THE EFFECTS OF SALT WATER ON CONCRETE,

A CASE STUDY: USING ALTANTIC OCEAN.

BY

ABOLOJE NELSON OGHENEYOMA (21/023737/ENG)

IN

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEN. ABDULSALAMI A. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY, OKADA
EDO STATE

JULY, 2024
 THE EFFECTS OF SALT WATER ON CONCRETE,
A CASE STUDY: USING ALTANTIC OCEAN.

BY

ABOLOJE NELSON OGHENEYOMA (21/023737/ENG)

A PROJECT SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG)

IN

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

GEN. ABDULSALAMI A. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
IGBINEDION UNIVERSITY, OKADA
EDO STATE

JULY, 2024
 CERTIFICATION

This project titled ‘THE EFFECTS OF SALT WATER ON CONCRETE, A CASE

STUDY: USING ALTANTIC OCEAN’ was carried out in the Department of Civil

Engineering, Gen. Abdulsalami Abubakar College of Engineering, Igbinedion University

Okada, Edo State, by ABOLOJE NELSON OGHENEYOMA (21/023737/ENG) and is

hereby certified.

............................................................... ................................................

ENGR. DANIEL OGHENEOCHUKO DATE

(PROJECT SUPERVISOR)

.................................................................... ................................................

ENGR. DR.(MRS). MARYANN. O. EZUGWU DATE

(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

............................................................... ................................................

ENGR.PROF. MOSES O. OGUNDIPE DATE

(EXTERNAL SUPERVISOR)

II
DEDICATION

This research work is dedicated to God Almighty for His continuous blessings, grace,

mercy and protection and to my wonderful parent; Dr. & Engr. Dr. (Mrs.) E. A. Aboloje

whose love, support, care, understanding and sacrifice has brought me this far.

III
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

To God Almighty for His infinite greatness in my life, His showers of blessings and

divine strength which I was granted through my stay in this university and life so far.

My wonderful family:My Parents Dr. & Engr. Dr. (Mrs.) E. A. Aboloje; whose

immeasurable love, care, sacrifice, encouragement and support (spiritual, financial,

emotional) has kept me going at all times, my siblings; Your patience and understanding

have been a source of strength and motivation for me.

My project supervisor; I would like to express my sincere gratitude to you, Engr. Daniel

Ogheneochuko for giving me the opportunity to do my research and providing invaluable

guidance throughout my research. It has been a great privilege to be supervised by a man

of great knowledge, your expertise and support has been crucial in shaping the direction

and outcome of this research

The HOD Department of Civil Engineering, Engr. (Dr.) Mrs. Maryam Ezugwu. for

raising the standard of the Department of Civil Engineering. To my wonderful lecturers;

Engr. Eze, Engr. Mrs. Faith Akhiemen, Engr. Celestine and Mr. Joseph thank you for

your time, effort and great impact on Civil Engineering students, your contributions were

vital to the successful completion of this project.

IV
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Pages

Title Page II
Certification II
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table Of Content iv
List Of Figures II
List Of Tables II
Abstract
xII

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Of Study 1
1.2 Statement Of The Problem 3
1.3 Aims And Objectives 3
1.4 Scope Of Project Study 3
1.5 Significance Of The Work 4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Brief History 5
2.2 Definition Of Terms 8
2.2.1 Gravel 8
2.2.2 Sand 9
2.2.3 Water Cement Ratio 9
2.2.4 Curing 9
2.2.5 Batching 10
2.2.6 Compressive Strength Of Concrete 10
2.2.7 Quarry And Quarrying 10
2.3 Seawater (Saltwater) 11

V
2.4 Concrete 12
2.4.1 Types Of Concrete 15
2.4.1.1 Regular Concrete 15
2.4.1.2 High Strength Of Concrete 15
2.4.1.3. Self Compacting Concrete 15
2.4.1.3.1 Key Characteristics Of Sccs (Self-Compacting Concretes) 16
2.4.1.4 Lightweight Concrete 17
2.4.1.5 Compressive Strength Of Concrete 17
2.5 Quality Of Water For Preparing Concrete 18
2.5.1 Effect Of Water Impurities On Properties Of Concrete 18
2.5.2 Impurity Effects 19
2.6 Batching, Proportioning And Mixing Of Concrete 20
2.6.1.1 Volume Batching 20
2.6.1.2 Weight Batching 20
2.6.2 Mixing 21
2.6.2.1 Hand Mixing 21
2.6.2.2 Machine Mixing 21
2.7 Comparison Of Salt Water And Fresh Water 22
2.8 Some Test Associated With Aggregate 23
2.8.1 Specific Gravity 23
2.8.2 Soundness Of Aggregate 23
2.8.3 Sieve Analysis 24
2.9 Workability Of Concrete 25
2.9.1 Factor Affecting Workability 25
2.9.2 Durability 27
2.10 Cement Hydration 27
2.11 Portland Cement And Seawater 28
2.12 Chemical Attack Of Concrete By Seawater 29
2.13 Relationship Between Cement Composition And Resistance To Corrosion 29
2.14 Effect Of Setting And Curing On Concrete Mixes 30
2.15 Curing Of Concrete 32

VI
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS
3.1 Methodology 35
3.1.1 Compressive Strength 36
3.2 Materials Selection 36
3.3 Analysis Of The Water Sample 39
3.3.1 Water Analysis To Determine The Presence Of Anions And Acid Radical
In The Water 39
3.3.1.1 Determination Of Chlorides Content 39
3.3.1.2 Determination Of Sulphate Content (S�4) 39
3.3.1.3 Determination Of Nitrate Content (N�3 ) 40
3.3.1.4 Determination Of Carbonate And Bi-Carbonate Ions Content 40
3.3.1.5 Determination Of Magnesium Ion (푀 2 +) 41
3.3.1.6 Determination Of Calcium Ion (퐶 2 +) 41
3.3.1.7 Determination Of Potassium 41
3.4 Sieve Analysis 42
3.4.1 Grading Of Fine Aggregate 42
3.4.2 Grading Of Coarse Aggregate 42
3.5 Batching And Mixing Of Samples Material Required 43
3.5.1 Procedure 43
3.6 Slump Test 44
3.6.1 Apparatus 45
3.6.2 Procedures 45
3.6.3 Interpretation 46
3.6.4 Precaution Taken When Carrying Out A Slump Test 46
3.7 Placing Of Concrete 44
3.8 Mould 47
3.9 Compaction Of Concrete 47
3.10 Preparation For Curing 48
3.11 Curing Of Concrete 48
3.12 Crushing 49

VII
3.13 Concrete Compressive Strength 49
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Results 50
4.2 Sieve Analysis Result 50
4.3 Slump Test 52
4.3.1 Materials And Methods 52
4.3.2 Slump Test Results 52
4.4 Sea Water Analysis 54
4.5 Results Of Laboratory Test On Concrete Compressive Strength 55
4.6 Data Analysis 58
4.7 Discussion 60
4.7.1 Concrete Casted In Fresh Water And Cured In Fresh Water 59
4.7.2 Concrete Casted In Fresh Water And Cured In Nacl(Sodium
Chloride Solution) 59
4.7.3 Concrete Casted In Fresh Water And Cured In Sea Salt Solution 59
4.7.4 Concrete Casted In Sea Water And Cured In Fresh Water 60

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion 63
5.2 Recommendations 63

REFERENCE 65

VIII
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1 Graph of sieve analysis 58

Figure 4.2 Slump Test 58
Figure 4.3 Cubes casted and cured 58
Figure 4.4 Compressive strength test 59
Figure 4.5 Compressive Strength of Fresh water Cube 58
Figure 4.6 Compressive Strength of Sea Salt water Cube 59
Figure 4.7 Compressive Strength of NaCl water Cube 59
Figure 4.8 Compressive Strength Of Cube Casted In Salt Water And
Cured In Fresh Water
Figure 4.9 Average Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube 59

IX
LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Casting Plan For Preparing Concrete Cubes 58

Table 4.1 Sieve Analysis Showing Result Of Granite 58
Table 4.2 Sieve Analysis Showing Result Of Granite 58
Table 4.3 Slump Test Results 58
Table 4.4 Results Of Seawater Analysis 54
Table 4.5 Percentage Compositions By Mass Of Dissolved Compound 55
Table 4.6 1 Day Concrete Cube Weight And Applied Crushing Load 56
Table 4.7 7 Days Concrete Cube Weight And Applied Crushing Load 56
Table 4.8 21 Days Concrete Cube Weight And Applied Crushing Load 57
Table 4.9 28 Days Concrete Cube Weight And Applied Crushing Load 57
Table 4.10 Concrete Cube Crushing Strength 57

X
 ABSTRACT

This project investigates the effects of salt water on the properties and durability of

concrete, with a focus on understanding how exposure to saline environments influences

the strength, permeability, and long-term performance of concrete structures. The study is

particularly relevant for coastal and marine infrastructure, where concrete is frequently

exposed to salt water, leading to potential issues such as chloride-induced corrosion of

reinforcement and degradation of concrete quality. The compressive strength of each

cube is also determined e.g., for the compressive strength of mix design 1:2:4 for both

salt water and fresh water for different days such 1, 7, 21, 28 days.

The research involved preparing concrete specimens using both fresh water and salt water

for mixing and curing, with a standardized mix ratio of 1:2:4 (cement:sand:aggregate).

The specimens were subjected to various tests, including compressive strength, water

absorption, and chloride penetration tests, to assess the impact of salt water on their

structural integrity and durability. Additionally, the study evaluated the effects of

prolonged exposure to salt water on the concrete's microstructure through microscopic

analysis.

Results indicated a noticeable reduction in compressive strength for concrete mixed and

cured with salt water compared to that prepared with fresh water. Furthermore, the

presence of salt water increased the permeability of the concrete, making it more

susceptible to chloride penetration and subsequent corrosion of embedded steel

XI
reinforcement. The microstructural analysis revealed the formation of expansive salt

crystals and microcracks, contributing to the observed deterioration.

The findings highlight the need for enhanced concrete mix designs and protective

measures in environments where exposure to salt water is inevitable. Recommendations

include the use of supplementary cementitious materials, such as fly ash or slag, and the

application of surface sealants to improve the resistance of concrete to salt water. This

project underscores the importance of considering environmental factors in the design

and maintenance of concrete structures, especially in coastal and marine settings, to

ensure their long-term durability and safety.

XII
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Concrete is an artificially constructed structural material that is used in engineering. It is formed

of a mixture of aggregates (coarse and fine), water, Portland cement, and a small quantity of air

bubbles that are incorporated and stabilized into the cement matrix.(Neville, 2011)

When Portland cement is hydrated, it forms cement paste, which hardens and binds aggregate into

a solid mass when combined with aggregate. This is how concrete is made. These constituent

ingredients are aggregate to which the hardened cement binds to varying degrees and a hardened

binding medium or matrix is created by a chemical reaction between cement and water (Murdock

and Brook 1979). The concrete mix has a significant impact on the compressive strength of the

concrete. The curing process, the ratio of water to cement, the characteristics of the aggregates,

the type of cement, etc., all influence concrete strength. According to Hoff (1991), the ability of

concrete to withstand environmental influences and effects without compromising its intended

purpose is considered its durability.

Knowing the characteristics of coastal structures (like jetties, buck heads, sea walls, revetment,

oil platforms, wharves, etc.) that come into contact with seawater (salt water) has become more

and more important over the years, as these structures typically fulfill their intended functions

during this time. It takes extensive study to determine the characteristics of concrete constructions,

such as their strength, resilience to thawing and frost, stability, etc. When building a structure in

salt water or casting or curing it in seawater, the impact of seawater on concrete has continued to

be a significant issue. (Mehta, P.K. (1988 )

Gani (1997) asserts that the presence of sodium chloride in seawater accelerates the

concrete's other chemicals' breakdown. The main culprit of seawater's chemical reaction

with concrete is magnesium sulfate (MgSo4 ). This attack occurs through crystallization.

1
It has been shown that sulphate attack in concrete can be caused by potassium and

magnesium sulphates ( K2 So4 & MgSo4 ) found in seawater. This occurs through an

initial reaction with the calcium hydroxide (CaOH2 ) found in the set cement, followed

by the hydration of C3S and C2 S.

Cement and inert elements are the two main constituents of concrete (Neville, 2011). The

cement components include Portland cement, water, and a small amount of air, either as

tiny, purposefully entrained air bubbles or as naturally occurring entrapped air voids.

Typically, the inert materials consist of two types of aggregate: coarse aggregate, which

includes elements like crushed stone, slag, and gravel, and fine aggregate, which includes

materials like sand. Coarse aggregates typically have particles larger than 4.75mm, while

fine aggregates are normally smaller than 4.75mm. When Portland cement is combined

with water, the cement's constituents react to generate a cementing medium, which is

used depending on the thickness of the building to be built. This paste thoroughly

surrounds and coats every sand and coarse aggregate particle in correctly mixed concrete,

filling up any gaps between the particles. The aggregates are bound together into a solid

mass by the cement when it cures and hardens. Mohammed et. al. (2002).

Normal conditions cause concrete to get stronger with age. It takes time for the cement

and water to undergo chemical reactions that harden the components and bind the

aggregates together. First, the reactions happen very quickly, and then they continue

slowly over a long time. (Neville, 2011)

2
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Concrete is a widely used construction material due to its strength, durability, and

versatility. However, structures made of concrete are often exposed to harsh

environmental conditions, particularly in coastal areas where saltwater exposure is

common. Saltwater contains chloride ions which can penetrate concrete, potentially

leading to deterioration and structural damage over time. The problem this research aims

to address is the impact of saltwater exposure on the properties and performance of

concrete structures. Specifically, the study seeks to investigate how saltwater affects the

strength, durability, and overall integrity of concrete.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The study aims to determine any potentially harmful effects that water (salt) may have on

concrete.

The specific objectives are:

1. To evaluate the impact of saltwater exposure on the compressive strength of concrete

over time.

2. To recommend strategies for enhancing the durability and longevity of concrete

structures exposed to saltwater, based on chemical and physical assessments.

3. To examine the role of wet curing in mitigating the effects of saltwater exposure on

concrete.

1.4 SCOPE OF PROJECT STUDY

This study focuses on examining the effects of salt water on the properties and durability

of concrete. The research involves preparing concrete specimens using a standard mix

ratio, without the inclusion of any chemical admixtures. The primary variable in the study

3
is the curing environment, with specimens being cured in both fresh water and salt water.

The scope includes testing and comparing the compressive strength, water absorption,

and visual inspection of the concrete after curing. Additionally, the study will evaluate

the potential for chloride-induced corrosion in concrete exposed to salt water. The

research is limited to short-term exposure and does not account for long-term degradation

or the use of protective coatings or admixtures.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WORK

The significance of this study lies in its potential contribution to the understanding of

how salt water affects the structural integrity of concrete. As concrete is widely used in

coastal and marine environments, where exposure to salt water is common, understanding

these effects is critical for the design and maintenance of durable infrastructure. By

focusing on the curing process in different water environments, this study provides

insights into the challenges posed by salt water exposure. The findings could inform best

practices in construction, particularly in coastal areas, helping to improve the longevity

and safety of concrete structures. This research also lays the groundwork for future

studies that might explore protective measures or alternative mix designs to mitigate the

adverse effects of salt water on concrete.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BRIEF HISTORY

The term "cement" originates from the Latin word "caementum," signifying broken rock

fragments. Limestone, recognized as one of the earliest binding materials, was

transformed into lime by heating nearly pure limestone. The addition of water and sand

resulted in the production of lime mortar. (Neville, 2011)

The initial utilization of concrete dates back to the Roman Empire. Notably, the concrete

employed in constructing Rome's "Castel Sant'Angelo" in 138 BC has retained its

properties, contrasting with the erosion experienced by the stone used in the structure.

Various types of binders were employed in the construction of iconic structures like the

Egyptian Pyramids, the Great Wall of China, and castles built by diverse civilizations

across different eras.

In England, volcanic ash was meticulously ground and incorporated into the production

of bricks and roof tiles. The construction of large medieval cathedrals, including those in

Chartres and Rheims (France) and Durham, Lincoln, and Rochester (England),

showcased the advanced technologies of their time. Remarkably, these technological

advancements were employed 1,000 years earlier than the Romans were aware of such

techniques.

It is highly likely that the Romans recognized the distinctive properties of volcanic ash

and incorporated it into their constructions for various purposes. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio,

a Roman architect and engineer from 1 AD, extensively documented historical structures

and associated technologies in his book "Ten Books of Architecture." He endorsed

5
concrete for its ability to provide a polished floor and establish a robust foundation. The

book also highlighted the use of a mixture of lime, crushed rock, and pozzolan for

building reinforcement, a combination known to maintain its hardness even underwater.

In contrast, European societies lagged behind the Romans. Mortars were primarily

prepared using lime, and the setting process was relatively time-consuming. It was only

during the Middle Ages that Europeans rediscovered the use of pozzolan in mortar

preparation.

In 1756, John Smeaton, entrusted with the construction of Eddystone Lighthouse,

conducted a thorough study of lime's chemical properties, yielding significant insights

into its binding qualities. Building upon these findings, Joseph Parker developed a binder

called "Roman Cement," sourced from the limestone near London. This newly created

binder found application in the construction of canals and ports. The efforts by James

Frost to produce "English Cement," in the same era as the Roman Cement did not gain as

much popularity as the Roman cement.

Eddystone Cliff, near the Port of Plymouth in England, had long posed a threat to the

smooth passage of vessels entering and leaving the port. To facilitate sailors, the

construction of the 37-meter-high Eddystone Lighthouse was completed between 1757

and 1759. It was built using mortars that hardened underwater, composed of a mixture of

lime, water, clay, and iron cinder. The lighthouse was affixed to iron rods embedded in

holes on the sea floor and secured with lead.

In 1756, the English engineer John Smeaton determined that the optimal cement was

derived from soft limestone with a specific clay content. Almost four decades later, in

England, James Parker manufactured cement using limestone with a high impurity ratio.

6
The production of cement from a mixture of clay and limestone was pioneered in France

in 1813 by Louis Vicat and in England in 1822 by James Frost. (Neville, 2011)

Louis Vicat's binder found application in the construction of bridges and concrete canals.

Vicat extensively studied the underwater setting feature of hydraulic cement, binders

obtained by mixing lime and pozzolan, as well as natural cement. He created a synthetic

binder by combining silica, aluminum, and lime in specific proportions. His research and

experiments played a crucial role in the development of Portland cement, a widely used

material today. In 1822, Vicat incorporated his hydraulic binder into one of the abutments

of the Souillac Bridge.

In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a mason hailing from Leeds, subjected ground clay and

limestone to intense heat until the limestone calcified. After further grinding, he observed

that the mixture solidified some time after water was added. Aspdin named his creation

"Portland Cement" because it resembles the rock quarried from the "Isle of Portland on

the British Coast." The use of Portland cement became widespread in the construction of

buildings in England.

In America, in 1818, just a year after excavation began for the Erie Canal, engineer

Canvass White discovered that material extracted from a quarry in Madison County

developed natural hydraulic characteristics through a simple process. Cement produced

from this material was employed in the construction of the Erie Canal.

In 1850, the American David O. Saylor successfully produced natural cement by baking

and grinding a cement rock he had identified. However, it was noted that the strength of

the natural cement produced in the United States and some other countries was lower

than that of Portland cement.

7
The initial widespread use of Portland cement in engineering was evident in the

construction of a tunnel beneath the River Thames in 1928. To facilitate cement

production for this project, a facility was established in Wakefield.

In essence, the term "Portland" is derived from a construction rock sourced from Portland,

sharing similar qualities with Portland cement (Taylor, 1992). Although the exact date of

Portland cement's invention is unknown, J. Aspdin obtained a patent for it in 1824. While

the current production process with optimal heat treatment ensures superior features

compared to J. Aspdin's original cement, he deserves recognition as the individual who

pioneered cement.

Furthermore, in 1845, Isaac Johnson utilized the same raw materials in his cement as the

ones employed in modern Portland cement.

Since 1926, numerous scientific studies have been undertaken worldwide on Portland

cement, and the development of hydraulic cement has been a focus of research and

development. (Neville, 2011)

2.2 DEFINITION OF TERMS

2.2.1 GRAVEL

With a particle size ranging from 2 to 6 mm, gravel is a naturally occurring, rounded

granular material. Rocks erode and weather, becoming gravel. Before gravel is deposited,

it is frequently transported over long distances by glaciers or powerful river currents. If

the rock pieces are carried by ice, they usually have sharp angular edges, whereas

fragments carried by water in gravel are worm-like and rounded. Compared to gravel

carried by glaciers, the size variation of the rock fragments carried by rivers is likewise

8
smaller. The smooth, spherical gravel can also be found on beaches with significant wave

activity. (holmes, 1965)

2.2.2 SAND

Sand is a naturally occurring or crushed material that passes through a 4.75mm sieve.

Though not as fine as silt, it is a substance that is more finely ground than gravel. The

predominant component is typically quartz (silica), with trace amounts of mica, feldspar,

and other resistant minerals. It is the end result of the weathering and abrasion-induced

chemical and mechanical breakdown of rocks. The particles are often angular and sharply

pointed when they are first produced, but they eventually become smaller and more

rounded due to deterioration from the wind or water. (holmes, 1965)

2.2.3 WATER CEMENT RATIO

The water-cement ratio (w/c ratio) is a critical parameter in concrete mix design, defined

as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement in a concrete mix. It is

typically expressed as a decimal or a percentage. The water-cement ratio influences the

workability, strength, durability, and overall quality of the concrete. The water-cement

ratio is a balance; too much water can weaken the concrete, while too little can make it

difficult to work with and may lead to incomplete hydration of the cement. Typical

water-cement ratios for various types of concrete range from about 0.40 to 0.60. For

example, a water-cement ratio of 0.50 means that for every 100 kg of cement, 50 kg of

water is used. (Neville, 2011)

2.2.4 CURING

Curing of concrete is the process of maintaining adequate moisture, temperature, and

time conditions to allow the concrete to achieve its desired properties for its intended use.

9
Proper curing is essential for ensuring the concrete reaches its optimal strength, durability,

and resistance to wear and environmental factors. (Neville, 2011)

2.2.5 BATCHING

Batching in the context of concrete production refers to the process of measuring and

combining the various ingredients (such as cement, water, aggregates, and admixtures) in

specific proportions to create a concrete mix. This process ensures that the concrete

produced has consistent quality and meets the desired specifications. (Neville, 2011)

2.2.6 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

It is the strength at which a concrete mixture can be created to suit a structure's design

requirements by offering a wide variety of mechanical and durability properties. Unlike

tensile strength, which withstands loads that tend to reduce its size, concrete's capacity

for withstanding loads that tend to reduce its size takes importance over compressive

strength. The test involves placing the concrete specimen in a compression testing

machine and applying a gradually increasing load until the specimen fails. The maximum

load carried by the specimen divided by its cross-sectional area gives the compressive

strength. (Neville, 2011)

2.2.7 QUARRY AND QUARRYING

Open excavation is used to remove any valuable stone for construction or engineering

purposes, as well as the procedures needed to extract rock from a quarry in a usable shape.

The mining of so-called dimension stone and crushed stone are the two main segments of

the sector. In the companies, various sized and shaped stone blocks, such marble, are

mined for various uses within the industry of crushed stone. Quarrying provides essential

raw materials for the construction industry, including aggregates for concrete and asphalt,

10
building stone, and decorative stone. However, it also has environmental impacts, such as

habitat destruction, dust, noise, and water pollution, which need to be managed and

mitigated. (Jones, 2010)

2.3 SEAWATER (SALTWATER)

With a total salinity of roughly 3.5% (NaCl making up 78% of the dissolved solids and

MgCl2 and MgSo4 making up 15%), seawater has a slightly higher early strength but a

lower long-term strength. Sea water (SW) is a complex mixture of various salts that

includes organic matter that is decomposing, suspended sediment, dissolved gasses, and

living things. The main chemical components of seawater are potassium, sodium,

magnesium, calcium, and chloride ions. One may say that the solution in seawater is

made up of several distinct elements in varying amounts. Seawater, especially water with

high chloride concentrations, frequently results in surface efflorescence and ongoing

dampness. For this reason, such water should not be used in areas where plaster finishing

is required or where aesthetics are crucial. Seawater has a pH that ranges from 7.4 to 8.4.

Below a pH of 11, the reinforcing steel starts to corrode. Thus, cement needs to provide

alkalinity when concrete is exposed to extremely harsh environments. (Akinkurolere

et.al. 2007).

According to Pretti et.al. (2014), seawater has trace amounts of sodium and potassium

salts that can react with aggregates similarly to how cement alkalizes can. Consequently,

even for Pcc, if aggregates are known to be possibly alkali reactive, saltwater should not

be used. It has been noted that while using seawater when mixing concrete may

occasionally cause reinforcement to corrode, it does not significantly impair the strength

of the material. It is widely agreed upon by researchers that adding seawater to mass or

11
unreinforced concrete might somewhat speed up the concrete's early strength. However,

it lessens the concrete's 28-day strength by roughly 10 to 15 percent. (Neville, 2011)

Nevertheless, the mixture could be redesigned to make up for this loss of strength. When

it comes to concrete appearance, seawater should be avoided as it can lead to

efflorescence and persistent wetness due to its high chloride content. (Neville, 2011)

NaCl and MgCl2 account for 88.5% of the total salt concentration, according to Bela

(1989). While the concentrations of the principal salt elements in saltwater vary

depending on the source, their relative abundance remains constant worldwide. Seawater

is an electrolyte that is essential to electrolytic reactions between different metals and

between concentrations of salt and steel (Bela 1989). The pH value of seawater varies

significantly. (Bela, 1989)

2.4 CONCRETE

Concrete stands as the most widely employed man-made construction material globally,

ranking second only to water in overall usage (Neville, 2011). It is crafted by blending

cementitious materials, water, and aggregates (and occasionally admixtures) in specific

proportions. Once the mixture is placed into forms and allowed to cure, it transforms into

a rock-like mass known as concrete.

The hardening process is initiated by a chemical reaction between water and cement,

persisting over an extended period, resulting in an increase in concrete strength with age.

The hardened concrete can be likened to an artificial stone, wherein the voids of larger

particles (coarse aggregate) are filled by smaller particles (fine aggregate), and the voids

of fine aggregates are filled with cement. In a concrete mix, the cementitious material and

water form a paste known as a cement-water paste. This paste, in addition to filling the

12
voids of fine aggregate, coats the surfaces of both fine and coarse aggregates, binding

them together as it cures. This cohesive action cements the particles of the aggregates

into a dense mass. (Neville, 2011)

Several key factors contribute to the extensive use of cement concrete, including its

moldability, early hardening characteristics, high early compressive strength, the ability

to develop desired properties with admixtures for adverse conditions, pumpability, and

durability. These attributes, combined with the use of appropriate ingredients and

specialized mechanical, physical, and chemical processing techniques, make concrete a

versatile and widely employed material in construction.

Concrete structures exposed to harsh marine environments may undergo deterioration

through three main mechanisms.

1. Physical, such as freezing and thawing, wetting and drying, and abrasion,

2. Chemical attack and

3. Chloride induced corrosion. (Neville, 2011)

Numerous comprehensive reviews on the subject, such as those by Mehta in 1980, 1988,

1991, and 1996, have contributed significantly to the understanding of the mechanisms of

chemical attack and factors influencing the corrosion of steel-reinforced concrete

structures in marine environments. Commercial specifications for concrete weight

coatings used in submerged natural gas pipelines often prescribe the use of ASTM C150

Type II Portland cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate ( 퐶3 ) content of 8%.

This specification is typically aimed at preventing or minimizing sulphate attack on the

concrete weight coating. Seawater, containing approximately 2.71% sulphate ( 푆�4 )

13
according to Dickson and Goyet (1994), is classified as a "slightly aggressive chemical

environment" in EN 197.

Companies managing submerged gas pipelines may face challenges in adhering to these

specifications, leading to the need for waivers or exceptions when Type II Portland

cement is not available or significantly more expensive. Pipeline owners must assess the

actual risks associated with using ASTM Type I or EN 197 Type CEM I Portland

cements with 퐶3 content exceeding 8%.

Research and long-term durability studies suggest that the primary mechanism of

concrete deterioration in marine environments is not predominantly sulphate attack.

Additionally, the physical properties of the concrete play a more critical role in durability

than the chemical composition of the cement. The proven benefits of incorporating

supplementary cementitious materials, such as fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace

slag, and silica fume, into concrete mixes are well-established.

Concrete, as a composite man-made material, consists of a blend of binding materials like

cement, well-graded fine and coarse aggregates, water, and admixtures if needed for

special properties. In a concrete mix, the combination of cement and water forms a paste

or matrix that fills the voids in the fine aggregate and binds both coarse and fine

aggregates. The freshly mixed concrete, before setting, is termed wet or green concrete,

and once set and hardened, it is referred to as set or hardened concrete. Through chemical

interactions between water and the binding material, the molded concrete mix, after

sufficient curing, becomes as hard as stone (Duggal, 1998). The ultimate quality of

concrete hinges on the effectiveness of the hardened paste in binding aggregate particles

together and filling the voids between particles (Gambhir, 2004).

14
2.4.1 TYPES OF CONCRETE

Different varieties of concrete have been created to serve specific purposes and are

recognized by distinctive names. (Neville, 2011)

2.4.1.1 REGULAR CONCRETE

This term refers to concrete produced by adhering to commonly provided mixing

instructions found on cement packets, typically utilizing sand or other readily available

materials as aggregates. Often mixed in improvised containers, this type of concrete can

be tailored to achieve different strengths, ranging from approximately 10 MPa for

applications like blinding to around 40 MPa for structural concrete, depending on the

intended purpose.

2.4.1.2 HIGH STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

High-strength concrete is characterized by a compressive strength generally exceeding

6,000 pounds per square inch (40 MPa) (Neville, 2011). Achieved by reducing the water-

cement ratio to 0.35 or lower, this type of concrete often incorporates silica fume to

prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which

could compromise the strength of the cement-aggregate bond.

The low water-cement ratio and the inclusion of silica fume contribute to significantly

reduced workability in concrete mixes, which can pose challenges, especially in high-

strength applications with dense rebar cages. Careful aggregate selection is crucial for

high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not withstand the loads imposed on the

concrete, potentially leading to failure starting in the aggregates rather than in the matrix

or at a void, as commonly observed in regular concrete.

15
2.3.1.3. SELF COMPACTING CONCRETE

In the 1980s, several countries, including Japan, Sweden, and France, pioneered the

development of a category of concrete known as self-compacting concrete (SCC).

Distinguished by its remarkable fluidity, SCC behaves more like a thick fluid, exhibiting

self-leveling properties. Unlike traditional concrete that relies on vibration or compaction,

SCC offers significant advantages, with potential benefits of up to 50% in labor costs.

This is achieved by pouring up to 80% faster and minimizing wear and tear on forms.

2.4.1.3.1 Key characteristics of SCCs (Self-Compacting Concretes) include:

1. Extreme Fluidity: Measured by flow, typically ranging between 700-750 mm,

rather than the traditional slump measurement.

2. No Need for Vibrators: Unlike traditional concrete, SCC does not require the

use of vibrators for compaction, which eliminates noise associated with the

construction process.

3. Simplified Placing: The pouring and placing of SCC are simpler, contributing to

increased efficiency in construction practices.

4. Absence of Bleed Water or Aggregate Segregation: SCC exhibits a lack of

bleed water and prevents the segregation of aggregates, ensuring uniformity in the

final product.

5. No Requirement for Viscosity Modifying Agent (VMA): Unlike some

conventional concrete mixes, SCC does not necessitate the use of viscosity-

modifying agents.

16
These attributes collectively make SCC a versatile and efficient solution in construction,

offering improved workability, reduced labor costs, and enhanced overall performance in

various applications.

2.4.1.4 LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

It implies that the concrete incorporates lightweight aggregates, encompassing both

coarse and fine materials. In certain situations, the fine aggregate may consist of sand,

and the voids are present within the lightweight aggregate. This type of concrete serves as

a major building material that can be transported to the job site in a plastic state, allowing

for flexibility in its application and placement.

2.4.1.5 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The assessment of concrete compressive strength involves breaking cylindrical concrete

or concrete cube specimens in a compression testing machine. The compressive strength

is computed by dividing the failure load by the cross-sectional area resisting the load and

is typically reported in units of psi or MPa in SI units. It represents the maximum

compressive load the concrete can carry per unit area.

Standards such as BS 1881 prescribe the use of concrete cubes, specifically (150 x 150 x

150) mm cubes, for determining compressive strength in quality control procedures.

However, (100 x 100 x 100) mm cubes are permissible as long as the maximum size of

the coarse aggregate is less than 25mm (Kartni, 2000).

The equation for working out compressive strength is as per the following:

Compressive strength = Maximum load applied (N)/Cross-sectional area (mm2 )

17
2.5 QUALITY OF WATER FOR PREPARING CONCRETE

Water plays a crucial role in concrete as it actively engages in chemical reactions with

cement. Its contribution to the formation of the strength-giving cement gel underscores

the importance of both the quantity and quality of water in the concrete mix.

The use of seawater for curing or mixing, however, has generated controversy(Mehta et

al, 2014). When a structure is exposed to both air and seawater, the likelihood of

corrosion of the embedded steel reinforcement increases. The attack of chlorides on the

steel reinforcing and salt buildup are the most detrimental or harmful effects of seawater

on concrete structures. For example, seawater is utilized to erect structures on a Pacific

Island. If proactive preventive measures are not taken, the risk of corrosion of steel

reinforcing structures will increase. Preventive actions include applying a cement slurry

that has been diluted with fresh water to the reinforcement steel.

In practical applications, there is often meticulous control over the properties of cement

and aggregates. However, the quality of water is frequently neglected. Given that the

quality of water significantly influences the strength of the concrete, it becomes

imperative for us to delve into the aspects related to the purity and quality of water used

in the concrete mix.

2.5.1 EFFECT OF WATER IMPURITIES ON PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Excessive impurities in mixing water can have detrimental effects on the strength of

concrete, leading to various issues such as efflorescence (deposits of white salt on the

surface), staining, corrosion of reinforcement, volume changes, and reduced durability. It

is crucial to understand the harmful impacts of water impurities on concrete and

determine the permissible levels of impurity during both the mixing and curing stages.

18
Impurities in concrete are unwanted substances that can negatively affect the quality,

strength, durability, and overall performance of the concrete. These impurities can come

from various sources such as raw materials, water, aggregates, and environmental

contamination. Here are some common impurities found in Water:

 Salts: High levels of chlorides, sulfates, and other salts can cause corrosion of

reinforcement and other durability issues.

 Acids: Acidic water can attack the cement paste, leading to deterioration.

 Oil and Grease: These can coat the aggregates and hinder the bond between the

cement paste and aggregates.

 Dissolved Organic Matter: Can retard the setting and hardening of concrete.

Ensuring the quality and cleanliness of all materials used in concrete production is

essential for producing high-quality, durable concrete.

Specifically, carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium and potassium are known to

influence the setting time of cement. Sodium carbonate, in particular, may induce rapid

setting. This information is highlighted in a study by AKINKUROLERE et al (2007).

2.5.2 IMPURITY EFFECTS

1. Alkali carbonates and bicarbonates can either speed up or slow down the setting time

of concrete and lead to a decrease in its strength.

2. Corrosion of steel within concrete due to chloride exposure.

3. Sulphate expansive reactions can lead to the deterioration of concrete. They have a

mild impact on the corrosion of steel within the concrete.

19
4. Reduction in strength due to iron salt presence.

5. The inclusion of miscellaneous inorganic salts like zinc, copper, lead, etc., can result

in a reduction in strength and significant fluctuations in setting time.

6. Sugar severely retards the strength.

(AKINKUROLERE et al 2007).

2.6 BATCHING, PROPORTIONING AND MIXING OF CONCRETE

The production of high-quality concrete demands careful attention at every stage of the

manufacturing process. Notably, the ingredients for both good and poor concrete are

identical. The key determinant of concrete quality lies in meticulous care and adherence

to proper procedures. Without such care and adherence to essential requirements, the

resulting concrete is likely to exhibit subpar quality. The various stages of concrete

manufacturing include:

1. Batching

2. Mixing (Mehta et al, 2014)

2.6.1 BATCHING

The measurement of materials used in concrete making is known as batching. There are

two methods of batching;

(i) Volume Batching

(ii) Weight Batching

2.6.1.1 VOLUME BATCHING

Volume batching is not considered a reliable method for material proportioning because

it presents challenges in accurately measuring granular materials in terms of volume

(Mehta et al, 2014). The volume of moist sand in a loose state weighs significantly less

20
than the same volume of dry compacted sand. The quantity of solid granular material in a

cubic meter remains indefinite.

2.6.1.2 WEIGHT BATCHING

Precisely speaking, weigh batching is the accurate method for measuring materials, and

for significant concrete work, it is recommended to adopt a weigh batching system. The

use of a weight-based system in batching provides advantages such as accuracy,

flexibility, and simplicity. Various types of weigh batchers are accessible, and the

selection depends on the specific nature of the job. In larger weigh batching plants,

automatic weighing equipment is commonly employed. The utilization of this automated

equipment for batching represents a sophisticated approach that necessitates the

involvement of qualified and experienced engineers.

2.6.2 MIXING

Thorough mixing of materials is crucial for producing uniform concrete. The mixing

process should achieve homogeneity, ensuring that the mass is consistent, uniform in

color, and the desired consistency. Two methods are commonly adopted for mixing

concrete.

(1) Hand mixing

(2) Machine mixing

2.6.2.1 HAND MIXING

Hand mixing is employed for small-scale, less critical concrete tasks. Since hand mixing

may not achieve thorough and efficient blending, it is recommended to incorporate an

additional 10 percent more cement to account for the potential inferior quality of concrete

21
produced through this method. Hand mixing should be carried out on an impervious

concrete or brick floor of adequate size to accommodate one batch of cement.

2.6.2.2 MACHINE MIXING

This is almost invariably performed by a machine, especially for reinforced concrete

work and for medium or large-scale mass concrete projects. Machine mixing is not only

efficient but also economical, particularly when a large quantity of concrete needs to be

produced. Various types of mixers are available, including batch mixers and continuous

mixers. Batch mixers produce concrete in discrete batches with time intervals, while

continuous mixers generate concrete continuously without interruption. In continuous

mixers, materials are consistently fed through screw feeders and continuously mixed and

discharged without a pause. (Mehta et al, 2014)

2.7 COMPARISON OF SALT WATER AND FRESH WATER

Sea water typically has a salinity level of around 3.5%, with approximately 78% being

sodium chloride, and 15% composed of chloride and sulphate of magnesium. It also

contains small amounts of sodium and potassium salts. These salts can react with reactive

aggregates similar to the alkaline nature of cement. As a result, seawater should be

avoided, even for Plain Cement Concrete (PCC), if the aggregates are known to be

potentially alkali-reactive. While the use of seawater in concrete mixing may not

significantly reduce concrete strength, it can lead to reinforcement corrosion in certain

cases.

Certain specifications stipulate that if water is not sourced from a proven satisfactory

source, the strength of concrete or mortar made with questionable water should be

compared with a similar mix using pure water. Some specifications allow water for

22
concrete if its pH value falls between 6-8% and is free from organic matter. However,

instead of solely relying on pH value and other chemical composition measures, the most

effective approach to determine water suitability is to make concrete with the water in

question and compare the compressive strength of the concrete cubes at 7 and 28 days

with companion cubes made using distilled water.. If the compressive strength is up to

90% of the strength achieved with distilled water, the water source can be deemed

acceptable (Akinkurolere et al, 2007).

2.8 TESTS ASSOCIATED WITH AGGREGATE

2.8.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a reference

substance, typically water for liquids and solids, or air for gases. It is a dimensionless

quantity, meaning it has no units. Specific gravity is a measure of how dense a material is

compared to water.

In concrete technology, the specific gravity of aggregates plays a crucial role in the

design calculations of concrete mixes. Knowing the specific gravity of each constituent

allows for the conversion of their weights into solid volumes. This information is then

utilized to calculate the theoretical yield of concrete per unit volume. Additionally, the

specific gravity of aggregates is essential in determining the compacting factor, a key

parameter in workability measurements.

Furthermore, the specific gravity of aggregates is a significant consideration in dealing

with both lightweight and heavyweight concrete. The average specific gravity of rocks

typically ranges from 2.6 to 2.8.

23
2.8.2 SOUNDNESS OF AGGREGATE

Soundness in the context of aggregates refers to their ability to resist excessive changes in

volume caused by variations in physical conditions. The factors influencing the

soundness of aggregates include freeze and thaw cycles, temperature fluctuations,

alternate wetting and drying under normal conditions, and wetting and drying in saltwater.

Aggregates that are porous, weak, or contain undesirable extraneous materials may

undergo a volume change exceeding the specified limit, and these are considered

unsound aggregates.

2.8.3 SIEVE ANALYSIS

Sieve analysis is the process of categorizing samples of aggregate into various fractions,

each consisting of particles of the same size. This analysis, commonly known as

gradation, is conducted to determine the particle size distribution in an aggregate sample.

Aggregates used in concrete typically have maximum sizes of 80mm, 40mm, 20mm,

10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 600micron, 300micron, and 150micron. The fraction ranging

from 80mm to 4.75mm is referred to as coarse aggregate, while the fraction from

4.75mm to 150micron is termed as fine aggregate. Notably, the size 4.75mm is a

common fraction present in both coarse and fine aggregates.

To assess the grading pattern of a sample of coarse and fine aggregates, the material is

sieved successively through a series of stacked sieves arranged in order of size, with the

larger sieve positioned at the top. The material retained on each sieve after shaking

represents the fraction of aggregate coarser than the specific sieve size and finer than the

sieve above it. This process provides valuable information about the distribution of

particle sizes within the aggregate sample.

24
2.9 WORKABILITY OF CONCRETE

Workability of concrete refers to the ease with which concrete can be mixed, transported,

placed, compacted, and finished without segregation or bleeding. It is a crucial property

that affects the handling and application of concrete, as well as its overall quality and

performance in the hardened state. The workability of concrete depends on several

factors, including water content, aggregate properties, admixtures, and mix proportions.

The degree of workability required may vary based on the specific method and

equipment used for handling or placing the concrete. In the determination of concrete

workability, it is crucial to exercise sound judgment. Any necessary adjustments to the

mix should be made to enhance workability, aligning with the guidance provided in the

design manual and specifications.

Fresh concrete, also known as plastic concrete, refers to a newly mixed material that can

be shaped and molded into various forms. The proportions of cement, aggregates, and

water in the mix determine the properties of concrete both in its wet, fresh state and in its

hardened state. Achieving 100% compaction is a critical parameter for maximizing the

strength of concrete. (Mehta et al, 2014)

Insufficient compaction can lead to the formation of air voids within the concrete. The

detrimental impact of these voids on strength and durability can be as significant, if not

more so, than the presence of capillary cavities.

The workability of concrete varies depending on its intended use. Concrete that is

deemed workable for mass concrete foundations may not exhibit the same workability

when used in roof construction. Similarly, concrete considered workable when a vibrator

is employed for compaction may not be workable when compacted by hand.

25
For a concrete technologist, possessing a comprehensive understanding of workability is

essential for designing an appropriate mix. Workability is a crucial parameter that a mix

designer needs to specify during the mix design process (Shetty, 2014).

2.9.1 FACTOR AFFECTING WORKABILITY

Workable concrete is characterized by its ability to exhibit minimal friction between

particles, overcoming the resistance provided by the formwork surface or the

reinforcement within the concrete with the compacting efforts applied. These factors

include; Water content, Mix proportion, Size of aggregates, Shape of aggregates, Use of

admixtures, Grading of aggregates.

1 WATER CONTENT: The water content in a specific volume of concrete plays a

crucial role in influencing its workability. Generally, a higher water content per cubic

meter of concrete leads to increased fluidity in the concrete mixture.

2 MIX PROPORTION: The aggregate-to-cement ratio is a significant factor

influencing workability in concrete mixes. A higher aggregate-to-cement ratio results in

leaner concrete. In lean concrete, there is a decreased amount of paste accessible for

giving lubrication per unit surface aggregate. Conversely, with a lower aggregate-to-

cement ratio, more paste is available, making the mix cohesive and "fattening" to provide

better workability. Striking the right balance in the aggregate-to-cement ratio is crucial to

achieve the desired workability without compromising the overall properties and

performance of the concrete.

3 SIZE OF AGGREGATE: Larger aggregates have a reduced surface area

compared to smaller ones. As a result, less water is required for wetting the surface of

larger aggregates. Additionally, the reduced surface area means that less matrix or paste

26
is needed for lubricating the surfaces of larger aggregates, leading to a reduction in

internal friction within the concrete mix

4. SHAPE OF AGGREGATES: The shape of aggregates significantly influences the

workability of concrete. Aggregates that are angular, elongated, or flaky in shape tend to

make the concrete harsh when compared to aggregates that are rounded or cubical in

shape. (Mehta et al, 2014)

2.9.2 DURABILITY

Durability in concrete refers to its ability to withstand weathering, chemical attacks, and

abrasion while retaining the desired engineering properties. The required degree of

durability varies for different types of concrete based on their exposure environment and

desired properties. For instance, concrete subjected to tidal seawater will have different

durability requirements compared to an indoor concrete floor. (Mehta et al, 2014)

Various factors influence the durability of concrete, including the composition of its

ingredients, its proportions, interactions, placement and curing practices, and the specific

service environment.

2.10 CEMENT HYDRATION

The chemical process involving the reaction between cement and water is known as the

hydration of cement. The chemistry of concrete is fundamentally centered on this

reaction. During hydration, specific products are formed, and these products are

significant due to their cementing or adhesive properties. The quality, quantity, continuity,

stability, and rate of formation of these hydration products are crucial factors.

When anhydrous cement compounds are mixed with water, they undergo a reaction with

each other, resulting in the formation of hydrated compounds with very low solubility.

27
The hydration of cement can be conceptualized in two ways. The first mechanism is the

"through solution," where cement compounds dissolve, producing a super-saturated

solution from which various hydrated products precipitate. The second possibility

involves water attacking cement compounds in the solid state, transforming the

compounds into hydrated products. This transformation starts from the surface and

progresses to the interior of the compounds over time (Bentz D.P and Strutzman P.E

2006).

2.11 PORTLAND CEMENT AND SEAWATER

The Portland Cement Association (PCA) in 1959 and 1961, launched studies on the long-

term durability of concrete structures exposed to warm seawater at mean tide level (Stark,

1995). Plain concrete prisms (152 x 152 x 760 mm) were installed under a pier in 1959,

and reinforced beams (152 x 152 x 1220 mm) were added in 1961. The study involved

testing eleven ASTM C150 Type I, five Type II, two Type III, and four Type V Portland

cement, as well as blends with Class F fly ash and calcined shale.

The 퐶3 contents of the Type I, II, III, and V cements ranged between 7.5% - 13.2%,

3.7% - 6.6%, 10.4% - 10.8%, and 3.7% - 6.2%, respectively. Three cement content levels

were evaluated: 223, 307, and 390 kg/m3 . The water-to-cement (w/c) ratio ranged

between 0.30 and 0.40 for the latter two cement levels and was 0.6 for the lowest cement

content. The air content ranged between 4% and 7%, and the slump ranged from 50 to 75

mm.

After the initial 8 years of exposure, the concrete prisms underwent visual inspection,

rating, and testing for ultrasonic pulse velocity and dynamic modulus of elasticity. After

32 and 34 years of exposure, the concrete prisms were visually inspected and rated only.

28
Regardless of cement type or content, plain concrete prisms displayed minor rounding at

edges and corners with slight paste loss at the surface. Concrete containing fly ash also

exhibited satisfactory performance. In 1936, researchers at the Technical University of

Norway in Trondheim initiated a long-term durability study on concrete in a marine

environment (Gjorv, 1971).

2.12 CHEMICAL ATTACK OF CONCRETE BY SEAWATER

The primary mineral phases in Portland cement, listed approximately in descending order

of mass, include tricalcium silicate ( 3퐶��. 푆 �2 or 퐶3 S), dicalcium silicate

( 2퐶��. 푆 �2 or 퐶2 S), tricalcium aluminate ( 3퐶��. 2 �3 or 퐶3 ), tetracalcium

aluminoferrite ( 4퐶��. 2 �3 . 퐹 2 �3 or 퐶4 AF), calcium sulphate hemi- and

dihydrate (퐶�푆�4 . 0.5�2 �, 퐶�푆�4 . 2�2�), periclase (MgO), and calcium oxide

(CaO) (Taylor 1997). Typically, around 3 - 6% gypsum is added to regulate the hydration

rate of the most reactive phase, 퐶3 .

During the hydration of Portland cement, the earliest phases formed are calcium

hydroxide (from the residual CaO in the clinker) and ettringite

(퐶3 . 3퐶�푆�4 . 32�2�). As a less than stoichiometric amount of sulphate is added

for the reaction with 퐶3 , a second phase called monosulphate

( 퐶3 . 퐶�푆�4 . 12�2 � ) begins to form after several days, leading to a concurrent

reduction in ettringite content. The rate of these reactions is influenced by the amount of

sulphate and the reactivity of the 퐶3 ; the cubic form of 퐶3 is more reactive than the

orthorhombic form (Al-Amoudi, 2002).

29
2.13 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CEMENT COMPOSITION AND

RESISTANCE TO CORROSION

To decrease the permeability of concrete, various strategies can be employed. These

include using higher cement contents (which inherently result in lower water-to-cement

ratios), incorporating high-range water-reducing admixtures to further reduce the water-

to-cement ratio, and introducing supplementary cementitious materials like fly ash, slag,

and silica fume. These supplementary materials help reduce porosity by fostering

additional C-S-H formation through pozzolanic reactions. While reducing porosity and

chloride diffusion rates is crucial for minimizing the risk of steel reinforcement corrosion

in marine structures, it is not the sole factor. Studies suggests that concretes made with

Portland cement featuring higher levels of 퐶3 exhibit greater corrosion resistance

compared to those made with sulphate-resisting cement (Rasheeduzzafar et al., 1992).

2.14 EFFECT OF SETTING AND CURING TIMES ON CONCRETE MIXES

Setting and curing times are crucial factors in concrete sample production, influencing

the material's properties. As components are mixed, the concrete begins to set, losing

plasticity. The setting time is divided into initial and final sets, determined by the Vicat

test. The initial set measures the time from mixing to the start of stiffening, while the

final set marks the point from the start of stiffening to the loss of permeability. The Vicat

test involves a needle pushed into the sample with a constant force of 10 N for 30

seconds and the initial set is complete when the needle penetrates 25 mm. The final set is

when the needle can no longer penetrate the cement sample, marking the beginning of

curing (Popovics, 1979).

30
Understanding the initial and final set is crucial for comprehending the timing and nature

of chemical reactions in the concrete mix. After the final set, the curing process begins,

lasting 28 days (or 7 days for urgent samples) (Mehta et al, 2014). Curing methods

include lime-saturated water, a sealed container, or exposure to a dry atmosphere. Lime

water accelerates curing, but samples should not exceed 28 days in it. All concrete

mixtures, regardless of curing method, should be saturated in lime water for at least 1-2

days before testing (Bentz et al., 2006).

Curing concrete mixtures in sealed containers can lead to shrinkage and reopening of

pores in the paste, increasing sample permeability. The pores become filled with water

vapor, and therefore sample permeability increases (Bentz et al., 2006) However, if

samples are cured in sealed containers and left to absorb water vapor, achieving

consistent samples becomes challenging.

Admixtures, categorized as chemical compounds incorporated into a concrete mix to

improve its characteristics and safeguard it against severe environmental conditions, have

been systematically classified.

1. Water reducing admixture

2. Air entraining admixture

3. Water retaining admixture (Mehta et al, 2014)

Kumar and Monteiro (2006) asserted that the inclusion of air-entraining admixtures

increases porosity and reduces the strength of concrete. Sherer et al. (2002) defined air-

entrained concrete as concrete containing stabilized small air bubbles within the cement

matrix that holds the aggregates. Additionally, Kumar and Monteiro(2006) highlighted

that water-reducing admixtures, when used in concrete mixes, can improve both early and

31
ultimate strength. These admixtures, typically aqueous solutions, reduce the amount of

water needed for complete hydration of cement particles. In contrast, water-retaining

admixtures, when incorporated into concrete mixes, can absorb and retain moisture for

the growth of concrete. Furthermore, in a study conducted by Akinkurolere et al. (2007)

to assess the impact of saltwater (seawater) on the compressive strength of concrete, it

was determined that seawater comprised the following relative compositions, presented

as percentages by mass of dissolved salts: 78% NaCl, 10.5% MgCl, 5% 푀 푆�4 , 3.9%

퐶�푆�4 , 2.3% �2푆�4 , and 0.3% NaCl. As per Bela (1989), NaCl and MgCl

accounted for 88.5% of the total dissolved salts. The conclusion drawn by Akinkurolere

et al. (2007) was that seawater positively influenced the compressive strength of concrete,

regardless of the methods used. This effect was attributed to the action of crystal sulphate

salts (�2 푆�4 and 푀 푆�4 ) on the calcium hydroxide (Ca��2 ) produced during the

hydration of cement constituents, namely 퐶2 푆 and 퐶3 푆. It was emphasized that NaCl

and other dissolved salts remained inert in the chemical reactions. Additionally, Gani

(2007) noted that the presence of sodium chloride in soft water accelerates the attack on

other compounds in concrete. However, the research conducted by Akinkurolere et al.

(2007) did not investigate the effect of seawater in the concrete mix on other properties of

concrete, such as workability, porosity, set time, stress-strain characteristics, etc.

2.15 CURING OF CONCRETE

Curing is arguably the most critical aspect of micro-silica concrete, given its minimal air

bleeding characteristics. When the evaporation rate from the surface exceeds the rate of

water migration from the interior to the surface, plastic shrinkage occurs. In the absence

32
of bleeding and a gradual movement of water from the interior to the surface, early curing

through membrane curing becomes necessary.

Curing is the process of maintaining a satisfactory moisture content and favorable

temperature in concrete immediately after placement, allowing the continued hydration of

cement until the desired properties are sufficiently developed. As the demand for high-

quality concrete increases, curing has gained importance, and it is acknowledged that

uninterrupted and efficient curing contributes to an all-around improvement in concrete

quality. Neglecting curing during the early stages of hydration can lead to irreparable loss

in the quality of concrete, emphasizing the analogy of efficient early curing to the

provision of good and wholesome feeding to a newborn baby.

There are therefore different methods of curing;

1. Water Curing

Water curing involves keeping the concrete surface continuously wet to maintain

adequate moisture for hydration. This is typically done by applying water directly to the

surface, using wet burlap or mats, or covering the surface with water-retentive materials

like wet sand. Water curing ensures that the concrete remains hydrated and helps achieve

optimal strength and durability.

2. Membrane Curing

Membrane curing uses a curing compound that forms a thin film or membrane on the

surface of the concrete. This membrane helps to retain moisture by preventing

evaporation. The curing compound is typically applied by spraying or brushing and is

particularly useful in areas where water curing is not practical, such as in hot or windy

conditions.

33
3. Application of Heat

Application of heat involves using methods like steam curing or heated enclosures to

accelerate the curing process. Steam curing involves exposing the concrete to steam,

which speeds up hydration and is often used in precast concrete production. Heated

enclosures maintain a controlled temperature around the concrete, promoting proper

curing even in cold weather.

4. Miscellaneous Curing

Miscellaneous curing methods include techniques that do not fall into the above

categories but are still effective in maintaining moisture and temperature. Examples

include using curing blankets to retain heat and moisture, or applying chemical curing

agents that help prevent moisture loss. These methods are often used based on specific

project needs and environmental conditions. (Mehta et al, 2014)

34
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS

3.1 METHODOLOGY

The method employed in this project work was carried out to known the effect of salt

water on concrete and concrete cube were made, in which some of concrete cubes were

casted and cured with fresh water and remaining concrete cubes were casted and cured

with sea water.

The concrete cube size measured 150×150×150mm in dimension. The batching of the

concrete cube was carried out by weight batching. The concrete was produced using salt

water and fresh water respectively. The mix design was calculated. The cement, fine

aggregate, coarse aggregate used will be weighed according to the calculation before

mixing. The concrete is produced using the various salt water and fresh water

respectively. One mixing proportion was considered in this research work. The mix ratio

will be proportioned for a target cube strength of 15 N/mm2 that had a Cementous

material content of 315kg/m cube, fine aggregate content of 630kg/m cube, coarse

aggregate content of 1260kg/m cube and water cement ratio of 0.58 will be used.

The concrete is properly mixed using the various salt water and fresh water respectively,

the concrete cubes will be thereafter filled to one third of their height and compacted 35

times. The cubes will also be filled to two third of their height and finally filled

35
completely. In each of the layer, the concrete cubes were compacted 105 times

respectively. (Mehta et al, 2014)

The concrete cubes were demolded 24 hours after casting. The cubes mixed with fresh

water, some will be cured in fresh water, while others will be cured in salt water. The

cubes mixed with salt water will be cured only in fresh water. The curing periods are set

for 1, 7, 21, and 28 days. After each curing period, tests will be conducted to determine

the average compressive strength. In total, 36 concrete cubes were cast: 12 using salt

water and 24 using fresh water.

3.1.1 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

The test specimens for the determination of compressive strength of concrete will be

prepared using the standard metallic cube moulds adopting the procedure for the rodding

and hard compactions. The concrete cubes moulds are lubricated with oil before the

mixed concrete was placed inside it, in order to reduce friction between the concrete and

the cubes.

The cubes are demoulded after 24 hours of casting, and cured in water having similar

quality as used in the preparation of mix. The concrete cubes are cured for 1, 7, 21 and 28

days respectively. For each of the hydration period, cubes were tested and the average

compressive strength was recorded. The concrete cubes will also be tested in

compression testing machine and the result were reported.

3.2 MATERIALS SELECTION

The details of various materials used in the experiment on effect of salt water on concrete

are as follows:

36
[a] SEA SALT

The sea salt used in this research was obtained from the atlantic ocean at Lagos island, a

sample of sea water was taken from the atlantic ocean and the salt component was

extracted from the water. While the fresh water used for curing and casting of concrete

will be obtained from bore hole in Igbinedion University.

[B] COARSE AGGREGATE

Crushed angular stone aggregate of maximum size of 20mm confirming to the table 2 of

IS 383- 1970 will be used.

Granite is light coloured igneous rock with grains large enough to be visible with the

unaided eye it from a slow crystallisation of magma below earth surface. Granite is a

group of igneous and platonic rock composed primarily of feldspar and quartz with minor

amounts of mica, amphiboles and other minerals. The mineral composition usually

37
contains one or more dark minerals like mica, pyroxene or amphibole and common

colours are gray, white, pink, andSs yellow- brown.

[C] SAND (FINE AGGREGATE)

The fine aggregate will be in this experiment will be gotten from a dealer in Okada and

will transported to the school for the batching of the concrete cubes.

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and

mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand

can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type; i.e., a soil containing more than 85

percent sand-sized particles by mass.[1].

The composition of sand varies, depending on the local rock sources and conditions, but

the most common constituent of sand in inland continental settings and non-tropical

coastal settings is silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO2), usually in the form of quartz.

[D] CEMENT (ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT, OPC)

Ordinary Portland cement is one of the most important types of cement used in the world

at large and it has been possible to upgrade the qualities of cement by using high quality

limestone, modern equipment close on line control of constituents maintaining better

particle size distribution and finer grinding and better packing.

The raw material required for manufacturing of Portland cement is calcareous material

such as limestone or chalk and argillaceous material such as shale or clay. Cement

factories are established where these raw materials are found or more available plenty.

The specific gravity found was 3.15.

(E) FRESH WATER (WATER)

38
Water is a transparent fluid which forms the world streams lakes, oceans and is the major

constituents of the fluid of organism. As chemical compound water molecular contains

one oxygen and two hydrogen atom that are connected by covalent bonds. Water is a

liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure but it often coexists on earth with it's

solid state.

Fresh water is ordinary clean portable water free from suspended particles and chemical

substance from laboratory was used for curing of concrete cube castes with fresh water.

3.3 ANALYSIS OF THE WATER SAMPLE

The two samples will be tested to know their degree of acidity or alkalinity using the pH

meter. The pH of the two samples was determined and recorded.

3.3.1 WATER ANALYSIS TO DETERMINE THE PRESENCE OF ANIONS

AND ACID RADICAL IN THE WATER

Sample (CL, S�4, C�3, GC�3, N�3, 퐶 2)

3.3.1.1 DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDES CONTENT

The determination of chloride content was carried out using spectrophotometer methods.

The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water) for the zero of the

spectrophotometers. A standard will be prepared (a known concentration of chloride)

while the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank standard sample was poured into

different cuvette. The blank will be placed in the first cuvette compartment, followed by

the standard in the next compartment and the sample will be placed on the third cuvette

compartment, the chloride content was displayed in digital form and the values was

recorded.

3.3.1.2 DETERMINATION OF SULPHATE CONTENT (S�� )

39
The determination of sulphate content will be carried out using spectrophotometer

methods. The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water) for the zero of the

spectrophotometers. A standard will be prepared (a known concentration of sulphate)

while the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank standard sample was poured into

different cuvette. The blank will be placed in the first cuvette compartment, followed by

the standard in the next compartment and the sample was placed on the third cuvette

compartment, the sulphate content will be displayed in digital form and the values was

recorded.

3.3.1.3 DETERMINATION OF NITRATE CONTENT (N�3 )

The determination of nitrate content will also be carried out using spectrophotometer

methods. The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water) for the zero of the

spectrophotometers. A standard will be prepared (a known concentration of nitrate) while

the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank standard sample will be poured into

different cuvette. The blank placed in the first cuvette compartment, followed by the

standard in the next compartment and the sample is also placed on the third cuvette

compartment, the nitrate content will be displayed in digital form and the values was

recorded.

3.3.1.4 DETERMINATION OF CARBONATE AND BI-CARBONATE IONS

CONTENT

The determination of carbonate and bicarbonate ions content is carried out using

spectrophotometer methods. The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water)

for the zero of the spectrophotometers. A standard is prepared (a known concentration of

carbonate and bicarbonate ions) while the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank

40
standard sample is poured into different cuvette. The blank will be placed in the first

cuvette compartment, followed by the standard in the next compartment and the sample

was placed on the third cuvette compartment, the carbonate and bicarbonate ions content

are displayed in digital form and the values was recorded.

3.3.1.5 DETERMINATION OF MAGNESIUM ION (푀 2 +)

The determination of carbonate and bicarbonate ions content is carried out using

spectrophotometer methods. The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water)

for the zero of the spectrophotometers. A standard is prepared (a known concentration of

magnesium) while the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank standard sample is

poured into different cuvette. The blank is placed in the first cuvette compartment,

followed by the standard in the next compartment and the sample was placed on the third

cuvette compartment, the magnesium ion content is displayed in digital form and the

values was recorded.

3.3.1.6 DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM ION (퐶 2 +)

The determination of calcium ion content is carried out using spectrophotometer methods.

The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water) for the zero of the

spectrophotometers. A standard is prepared (a known concentration of calcium ion) while

the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank standard sample will be poured into

different cuvette. The blank is placed in the first cuvette compartment, followed by the

standard in the next compartment and the sample is placed on the third cuvette

compartment, the calcium ion content was displayed in digital form and the values is

recorded.

3.3.1.7 DETERMINATION OF POTASSIUM

41
The determination of potassium content is carried out using spectrophotometer methods.

The procedures involved preparing blank (deionized water) for the zero of the

spectrophotometers. A standard will be prepared (a known concentration of potassium)

while the sample to analyze is unknown. The blank standard sample is poured into

different cuvette. The blank is placed in the first cuvette compartment, followed by the

standard in the next compartment and the sample is placed on the third cuvette

compartment, the potassium content is displayed in digital form and the values is

recorded.

3.4 SIEVE ANALYSIS

Gram size of particle size analysis is a laboratory process of determining the proportion

of the various size of particles grain s in soil sample or granite.

3.4.1 GRADING OF FINE AGGREGATE

The aim of this experiment was to determine the percentage of soil passing through

different sieve sizes. The apparatus used included British Standard sieves ranging from

150 mm to 10 mm, a balance, a 500 g sample of fine aggregate, and a sieve brush. The

procedure involved weighing each sieve and recording their respective weights, along

with the 500 g fine aggregate sample. The sieves were arranged in ascending order of

diameter size from bottom to top, with a tray attached to the bottom to retain aggregate.

The fine aggregate was poured into the top sieve, covered with a lid, and placed on a

sieve shaker. After shaking for a specified time, the sieves were removed, and each sieve

was weighed with its retained material. The percentage of fine aggregate passing through

each sieve size was then calculated based on the difference in weights.

42
3.4.2 GRADING OF COARSE AGGREGATE

The aim of this experiment was to determine the percentage of coarse aggregate passing

through various sieve sizes. The apparatus used included a sieve shaker, a set of British

Standard sieves ranging from 20 mm to 5 mm, a weighing balance capable of measuring

0.01 kg, a sieve brush, and a 5 kg sample of coarse aggregate. The procedure involved

weighing each sieve and recording their weights, followed by weighing the 5 kg sample

of coarse aggregate. The sieves were arranged in ascending order of diameter size from

bottom to top, with a tray attached to the bottom. The aggregate was poured into the top

sieve, covered with a lid, and placed on the sieve shaker for 10 minutes. After shaking,

the sieves were removed, and each sieve was separated and weighed with its retained

material. The weight of the retained material was calculated by difference, and the

percentage passing through each sieve size was determined.

3.5 BATCHING AND MIXING OF SAMPLES MATERIAL REQUIRED

1. Metallic tray or any other impermeable material.

2. Turning equipment e.g. spade

3. Cement (measured quantity)

4. Fine aggregates (measure quantity)

5. Coarse aggregate (measure quantity)

6. Water (measured quantity)

3.5.1 PROCEDURE

Pour the measured quantity of the fine aggregates into the mixing tray and pour the

required quantity of cement into it and mixed properly. Then, the required quantity of

coarse aggregate is measured and mix thoroughly with the mixture of fine aggregates and

43
cement. Measure the required quantity of water and pour it into the mixture and mix

properly. The concrete is obtained. The slump test, as well as placing the concrete into

the concrete cube mounds start.

3.7 PLACING OF CONCRETE

The placing of concrete is done by the use of trowel and shovel to place the mixed

concrete in a mould or slump cone. Before placing concrete on the slump cone and the

metal mould both are checked to make sure they are free of any debris. The fresh

concrete should be deposited as close as possible to its final position, care should be

taken when discharging concrete from slips to avoid dislodging or over filling of the

formwork. The concrete should be placed in uniform layers, each layer is fully

compacted.

3.6 SLUMP TEST

The slump test is a means of assessing the consistency of fresh concrete. It is used,

indirectly as a means of checking that the correct amount of water has been added to the

mix. The test is carried out in accordance with BS EN 12350-2, testing fresh concrete

slump test. This replaces BS 1881- part 102.

The steel slump cone is place on a solid impermeable level base and filled with the fresh

concrete in three equal layers, each layer is ram 35 times to ensure compaction. The third

layer is finished off level with the top of the cone. The cone is carefully lifted. Up,

leaving a heap of concrete that settles or slump slightly. The upturned slump cone is

placed on the base to act as a reference, and the difference in the level between its top of

the concrete is measured and recorded to the nearest 5mm to give the slump of the

concrete.

44
When the cone is removed, the slump may take one of these forms. In a true slump the

concrete simply subsides keeping more or less to shape. In a shear slump the top portion

of the concrete shear off and slips sideways. In a collapse slump the concrete collapse

completely. Only true slump is of any use in the test. If a shear or collapse slump is

achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and test repeated. A collapse slump will

generally mean that the mix is too wet or it is a high workability mix for which the flow

test is more appropriate. The slump test can be used at site to indicate the resistance to

segregation. The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measure workability of fresh

concrete. The test measures consistency of concrete in that specific batch. The usual

slump cone having base diameter of 200mm, top diameter 100mm and height 300mm is

used.

3.6.1 APPARATUS

1. Slump cone

2. A trowel

3. Measure ring tape

4. Rod

5. Scoop

3.6.2 PROCEDURES

1. The base is place on a smooth hard non absorbed surface and container is filled

with concrete in three layers, whose workability is to be used.

2. Each layer is tamped 35 times with a standard 16mm steel rod, rounded at the end.

45
3. When the cone mould is completely filled with concrete the top surface is strike

off (level with mould top opening) by means of screening and rolling motive of the

tamping rod.

4. The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation so that

it could not move due to the proving of concrete and this can be done by means of

handles or foot rests brazed to the mould.

5. Immediately after filling is completed and the concrete is leveled the cone is

slowly and carefully lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete will now slump.

6. The slump is measured by placing the cone just beside the slump concrete.

7. The decrease in height of concrete to that cone is noted with scale (usually

measured to the nearest my).

3.6.3 INTERPRETATION

INTERPRETATION: the higher the flow value, the greater its ability to fill formwork

under its own weight. Most coarse aggregate will remain in the center of the pool of

concrete, mortar and paste at the periphery of concrete.

3.6.4 PRECAUTION TAKEN WHEN CARRYING OUT A SLUMP TEST

1. Before casting ensure that the mould is greased with lubricant oil before placing

the concrete.

2. Ensure that the mixing was effective carried out with water cement ratio strictly

adhere to.

3. Ensured that hard, non-absorbent surface was used.

4. Ensured that the cone was held firmly to the ground to avoid escape of mixed

concrete.

46
5. Removed the conical mould gently and gradually to retain its shape after tamping

35 times in 3 different layer each.

6. Ensured that the tools were washed and kept after the practical to avoid rust.

7. In order to have a smooth surface a hand trowel should be use to smooth the

surface and remove the excess concrete from the surface of the slump cone or

mould.

3.8 MOULD

Mould is mostly constructed of wood, thick enough to prevent distortion are required.

They are made in such a manner as to work with the evacuation of the mounded

framework without harm and are machined to the point that, when it is collected prepared

for use, the dimensions and internal face are required to be accurate within the following

limits. The cube specimen is of this size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm. Largest normal size

of the aggregate does not exceed 20mm, 100mm size cubes may also be used as an

alternative 100mm x 100mm x 100mm.

Round and hollow test examples have a length equivalent to two times the measurement.

They are 150mm in diameter and 300mm long was also used for the split tensile strength.

All mould are greased before placing concrete.

3.9 COMPACTION OF CONCRETE

Compaction is the process of expelling the entrapped air, if the air is not expelled it will

result into honey combing and reduced the strength. It has been found from experimental

studies that is 1% air in the concrete approximately reduces the strength by 6%. The cube

specimen is made as practicable after mixing and in such a way as to produce full

compaction of the concrete with neither segregation nor excessive laitance. The concrete

47
is filled into the mould in layers approximately 50mm deep and tamped. Each layer was

compacted using a tamping rod.

3.10 PREPARATION FOR CURING

The mold must be gradually dismantled and removed. The cube specimen, made using

various water sources with a mix ratio of 1:2:4, was recorded on the date it was cured

after being stored in place for 24 hours.

3.11 CURING OF CONCRETE

Curing of concrete is the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and

temperature in freshly cast concrete for a definite period of time immediately following

placement. The concrete surface is kept wet for a certain period after placing of concrete

so as to promote the hardening of cement. It consists of control of temperature and of the

moisture movement into the concrete.

The term curing of concrete is used to indicate all the above process.

1. It forestalls or recharges the deficiency of dampness from the substantial.

2. It maintain a favorable temperature for hydration to occur for a definite period.

3. The curing safeguard the substantial surface from the sun and wind.

4. The presence of water is essential to cause the chemical action which accompanies

the setting of cement.

5. The strength of concrete generally increase with age. If curing is efficient, the

increase in strength is sudden and rapid in early days and continues slowly for an

indefinite time. (Md. Moinul Islam, Md. Saiful Islam, Md. Al-Amin and Md. Mydul

Islam (IEB), 40 (1) – 2012, 37-45)

48
3.12 CRUSHING

This is the crushing of concrete cubes to determine the compressive strength of concrete

cubes. This is of utmost importance as it provides insight into all the characteristics of the

concrete. By this single test, one can judge whether the concrete has been properly

prepared. The compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors, including the

water-cement ratio, the strength of the cement, the quality of the materials used, the

quality control during the production of raw materials, and the quality control during the

concrete's mixing and curing process.

3.13 CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to

withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength to elongate. In other

words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together) whereas tensile

strength resists tension (being pull apart). (Md. Moinul Islam, Md. Saiful Islam, Md. Al-

Amin and Md. Mydul Islam (IEB), 40 (1) – 2012, 37-45).

Table 3.1 CASTING PLAN FOR PREPARING CONCRETE CUBE

SOURCE 1 DAY 7 DAYS 21 DAYS 28 DAYS TOTAL

CUBES

FF 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 8 CUBES

FS 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 8 CUBES

FS 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 2 CUBES 8 CUBES

SS 4 CUBES 4 CUBES 4 CUBES 12 CUBES

TOTAL 36 CUBES

49
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

4.2 SIEVE ANALYSIS RESULT

The sieve analysis of granite (coarse aggregate) used for casting of concrete was carried

out and the result is shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1: Sieve analysis showing result of granite

S/N Sieve Mass of Weight % weight Cumulative Cumulative % of

size Empty of granite of Granite weight of % weight of granite

(mm) Sieve retained retained granite granite passing

(g) (g) (g) Retained(g) Retained (g)

1 25.00m 350 300 26.41 300 26.41 73.6

2 19.00m 350 450 39.61 750 66.02 34.0

3 12.50m 350 200 17.61 950 83.63 16.4

4 9.50mm 350 120 10.56 1070 94.19 5.8

5 6.70mm 350 66 5.81 1136 100 0

6 5.00mm 350 0 0 0 0 0

Total =1136 =100%

50
The mass weight of 1000g

For percentage weight retained = 300/1136 x 100 = 26.41

It is applied to the rest

For cumulative percentage weight of retained =300/1136 x 100 = 26.41

It is applied to the rest

Percentage of granite passing = 100 - 26.41 = 73.6

It is applied to the rest

Table 4.2: Sieve analysis showing result of granite

Sieve sizes(mm) 25.00 19.00 12.50 9.50 6.70

% of granite pass through 73.6 34.0 16.4 5.8 0.00

Percentage
passing

Sieve size

(Neville, 2011)

Figure 4.1: graph of sieve analysis

51
4.3 SLUMP TEST

The slump test is a critical measure of concrete workability and consistency, providing

insights into the effects of different mix designs and environmental conditions on fresh

concrete. This chapter presents the results of slump tests conducted on three distinct

concrete mixes exposed to salt water. The objective is to assess how salt water influences

the workability and performance of these mixes.

Figure 4.2: Slump Test

4.3.1 Materials and Methods

Three different concrete mixes were prepared, each with 1:2:4 mix ratio of cement, water

and aggregates. The mixes were labeled as Mix A, Mix B, and Mix C. Each mix was

tested for slump immediately after mixing.

- Mix A: Standard concrete mix with Portland cement, water and aggregates.

- Mix B: Standard concrete mix with Portland cement, water and aggregates.

- Mix C: Standard concrete mix with Portland cement, Salt water and aggregates.

4.3.2 Slump Test Results

The results of the slump tests for the three concrete mixes are summarised in Table 4.1

and discussed in detail below.

52
Table 4.3: Slump test results

Mix Type Initial slump Workability Effects of salt water Exposure

Mix A 15mm Moderate Salt water exposure slightly reduced the

Workability workability over time.

Mix B 25mm Moderate Salt water exposure slightly reduced the

Workability workability over time.

Mix C 45mm High Workability Maintained workability better, showing

superior resistance to salt water.

Mix A: The initial slump of Mix A was 15 mm, indicating moderate workability suitable

for general construction purposes. This indicates that salt water exposure slightly reduced

the workability of the standard concrete mix over time.

Mix B: Mix B exhibited an initial slump of 25 mm, reflecting moderate workability

suitable for general construction purposes. This indicates that salt water exposure slightly

reduced the workability of the standard concrete mix over time.

Mix C: The initial slump of Mix C was 45 mm, the highest among the three mixes, due to

the use of salt water. The high-performance concrete mix maintained its workability

better than the other mixes, indicating superior resistance to the effects of salt water.

The slump test results indicate that salt water exposure leads to a gradual reduction in the

workability of concrete mixes. However, the extent of this reduction varies depending on

the mix composition. The presence of supplementary cementitious materials, such as fly

ash and silica fume, enhances the concrete's microstructure and reduces its permeability,

53
thereby mitigating the adverse effects of salt water. These materials improve the overall

durability and performance of concrete in saline environments.

The slump test results highlight the importance of mix design in determining the

workability and durability of concrete exposed to salt water. High-performance concrete

mixes with supplementary cementitious materials exhibit better resistance to the

detrimental effects of salt water, maintaining higher workability over time. These

findings underscore the necessity of selecting appropriate concrete mix designs for

structures in marine or coastal areas to ensure long-term performance and structural

integrity. (Neville, 2011)

4.4 SEA WATER ANALYSIS RESULTS

Sea water used for the casting was collected from various source for analysis before the

beginning of laboratory work and after the completion of the laboratory work and the

result of the analysis were presented in Table 4.4 to 4.5.

Table 4.4: Results of seawater analysis

Salt water content(g/L)

Element Sea Salt

Chlorides 480

Sulphate 720

Nitrate 410

Calcium ion 420

Magnesium 120

Carbonate 350

Potassium 310

54
This table presents the concentration of various elements found in seawater,

measured in grams per liter (g/L), it provides detailed concentrations of various

elements in seawater, highlighting its complex chemical makeup. Each element

is a key component of seawater and plays a significant role in its chemical

composition.

Table 4.5: Percentage compositions by mass of dissolved compounds in Sea salt

Compound Sea Salt

NaCl 64.6

MgCl2 3.2

CaSo4 2.7

K2So4 2.7

MgSo4 2.4

This table shows the percentage compositions by mass of various dissolved

compounds in seawater, specifically focusing on the major components of sea

salt, it focuses on the percentage compositions of key compounds that make up

sea salt, emphasizing the dominance of sodium chloride while also noting the

presence of other significant compounds.

4.5 RESULTS OF LABORATORY TEST ON CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH

Concrete cubes cast in wooden moulds were demoulded and cured in fresh water, NaCl

and seawater. Concrete cubes were crushed at 1, 7, 21 & 28 days of curing and the results

were as well represented in tabular form. During the crushing of concrete cubes, the

55
cracks patterns were noted and its photograph was taken. It was noted that, there were

salt deposits at the surfaces of the cubes cured in seawater and also at the bottom of

seawater curing tank.

Figure 4.3: Cubes casted and cured

Table 4.6: 1 day concrete cube weight and applied crushing load.

Cube ID Cube weight (kg) Applied load (kN) Compressive Strength(�/푚푚2 )

FF 8.42 kg 402.1 17.87

NaCl 8.50 kg 390.5 17.36

Sea Salt 8.45 kg 410.3 18.24

SF 8.35 kg 340.5 15.13

Table 4.7: 7 days concrete cube weight and applied crushing load.

Cube Id Cube weight (kg) Applied load (kN) Compressive Strength(�/푚푚2 )

FF 8.51 kg 490.3 21.79

NaCl 8.35 kg 472.5 21.00

Sea Salt 8.20 kg 550.4 24.46

SF 8.10 kg 380.5 16.19

56
Table 4.8: 21 days concrete cube weight and applied crushing load.

Cube Id Cube weight (kg) Applied load (kN) Compressive Strength (�/푚푚2)

FF 8.60 kg 542.3 24.10

NaCl 8.55 kg 490.4 21.80

Sea Salt 8.47 kg 576.4 25.62

Table 4.9: 28 days concrete cube weight and applied crushing load.

Cubs Id Cube weight (kg) Applied load (kN) Compressive Strength (�/푚푚2)

FF 8.61 kg 565.2 25.12

NaCl 8.63 kg 510.3 22.68

Sea Salt 8.70 kg 599.2 26.63

SF 8.60 kg 460.4 20.46

Table 4.10: Concrete cube crushing strength.

Cube Id Concrete crushing strength (�/푚푚2 )

1 day 7 days 21 days 28 days

FF 17.87 21.79 24.10 25.12

NaCl 17.36 21.00 21.80 22.68

Sea Salt 18.24 24.46 25.62 26.63

SF 15.13 16.19 ____ 20.46

KEY: FF = Casted in fresh water, cured in fresh water SF = Casted in salt water,

cured in fresh water

57
 Figure 4.4: Compressive strength test

4.6 DATA ANALYSIS

The data generated were analyzed for correlation and comparison and were presented as

follows

Strength

N/mm2

Figure 4.5: Compressive Strength of Fresh water Cube

Strength

N/mm2

Figure 4.6: Compressive Strength of Sea Salt water Cube

58
Strength

N/mm2

Figure 4.7: Compressive Strength of NaCl water Cube

Strength

N/mm2

Figure 4.8: Compressive Strength of Cube casted in salt water and cured in fresh water

Strength

N/mm2

Figure 4.9: Average Compressive Strength of Concrete Cube at 1, 7, 21 and 28 Days, Cast and

Cured with Fresh Water and Salt water

59
4.7 DISCUSSION

The results from each condition provide valuable insights into the compressive strength

of concrete under different curing environments. Let’s explore each condition’s data:

4.7.1 Concrete Casted in Fresh Water and Cured in Fresh Water

This condition represents the most standard and ideal scenario for concrete curing. The

compressive strengths are quite consistent, showing that curing in fresh water after

casting in fresh water maintains the concrete’s integrity. This indicates that the concrete

maintained good hydration, which is essential for developing strength.

4.7.2 Concrete Casted in Fresh Water and Cured in NaCl (Sodium Chloride

Solution)

Concrete casted in fresh water and cured in NaCl solution shows a slight decrease in

compressive strength compared to the first condition. Sodium chloride (NaCl) tends to

increase the porosity of concrete, leading to a reduction in strength. While the decrease is

not drastic, it suggests that saltwater curing weakens the concrete, likely due to chloride

penetration, which can disrupt the hydration process and cause internal cracking.

4.7.3 Concrete Casted in Fresh Water and Cured in Sea Salt Solution

This condition shows a slight improvement in compressive strength compared to the

NaCl-cured & Fresh water-cured concrete. Sea salt contains a more complex mix of salts

compared to NaCl alone, including magnesium and calcium, which may lead to better

strength retention. It suggests that sea salt curing, though still involving salts, may help in

densifying the concrete’s surface slightly more than NaCl. However, long-term exposure

to seawater may still result in gradual degradation due to chloride-induced corrosion.

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4.7.4 Concrete Casted in Sea Water and Cured in Fresh Water

The results for concrete casted in seawater and cured in fresh water show the lowest

compressive strengths among all conditions. The seawater casting process introduces a

significant amount of chlorides and sulfates into the mix, which negatively impacts the

hydration process. Despite curing in fresh water, the initial contamination from seawater

casting seems to have reduced the concrete’s overall strength, possibly due to the

presence of salts and harmful ions that lead to internal cracking and void formation

during hydration.

Concrete casted and cured in fresh water demonstrates good and consistent compressive

strength. This environment enables proper hydration, reducing the formation of voids and

ensuring that the concrete reaches its maximum potential strength. On the other hand,

concrete cured in NaCl exhibits a noticeable reduction in compressive strength due to the

interference of chloride ions in the curing process. NaCl curing results in the most

significant strength loss, as sodium chloride penetrates the concrete, causing internal

micro-cracking and weakening the cement matrix. Curing in sea salt yields slightly better

results than curing in both NaCl and fresh water, suggesting that the combination of salts

in seawater has a marginally less detrimental effect ro concrete than pure sodium chloride,

though the concrete is still weakened over time.

Concrete casted in seawater and cured in fresh water produces the weakest compressive

strengths, further underscoring the harmful impact of chloride and sulfate ions introduced

during the casting process. These salts interfere with the initial hydration reactions,

introducing internal stresses and micro-voids that permanently reduce the concrete’s

structural performance. Even when cured in fresh water, the concrete’s initial exposure to

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seawater has already compromised its integrity, resulting in low compressive strength and

increased porosity. These observations suggest that concrete exposed to saline

environments during casting or curing tends to be weaker and more prone to degradation

over time. Chlorides, in particular, accelerate the corrosion of steel reinforcement,

compromising both the concrete’s strength and durability, and making it vulnerable to

long-term structural failure.

Consequently, the results emphasize the importance of using fresh water for both casting

and curing to ensure optimal performance, while minimizing exposure to saltwater

environments to preserve concrete longevity and structural integrity.

Table 4.4 & 4.5 showed the results of the chemical analysis carried out on seawater

(before and after the completion of the laboratory work on project) and seawater used for

casting of concrete cubes were determined to know the percentage of mass of compounds

in it, ��퐶 , 푀 퐶�2 , 퐶�푆04 , �2 푆04 , and 푀 푆04 dissolve in it. Before the

beginning of the laboratory work on the project, seawater collected from various sources

water was analyzed. The one analyzed from ��퐶 is different than that of Sea Salt

Water. According to literature (Dittmar, 1884), seawater contains 78% of ��퐶 , 10.5%

푀 퐶�2 , 5% MgSo4, 3.9% 퐶�푆04 , 2.3% K2 S04 by mass of salt compounds in

seawater, but the results gotten from Sea Salt gave salt compound of ��퐶 45.5%,

푀 퐶�2 2.4%, 퐶�푆04 1.6%, �2 푆04 1.5%, 푀 푆04 1.6%

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 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

Having successfully carried out this research work, the following conclusion were made.

1. Concrete casted and cured in fresh water achieved good and consistent compressive

strength, indicating optimal hydration and minimal interference from harmful substances.

2. Concrete casted in fresh water and cured in NaCl solution experienced a noticeable

reduction in compressive strength. This was due to chloride ions from sodium chloride

increasing porosity, causing internal micro-cracking, and weakening the concrete’s

overall structure.

3. Concrete casted in seawater and cured in fresh water exhibited the weakest

compressive strength among all conditions. This was likely due to the introduction of

harmful chlorides and sulfates during casting, which caused micro-voids and internal

cracks that could not be reversed by fresh water curing.

4. Fresh water provides the most favorable environment for both casting and curing

concrete, ensuring proper hydration, consistent strength development, and long-term

structural integrity.

5. Seawater exposure during casting has a more detrimental impact on concrete strength

compared to saline exposure during curing, as initial contact with chlorides and sulfates

severely compromises the hydration process from the beginning.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Use Fresh Water for Both Casting and Curing: To ensure optimal compressive

strength and durability, it is highly recommended to cast and cure concrete using fresh

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water. This method yields the best results in terms of hydration, structural integrity, and

long-term strength.

2. Avoid Casting in Seawater: Concrete should never be cast in seawater, as this

introduces damaging salts from the beginning of the hydration process, leading to

permanent strength loss and increased susceptibility to corrosion. In marine environments,

specialized concrete mixes with high sulfate resistance and chloride inhibitors should be

used to counteract the negative effects of seawater exposure.

3. Protect Concrete in Saline Environments: If construction occurs near or within

saline environments, additional protective measures such as sealants, corrosion inhibitors,

and the use of high-density or sulfate-resistant concrete should be employed to mitigate

the harmful effects of chlorides.

4. Conduct Chemical Analysis on Water Sources: A thorough chemical analysis of

water sources used for concrete casting and curing should be conducted to identify any

harmful compounds such as chlorides or sulfates. This will help in selecting the

appropriate water for construction and avoid potential structural issues caused by poor

water quality.

64
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