8. Interjection and its Kinds
Interjection:
An interjection is a word or phrase that is grammatically independent
from the words around it, and mainly expresses feeling rather than
meaning.
Examples:
 Hurray! We won the match.
 Ouch! That really hurt badly.
 Wow! That is a beautiful dress indeed.
 Oh my God! That was unexpected.
Kinds of interjections:
1. Interjections for Greeting
2. Interjections for joy
3. Interjections for Approval
4. Interjections for Attention
5. Interjections for surprise
6. Interjections for Sorrow
7. Interjections for understanding/ Misunderstanding
1. Interjections for Greeting:
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate the emotion of
warmth to the person meeting with such as hey, hello, hi, etc.
Examples:
 Hey! Nice to see you there in the party.
 Hello! I am Usman.
2. Interjections for joy
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to indicate immediate joy
and happiness on any happy occasion that occurred such as hurrah, wow,
hurray, etc.
Examples:
 Wow! You are looking gorgeous.
 Hurray! We successfully won this football march.
3. Interjections for Approval
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense
of approval or agreement for something that has happened such as well
done, bravo, brilliant, etc.
Examples:
 Well done! You win the race.
 Brave! The first rank is yours this year.
4.. Interjections for Attention:
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to draw the attention of
someone such as look, behold, listen, hush, etc.
Examples:
 Look! You so arrogant.
 Listen! I have never copied you.
 Behold! Someone strange is there.
5. Interjections for surprise:
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the strong sense
of surprise about something that has happened such as ha, what, hey, ah,
oh, eh, etc.
Examples:
 What! You failed.
 Oh! Really you completed the task, I can't believe.
 Ah! I got new job.
6. Interjections for Sorrow:
This type of interjection is used in the sentence to express the emotion of
sadness about something unfortunate that has happened such as alas, ouch,
ah, oh, etc.
Examples:
 Alas! He is no more.
 Ouch! It's very paining.
7. Interjections for understanding/Misunderstanding:
Interjections of understanding and misunderstanding are used to express
one's understanding of a subject being talked about or something which
wasn't well understood before the moment.
 9. Phrases
A phrase is a group or combination of two or more words. It is a unit of a
complete sentence. By itself, a phrase is not a complete sentence, as it does not
relay a complete thought. It does not contain the subject and the predicate.
Types of Phrases
1) Noun Phrases
These are the phrases contains a noun-name, place or things and at least one
modifier associated to the noun. The modifier can prefix or suffix the noun.
The entire phrase will act as a noun for that particular sentence.
Examples:
 He was wearing a black linen shirt.
 They lived in a small, tidy cottage.
Prepositional Phrase
Any phrase that consists of a preposition, and the object of the preposition,
which will be a noun or a pronoun is called a prepositional phrase. Such a
phrase also at times consists of other modifiers describing the object of the
prepositional phrase.
Examples:
 Students are advised to be on time.
 Please turn towards the right at the intersection.
Infinitive Phrases
A phrase that includes an infinitive along with a simple verb is an infinitive
phrase. There may also be modifiers attached to the object in the phrase. It
contains a verb, so it plays the role of expressing an action in the sentence.
Infinitive phrases can act as a noun, adjective or adverb in a complete sentence.
Examples:
 Ali likes to read comics (functions as a noun here).
 To attend the morning lecture, I set my alarm for 6 am. (noun form).
Participle Phrases
A participle phrase will begin with a participle, which can be a present
participle (ending with-ing) or a past participle (ending with-ed). There may be
a few modifiers and associated words included in the phrase. One thing to
remember is that a participle phrase always takes the form of an adjective in a
sentence.
Examples
 We got a call from my aunt today telling us the good news.
 The house was severely damaged by the flood.
Gerund Phrases
Now a gerund is a word that invariably ends with "-ing", without exception. So,
a gerund phrase is a phrase that contains an ing" word, with some modifiers in
some cases. But participle phrases also have a similar pattern (-ing words), so
how do you tell the difference between the two?
Well while participle phrases function as adjectives, Gerund Phrases exclusively
function as nouns.
Examples
 She is currently writing her memoir.
 Washing the dishes is Hina's chore.
Adjective phrases
An adjective phrase a group of words that does the work of an Adjective.
Examples:
 The coolies belonged to a tribe dwelling in the hills.
 The magistrate was a man with a kindly nature.
Adverb phrases
An adverb phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adverb. An
Adverb phrase, like an Adverb, may modify also an Adjective or another
adverb.
Examples
 He answered in a very rude manner.
 No such diseases were known in those days.
 10. Clause and its Kinds
A clause is "a group of words containing a subject and predicate and
functioning as a member of a complex or compound sentence.
Independent Clause
It functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence and looks much like a
regular sentence. In a sentence two independent clauses can be connected by
the coordinators: and, but, so, or, nor, for", yet".
Example:
I want to buy a phone, but I don't have enough money. (Two independent
clauses).
He went to London and visited the Lords. (Subject of the second clause is 'he,
so "he visited the Lords" is an independent clause.)
Dependent Clause
It cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or thought unfinished. It
is also called a subordinate clause. These help the independent clauses complete
the sentence. Alone, it cannot form a complete sentence.
The subordinators do the work of connecting the dependent clause to another
clause to complete the sentence. Subordinators include relative pronouns.
subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
Example:
 I know the man who stole the watch.
 He bought a car which was too expensive.
 He does not know where he was born.
Dependent Clauses are divided into three types:
1. Adjective Clause
It is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. These are also called Relative
Clauses.
Examples:
 I'm looking for the red book that went missing last week.
 He is asking for the shoes which used to belong to his dad.
2. Noun Clause
Dependent Clauses acting as Nouns in sentences are called Noun Clauses or
Nominal Clause.
Examples:
 You need to express that it's crossing a line for you.
 He knows how things work around here.
Adverbial Clause
These Dependent Clauses acting as Adverbs. It means that these clauses
have the power to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
Examples:
 Hina did the dishes till her legs gave up.
 I went through the book at a lightning speed.
Transitional devices:
 They are words or phrases that are used to connect sentences and
paragraphs.
 They help ideas flow smoothly from one sentence to sentence and from
paragraph to paragraph.
 They are also called transitional words, or linking words.
➤ Why are they important?
It helps the writer in linking different ideas.
➤ Types of transitional devices:
Transitional devices can indicate:
1. Additions
2. Cause and effect
3. Time (chronology and order of importance)
4. Comparison and Contrast
5. Summary and Conclusion
➤ Additions:
This type of transitional devices indicates additional ideas, points and
arguments as well as information.
Transitional devices of addition are:
  Additionally
 In addition
 Moreover
 Furthermore
 Beside etc.
➤ Cause and Effect:
This type of transitional devices can indicate cause and effects of things and
situation.
Transitional devices of Cause and effect are:
 As a result
 For this reason
 Consequently
 Hence etc.
➤ Time:
Transitional devices can be used to indicate time as well as the importance.
Transitional devices of Time are:
 First, Firstly, First of All
 Second, Secondly
 Third, Thirdly
 Meanwhile, in the meantime etc.
Compare and Contrast:
Transitional devices that are used to show Comparisons. It includes similarly,
likewise, in the same way, equally etc.
Transitional devices that are used to show contrast. It includes, However, in
contrast, Nevertheless, on the other hand etc.
➤ Summary/Conclusion:
Types of transitional devices that indicate a summary or a conclusion.
Transitional devices of summary/conclusion are:
 In conclusion
 To conclude
 To summarize
 In sum, therefore etc.
11. FIGURE OF SPEECH
The Figure of Speech is departure from the ordinary form of expression, or the
ordinary course of ideas in order to produce a greater effect.
Figure-of-Speech may be classified as under.
SIMILE:
In simile, a comparison is made between two object of different kinds which
have at least one point in common.
The simile is introduced by the word 'as...as'.
Examples:
a) As active as quicksilver
b) As afraid as a grasshopper
c) As ageless as the sun
d) As agile as a cat
e) As agile as a monkey
f) As alert as a bird'
g) As alike as two peas
h) As alone as a leper
i) As alone as Crusoe
j) As ambitious as the devil
This Figure-of-Speech is widely used by us in our writings.
METAPHOR:
A Metaphor is an implied Simile. It does not, like a Simile, state that one
thing is like another or acts as another, but takes that for granted and
proceeds as if two things were one.
 Thus, when we say, 'He fought as fiercely as a lion', it is Simile.
 But when we say, "He was a lion in the fight', it is Metaphor.
Examples
 Richard fought as fiercely as a Lion. (Simile)
 Richard was a lion in the fight. (Metaphor)
 The waves thundered on the shore. (Metaphor)
 The waves broke on the snore win noise like a thunder.
This Figure-of-Speech is also widely used by us in our writings.
PERSONIFICATION:
In Personification, inanimate objects and abstract notions are spoken of as
having life intelligence.
Examples:
 Death lays its icy hands on King.
 Pride goes forth on horseback, grand and gay.
 Laughter is holding her both sides.
APOSTROPHE:
An Apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or to a
personified object or idea. This figure is a special form of Personification.
Examples:
 Milton! You should not be living at this hour.
 Friend! I know not which way I must look for comfort.
 Rollout Thou deep and dark blue Ocean, roll.
 Death! Where is thy sting? O Grave! Where is thy victory?
EUPHEMISM:
Euphemism consists in the description of a disagreeable thing by an
agreeable name.
Examples
 You are telling me a fairy tale. (You are telling me lies).
 He is gone to heaven. (He is dead)
ANTITHESIS
In Antithesis, a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments is
made in the same sentence. It is employed to secure emphasis.
Examples:
 Man proposes, but God disposes.
 Not that I loved Caesar less, but I loved Rome more.
 Speech is silver, but silence is Gold.
 Many are called, but few are chosen.
 To err is human, but to forgive on divine.

IRONY:
Irony is mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of
that which is literally conveyed.
Examples:
No doubts but you are the people, and wisdom shall die with you.
ALLITERATION
Alliteration refers to the repetition of a consonant sound, at least three times
in a sentence. It is often used as a figure of speech in poetry, and even
advertisements use alliteration in their tag fines to make the ads more
memorable.
Some examples of alliteration are:
 Don't delay dawns disarming display.
 Dusk demands daylight.
 Sara's seven sisters slept soundly in sand.
PARADOX
A paradox is a contradictory statement which may appear false, but is in fact
true.
Example
 War is peace.
 Freedom is slavery.
 Ignorance is strength.
ΟΝΟΜΑΤΟΡΟΕΙΑ
Such words imitate the sounds made by certain objects or actions.
Some examples of onomatopoeia are
 The clatter of utensils.
 The flutter of birds.
ELLIPSIS:
[...] proves to be a handy device when you're quoting material and you want
to omit some words. The ellipsis consists of three evenly spaced dots
(periods) with spaces between the ellipsis and surrounding letters or other
marks. Let's take the sentence, "The ceremony honoured twelve brilliant
athletes from the Caribbean who were visiting the US and leave out "from
the Caribbean who were”
The ceremony honoured twelve brilliant athletes visiting the U.S.
If the omission comes after the end of a sentence, the ellipsis will be placed
after the period, making a total of four dots.... See how that works? Notice
that there is no space between the period and the last character of the
sentence.
The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and
is especially useful in quoted speech:
Juan thought and thought... and then thought some more.
"I'm wondering..." Juan said, bemused.

12. Imagery
In a literary text, it occurs when an author uses an object that is not really
there, in order to create a comparison between one that is, usually evoking a
more meaningful visual experience for the reader. It is useful as it allows an
author to add depth and understanding to his work, like a sculptor adding
layer and layer to his statue, building it up into a beautiful work of art, and so
it should usually have more than one description.
Forms of imagery
Auditory imagery represents a sound.
 The bells chimed two o'clock and Daniel got ready for school.
 Jacob heard the call of the loon as the moonlight cast itself upon the
ocean.
 Onomatopoeia: a word that makes a sound.
Kinesthetic imagery represents movement
 as in Wordsworth's poem Daffodils: "tossing their heads in sprightly
dance”.
Gustatory imagery represents a taste.
 The sweet marinara sauce makes up for the bland sea-shell pasta that
Jeffrey served.
 Tumbling through the ocean water after being overtaken by the
monstrous wave, Mark unintentionally took a gulp of the briny, bitter
mass, causing him to cough and gag.
 I am as tricky as a fox.
 Angel's heart, like a candy store, has a hundred variations of
sweetness.
 Tailaya's eyes sparkle like a crystal ball.
 Selena's hair is like a stormy sea.
 Dorian is acting like a clown.
DENOTATION:
It refers to the literal meaning of a word, the "dictionary definition." For
exam if you look up the word snake in a dictionary, you will discover that
one of denotative meanings is "any of numerous scaly, legless, sometimes
venomous rep having a long, tapering, cylindrical body and found in most
tropical and temperate regions."

CONNOTATION:
It refers to the associations that are connected to a certain word or the
emotional gestions related to that word. The connotative meanings of a
word exist together wi the denotative meanings. The connotations for the
word snake could include evil or danger.

13.IDIOMS
Idioms may be defined as expressions peculiar to a language.
They play an important part in all languages.
Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or ad verbs, acquire
an idiomatic sense; as,
a) He backed up (supported) his friend's claim.
b) The present disturbances will soon blow over (pass off).
c) The police produced evidence to bear out (substantiate) the charge of
murder. You must not build your hopes upon (rely upon) his promises.
d) The matter has been cleared up (explained).
e) I readily closed with (accepted) his offer.
f) He is ready to dispose off (sell) his car for Rs. 1,20,000.
g) Rust has eaten away (corroded) the plate.
h) They fixed upon (chose) him to do the work.
i) My good behaviour so far gained on (won the favour of) the emperor
that I began to conceive hopes of liberty.
j) The habit of chewing tobacco has been growing upon (is having
stronger and stronger hold over) him.
k) Please hear me out (i.e., hear me to the end).
l) I have hit upon (found) a good plan to get rid of him.
m) About an hour ago I saw a fellow hanging about (loitering about) our
bungalow. These events led up to (culminated in) the establishment of
a republic.
n) During excavations one of the workmen lighted upon (chanced to find,
discovered) a gold idol.
o) During her long illness she often longed for (desired) death.
p) I could not prevail on (persuade, induce) him to attend the meeting.

14.NARRATION
 We may report the words of a speaker in two ways:
i. We may quote his actual words. This is called as Direct speech.
ii. We may report what he said without quoting his actual words. This is
called as indirect speech.
In Direct speech, we use inverted commas to mark off the exact words of the
speaker. In Indirect speech, we don't. For example:
i. He says, "I am tired." (Direct speech)
ii. He says that he is tired. (Indirect speech)
Rules for changing Direct into Indirect Speech:
To change a sentence from direct speech to indirect, following changes
are made.
i. Inverted commas are omitted.
ii. Conjunction "that" is used.
iii. Pronouns of the reported speech are changed according to the pronouns
of the reporting speech.
iv. Tense of the reported speech is changed or remained same according to
the tense of the reporting speech.
v. Adverbs are changed if the reporting speech is in the past tense.
Change in Words
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Now then
This that
These those
Thus so
Ago before
Just then
Today that day
Tonight that night
Yesterday the day before, the previous day
Tomorrow the next day
Madam/Sir respectfully
Hello, yes, no, well, all right these are omitted greeting
Good morning, good noon, good day greeting
Good bye, Good night, Farewell remain same

Changes in Pronouns:
Pronouns of the reported speech are changed according to the pronouns of the
reporting speech.
i. First person pronoun of the reported speech changes according to the
subject of the reporting speech.
ii. Second person pronoun of the reported speech is changed according to
the object of the reporting speech.
iii. Third person pronoun of the reported speech remains the same.
Changes in Tenses:
Changes in the tense of the reported speech are made according to the tense of
the re- porting speech.
i. If the reporting speech is in present or future tense, the tense of the
reported speech will remain same (except the changes of the pronouns
and other words).
ii. If the reporting speech is in past tense, then the reported speech will be
changed into its past.
Reporting speech in past tense
Direct Reported Speech Indirect Reported Speech
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Past Indefinite Past Perfect
Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Remains same
Past Perfect Continuous
Will, shall Would
Will be, shall be Would be
Will have, shall have Would have
May Might
Can Could

Positive or Negative Sentences:

Examples:
1. She says," I read the Holy Quran."
She says that she reads the Holy Quran.
2. They say, "We love Pakistan."
They say that they love Pakistan.
10.He will say, "I do not mix with bad boys."
He will say that he does not mix with bad boys.
11.She says to me, "My son gives you two apples every day."
She says to me that her son gives me two apples every day.
12.He says to me, "I live near your house."
He says to me that he lives near my house.
Imperative Sentences:
Rules:
i. Instead of "said to" we use the words like "ordered", "requested',
'advised", forbade', 'suggested to', 'asked' etc.
ii. Inverted commas are omitted.
iii. Instead of "that", preposition "to" be used.
iv. After "to", first form of verb is used.
Examples:
1. I said to the visitor, "Tell me your name."
I asked the visitor to tell me his name.
2. She said to her. "Do not tell a lie."
She forbade her to tell a lie.
3. The policeman said to the driver, "Show me your license." him his
license.
The policeman ordered the driver to show.
4. You said to her. "Do not pluck flowers from the garden."
You forbade her to pluck flowers from the garden.
5. The doctor said to us, "Do not take more than two cups of tea in a
day."
 The doctor advised us not to take more than two cups of tea in a day.
6. I said to him. "Post this letter on your way home."
I asked him to pay that letter on his way home.
Exclamatory Sentences:
Rules:
i. "Say" is changed into "exclaim".
ii. Interjection is omitted and the words like "with joy" or "with sorrow" are
used.
iii. Inverted commas are omitted.
iv. Conjunction "that" is used.
v. If the sentence begins with "what" or "how", these words are omitted.
vi. "Exclaim with great wonder" is used. The rest of the sentence takes the
form of an assertive sentence.
vii. Mark of exclamation (!) is omitted.
viii. Full stop (.) is used in the end.
Examples:
1. He said, "Aha! My brother will perform the Hajj this year."
He exclaimed with joy that his brother would perform Hajj that year.
2. She said, "Alas! My cousin got injured in an accident."
She exclaimed with sorrow that her cousin had got injured in an acciden
3. She said, "How old this woman is!"
She exclaimed with great wonder that that woman was old.
4. The fox said loudly to himself. "How beautiful this bird is!"
The fox exclaimed with great wonder loudly to himself that that bird was
beautiful.
5. We say, "Ha! Ha! Our father bought a plot for us."
We exclaim with joy that our father bought a plot for us.