Int. J.

Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Production Economics

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/ijpe

Review

Green vehicle routing problem: A state-of-the-art review

Mohammad Asghari a, S. Mohammad J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem a, b, *
a
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems, Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Tehran, Iran
b
Rennes School of Business, 2 Rue Robert d’Arbrissel, 35065, Rennes, France

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: As energy overuse and generated pollution have a potential threat to our environmental and ecological condi­
Green vehicle routing problem tions, many researchers have taken the initiative way to join the green campaign to prevent more damage to the
Internal combustion engine vehicles environment. This paper investigates the main contributions related to the green vehicle routing problem (Green-
Alternative-fuel powered vehicles
VRP) and presents a classification scheme based on its variants considered in scientific literature, in particular,
Hybrid electric vehicles
three major and applicable streams including internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), alternative-fuel
Systematic literature review
powered vehicles (AFVs), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), and also several sub-categories for each of
them. This systematic literature review intends to provide a comprehensive and structured survey of the state of
knowledge and discuss the most important characteristics of the problems, including techniques of formulation,
solution methodologies, and areas of application. This paper presents different analytical summary tables for
each variant to emphasize some main features that provide the direction of the development of researches.
Finally, to spot future avenues, gaps in the literature are distinguished to illustrate how new contributions are
different from traditional problems.

1. Introduction scenario, in addition to the direct use of hydrogen and renewables,

electricity would be one of the few energy sources experiencing an in­
The vehicle routing problem (VRP) is a combinatorial optimization crease in consumption by 2040 (Höök et al., 2012), where the share of
that involves finding an optimal design of routes traveled by a fleet of electricity in final consumption, less than half that of today oil, exceeds
vehicles to serve a set of customers. In the traditional VRP, we try to oil (World Energy Outlook 2019), mainly due to electric vehicles (EVs).
detect routes for a homogeneous fleet of vehicles to satisfy the cus­ Additionally, in the last decade, regarding the growing knowledge
tomers’ demands. Every customer node is visited once by just one about the hazardous effects of logistics activities, such as transportation
vehicle which begins and completes its travel at the central station, and which has a considerable impact on the ecological environment, re­
some side constraints must be satisfied. In previous years, different quests for more environmentally friendly practices have increased (Lin
variants have been intensively investigated. To study more details on the et al., 2014). The European Union (EU) has targeted a 40% reduction in
variants of VRP and its features, refer to Montoya-Torres et al. (2015) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 (European
and Braekers et al. (2016). Commission, 2014). This is a challenge for the transportation sector,
According to the 2019 report of the world energy outlook series, the which is responsible for 20% of total GHG emissions, according to the
future estimation of energy systems indicates that a serious loss will European Environment Agency (2014b). Moreover, with increasing ur­
happen by 2040 (World Energy Outlook 2019). This future decline in banization, air quality in cities is emerging as a hot topic, which has led
fossil energy availability and the pollution generated by unnatural re­ to a debate over the prohibition on internal combustion engine vehicles
sources lead to many efforts for preventing the damages by overcoming (ICEVs) in European metropolitan areas (European Commission, 2011;
the pollution resulting from fossil fuel consumption. Advances in digital European Environment Agency, 2014a).
technologies and cost reductions in the renewable sources of energy, With technological developments, scientists concentrate on bringing
while eliminating some energy security dilemmas, provide tremendous down global emissions by considering new sources of energy as the base
opportunities for energy transitions. In the sustainable development of their researches even though they are still in limited use (Iwata and

* Corresponding author. Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Systems, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] (M. Asghari), [email protected]
(S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2020.107899
Received 10 February 2020; Received in revised form 11 June 2020; Accepted 17 August 2020
Available online 27 August 2020
0925-5273/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Matsumoto, 2016). In this way, the green vehicle routing problem attributes of Green-VRP. As depicted in Fig. 1, the proposed framework
(Green-VRP) as an extension of the classic routing problem was intro­ was derived in an integrated approach from three dimensions of the
duced by Erdogan and Miller-Hooks (2012), a relatively new research Green-VRP. The research on Green-VRP generally deals with the opti­
field. To decrease energy consumption in fleet operations, Green-VRPs mization of energy consumption to overcome pollution in logistics and
aim to minimize fuel consumption or adopt alternative-fuel powered transportation activities. In the next sections, different impacts of these
vehicles (AFVs) solely or along with existing ICEVs in fleets. dimensions of the green concerns of logistics in transport systems are
As we know, the efforts of studies before 2010 mainly concentrated discussed in more detail.
on classic routing problems. During this period, a few papers on Green- A comprehensive and practical taxonomy of Green-VRPs is un­
VRP especially EV had been carried out. Since 2010, routing problems doubtedly a tool to hang the nature of the problem and identify inter­
covering pollution emissions and energy consumption have attracted the esting areas for future research for those who are absorbed in research
attention of researchers and became an important issue in recent years. on Green-VRPs. Based on the type of engine, we distinguish the classi­
However, in this field, no literature review of state-of-the-art and recent fication scheme into three broad categories of Green-VRP, including
research has been published which had undertaken a systematic classi­ ICEVs, EVs, and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). We also discuss their
fication of the green logistics variants to shed light on future directions. distinct characteristics, previous efforts, and employed solution meth­
Bridging this gap, this review work tries to review, categorize, and odologies. Classifying the literature on Green-VRP, we used a conceptual
analyze featured articles in the field of green context. For earlier surveys, framework illustrated in Fig. 2. The framework considers various clas­
interested readers can refer to Lin et al. (2014). sification schemes to categorize the literature. Stripped down to the
The contribution of our survey is to provide a systematic and up-to- essential elements of the Green-VRP is containing based on the works
date review and clear classification of the existing studies on the Green- treating the problem, we found consistency among the following
VRP, with an emphasis on the recent literature. This paper presents a aspects.
new and broader classification of articles published until the end of Since we herein attempt to focus on making a taxonomy for cate­
2019. In particular, the paper tries to highlight the lack of investigations gorizing research and examining their approach in optimizing fuel/en­
and point out future research opportunities of research in the Green- ergy consumption and reducing pollution, our classification scheme is
VRPs, especially for conventional, electric, and hybrid vehicles. To based on the most common characteristics of elements of the problem
shed light on the topic, we seek to review the optimization techniques and the algorithms rather than their application scenarios. An in-depth
which can better contribute to deal with the challenges of different types classification of the problem revealing sub-categories of each class is one
of engines. More importantly, a holistic overview of the past publica­ of the main advantages of this design which provides a much clearer and
tions on the pollution-routing problems (PRPs) is also summarized to wider horizon to the scientific progress of this problem. To some extent,
inspire researchers to find out how the outcome of the investigations can the Green-VRP and its sub-categories are identified using this scheme.
be related to the solution of real-life problems. The paper also includes a We briefly summarize them as follows:
comparative survey on the performance of the state-of-the-art heuris­
tics/metaheuristics developed for the Green-VRP variants to systematize 2.1. Problem characteristics
new contributions in the last few years.
Our review study generally motivated by elevating the scope of Regarding the Green-VRP type, four major features of the problem
research through identified gaps and addressing the academic commu­ have been discussed in the literature:
nity with a useful insight into future directions and potential areas of
further and more in-depth study. For practical purposes, the evaluation • Types of engines
of transportation problems concerning environmental-related issues can
help to gain a better understanding of the economic and environmental Over the growing use of diesel internal combustion engines, carbon
importance of vehicles with different features and limitations, and their dioxide emission resulting from fuel combustion increased significantly
relative role in operational settings which can be beneficial in acting at (European Environment Agency, 2013). This has led to an increase in
different levels to achieve green logistics. A summary of the terms and research into more efficient and cleaner methods for using fossil fuels
abbreviations used throughout the article is provided in Appendix A. and a variety of alternative engines. To deal with the challenges of
The rest of the study is organized as follows. Section 2 draws up the
conceptual framework. Section 3 is devoted to a summary of the most
important earlier review/partial-review papers and an overview of the
research methodology. Section 4 contains a summary of the most rele­
vant publications considered green logistics with conventional fossil
fuel-powered vehicles (CFFVs), while Section 5 discusses detailed ana­
lyses and classifications of AFVs variants. This is followed by surveys on
hybrid types of vehicles in Section 6. This section also highlights the
recent contributions investigated mixed fleet of electric and conven­
tional vehicles. To make these easier for interested readers, the formu­
lation techniques, approaches of the solution, and other essential
features are summarized in some tables. Eventually, Section 7 concludes
the main findings of the literature review, research limitations, and di­
rections for further research.

2. Conceptual framework

To characterize the existing literature on Green-VRP policies, this

section proposes a conceptual framework. It is important to know the
current view on the concept of green logistics in order to link it to ac­
ademic progress and future promising research streams in the Green-
VRP sub-areas. Based on our understanding, our work proposes the
first conceptual framework by going into further detail regarding the Fig. 1. Three structured review term categories of Green-VRP.

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Fig. 2. Conceptual framework used for classifying the green vehicle routing problems.

different types of engines as well as their problem characteristics and Hybrid electric vehicles have recently been developed to reduce the
techniques, the framework dimension is classified by the necessary stops and dependence on infrastructure by using two different
sub-dimensions CFFVs, AFVs, and HEVs. engines, a pure electric motor and an internal combustion engine, which
Conventional fossil fuel-powered vehicles’ exhaust fumes are among the can be easily switched. To help researchers in finding a landscape of
most important sources of NOx, SO2, and CO2 emissions. The pollution- literature, we analyze exploited the results in detail and identify the gap.
routing problem, as one of the main related works, has been broadly
considered in the literature, where the estimation of fuel consumption • Objectives
and generated CO2 emissions by mobile sources is the main minimiza­
tion criterion. Green transportation can be achieved by extending the economic
Alternative-fuel powered vehicles rely on greener energy sources like objectives of traditional VRP to take into account the social and envi­
hydrogen, natural gas, electricity, etc. (Erdogan and Miller-Hooks, ronmental impacts related to fuel consumption and GHG emissions.
2012). We concentrate on the approaches proposed to deal with the There exist several references that have sought to formulate an inclusive
main obstacles encountered when replacing the conventional vehicles objective function meeting green criteria and efficiency objectives
with the AFVs such as the scarcity of alternative fuel stations (AFSs) and simultaneously. Regarding different objective functions conducted on
the limited capacity of the fuel tank or battery of an AFV. the literature, the routing problems with environmental considerations

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

can be categorized based on economic (e.g. travel cost, station instal­ or an iterative procedure within a relatively short execution time,
lation cost, fuel/charging cost), environmental (fuel consumption, however, it does not guarantee the optimality of the solution. As the
emission, and environmental impacts), and social (e.g. satisfaction, level extension of the heuristics, metaheuristics are random-based algorithms
of service, journey risk, and responsibility) objectives. for exploring possible solutions into a large range. Each metaheuristic
has its behavior and features. However, all of them share some funda­
• Scenarios mental components and execute operations that fall into a limited
number of groups. See Talbi (2009) for a more detailed description of
This sub-dimension describes the scenario at hand according to their metaheuristics. As demonstrated in Fig. 3, metaheuristics can be clas­
degree of realism, and they include strategic and planning attributes. sified as attending to different criteria, not exclusive between them.
The main issues must be re-examined and reformulated to deal with the
new challenges associated with the restrictions of different types of • Trajectory-based, and population-based search
vehicles, for example, the number and type of fuel stations that need to
be established, the location of these stations, and their optimal capacity. Generally, metaheuristics are divided into trajectory-based and
They may influence the environmental and operational dimensions of population-based search. The former means the metaheuristic keeps
the Green-VRP and ultimately affect the computational complexity of exploring the solution space by iteratively moving from the current so­
eventual solution procedures. To describe the influence of some of these lution to another promising solution in its neighborhood. As the itera­
aspects in the Green-VRP, the problem scenarios including uncertain data, tions continue, the trajectory-based algorithms trace out a path by using
fleet type, charging policy, charging/consumption function, and charger one solution or a single agent at a time. Typical examples of trajectory-
composition, are devoted to the review. based search for Green-VRP are large neighborhood search (LNS),
simulated annealing (SA), and variable neighborhood search (VNS).
• Interacted with traditional VRP However, the latter, a population search based metaheuristic, uses
multiple agents interacting and tracing out multiple paths which means
Green-VRP is a VRP concerning environmental issues. There are a after seeking out the best solutions in an iteration, the algorithm
wide variety of VRP types that can be combined with the Green-VRP maintains a pool of these solutions as parents and so as to update the
models, making them comprehensive, more applicable, and closer to pool, continually selects good ones for producing promising offspring.
real issues. Setting the VRP in transportation planning provides oppor­ Most of the population-based search algorithms have no prior infor­
tunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the inclusion of mation on the distribution of the points, therefore they implicitly detect
broader objective functions that reflect environmental cost. Thus, we them through processes of diversification and intensification, like ant
draw the review on the Green-VRP, by analyzing how the Green-VRP colony optimization (ACO). On the contrary, some procedures, such as
interacts with the traditional VRP types. estimation of distribution algorithm (EDA), employ an approximation of
the distribution in the sampling of the objective function which is called
2.2. Solution methodologies explicit metaheuristic (see Baluja, 1997).

Another dimension of our framework examines the characteristics of • Evolutionary versus swarm intelligence algorithms
the algorithms used to solve the Green-VRPs as well as their computa­
tional complexity. The Green-VRP is NP-hard because it is a natural Evolutionary algorithms are characterized by the presence of a
extension of the standard VRPs which are classified as NP-hard. Three population of individuals exposed to environmental pressures, which
general types of solution approaches have been presented in the litera­ lead to natural selection, i.e. the survival of the fittest, and in turn an
ture, exact algorithms, heuristics, and metaheuristics. An exact algorithm improvement in the average fitness of the population. The main evolu­
always finds the optimal solution, but it can only tackle relatively small- tionary algorithms are genetic algorithm (GA), evolutionary program­
sized problems. A heuristic algorithm is an experience-based technique ming (EP), and evolution strategy (ES). Swarm intelligence algorithms
for finding provably good-quality solutions through a series of processes are directly inspired by the behavior of social animals such as ants, birds,

Fig. 3. Classification of the most common metaheuristics in solving the Green-VRPs.

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Table 1
Main characteristics of earlier published review papers.
Papers Area Nu Span Cf Rm Scope

Amjad et al. (2010) PHEV 27 Until 2009 Design considerations; Technological challenges
Lin et al. (2014) PRP, RL 280 Until 2013 ✓ Interacting of traditional VRP variants with Green-VRP; Research opportunities
Demir et al. (2014b) ICEV 53 Until 2013 Green road freight transportation; Factors affecting fuel consumption; Vehicle emission models
Hannan et al. (2014) HEV 114 Until 2012 Energy management system; Power conditioning; Propulsion system
Park and Chae (2014) ICEV 42 2000–2014 Solution approaches; Fuel consumption
Juan et al. (2016) EV 114 Until 2016 Strategic, planning, and operational challenges
Pelletier et al. (2016) EV, HEV 100 2000–2014 Good distribution; Research opportunities
Rahman et al. (2016) EV, PHEV 107 2008–2015 Optimization techniques for charging infrastructure
Mahmudul et al. (2017) AFV 191 Until 2016 Production, characterization and performance of biodiesel
Pelletier et al. (2017) EV 115 1998–2016 Battery degradation and behavior
Our Study ICEV, AFV, HEV 313 2000–2020 ✓ ✓ The problem characteristics and solution methodologies of the Green-VRPs
Nu: Number of reviewed articles, Cf: Conceptual framework, Rm: Review methodology, AFV: alternative-fuel powered vehicle, EV: Electric vehicle, HEV: Hybrid electric vehicle, ICEV:
Internal combustion engine vehicle, PHEV: Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, PRP: Pollution-routing problem, RL: Reverse logistics

bees, bats, and others. By using appropriate communication rules, the search of scholarly databases, and scope of the review.
population as a whole exhibits a complex emergent behavior that is As illustrated in Table 1, we cannot observe a comprehensive review
indeed very intelligent. ACO, bee colony optimization (BCO), and par­ paper in the literature analyzing state-of-the-art recent publications on
ticle swarm optimization (PSO) are among the best-known swarm in­ the Green-VRP. Aside from the duration of the studies, the most
telligence algorithms. important limitation of surveys is the scope of research. Moreover, using
a systematic state-of-the-art literature search and selection strategy and
• Deterministic versus stochastic algorithms consequently more sample of works on Green-VRP than addressed by
any of earlier survey papers makes it possible for us to reach the research
Deterministic metaheuristics, like iterated local search (ILS) and objectives which have not been covered in the existing reviews. All of
greedy randomized adaptive search procedure (GRASP), solve the the studies in Table 1 are partial review papers with specific aims, for
optimization problems by making deterministic decisions. Conversely, example in ICEV (Demir et al., 2014b; Park and Chae, 2014), HEVs,
stochastic algorithms, which include most of the metaheuristics, apply (Amjad et al., 2010; Hannan et al., 2014; Pelletier et al., 2016; Rahman
some random rules during the search process. In deterministic meta­ et al., 2016), and EV (Pelletier et al., 2017; Juan et al., 2016). To this
heuristics, the use of the same initial solution leads to the same final date, the literature lacks a well-organized analysis of the difficulties
solution, while in stochastic algorithms such as SA, GA, and ES, different encountered by an integrated consideration including ICEVs, EVs, and
final solutions may be obtained from the same initial solution. This HEVs of different types in the Green-VRP. The three-vehicle classes
characteristic must be considered in evaluating the performance of differ in terms of charging choices and engine operation.
metaheuristic algorithms. Among all the considered review studies in Table 1, Lin et al. (2014)
just seek to investigate a vast number of publications in their study.
• Nature inspired versus non-nature inspired algorithms However, they included articles published before 2013 and did not cover
the publications on alternative fuel vehicles and HEVs. Although the
Many algorithms have strategies or schemes inspired by elements of papers of Rahman et al. (2016) and Pelletier et al. (2016) analyzed both
nature phenomena and have been developed by mimicking the intelli­ electric and hybrid vehicles, their paper did not consider CFFVs and the
gence characteristics of biological and physical agents, such as ACO, number of examined papers is low. On the other hand, the mentioned
GAs, PSO, and SA. Other methods are not nature-inspired, like differ­ review papers have not also undertaken some of the new promising lines
ential evolution algorithm (DEA), scatter search (SS), and tabu search of research on EVs yet. Therefore, it seems a full exploration of research
(TS). challenges connected to the dimensions of EVs’ planning is needed to
point out environmental concerns, strategic challenges, and emerging
• Memory usage versus memoryless algorithms operational issues associated with the planning of EVs in routing
problems.
Some algorithms employ memory to store information extracted Since hybrid electric vehicle routing problems have recently arisen in
while exploring solution space, such as memories in the TS algorithm. the literature, there is low awareness about how to overcome the opti­
mizing obstacles of the use of different modes on variant segments of the
3. Literature review route. Thus, there remains a continuing need for enriching relevant
contributions either by real-world applications or theoretical analyses
3.1. Related literature reviews through. Accordingly, the analysis of exploited the results in detail and
the identification of the gaps can help researchers to find a landscape of
The most important characteristic of the Green-VRP is harmonizing literature. Some of the partial review papers in this area are summarized
the environmental and economic objectives through achieving optimal below.
design meeting the environmental-related issues and financial indexes. Amjad et al. (2010) provided a brief review of design considerations
Due to the significant number of recent articles published in the domain and technological challenges ahead of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
of Green-VRPs, now is an appropriate time for carrying out a systematic (PHEVs). Another review paper detailed hybrid vehicle technology and
literature review on the state-of-research. In order to show the need for its short comes was explained by Hannan et al. (2014). Pelletier et al.
this research, some review papers will be mentioned in this section. In (2016) can be mentioned here as they presented a survey of electric
Table 1, the earlier review/partial review studies and their main char­ vehicular technology for good distribution. However, the authors
acteristics are summarized to clarify a structured review. To highlight ignored charging policies that affect battery lifespan, and also the fleet
the contribution of the study, Table 1 compares related review papers size and potential mix of ICEVs and EVs. Rahman et al. (2016) consid­
with regard to research focus, number of reviewed articles (Nu), time ered the algorithmic and computational aspects of various optimization
span, the development of a conceptual framework (Cf), using a review methods employed for charging infrastructure.
methodology (Rm) like a literature selection strategy to facilitate the As a consequence, despite the large number of articles published in

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Table 2
The scientific contribution reviewed in this paper.
Year Papers

2000 Pronello and André

2002 Plotkin et al.
2005 Barth et al.; Lübbecke and Desrosiers
2007 McKinnon; Palmer; Chan; Sciarretta and Guzzella
2008 Apaydin and Gonullu; Golden et al.; Gong et al.
2009 Upchurch et al.; Silva et al.; Bradley and Frank
2010 Kuo; Scott et al.; Jovicic et al.; Maden et al.; Bauer et al.; Fagerholt et al.; Sbihi and Eglese; Amjad et al.; Urquhart et al.
2011 Conrad and Figliozzi; Bektaş and Laporte; Pitera et al.; Suzuki; Ubeda et al.; Faulin et al.; Xue et al.; Gonçalves et al.; Figliozzi; Bae et al.; Kuo and Wang; Rakha et al.
2012 Xiao et al.; Erdogan and Miller-Hooks; Demir et al.; Jabali et al.; Li; Höök et al.
2013 Wang and Cheu; Van Duin et al.; Pan et al.; Kwon et al.; Murgovski et al.; Franceschetti et al.; Feng and Figliozzi; Pradenas et al.
2014 Demir et al. (a); Demir et al. (b); Felipe et al.; Sassi et al.; Preis et al.; Schneider et al.; Afroditi et al.; Zheng et al.; Adler and Mirchandani; Lin et al.; Park and Chae; Jovanovic
et al.; Cirovic et al.; Juan et al.; Kopfer et al.; Koç et al.; Frank et al.; Hannan et al.; Tajik et al.; Archetti and Speranza; Zhang; Qian and Eglese; Molina et al.; Salimifard and
Raeesi;
2015 Montoya-Torres et al.; Yang and Sun; Li-ying and Yuan-bin; Goeke and Schneider; Aggoune-Mtalaa et al.; Bruglieri et al.(a); Bruglieri et al.(b); Lebeau et al.; Tiwari and Chang;
Schneider et al.; Chung and Kwon; Ding et al.; Fukasawa et al.; Liu et al.; Arslan et al.; Kramer et al. (a); Kramer et al. (b); Soysal et al. (a); Gharaei et al.; Malekly; Greenblatt
and Shaheen; Li et al.; Soysal et al. (b); Niakan and Rahimi; Yang et al. Zhang et al.; Sweda and Klabjan
2016 Braekers et al.; Rahman et al.; Dabia et al.; Iwata and Matsumoto; Desaulniers et al.; Li et al.; Casals et al.; Lin et al.; Keskin and Çatay; Liao et al.; Grandinetti et al.; Pelletier
et al.; Hiermann et al. (a); Hiermann et al. (b); Penna et al.; Roberti and Wen; Wen et al.; Fiori et al.; Küçükoglu and Öztürk; Bektaş et al.; Yu et al.; Qazvini et al.; Yin and
Chuang; Bruglieri et al.; Montoya et al.; Afshar-Bakeshloo et al.; Teng and Zhang; Verma and Sharma; Beiter and Tian; Fukasawa et al.; Koç and Karaoglan; Qian and Eglese;
Sun and Zhou; Suzuki; Xiao and Konak; Ehmke et al.; Sanchez et al.; Kim et al.; Laporte; Juan et al.; Alinaghian and Naderipour; Naderipour and Alinaghian; Lee and Prabhu;
Zeng et al.; Kumar et al.; Cheng et al.; Li et al.; Demir et al.
2017 Andelmin and Bartolini; Hof et al.; Schiffer and Walther (a); Schiffer and Walther (b); Montoya et al.; Froger et al.(a); Froger et al.(b); Pelletier et al.; Abdulaal et al.; Bruglieri
et al.(a); Bruglieri et al.(b); Fetene et al.; Yuan et al.; Liu et al.; Sawik et al.; Mirmohammadi et al.; Jabir et al.; Kazemian and Aref; Mahmudul et al.; Franceschetti et al.; Qiu
et al.; Eshtehadi et al.; Yavuz; Leggieri and Haouari; Zhang et al.; Mancini; Yu et al.; Sweda et al. (a); Sweda et al. (b); Çimen and Soysal; Soysal and Cimen; Toro et al.; Yavuz
and Çapar; Nejad et al.; Huang et al.; Shukla et al.; Saka et al.; Setak et al.; Guo and Liu; Cheng et al.; Rahimi et al.; Tricoire and Parragh; Androutsopoulos and Zografos;
Behnke and Kirschstein; Murakami; Vincent et al.
2018 Fernandez; Keskin and Çatay; Paz et al.; Koç et al.; Masmoudi et al. (a); Masmoudi et al. (b); Pelletier et al.; Wang et al. (a); Wang et al. (b); Wang et al. (c); Li et al. (a); Li et al.
(b); Li et al. (c); Villegas et al.; Zhang et al. (a); Zhang et al. (b); Zhang et al. (c); Madankumar and Rajendran; Schiffer and Walther; Lu et al.; Kancharla and Ramadurai; Schiffer
et al.; Shao et al.; Zhou and Tan; Majidi et al.; Poonthalir and Nadarajan; Ferro et al.; Abad et al.; Micheli and Mantella; Niu et al.; Rabbani et al.; Suzuki and Lan; Kopfer and
Vornhusen; Duan et al.; Soleimani et al.; Costa et al.; Kim and Park; Soysal et al. (a); Soysal et al. (b); Mirhedayatian and Yan; Stellingwerf et al. (a); Stellingwerf et al. (b);
Letnik et al.; Rau et al.; Verma
2019 Keskin et al.; Froger et al.; Jie et al.; Breunig et al.; Macrina et al. (a); Macrina et al. (b); Pelletier et al.; Yu et al. (a); Yu et al. (b); Zhen et al.; Karak and Abdelghany; Li et al. (a);
Li et al. (b); Zhang et al. (a); Zhang et al. (b); Wang et al. (a); Wang et al. (b); Raeesi and Zografos; Dukkanci et al.; Bruglieri et al. (a); Bruglieri et al. (b); Bruglieri et al. (c);
Koyuncu and Yavuz; Rauniyar et al.; Xiao et al.; Küçükoglu et al.; Basso et al.; Göpfert and Bock; Poonthalir and Nadarajan; Van den Hove; Hiermann et al.; Kunnapapdeelert
and Klinsrisuk; Goeke; Tan et al.; Bravo et al.; Saad and Bahadori; Sun et al.; Schröder and Cabral; Ghannadpour and Zarrabi; Rezgui et al.; Anderluh et al.; Eskandarpour et al.;
Rastani et al.; Andelmin and Bartolini; Cortés-Murcia et al.; Kellner and Schneiderbauer; Erdem and Koç; Zuo et al.; Darvish et al.; Xu et al.; Ashtineh and Pishvaee
2020 Asghari and Mirzapour Al-e-Hashem (a); Asghari and Mirzapour Al-e-hashem (2020); Alkaabneh et al.; Zeng et al.; Bahrami et al.; Li et al. (a); Li et al. (b); Xiao et al.; Abdi
et al.; Sayarshad et al.; Poonthalir et al.; Liao et al.; Zulvia et al.; Liu et al. (a); Liu et al. (b); Pitakaso et al.; Almouhanna et al.; Karakostas et al.; Ganji et al.; Shao and Dessouky;
De and Giri; Zhang et al.; Giallanza and Puma; Cui et al.

recent years in the field of Green-VRP, there is not an integrated review of the studies found in the first and second sources (backward search)
after 2016 that provides a comprehensive (not partial) literature review. and all ignored papers that cited any of the studies found in the first and
Furthermore, it is now necessary to reconstruct a systematic review second sources (forward search) have been checked further for rele­
paper is built upon new studies in the area to have a general overview of vance. We ran our snowball for five rounds.
current and future research directions in Green-VRP. According to these In the first two steps, we have ensured substantive relevance by
dominating activities, the current paper tries to identify and review, requiring that each of the studies includes at least one keyword com­
from an operations research perspective, several open and difficult bination in its title, abstract, or list of keywords. In the next step, the
research challenges associated with sustainable transportation issues snowballing approach, relevance of content is checked by manual
which are denoted as Green-VRP. The last row of Table 1 presents the analysis of their abstracts or, if needed, by completely reading all works.
role of our study in covering the literature gap. Backward and forward snowball searches enabled us to find 17 articles
that had been missing in the first two steps. Eventually, we have dis­
cussed the results with experts to identify missing studies. Discussions
3.2. Research methodology with experts helped to find another 9 additional works. Appendix B
provides a simplified version of the research protocol adopted. As shown
To explore the trend of past and new contributions done on Green- in Table 2, about 313 papers published between 2000 and 2020 are
VRP and its three major and applicable streams, CFFVs, EVs and reviewed in this paper that reflect the environmental sensitivity
HEVs, we have examined and analyzed the articles in order to better consideration in routing problems and one can observe that this concern
understand their development, which drew the fundamental philosophy is increasing day by day.
of the presented paper. To gain a comprehensive overview of the state of Fig. 4 highlights a clear trend and plurality of scientific contributions
knowledge on Green-VRPs, we conducted a systematic literature review on Green-VRP including an initial set of review and research articles and
according to the methodology offered by Cooper (2010) and used, for those found by forward/backward snowballing searches. As shown in
example, in Masae et al. (2020) and Osterrieder et al. (2020). To survey the figure, over the years, the green concept and its several variants have
the literature, we have majorly used three sources: (1) several academic gained growing attention in the scientific context, especially in the field
databases, including Scopus, ScienceDirect, EBSCO, Link, Springer, etc., of operations research. Fig. 4 underlines this fact that over 95 percent of
accessed from the university library and using various keywords such as the articles in the area of Green-VRP were written in the last decade.
green vehicle routing problem, pollution-routing problem, electric Table 3 exhibits the number of publications and the literature distri­
vehicle, hybrid electric vehicle, green logistics, and so on; (2) bibliog­ bution and the scientific journals that published at least three articles.
raphies of book chapters and survey papers on Green-VRP; (3) a snow­ Reviewing Table 3 reveals that the subject of Green-VRP is approved by
ball search conducted by which all ignored papers that were cited in any

6
M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Fig. 4. Studies in the context of Green-VRP and its variants (313 papers: 2000–2020).

network with special emphasis on reducing GHG and specifically CO2

Table 3
emissions (Bektaş and Laporte, 2011). For this reason, Bektaş and
Journals distribution based on the publication source.
Laporte (2011) introduced the PRP aiming at determining an efficient
Journal Number of articles vehicle dispatching plan with less pollution, specifically, lower CO2
Journal of Cleaner Production 24 emissions. Decreasing carbon emissions is achievable by evolving the
Transp. Res. Part D 24 classic routing problem to consider the relevant environmental and so­
European Journal of Operational Research 22
cial impact (e.g. Apaydin and Gonullu, 2008; Jovicic et al., 2010; Qian
Transp. Res. Part E 18
Computers & Operations Research 17
and Eglese, 2016; Sbihi and Eglese, 2010; Dabia et al., 2016; Palmer,
Transp. Res. Part B 17 2007; Qiu et al., 2017; Fukasawa et al., 2016; Maden et al., 2010; Demir
Int. J. Production Economics 15 et al., 2012, 2014a, b; Molina et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2015; Zeng et al.,
Computers & Industrial Engineering 12 2016; Bektaş and Laporte, 2011; Afshar-Bakeshloo et al., 2016; Faulin
Transp. Res. Part C 10
et al., 2011; Cirovic et al., 2014; Sawik et al., 2017; Franceschetti et al.,
Transportation Science 10
Expert Systems with Applications 9 2017; Eskandarpour et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020a; Zeng et al., 2020).
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 7 Some green routing problems focus on energy consumption.
Applied Soft Computing 5 Reducing fuel consumption may conflict with the appointed economic
International Transaction in Operational Research 5
aims. Investigating the relationship between transportation and envi­
Journal of the Operational Research Society 4
Electron. Notes Discrete Math 3
ronmental impact of fuel consumption through the planning of routes
Energy 3 can also bring valuable and practical ideas. Since a desirable reduction
Resources, Conservation & Recycling 3 in fossil fuel consumption can correspondingly decrease GHG emissions
Transportation Research Procedia 3 significantly (Xiao et al., 2012), petroleum-based fuel consumption is
Others (1 & 2 papers) 102
known as a very important indicator in the Green-VRP (Kuo, 2010; Zeng
Total 313
et al., 2020). A survey paper that focuses on different fuel consumption
formulations is Demir et al. (2014b). With aim of minimizing the fossil
different journals and the distribution of journals in which the reviewed fuel consumption, Bektaş and Laporte (2011) extended traditional VRP
studies were published shows the desires of numerous operations with a broader and more comprehensive objective function that not only
research journals. As can be seen, the 10 most popular outlets with at considers the distance traveled by vehicles, but it can also deal with the
least six articles in Green-VRP, including Computers and Operations cost of travel time, fuel, and GHG emissions:
Research, Computers and Industrial Engineering, European Journal of ( )
∑( ∑( ∑( ∑
Operational Research, International Journal of Production Economics, Min
)
cf + e αij dij wxij +
)
cf + e αij fij dij +
)
cf + e dij β vr2 zrij
Journal of Cleaner Production, Transportation Research (parts: B, C, D, E), (i,j)∈A (i,j)∈A (i,j)∈A r∈R
and Transportation Science, only account for more than half of the total ∑
+ psj
published papers. The residual papers have been published in another j∈N0
73 journals. Also, 102 papers were found in different journals that had (1)
few publications (fewer than 3) in this field.
This function consists of four components. The first two calculate the
4. Conventional fossil fuel-powered vehicles cost implied by the gross weight of vehicle plus carried load. The next
part calculates the cost incurred by variations in speed. These three
Transportation is identified as one of the largest consumers of pe­ components translated directly into the total cost of fuel consumption
troleum and responsible for a considerable part of air pollutants (Sali­ and emission of greenhouse gases measured by the unit cost (cf + e)
mifard and Raeesi, 2014). The growing concerns about direct or indirect multiplied by the total amount of fuel consumed over each arc (i, j). All
harmful impacts of transportation on both human and ecological sys­ used constants and decision variables are presented in Table 1A of Ap­
tems indicate an urgent need to re-planning of the transportation pendix C. Recently, Xiao et al. (2020) extended the discrete PRP of

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Bektaş and Laporte (2011) to a continuous case through taking the travel Table 5
speed as a continuous decision variable, such that all related scheduling Explanation of the objective functions used in Tables 4 and 7.
variables including travel time, load flow, and departing/arrival/wait­ 1: Vehicle cost/driver 7: Total makespan 13: Battery swapping cost
ing times are all treated as continuous decision variables. wage (duration)
The models in the PRP commonly consider a constant energy con­ 2: Traveling cost/time 8: Fueling cost/time 14: Violated time windows
sumption rate (ECR) which has a linear relationship with the distance penalty
traveled by vehicles. To consider the fuel consumption in the formula­ 3: Fuel consumption/ 9: Battery cost 15: Recharging cost
tion, it is necessary to calculate the amount of consumption according to emission
4: Waiting/disturbance 10: Charging cost 16: Fixed and maintenance
the different conditions of the traveling vehicles. As reported by the US cost cost
Department of Energy (2008), some factors such as the weight of the 5: Station installation cost 11: Profit/revenue 17: Size of fleet
load, travel speed as well as distance considerably affect the amount of 6: Stopping cost/time at a 12: Operational costs 18: Satisfaction
fuel consumption. Several relevant references about the fuel consump­ station
tion exist in the literature, which calculate the carbon dioxide emission
based on more complex factors such as velocity, payload, the road
Bektaş and Laporte (2011) proposed a PRP considering speed and load
gradient, and driving habits (Scott et al., 2010; Kuo, 2010; Tiwari and
as main factors in generating pollution and utilized a fuel consumption
Chang, 2015; Bektaş et al., 2016; Xiao et al., 2012; Murakami, 2017; Kim
function which was previously introduced by Barth et al. (2005) in a
et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2019a, 2019b; Park and Chae, 2014; Laporte,
comprehensive modal emission model. Their calculation of fuel con­
2016).
sumption and CO2 emissions for a given link (i, j)with length of
Table 4 reviews the relevant works on the ICEVs published between
dij depends on distance, speed, and load carried on the vehicle (including
2015 and 2020. We illustrate the main characteristics of the mathe­
curb weight):
matical models including fleet type, considering capacity restriction
( ( ) )
(Ca.), load (L.), speed (S.), time windows (TW), multi-objective function M aij + g sin θij + gCr cos θij + 0.5Cd ρAv2ij kNV
(MO), the objective functions (Obj.) and the approaches used to solve Fij = ωγdij + (2)
1000η × ηtf vij
the problem. Homogeneous and heterogeneous vehicles are indicated by
Ho and Ht. DP, NRGA, and NSGA-II correspond to dynamic program­ In Table 2A of Appendix C, detailed notations of Eq. (2) are provided.
ming, non-dominated ranking genetic algorithm, and non-dominated Their model has benefited from dependence on fuel type and viewing
genetic algorithm II, respectively. Table 5 presents the defines the biodiesel as an alternative fuel applied in existing conventional gasoline
encoding used for each objective function. or diesel vehicles, either on its own or blended with petroleum-based
As shown in Table 4, most PRPs examined vehicle weight, speed, and diesel (Verma and Sharma, 2016). As quantified by Ashtineh and Pish­
travel time as effective factors on greenhouse emissions. For example, vaee (2019), biodiesel is capable of reducing GHG emissions by 37%.

Table 4
Summary of the previous work on the ICEVs.
Study Fleet type Ca. L. S. TW MO Obj. Solution method

Ho Ht

Kramer et al. (2015a, b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 3 ILS

Fukasawa et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 3 Exact method
Kumar et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 12 Self-Learning PSO
Suzuki (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 SA & TS
Behnke and Kirschstein (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Exact method
Cheng et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 3, 8, 16 Brach-and-cut
Çimen and Soysal (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 8 DP
Eshtehadi et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Exact method
Franceschetti et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 3 ALNS
Jabir et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 3 ACO & VNS
Murakami (2017) AFV & ICEV ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 16 Exact method
Soysal and Çimen (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 DP
Tricoire and Parragh (2017) AFV & ICEV ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 12 Exact method
Toro et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 12 Exact method
Yavuz (2017) AFV & ICEV 2 Heuristic procedure
Yavuz and Çapar (2017) AFV & ICEV ✓ 2, 3, 8 VNS
Abad et al. (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 3, 12 NRGA, NSGA-II & PSO
Micheli and Mantella (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Exact method
Niu et al. (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 3 TS
Poonthalir and Nadarajan (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 3 PSO
Soysal et al. (2018a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 8, 12 Exact method
Zhang et al. (2018b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 8, 11 ALNS
Anderluh et al. (2019) AFV & ICEV ✓ ✓ 2, 3, 4 LNS
Dukkanci et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 12 Local search
Ghannadpour and Zarrabi (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 3, 17, 18 NSGA-II
Li et al. (2019b) ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 3, 7, 11 ACO
Koyuncu and Yavuz (2019) AFV & ICEV ✓ ✓ 2 Brach-and-cut
Raeesi and Zografos (2019) ICEV ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 3, 7 Exact method
Rauniyar et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 3 NSGA-II
Wang et al. (2019a) AFV & ICEV ✓ 3 TS
Eskandarpour et al. (2019) AFV & ICEV ✓ ✓ 2, 3 Multi-Directional Local Search
Xu et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 18 NSGA-II
Alkaabneh et al. (2020) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 11, 12 Exact method
Asghari and Mirzapour Al-e-Hashem (2020a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3, 8, 11, 14 Self-learning NSGA-II
Karakostas et al. (2020) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 3, 8, 12 VNS

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Besides, due to the suitability and properties of biodiesel, a specific Prabhu (2016) and Soysal and Çimen (2017) dealt with dynamic
diesel-powered vehicle does not need any modification in the engine for models. Recent papers of time-dependent PRP are suggested here. Fig­
employing biodiesel instead of (or mixed with) diesel and new ones liozzi (2011), Demir et al. (2012, 2014a), Li (2012), Franceschetti et al.
operate on biodiesel fuels without any adjustments (Beiter and Tian, (2013), Qian and Eglese (2014, 2016), Xiao and Konak (2016), Ehmke
2016). For more information about biodiesel, interested readers can et al. (2016), Qazvini et al. (2016), Sanchez et al. (2016), Alinaghian and
refer to Mahmudul et al. (2017), Masmoudi et al. (2018a) and Xue et al. Naderipour (2016), Naderipour and Alinaghian (2016), Guo and Liu
(2011). (2017), Huang et al. (2017), Kazemian and Aref (2017), Setak et al.
Bauer et al. (2010), Figliozzi (2011), McKinnon (2007), Pan et al. (2017), Androutsopoulos and Zografos (2017), Dukkanci et al. (2019),
(2013), and Letnik et al. (2018) explicitly concentrated on minimizing Xu et al. (2019), Yu et al. (2019a), Liu et al. (2020a), and Zulvia et al.
the amount of CO2 emission in intermodal freight transport and showed (2020).
its potential effect on decreasing pollution. Previous developments in Pronello and André (2000) offered, to the best of our knowledge, the
this field, including a review of various vehicle-emission formulations as first study that considered traveling time for estimating the pollution
well as their applications in common freight transportation, were generated by a vehicle. Palmer (2007) developed a routing model and
comprehensively reviewed by Bektaş et al. (2016). The first study that calculated the amount of carbon dioxide as well as distance and trav­
incorporates minimizing carbon dioxide equivalent emissions in a eling time. They tried to examine the effects of speed on emissions
routing problem with backhauls was done by Ubeda et al. (2011). The reduction in different traffic situations in the context of traffic conges­
authors showed that backhauling can be an effective way in enhancing tion with time windows. A time-dependent routing problem in different
energy consumption and controlling GHG emissions. Stellingwerf et al. traffic scenarios was considered Sbihi and Eglese (2010). When the ve­
(2018a, b) extend the load-dependent model in temperature-controlled hicles are moving at their optimum speeds, less pollution is generated,
road transportation to reduce refrigeration emissions which is respon­ therefore directing fleet away from congestion tends to be greener,
sible for 40% of the CO2 emissions. They showed that in cooled trans­ albeit new planning results in taking longer routes. Also, Maden et al.
port, emissions can reduce by driving on higher speed routes. Recently, (2010) solved the same optimization problem with the objective of
Van den Hove et al. (2019) developed a cyclist routing procedure which minimization of the total travel time and reported about a 7% decrease
aims at minimizing personal exposure to black carbon with assuming a in carbon emissions by a function conducted from the time-varying
gradual transition from routes reducing average exposure to routes speeds. Qian and Eglese (2014) addressed a least polluting problem
reducing peak exposure. In the field of road freight transportation, for a single route in a network with time-varying speeds where optimal
Schröder and Cabral (2019) introduced a three-dimensional routing routes and speeds are determined by the level of congestion on the roads
model based on Geographic Information System (GIS) to show the im­ at the time as follows:
pacts of road inclination and varying velocities on fuel consumption and
∑
N
( ( )) ( )
GHG emission. Kellner and Schneiderbauer (2019) provided suggestions min α.FC s zk .d zk (3)
for a global carbon accounting standard in road freight transportation. k=1
They studied three road freight GHG emission allocation scenarios and
used the Shapley value to study the accurateness of various allocation where αis a conversion factor used to calculate CO2e, is a sequence of
rules. arcs, s(zk )and d(zk ), k = 1,…,Nare associated speeds and length of arcs,
In the previous years, various features of VRPs have been incorpo­ respectively. FC(s)is the vehicle fuel consumption function based on the
rated into the PRPs literature (Asghari and Mirzapour Al-e-hashem, speed-emission coefficients reported in Road Vehicle Emission Factors.
2020), including vehicle capacities and customer time windows (Fig­ Since the relationship form varies at very low and very high speeds, the
liozzi, 2011; Bektaş and Laporte, 2011; Franceschetti et al., 2013; Koç function is only valid when the vehicle speed is between 6 and 90 km per
et al., 2014; Qian and Eglese, 2016; Xiao and Konak, 2016; Costa et al., hour. In addition, for any arc, the time taken to drive from the depot (c0 )
2018; Majidi et al., 2018; Bravo et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2019a, 2019b), to the last customers (cr ) is given by Eq. (4) where b(cr )and w(cr ), r = 1,
uncertain data (Tajik et al., 2014; Malekly, 2015; Demir et al., 2016; …, pare the service time and waiting time for customers, respectively.
Soysal et al., 2018a; Zhang et al., 2018a; Giallanza and Puma, 2020), k’
∑ { ( k ) / ( k )} ∑m− 1
heterogeneous feet (Koç et al., 2014; De and Giri, 2020; Ganji et al., tk’ = d z s z + {b(cr ) + w(cr )} (4)
2020), time dependency (Figliozzi, 2011; Androutsopoulos and Zogra­ k=1 r=1

fos, 2017; Raeesi and Zografos, 2019; Zulvia et al., 2020). Also, the PRP
To improve fuel economy, Fagerholt et al. (2010) tried to optimize
has conducted in other VRP-related researches like pickup and delivery
the speed of each segment of routes in a transportation problem with
problem (Tajik et al., 2014; Majidi et al., 2018), inventory routing
fixed shipping paths and time windows. Mirmohammadi et al. (2017)
problem (Soysal et al., 2015b, 2018a; Niakan and Rahimi, 2015; Cheng
modeled a periodic Green-VRP with time-dependent urban traffic
et al., 2016, 2017; Rahimi et al., 2017; Rau et al., 2018; Darvish et al.,
congestion and time window to minimize CO2 emission and penalties of
2019; Alkaabneh et al., 2020; Karakostas et al., 2020), and
earliness and lateness. To decrease the amount of fuel consumption and
location-routing problem (Qazvini et al., 2016; Tricoire and Parragh,
pollutants in a time-dependent problem, Kuo (2010) applied a
2017; Toro et al., 2017; Letnik et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018a; Duk­
string-based SA on retail stores. Their formulating is based on the
kanci et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019a; Karakostas et al., 2020; Pitakaso et al.,
calculation done by Kuo (2010). Suzuki (2011) also investigated a
2020).
time-dependent routing problem with multi-stop trucks which aims to
decrease fuel consumption and the resulting emissions. Xiao et al.
4.1. Time-dependent problems (2012) reached about twenty-five percent improvement in fuel con­
sumption by employing a regression formulation, however, their routing
The time-dependent Green-VRP literature has widely concentrated model had a longer traveling time and distance. Y. Li et al. (2016)
on time-dependent travel times mostly because of road congestion. The investigated a two-echelon time-constrained VRP in linehaul-delivery
studies are divided into static or dynamic models based on the time that systems that takes CO2 emissions per ton-kilometer as the objective.
may be assumed to be constant for a given time interval or change The authors showed that adjusting the central depot location and
dynamically, respectively. The static formulations cover deterministic eliminating empty-running of tractors can reduce the emissions. To
(Keskin et al., 2019; Franceschetti et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019b; illustrate the fuel consumption of trucks in congested areas, Suzuki and
Jabali et al., 2012; Poonthalir and Nadarajan, 2018; Raeesi and Zogra­ Lan (2018) recently developed previous consumption models to include
fos, 2019; Soysal et al., 2015a) or stochastic features (Çimen and Soysal, deceleration and negative effects of acceleration. The authors assumed
2017; Rabbani et al., 2018; Eshtehadi et al., 2017) whereas Lee and

9
M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

that the ECR cannot be lower than that of engine idling, to lessen the thoroughly performed satisfying in this context. Since approximate ap­
unreal case of negative fuel burn during the deceleration condition. proaches can obtain near-optimal solutions for large-sized numerical
cases within a very satisfactory run time, they have been frequently
4.2. Pickup and delivery problems employed in research. In comparison with the early heuristics, Meta­
heuristics search the solution space thoroughly which sometimes allows
Recently, Kunnapapdeelert and Klinsrisuk (2019) addressed the for inferior and infeasible moves and also combines solutions to make
comparison of pickup and delivery and green pickup and delivery new ones. In addition to better performance and lower computation
problem (Green-PDP) by employing a differential evolution algorithm time, metaheuristics are able to consistently generate high-quality so­
(DEA). The authors proved that planning routes by minimizing GHG lutions than classical heuristics. Table 6 reviews the metaheuristics al­
lead to more environmentally friendly design than planning routes when gorithms for ICEVs-related literature published in the recent decade.
concentrating just on minimizing total cost. To address Green-PDPs with Tabu search algorithm employed by Jabali et al. (2012) reached an
the lowest CO2 emissions, Tajik et al. (2014), Li et al. (2015), Yu et al. average optimality gap of 4% over the different sets. Kramer et al.
(2016), Qazvini et al. (2016), Guo and Liu (2017), Majidi et al. (2018), (2015b) showed that combining an ILS with speed optimization algo­
Wang et al. (2018a), Abad et al. (2018), Soleimani et al. (2018), Soysal rithm and integer programming approach over a set partitioning
et al. (2018b), Sun et al. (2019), Tan et al. (2019), Abdi et al. (2020), and formulation consistently produces solutions of high quality on the fuel
Asghari and Mirzapour Al-e-hashem (2020a) are suggested papers. consumption VRP. Their computational experiments performed on two
Li et al. (2015) investigated a tractor-semitrailer routing problem standard problems with environmental considerations, Christofides
with many-to-many demand aiming at minimizing CO2 emissions. et al. (1979) and Golden et al. (1998), show that the average gaps be­
Qazvini et al. (2016) reconsidered a multi-depot Green-PDP along with tween the proposed algorithm and the best-known solutions are 0.16
time windows to lessen fuel consumption. Following up, Majidi et al. and 0.31 percent, respectively. These gaps are much smaller than the
(2018) investigated a nonlinear mixed-integer programming model for results of Xiao et al. (2012) who achieved gaps of 2.20 and 1.95 percent.
PRP with simultaneous pickup and delivery and employed an ALNS Although the average improvement in the solution-value obtained by a
heuristic to solve it. Their calculation of fuel consumption was based on two-stage hybrid algorithm using SA and TA proposed by Suzuki (2016)
comprehensive modal emission model introduced by Barth et al. (2005). is relatively small for Christofides et al. (1979) samples (0.39%), it
In a cooperative Green-PDP with the lowest CO2 emission, Wang et al. significantly increases to 2.64% for Golden et al. (1998) samples.
(2018a) used the cooperative game theory to address the compensation However, the proposed method was rather slow, requiring 1.4–2.9 times
and profit distribution. By using a bi-objective programming model for longer computation time than a comparable procedure in the bench­
pickup and delivery PRP, Abad et al. (2018) minimized the total system mark. Franceschetti et al. (2017) employed the ALNS algorithm on the
cost, fuel consumption, and the resulting air pollution. Soleimani et al. Kramer et al. (2015b) instances and show that it is very robust as in most
(2018) also proposed a multi-objective nonlinear mathematical model cases, the percentage gap between best and average solution is of the
for the Green-PDP of end of life (EOL) products. The authors indicated order of 1–2%.
that the applied problem is capable of minimizing the cost of distribu­ Since 2010, various metaheuristics algorithms have been developed
tion center set-up, fuel, and providing vehicles, as well as reducing by the authors to efficiently solve different variants of Green-VRP. Some
carbon emission. Recently, a scarce delivery-pickup problem was of the metaheuristics that were extensively studied in the literature are:
introduced by Asghari and Mirzapour Al-e-hashem (2020a) to integrate
a kind of crowdsourcing into a for-profit corporation. • Ant colony optimization (ACO)

4.3. Heterogeneous fleet problems ACO algorithm is a probabilistic technique that has been emerged
recently, inspired by the behavior of the real ants, to solve very
In the literature, most of studies are based on the assumption that complicate programming problems complex computational optimiza­
vehicles in the fleet are homogeneous. The PRP is one of the important tion problems. The main mechanism of such a technique is based on the
types of Green-VRP that specifically requires a heterogeneous fleet of cooperation of a colony of artificial ants seeking good paths and
vehicles; firstly, because many companies use various vehicles having consequently finding optimal solutions for a combinatorial problem (see
different kinds of engines (ICEVs, EVs, or HEVs), new and old models, Dorigo and Di Caro, 1999). ACO is extremely practical for solving multi-
and various brands; and secondly, because vehicles may generate a objective problems (sometimes conflicting objectives) with reliable so­
variety of emissions (Kwon et al., 2013; Koç et al. 2014; Kopfer et al., lutions in reasonable time-frames, due to its capability in guided search
2014; Juan et al., 2014; Yavuz, 2017; Saka et al., 2017). as well as using of the elitist phenomenon where the good solutions
A significant improvement in air pollution reduction was demon­ attain more weight to influence the search direction. The application of
strated in an CO2 emission minimization routing decision modeled by ACO in the PRP is reported in some researches such as Kramer et al.
Pitera et al. (2011) for an urban pickup system with a heterogeneous (2015a), Kramer et al. (2015b), Jabir et al. (2017), Kim and Park (2018),
fleet. To minimize emission and weighted tardiness, Xiao and Konak Li et al. (2019b), and Tan et al. (2019). These published works have
(2016) formulated a time-dependent heterogeneous Green-VRP and reported successful applications. Recently, to efficiently solve a
determined travel schedules of different vehicles. The latest in­ multi-objective Green-VRP, Li et al. (2019b) developed the conventional
vestigations on the heterogeneous Green-VRP, where the reduction of ACO algorithm by using an innovative way of pheromone updating.
carbon emissions is studied, can be found in the work of Bravo et al. They improved solution quality and time through innovative modifica­
(2019), Kancharla and Ramadurai (2018), Micheli and Mantella (2018), tion of population and nature-based techniques.
Raeesi and Zografos (2019), Yu et al., 2019a, Wang et al. (2019a), Li
et al. (2018b), De and Giri (2020), and Ganji et al. (2020). • Large neighborhood search (LNS)

4.4. Solution methodologies for PRPs Some authors have tried to provide an improved approach for
creating more effective neighborhoods in the solution procedure (Demir
The Green-VRP is an NP-hard problem due to this fact that it is a et al., 2012, 2014a; Franceschetti et al., 2017; Majidi et al., 2018; Zhang
natural extension of the standard VRP which is classified as NP-hard, et al., 2018b). For example, Demir et al. (2012) produced solutions with
thus most of the studies in this field, as summarized in Table 6, devel­ low fuel consumption through redesigning an ALNS heuristic framework
oped local search-based metaheuristics, such as simulated annealing, consisting of removal and reinsertion operators. Based on a
tabu search and adaptive large neighborhood search, which seems have roulette-wheel mechanism, following a removal operator of twelve ones,

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Table 6
Metaheuristic optimization algorithms employed in the ICEVs-related papers.
Study ACO DEA GA/NSGA- ILS A-/ PSO SA A-/ A-/E− / Other
II LNS TS VNS

Kuo (2010) ✓
Kuo and Wang (2011) ✓
Demir et al. (2012) ✓
Jabali et al. (2012) ✓
Li (2012) ✓ Random Variable Neighborhood Decent
Procedure
Xiao et al. (2012) ✓
Kwon et al. (2013) ✓
Cirovic et al. (2014) ✓ Modified Clarke and Wright Savings
Demir et al. (2014a) ✓ Speed Optimization Procedure
Jovanovic et al. (2014) Neuro-fuzzy Approach
Koç et al. (2014) ✓
Kramer et al. (2015b) ✓ Set Partitioning & Speed Optimization
Algorithm
Yang et al. (2015) ✓
Zhang et al. (2015) ✓
Cheng et al. (2016) ✓
Ehmke et al. (2016) ✓
Naderipour and Alinaghian (2016) ✓
Qian and Eglese (2016) ✓
Sanchez et al. (2016) Scatter Search
Suzuki (2016) ✓ ✓
Teng and Zhang (2016) ✓
Yin and Chuang (2016) Adaptive Memory Artificial Bee Colony
Franceschetti et al. (2017) ✓
Jabir et al. (2017) ✓ ✓
Setak et al. (2017) ✓
Androutsopoulos and Zografos (2017) ✓
Yavuz and Çapar (2017) ✓
Abad et al. (2018) ✓ ✓ NRGA
Costa et al. (2018) Pareto Local Search
Kim and Park (2018) ✓
Majidi et al. (2018) ✓
Niu et al. (2018) ✓
Rau et al. (2018) ✓
Wang et al. (2018c) ✓ Minimum Cost-Remaining Savings
Zhang et al. (2018b) ✓
Bravo et al. (2019) ✓
Dukkanci et al. (2019) ✓ Integer Programming
Ghannadpour and Zarrabi (2019) ✓
Kunnapapdeelert and Klinsrisuk ✓
(2019)
Li et al. (2019b) ✓
Rauniyar et al. (2019) ✓
Saad and Bahadori (2019) ✓
Tan et al. (2019) ✓ ✓
Wang et al. (2019a) ✓
Liu et al. (2020a) ✓
Liu et al. (2020b) ✓
Pitakaso et al. (2020) ✓
Poonthalir et al. (2020) ✓

the nodes in the feasible solutions are removed, and then new nodes are Genetic algorithm is an optimization method that is implemented
reinserted to the solutions by following a reinsertion operator of five mostly for optimizing very complicate problems. Based upon an evolu­
insertion operators to generate neighborhoods. Their computational tionary process, this technique follows an evolution path as a biological
results indicate that the proposed method is able to find the same so­ pathway would own. In other words, GA tries to move towards the
lutions as those of commercial software such as CPLEX but in a sub­ optimal solution points by producing different generations (sets of
stantially smaller amount of time even for large-sized instances and is feasible solutions). Among the modern metaheuristics, GA has been
highly effective up to 200 nodes samples where CPLEX cannot find employed broadly with various applications reported in the context of
optimal solutions in limited time. The improvements can be around 10% PRP (Urquhart et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2015; Abad et al., 2018; Rau­
for cases with a maximum of 100 nodes, about 18% for cases with 150 niyar et al., 2019; Tan et al., 2019). It can be stated that the execution
nodes and as high as 30% for cases of up to 200 nodes. The most time of the algorithm increases proportionally to the problem size and
important elements of the LNS algorithm in the solving process of the computing complexity of the formula. However, GA still competes
Green-VRP are (i) the selection procedure that helps diversify the searches with other modern heuristics in terms of computation time and solution
in the algorithm, (ii) initial temperature and cooling rate which is quality. The average CPU time for each iteration of the algorithm is
employed to calibrate the simulated annealing search framework, and usually less than 2 min. In applying a GA, deciding on the solution
(iii) allowable number for removal or insertion operators that significantly representation is one of the most important decisions. In the PRP like
affects the quality of solutions. other routing problems, we have found that the most frequently used
solution representation of the GA is one where the value of a gene sig­
• Genetic algorithm (GA) nifies the location of a node which should be served, and the sequence of

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Table 7
Summary of AFVs literature.
Study Rch EC Fleet type Charger composition Charging TW Lc Obj. Solution method

L N L N Ho Ht Single Multi. Full Partial

Felipe et al. (2014) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 15 Several heuristics and

SA
Sassi et al. (2014) ✓ ✓ EV, ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 15 Several heuristics
ICEV
Schneider et al. (2014) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2 Hybrid VNS and TS
Bruglieri et al. (2015b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 4, 15 VNS branching
Ding et al. (2015) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Hybrid VNS and TS
Goeke and Schneider (2015) ✓ * EV, ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 8, 9, 10, ALNS
ICEV 15
Li-Ying and Yuan-Bin (2015) *** ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5, 8, 15 Hybrid AVNS and TS
Yang and Sun (2015) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 5 Several heuristics
Desaulniers et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Branch-price-and-cut
Grandinetti et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 15 WSM
Hiermann et al. (2016b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2 Branch-price, and ALNS
Keskin and Çatay (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2 ALNS
Koç and Karaoglan (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Brach-and-cut
Liao et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ 8 DP
Lin et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 15 CS
Montoya et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Multi-space sampling
heuristic
Roberti and Wen (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 General VNS, DP
Wen et al. (2016) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2 ALNS
Andelmin and Bartolini ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Exact method
(2017)
Froger et al. (2017a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Two-stage matheuristic
Hof et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 5 AVNS
Leggieri and Haouari (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 CS
Montoya et al. (2017) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Hybrid ILS and HC
Schiffer and Walther ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 5 CS
(2017b)
Sweda et al. (2017a) ** ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 4, 15 Exact and heuristic
method
Keskin and Çatay (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 15 ALNS based
matheuristic
Koç et al. (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5, 8 ALNS based
matheuristic
Kopfer and Vornhusen ✓ ✓ EV, ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 CS
(2018) ICEV
Li et al. (2018a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8, 15 CS
Madankumar and Rajendran ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 CS
(2018)
Masmoudi et al. (2018b) * ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 EVNS
Paz et al. (2018) **** ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 5 CS
Schiffer and Walther (2018) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 5, 8 ALNS, DP
Villegas et al. (2018) ✓ ✓ EV, ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 6, 15 GRASP based
ICEV matheuristic
Wang et al. (2018b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 12 Heuristic procedures
Zhang et al. (2018c) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 4, 8, TS
15
Basso et al. (2019) ✓ * ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Bellman-Ford algorithm
Breunig et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2 LNS, Exact algorithm
Bruglieri et al. (2019a) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 PBA
Bruglieri et al. (2019b) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 8 Cutting Planes methods
Bruglieri et al. (2019c) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Exact method
Cortés-Murcia et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 ILS
Froger et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 CS
Hiermann et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ EV, ICEV, ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 9, 15 GA, LNS with IP solver
HEV
Jie et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 13, 14 Hybrid CG and ALNS
Macrina et al. (2019a, b) ✓ ✓ EV, ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 15 ILS
ICEV
Pelletier et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ 16 Two-phase based LNS
Rastani et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 ALNS
Zuo et al. (2019) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 1, 2, 8, 14 CS
Shao and Dessouky (2020) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2, 8 ALNS

the genes in a chromosome represents the visiting order of the locations Simulated annealing algorithm is an effective metaheuristic optimi­
(Shukla et al., 2017; Abad et al., 2018; Rauniyar et al., 2019). Besides, it zation technique that has been successfully used to solve the routing
can be remarked that the most commonly employed crossover operator problem and its variants (Xiao et al., 2012; Cirovic et al., 2014; Suzuki,
is the partially matched crossover (Shukla et al., 2017). 2016; Teng and Zhang, 2016; Saad and Bahadori, 2019). In the area of
PRP, SA is one of the most common metaheuristic approaches which was
• Simulated annealing (SA) developed by Kuo (2010) for minimizing total fuel consumption. To

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

design an optimal routing plan, the author used a cooling function into environment or satisfy the energy policies or environmental regulations,
the algorithm that runs to reduce the temperature at each iteration. This different government agencies and private organizations and companies
metaheuristic includes two stages: (i) the initial phase which tries to have begun using AFVs (Erdogan and Miller-Hooks, 2012). Green
produce an initial feasible solution by using the nearest neighbor algo­ routing problems are mainly concentrated on alleviating the destructive
rithm, and (ii) the improvement phase which is started after completing effects associated with CFFVs on the environment. One way of allevi­
the initial stage and uses a local search and neighborhood structures to ating such negative influences is to convert the fleets of trucks to the
improve the solution obtained from the first stage. As one of the meta­ AFVs. Compared with ICEVs, the AFVs employ clean energy such as
heuristics, the main advantage of the SA algorithm is its capability in hydrogen and electricity as energy sources. Economical and the envi­
moving out of local optimal points and reach to a global optimum ronmental impacts of different AFVs have been assessed and reported by
through accepting the worse solutions with a certain probability Ashtineh and Pishvaee (2019). The AFVs, however, suffer from some
function. weaknesses like limited storage capacity (e.g. low capacity of EVs’
battery) and access to the AFSs. Therefore, in solving the AFVs routing
• Tabu search (TS) problems, the recharging or refueling issue of the vehicles and charging
infrastructure planning become more important and complicates the
This method is a direct searching technique for solving nonlinear and route selection for the AFVs (e.g. Göpfert and Bock, 2019).
very complicated mathematical programming models. Based on the Table 7 classifies the main features of the studies done on AFVs
human memory process, the TS algorithm uses a list of the latest points published between 2014 and 2020. The headings of the column repre­
that are being investigated. The tabu list is used to prevent the transfer to sent recharging function (Rch), the function of electricity consumption
the points which have been examined previously. The purpose of pre­ (EC), fleet type, charger composition in the stations, the charge amount,
paring this list is to avoid the local optimum by prohibiting the factors considering time windows (TW), determining the location of station
that prevent the change of solution. Three main parameters of the TS (Lc), the objective function (Obj.) and solution approach; linear and
algorithm are threshold for updating, the maximum number of itera­ nonlinear recharging time functions are indicated by L and N; homo­
tions, and the tabu tenure length. Given that the TS algorithm works geneous and heterogeneous fleets are indicated by Ho and Ht. Also,
effectively on vehicle routing problems, some works employed TS for some abbreviations have been used such as consumption dependent on
finding solutions regarding pollution reduction. Examples are the works speed, the weight of load and gradient of the terrain (*), linear charging
of Kuo and Wang (2011), Jabali et al. (2012), Li (2012), Kwon et al. with different cost components for each charge levels (**), linear
(2013), Ehmke et al. (2016), Qian and Eglese (2016), Suzuki (2016), charging with different cost and rates for various chargers (***), linear
Setak et al. (2017), Niu et al. (2018), and Wang et al. (2019a). and constant charging for battery swapping and parallel with consid­
ering service time (****); CG, HC, PBA, and WSM correspond to column
• Hybrid algorithms in Green-VRP generation, heuristic concentration, path-based approach, and weighted
sum method, respectively. CS also stands for the articles that just apply a
A technique that is known as a hybrid algorithm combines one or commercial solver for reporting results. Definitions of the numbers
more of metaheuristics algorithms with an optimization or heuristic associated with each objective function have been presented in Table 5.
approach to solve the complicated problems accurately, quickly, and
easily. To minimize total fuel consumption, Li (2012) proposed a novel 5.1. Electric vehicles
TS algorithm along with a random variable neighborhood descent pro­
cedure, which uses the random neighborhood ordering and shaking In the last decade, the market share of EVs as alternative-energy
mechanisms, and also an adaptive parallel route construction heuristic. vehicles for personal and commercial uses has grown rapidly (Feng
Kramer et al. (2015b) proposed a matheuristic approach for the PRP and Figliozzi, 2013). The environment-friendly aspects of electric en­
which combines a local search-based metaheuristic with an integer gines, such as low noise pollution, no GHG emissions, and high-energy
programming optimization over a recursive speed-optimization algo­ efficiency are the main reason of an increase in the popularity of EVs
rithm and a set covering formulation. Their computational results on that benefit logistics firms in achieving a real image from a growing
two other environmental-based VRPs, namely the fuel consumption and number of environmentally and socially knowledgeable clients
the energy minimizing VRP, indicate that the proposed approach can (Desaulniers et al., 2016). Moreover, the support of state regulatory and
generate high-quality solutions in a completely consistent manner, government policies is an influential factor that encourages using EVs in
outperforming previous approaches from the literature. both individual travel and public transportations (H. Li et al., 2016).
A two-stage hybrid algorithm for the PRP with multiple objectives is Along with the environmental advantages, these kinds of vehicles are
studied by Suzuki (2016). In the first stage, the author used a simple SA considered attractive than conventional vehicles in terms of a cost
algorithm to approximate a Pareto frontier while employed a TS algo­ perspective. In comparison to the cost of fuel (gasoline or petrol)
rithm in the second stage to improve each element of the frontier. For consumed by an ICEVs, when traversing the same distance, an EV costs
solving large scale instances, a hybrid approach to a multi-depot 85% to 90% less.
Green-VRP using ACO and VNS has also been reported by Jabir et al. In recent years, despite comprehensive researches on the charac­
(2017). Tan et al. (2019) also considered a hybrid heuristic which in­ teristics and attributes of EVs and the design of charging infrastructure,
corporates ACO and a multiple population GA. Li et al. (2019a) devel­ the network modeling of EVs is still developing and limited. Because of
oped a hybrid GA embedded with TS and local search for a green the assuring opportunity of the EVs for reducing pollution impacts and
two-echelon location and routing model with carbon emissions con­ transportation costs compared with fossil-fuel-based engines, the elec­
straints. Liao et al. (2020) proposed a two-stage solution strategy based tric vehicle routing problem (EVRP), which plans routes for dealing with
on NSGA-II and ALNS. In the first stage, the authors adopted NSGA-II to electric commercial vehicles (ECVs), is one of the logistics distribution/
find an initial distribution routing, then, applied principal component service field investigating in the recent years by researchers (Afroditi
analysis and k-means technique to cluster similar customers. In the et al., 2014; Verma, 2018; Mirhedayatian and Yan, 2018; Hiermann
second stage, they developed an ALNS to improve the quality of initial et al., 2019; Pelletier et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2017; Bruglieri et al.,
solutions. 2019c; Lin et al., 2016; Rastani et al., 2019; Xiao et al., 2019; Li et al.,
2020b). Fig. 5 displays the number of EV-related papers published
5. Alternative-fuel powered vehicles during the last decade in Scopus-indexed journals by using search query
string {"Electric vehicle” AND ((books[filter] OR Journal Article[ptyp]
To voluntarily reduce the hazard impacts of fossil fuel on the OR Review[ptyp] OR systematic[sb]) AND English[lang])}. The

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

increasing number of scientific articles obviously demonstrates the copied several times treated as dummy nodes (special customers) which
growing interest in the context of electric motors among practitioners are visited just the once. The EVRP can be consequently converted to be
and researchers. Readers can find recent sustainability investigation and under the frameworks of classic routing problems and in a strong sense,
realistic evaluation techniques of life cycle carbon emission generated it can equally be recognized as an NP-hard problem (Zhang et al., 2018c;
by electric vehicles in Casals et al. (2016), and Fernandez (2018). Desaulniers et al., 2016). Hence, efficient metaheuristic optimization
Conrad and Figliozzi (2011) presented the first research on the EVRP algorithms, which are earlier introduced for global optimization prob­
where EVs can be recharged at some client places to continue their trip. lems, are employed in order to solve most of the studies in this field.
In addition to the standard constraints of the capacitated VRP, they used Table 8 lists the metaheuristic algorithm-based solution approaches
the following additional constraints specific to the recharging: employed in the EVRP context. To improve algorithm efficiency, the
( ( ) { } ( )) integrated approaches, such as column generation, metaheuristic, dy­
fjk = xkij fik 1 − rik + rik .max fmax , fik + γfmax − F vi , vj ∀i, j ∈ N, k ∈ K
namic programming, etc., have been applied as a subroutine in the al­
(5) gorithms. As can be seen in the table, most of the papers consider large
/ neighborhood search and population-based algorithms like the GA,
rik ≤ r̃i ∀i ∈ N N0 , k ∈ K (6) although a permutation order-based coding scheme seems is able to
allow rendering a solution without doing any transformation. Similarly,
f0k = fmax ∀i ∈ N, k ∈ K (7) studies using matheuristics have begun to appear regularly in the liter­
( ) ature (Bruglieri et al., 2015a, 2015b, 2017b; Koç et al., 2018; Keskin
xkij yki + max{gr , gi } + tij ≤ ykj ∀i, j ∈ N, k ∈ K (8) et al., 2019). It is worth noting that matheuristics, which have been
widely used for a variety of routing problems, are optimization algo­
The necessary notations are presented in Table 3A of Appendix C.
rithms made by the interoperation of mathematical programming
The variable fjk keeps track of remaining energy in a given vehicle kupon
techniques in a heuristic/metaheuristic framework. To study the details
arriving at customer jand has been defined recursively by constraint (5).
of the approach and a brief overview of implementations, we refer the
Constraints (6) and (7) guarantee that vehicles can recharge only where
interested reader to Archetti and Speranza (2014).
recharging is allowed and always leave the depot with a full charge,
Some studies, however, have used exact methods to solve the EVs
respectively. Constraint (8) states that service start times must also
routing problems. For example, Andelmin and Bartolini (2017) adapt an
consider the travel time between customers as well as servicing and
arc-duplicating formulation that was previously studied by Frank et al.
recharging. Recharging is allowed while servicing customers, but vehi­
(2014) and Koç and Karaoglan (2016) in a way that includes multiple
cles must remain at customer locations until servicing is complete. The
external station visits under a full charging policy. They performed a set
model had a fixed charging time by allowing full charge or maximize
partitioning formulation where columns illustrated the possible routes
80% of the energy capacity at just client places. Since then, several ex­
like simple circuits in multiple graphs in which nodes represent cus­
tensions have been proposed.
tomers while each arc is associated with a feasible and non-dominated
Recently, some papers have studied the two-echelon problems
route connecting two customers that probably applies alternative
(Anderluh et al., 2019; Jie et al., 2019; Breunig et al., 2019; Soysal et al.,
fueling stations. The set partitioning problem was strengthened by
2015a), mobile charging service (Cui et al., 2020), technician routing
several validation inequalities and then was solved through a CG
problem (Villegas et al., 2018), pickup and delivery problem (Ding et al.,
method. Their computational experiments proved that the technique
2015; Grandinetti et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2016; Madankumar and
used in solving large-scale instance sets is generally suitable with an
Rajendran, 2018; Goeke, 2019; Pelletier et al., 2019), and electric
average computational time of 3 h. As stated by Lübbecke and Desrosiers
traveling salesman problem which is a special case of the VRP with only
(2005), CG is a very effective solution approach but its consistency and
one EV (Roberti and Wen, 2016; Küçükoglu et al., 2019). A compre­
convergence are very slow. Thus, it is suited to optimally solve some
hensive review of the distribution network using EVs can be found in
large-scale instances in long computational times, though not suitable
Pelletier et al. (2016, 2017, 2018).
enough in providing near-optimal solutions for small size instances
within a short computational time.
5.1.1. Solution methodologies for EVRPs
Considering the literature, many different strategies exist for solving
5.1.2. Energy consumption rate
the problems with EVs variations. In this kind of problem, AFSs may be
Since EVs have limited capacity for energy storage and accordingly a

Fig. 5. Evolution of EVs related publications in Scopus-indexed journals (228 articles: 1996–2020).

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Table 8
Metaheuristic optimization algorithms employed in the EVs-related articles.
Study ACO GA ILS A-/LNS PSO SA A-/TS A-/E− /VNS Other

Wang and Cheu (2013) ✓

Felipe et al. (2014) ✓
Preis et al. (2014) ✓
Schneider et al. (2014) ✓ ✓
Aggoune-Mtalaa et al. (2015) ✓ ✓
Bruglieri et al. (2015a, b) ✓ Matheuristic
Ding et al. (2015) ✓ ✓
Goeke and Schneider (2015) ✓
Li-Ying and Yuan-Bin (2015) ✓ ✓
Yang et al. (2015) ✓ Expert Knowledge
Hiermann et al. (2016a) ✓ DP
Hiermann et al. (2016b) ✓ DP
Keskin and Çatay (2016) ✓
Penna et al. (2016) ✓ Set Partitioning
Roberti and Wen (2016) ✓ DP
Wen et al. (2016) ✓
Abdulaal et al. (2017) ✓ Markov Decision Process
Bruglieri et al. (2017b) ✓ Matheuristic
Hof et al. (2017) ✓
Montoya et al. (2017) ✓ HC
Kancharla and Ramadurai (2018) ✓
Keskin and Çatay (2018) ✓
Koç et al. (2018) ✓ Matheuristic
Masmoudi et al. (2018b) ✓
Schiffer and Walther (2018) ✓ DP
Schiffer et al. (2018) ✓ Lower Bounding Procedure
Shao et al. (2018) ✓ Dynamic Dijkstra
Zhang et al. (2018c) ✓ ✓
Zhou and Tan (2018) Cuckoo search
Breunig et al. (2019) ✓
Erdem and Koç (2019) ✓ Variable neighborhood descent
Hiermann et al. (2019) ✓ ✓
Jie et al. (2019) ✓ CG
Keskin et al. (2019) Matheuristic & Memetic algorithm
Küçükoglu et al. (2019) ✓ ✓
Macrina et al. (2019a, b) ✓
Rezgui et al. (2019) ✓
Zhang et al. (2019a) ✓ ✓
Almouhanna et al. (2020) ✓ Biased-randomization & Tillman’s heuristic
Li et al. (2020b) ✓
Zhang et al. (2020) ✓

shorter obtainable range of distance, new approaches that are able to Schneider (2015) who designed a nonlinear ECR for a mixed fleet of
accurately monitor vehicles’ ECR must be considered in such routing ICEVs and EVs. Although the authors considered practical factors such
problems to ensure they never get stranded. In most of the studies, as as the gradient of the terrain, the vehicle speed and load, the travel
shown in Table 7, there is a simple assumption about the energy speeds/times are considered constants and previously known. There­
consumed by a vehicle over a route as an assumed linear function of the fore, only the weight of the cargo affects energy consumption over a
traveled distance. Following a comprehensive emissions problem route. Lin et al. (2016) is another study that developed the energy
modeled by Barth et al. (2005), many of the next studies investigated a consumption model for EVs, which considered the effects of vehicle load
more detailed formulation of energy consumption which calculates the on battery consumption. Fiori et al. (2016) introduced a comprehensive
required energy for traversing arcs according to the characteristics of power-based electricity consumption formulation that can estimate the
any given arc and vehicle (for example, mass, speed, elevation, accel­ instantaneous ECRs by evaluating inputs of EVs (vehicle mass as well as
eration, rolling friction, air drag, frontal area). Bektaş and Laporte vehicle speed and the instantaneous acceleration). To compute the en­
(2011) used this kind of energy/fuel consumption for the first time in the ergy consumption (kW h/km), they used following equation:
context of the VRP setting for the PRP to estimate carbon emissions, and
∫t
it subsequently was considered in many other studies to track the state of 1
EC = PElectric motor (t).dt (9)
energy consumption (Preis et al., 2014; Goeke and Schneider, 2015; 3, 600, 000 × d
Lebeau et al., 2015; Basso et al., 2019). To determine the battery dis­
0

charges rate of EVs, Fetene et al. (2017) harnessed big data and showed where dis the distance in kilometer and PElectric motor (t)is the power at the
that the ECR may change considerably with a nonlinear behavior electric motor which is same as following the power at the wheels with
depended on the weather conditions and pattern of driving. considering a reasonable driveline efficiency (authors assumed that the
The earliest research on the modeling of a more realistic energy efficiency of the electric motor is ηElectric motor = 91%):
consumption approach in an EVRP was presented by Goeke and

( )
1
PWheels (t) = ma(t) + mg cos(θ).Cr (c1 v(t) + c2 ) + ρAir Af CD v2 (t) + mg sin(θ) .v(t) (10)
2

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

5.2.2. Refueling policies

There are two recharging ideas about departure state-of-energy in
The notations of Eq. (10) are defined in Table 4A of Appendix C. The the tank and the time spent for at a fuel station: (i) in “Full charging
typical values of vehicle coefficients were reported in Rakha et al. policy”, it has been assumed that a vehicle leaves with full state-of-
(2011). A physical-based analytical approach for calculating the energy energy in a particular constant duration, which suits battery swap sta­
consumption of EVs was developed by Yuan et al. (2017). The authors tions (BSSs), or in a proportional time which depends on the energy
traced ECRs based on the flow path of energy during the driving cycle required for filling the tank capacity, and (ii) “Partial charging policy”
including the losses of driveline, electric motor, battery, load, and brake. allows a vehicle to depart a fueling station with partial state-of-energy in
Liu et al. (2017) studied the effect of the road gradient on the ECR of an a proportional fueling time (Sweda et al., 2017b). Below we summarize
EV. Recently, Xiao et al. (2019) considered the maximum achievable the main studies on these recharging policies.
range or the energy consumption per unit of the distance traversed by an
EV dynamically according to speed and load along the route. (i) Full charging policy

5.2. Alternative fuel station A full recharging strategy means that an EV is allowed to leave a
charging station contingent upon its battery capacity is fully charged.
In comparison with other variants of Green-VRPs, the literature that Under this approach, some of the studies considered a constant time
considers halts for refueling/recharging at fuel/charging stations is spent on refueling, in which the tank capacity of AFV is filled at AFSs
limited. The main difficulty associated with planning the EVs is how to within a constant amount of time (Erdogan and Miller-Hooks, 2012;
include the visiting stations into the optimization because the EVs have Frank et al., 2014; Goeke and Schneider, 2015; Montoya et al., 2016;
short travel range and their recharging can be time-consuming and Koç and Karaoglan, 2016; Leggieri and Haouari, 2017; Yavuz and Çapar,
uncomfortable during the travel. Chargers in each station may be 2017; Andelmin and Bartolini, 2017; Poonthalir and Nadarajan, 2018;
equipped with various options including maximum current and power Zhang et al., 2019b), whereas other researches cover a proportional
voltage, which have an effect on the duration of charging. Some models time, in which time consumed for recharging depends on the amount of
take stations with different chargers into account (Sassi et al., 2014; energy left upon arriving at a charging vertex. Recharging starts at any
Li-Ying and Yuan-Bin, 2015; Keskin and Çatay, 2018; Felipe et al., battery state of charge (SoC), remains continuously until the battery
2014). Several studies have incorporated the location of the stations in capacity is fully charged, and the duration of charging is assumed that is
the route optimization and route planning (Upchurch et al., 2009; proportional to the energy completely transferred. Schneider et al.
Sweda and Klabjan, 2015; Yang and Sun, 2015; Li-Ying and Yuan-Bin, (2014, 2015) and Hiermann et al. (2016b) can be mentioned as elite
2015; Hof et al., 2017; Schiffer and Walther, 2017b, 2018; Koç et al., studies in this direction.
2018; Paz et al., 2018).
Lin et al. (2014) dealt with charging stations on the tour to overcome • Battery swapping
the limitation of storage capacity in the fuel tank. As reported in Chung
and Kwon (2015), setting up a network of refueling stations is a Using batteries is the main feature of an EV which directly influences
long-term process that normally takes several periods to completely be the cost and performance of the driving (Rahman et al., 2016). In the
established. Therefore, in their formulation, the number of newly literature, some researchers assumed that the EVs have swappable bat­
installed fueling stations per period was restricted while the maximum teries that can exchange immediately in BSS, thereby avoiding a long
achievable traffic during all periods was pursued. Bruglieri et al. (2016) recharging time. The EV always departs a station with full battery with
contributed a new formulation which includes a precomputation of AFS considering BSSs instead of charging stations. Besides, in the basic
to locate between each pair of vertices. Their model avoids using mul­ formulation, a BSS can be visited at most once. Adler and Mirchandani
tiple copies of AFS that leads to a noticeable decrease in the number of (2014), Zheng et al. (2014), Yang and Sun (2015), Liao et al. (2016),
decision variables. The problems with capacitated AFSs have been Schiffer and Walther (2017b, 2018), Hof et al. (2017), Masmoudi et al.
introduced by Bruglieri et al. (2017a) and was developed by Froger et al. (2018b), Paz et al. (2018), Verma (2018), Wang et al. (2018b), Jie et al.
(2017b). To minimize the load variance, Lu et al. (2018) recently (2019), Zhang et al. (2019a), and Sayarshad et al. (2020) are suggested
considered load dispatch of a microgrid accessing stochastically to a papers in this area.
large-sized of uncoordinated charging of EVs. Yang and Sun (2015) concentrated on planning routes and deter­
mining the location of BSSs in a location-routing model with capacitated
5.2.1. Waiting time at the fueling station EVs and also considering the limitations on the distance traveled with a
Regarding the uncertain service time spent at the stations, Sweda single battery swapping. The approach of Yang and Sun was developed
et al. (2017a) investigate the stations under the probability unavail­ by Schiffer and Walther (2017b) to consider simultaneously full and
ability. When an EV reaches an occupied station, it may need to wait for partial charging policies for EVs, as well as time windows constraint in a
a random time to get service. A relevant problem has solved by Froger location-routing problem with the aim of minimizing traveled distance,
et al. (2017a) who determined an inadequate number of chargers for the number of charging stations, and used EVs. Subsequently, Hof et al.
each station and a vehicle has to wait for recharging while other EVs in (2017) developed an AVNS algorithm to solve a location-routing
the fleet are using the chargers. Although in the proposed problem, the formulation with BSSs and intermediate stops of EVs. Also, Paz et al.
routing and charging features affect the use of the chargers, the queue (2018) investigated the same problem which considers multi-depot and
lengths do not depend on these decisions. The waiting times at the AFSs battery swapping policy in different locations.
have studied by Bruglieri et al. (2019c). The authors planned the routing
of the AFVs so that the consumed times for refueling of the AFVs do not (ii) Partial charging policy
overlap in the fuel stations. Recently, Poonthalir and Nadarajan (2019)
addressed the issues related to waiting time at the fueling station. Each Aside from the full charging assumption, some researches following a
fueling station was modeled as a M/M/1 queueing model, where the partial charging option where EVs may leave recharging stations with a
vehicles are allowed to wait in the queue. Keskin et al. (2019) investi­ full charge or any level depending on the time spent for recharging. The
gate time-dependent queueing times at the fueling stations with allow­ researches of Felipe et al. (2014), Bruglieri et al. (2015a, 2015b),
ing but penalizing late arrivals at the depot and client sites. Desaulniers et al. (2016), Keskin and Çatay (2016), Bruglieri et al.
(2017b), Ferro et al. (2018), Hiermann et al. (2019), Koyuncu and Yavuz
(2019) and Macrina et al. (2019a, b) can be mentioned here.

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

The full charging policy was first relaxed and the EVRP was modeled In HEV engineering, there are two main configurations: (i) in a series
by allowing EVs to recharge partially by Felipe et al. (2014) who applied hybrid, the drive system which is used for controlling the speed, torque
various recharging technologies consisting of slow- and fast-charging for and direction of the motor is electrical, and the power transmission
the EVs. The impact of fast charging options has also been investigated system involves both combustion engines, and (ii) in a parallel hybrid,
by Keskin and Çatay (2018). Further research on partial charging is the electrical drive system is mechanical, and the power transmission, in
tackled by Desaulniers et al. (2016) concentrating on four different the same way, comes from both combustion engines. Both of these
recharging features per route including only a single full charge, only a systems are able to be employed independently or in combination.
single partial charge, multiple full charges, and multiple partial charges. Another hybrid form, called a series-parallel hybrid, has a more complex
In Li et al. (2018a) recharging is done by an inductive charging method structure where the electric motor and generator are the integration of
which is known as wireless charging systems and located along the engines, mechanical components, and electric power (Chan, 2007).
roads. There are different levels of “hybridization” among HEVs on the market.
The first study that considers nonlinear charging time functions is Hannan et al. (2014) presented a new classification based on the hy­
presented by Montoya et al. (2017), who aimed at minimizing the total bridization factor and performance of HEVs including Micro-HEV,
time of the operations including charging time and travel time. Other Mild-HEV, Power-assisted HEV, and Plug-in HEV.
formulations of nonlinear charging times function have been considered
by Froger et al. (2017b, 2019), Koç et al. (2018), and Villegas et al. 6.1. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(2018).
A PHEV is the next generation of HEVs, whose battery can be
6. Hybrid electric vehicles recharged by plugging them into external sources of electric power, as
well as by their onboard generator and engine, offering significant
The so-called HEVs with features of both EVs and ICEVs can easily benefits over the most efficient and cleanest of today’s hybrid vehicles
switch two engines, an internal combustion engine and a pure electrical (Amjad et al., 2010). Sources of energy involved in the generation of
engine, allowing the use of different modes on variant segments of the power for propulsion in PHEVs consist of the chemical process from a
route (Plotkin et al., 2002). HEVs do not have the operational range hydrocarbon-based fuel, energy recovery when the vehicle decelerates
limitation of EVs and are able to charge within the journey. As a result, or comes from a standstill while braking (stored in the battery), and
they can be beneficial in reducing the use of fossil fuel on other trips and, electrical grid (Silva et al., 2009). Bradley and Frank (2009) classified
as a direct consequence, the cost and emitted CO2 emissions. When PHEV operation into different modes, such as engine-only mode, EV
vehicles equipped with alternative power systems need to take up a mode, charge-depleting mode, and charge-sustaining mode. Silva et al.
long-distance tour, they have to halt for refueling in an AFS. When there (2009) explained how a PHEV operates in a range extender and a
are a limited number of AFSs, vehicles will have to choose routes blended mechanism. In a range extender PHEV, electricity primarily
forcefully to reach the available refueling stations which can lead to an discharged from the battery, and after the charge is reduced to a mini­
increase in distance-based costs. As suggested by Mancini (2017), the mum, a charge sustaining mode turns on. The blended PHEVs operate
vehicles can overcome this obstacle if they are able to switch between like a range extender one, however, they may run on the internal
fuel and battery depending on the requirements, called the HEV, to combustion engines whenever required in the charge-depleting mode.
lessen the necessary stops and the infrastructure dependence. The strategy of controlling the energy among these multiple energy
Although a hybrid vehicle is preferable, the contributions on routing sources of HEVs is termed powertrain energy management. Sciarretta
models considering HEVs are even less or almost absent. Hence, this and Guzzella (2007) provided an overview of literature related to this
section intends to review the HEVs which are categorized into the Green- area. Reviewing the researches clearly shows that most of the algorithms
VRPs by Lin et al. (2014) as they also take the environmental impacts presented for powertrain energy management control are static and
into account. The growing market of HEVs supports the practicality of attempt to utilize the battery charge of PHEVs at the earliest opportu­
the hybrid electric vehicle routing problems (HEVRPs) which often aim nity, regardless of better opportunities that may be provided along the
at minimizing the total cost incurred by employing hybrid vehicles. The route to best utilize the charge within the battery. This reflects the fact
researches of Sciarretta and Guzzella (2007), Chan (2007), Gong et al. that no algorithm has been developed for route planning of PHEVs, and
(2008), Silva et al. (2009), Bradley and Frank (2009), Amjad et al. automobile manufacturers have yet to use dynamic algorithms that
(2010), Murgovski et al. (2013), Juan et al. (2014), Hannan et al. consider the complete route plan in managing the operating modes of
(2014), Arslan et al. (2015), Liu et al. (2015), Doppstadt et al. (2016), vehicle powertrain. Some articles have addressed the powertrain control
Sun and Zhou (2016), Mancini (2017), Yu et al. (2017), Vincent et al. in a PHEV from an energy management control viewpoint, for example,
(2017), Nejad et al. (2017), Karak and Abdelghany (2019), and Zhen Gong et al. (2008), Murgovski et al. (2013), and Bahrami et al. (2020).
et al. (2019) can be mentioned as the main papers on HEVRP and their
variants. 6.2. Solution methodologies for HEVRPs
A VRP with different driving ranges was introduced by Juan et al.
(2014), who tried dealing with the possible challenge driven by the There are several sources and factors that contribute to the
developing EVs with various levels of autonomy in corporate fleets. complexity of the HEVRP. For example, even for small-scale instances,
Their results support this hypothesis that electric and hybrid vehicles the HEVRP contains many decision variables such as routing decisions,
can be applied in designing optimal routes without necessarily incurring location of dispatching and collection, and vehicle capabilities/re­
significant additional transportation-related costs. Zhen et al. (2019) sources. Moreover, most decision variables are highly interdependent
illustrated a practical application of hybrid vehicles in a logistics in­ and cannot be optimized separately. Since the hybrid problems are the
dustry that considers battery capacity constraints, gasoline constraints, extension of the traditional VRPs which are known as NP-hard (Golden
and mode selection according to the characteristics of HEVs and the et al., 2008), the longer computational time is required to find exact
background of green logistics, which minimized total cost of energy optimal solutions that grows exponentially with increasing the size of
consumption. To reach the optimal use of fuel in HEVs, the mode se­ the problem.
lection system is used for adjusting the driving mode based on different To solve a hybrid vehicle routing model, Liu et al. (2015) proposed a
conditions of the road. new algorithm combining SA and PSO. Due to the inherent

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

mathematical operators of the PSO, the performance of the PSO algo­ developed for the Green-VRP variants to systematize new contributions
rithm has an imbalance phenomenon between the convergence preci­ over the past few years.
sion and the convergence rate. Recently, Vincent et al. (2017) proposed
a SA algorithm with a restart strategy to solve a HEVRP. 7.1. Academic and practical contributions
It is noteworthy that the existing shortest-path based algorithms
cannot be employed for solving PHEV problems for following reasons: (i) The originality of this work lied in how the research has been pre­
emitted emissions of a PHEV depend not only on the traveled distance sented. Our study has been focused on identifying recent developments
but also on the state of batteries’ charge; (ii) optimal planning may and advances in this field of knowledge as well as highlighting the re­
include circles along the route for recharging; (iii) in some road seg­ sults and particular details attained through the survey, which may be
ments, energy harvesting caused by regenerative braking can lead to regarded as a great academic and practical opportunity in guiding the
negative energy consumption. To tackle these issues, Sun and Zhou trends of future research. Although our review study is still limited to
(2016) proposed a green navigation algorithm that found the optimal evaluating past publications on the Green-VRP and the gaps between the
plans: where to go and where it needs to be recharged. The algorithm theoretical gains and applicable agenda, we have seen several practical,
discretized the SoC and then made the routing problem of PHEV to meet fruitful, and potential research outcomes in this area. We hope and trust
the principle of optimality. Eventually, the green navigation algorithm that the presented review leads to stimulating researchers, contributing
adopted dynamic programming to solve the problem. to further study on Green-VRP and consequently theoretical achieve­
ments and new applicable opportunities.
6.3. Fleet size and mix For academic purposes, the current literature of Green-VRP has
sought to elevate the scope of research through exploring gaps and
A heterogeneous fleet incorporates different types of vehicles addressing the academic community with beneficial insights into future
combining ICEVs, EVs, and HEVs. An EV is significantly constrained in research directions and potential areas of further studies. The identifi­
the service range by the battery limitation and recharging operations cation of transportation problems concerning green logistics, from a
which may be sometime very time-consuming. HEVs benefit of two practical point of view, can help to gain a better understanding of the
different engines, an internal combustion engine and an electric engine economic and environmental importance of vehicles with different
using a built-in rechargeable battery. This type of vehicle can switch features and limitations, and their relative role in operational settings
between engines to lessen the necessary stops. In turn, having two en­ that can be useful in taking action at different levels to address
gines also means a heavier baseload, which leads to higher consumption environmental-related issues.
of both fossil fuel and electricity. Therefore, this flexibility generally
comes with a more cost of higher consumption rate and utility. 7.2. Limitations and research opportunities in literature review
Although assuming a heterogeneous fleet can be realistic, it is more
complex than considering homogeneous vehicles, as previously assumed The current study has still some limitations that we encountered, but
in most problems. Choosing the best diversity of the vehicle fleet with these limitations leave room for future investigations in some directions,
variations in carbon emissions is a very difficult task. Some studies pay especially in a systematic review which has been considered as an
attention to the impacts of fleet size and mix on planning routes and outstanding theme in a wide range of earlier literature reviews. We hope
incurred driving costs. The suggested studies incorporating fleet mix are that established and younger scholars address many of these issues
those by Gonçalves et al. (2011), Bae et al. (2011), Feng and Figliozzi because the problems we are facing from an environmental perspective
(2013), Van Duin et al. (2013), Sassi et al. (2014), Lebeau et al. (2015), infringe on our lives more than ever. In reference to the limitations
Goeke and Schneider (2015), Küçükoglu and Öztürk (2016), Penna et al. associated with the review we have provided, there are following ample
(2016), Hiermann et al. (2016b), Yavuz and Çapar (2017), Li et al. opportunities for future analyses and reviews of Green-VRP
(2018c), Macrina et al. (2019a, b), Koyuncu and Yavuz (2019) Hier­ publications:
mann et al. (2019), and Rezgui et al. (2019). Although a rigorous and structured approach was used in the cate­
gorization of the researchers, the validation and the content analysis of
7. Concluding discussion these studies remain interpretative and hence subjective. Due to the
extensiveness of the reviewed literature, more comprehensive biblio­
In line with the trend of green logistics and sustainable issues, metric citation analyses and statistical methods could be employed to
concern about Green-VRP has attracted growing interest from academic assess and cluster related works and to examine contingencies of
researchers, governments, nonprofit organizations, and private com­ different categories. Furthermore, future studies should contain the
panies. To bring order into the existing literature on Green-VRPs, this proceeding papers which have not been peer-reviewed. Moreover, the
paper has tried to provide an overview of the main existing research critical analysis should tie the recent technological developments with
works on three major and applicable streams of the Green-VRPs, the environmental performance of routing problems. Substantial
namely, ICEVs, AFVs, and HEVs. This paper presented a new and research in the experimental designs and their characteristics is needed
broader classification of articles published until 2020. The main objec­ for future research.
tive of the research was the organization of recent literature to provide a Reverse logistics and waste collection are two areas of research that,
reference point for future research on new aspects of Green-VRPs. A in some articles, it may be difficult to explicitly declare a link to green
wide range of these three variants and their complicate planning efforts transportation. Therefore, by reviewing the studies of other related and
have been studied and an up-to-date and holistic overview of the past similar subjects such as sustainability and green considerations in
publications has been summarized by paying special attention to energy- routing problems, the surveys could be evolved. Another limitation of
consuming and emissions to inspire researchers to find out how the the current study was the classification method. Here, the publications
outcome of the investigations can be related to the solution of real-life have been classified according to the content of the articles. However, an
problems. To shed light on the topic, we tried to review the optimiza­ analysis of the articles’ approach could be another angle. The existing
tion techniques that can better contribute to deal with the challenges of contributions, for example, may be divided into two main approaches:
different types of engines. This paper also excluded a comparative sur­ qualitative and quantitative articles. Subsequently, the works may be
vey on the performance of the state-of-the-art heuristics/metaheuristics reviewed in each subcategorization provided based on two main groups.

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

The same evaluation can be undertaken by comparing two or more periodicity in the transportation activity, diversity of vehicle driving
similar journals in order to contribute to a better understanding of future ranges, dynamism, richer objective functions (including environ­
research opportunities and the particular policies and distinctions of mental costs), and integration with other strategic and operational
each journal. challenges.

7.3. Main insights 7.4. Trends and future research directions of Green-VRPs

In this subsection, valuable insights based on the outcomes of the In spite of the fact that the published papers on the Green-VRP field
literature review are discussed. This includes the understanding with are limited to analyze the current gaps in the literature, there is a high
regards to the most promising research lines and optimization ap­ volume of practical and potentially fruitful research opportunities in this
proaches which can better contribute to deal with the open and difficult area. Based on the provided review, we draw the following trends and
research challenges of the Green-VRPs. Reviewing the literature provide future research directions in the Green-VRP to provide insights and
us with the following main insights: inspiration for logistics practitioners and enthusiastic researchers. We
believe that this review can spur more contributions in these emerging
• The majority of PRPs examined vehicle weight, speed, and travel fields of transportation science.
time as effective factors on greenhouse emissions. The cost of ex­
ternalities, such as infrastructure wear, air pollution, noise, etc., are • Real-time transportation information
generally ignored in logistics and transportation activities. The most
frequently discussed CFFVs operate on diesel-powered vehicles. Due We believe that the service time, especially in the stochastic form, is
to the suitability and properties of biodiesel, a specific diesel- not negligible in future research. Also, real-time information with
powered vehicle does not need any adjustments in the engine for providing dynamic real-world data can lay a foundation for further
employing biodiesel instead of (or mixed with) diesel. research into the PRPs. Consideration of real-time transportation in­
• In terms of time-dependent PRPs, most of the stated problems were formation such as the condition of the road and parking spaces avail­
confined to the static formulations, and only Soysal and Çimen ability, vehicles can be efficiently directed to less congested routes to
(2017) dealt with dynamic models. Furthermore, in the EVRP, the meet service time exactly. Moreover, it can imply a more environment-
charging time of an EV cannot be assumed to be fixed but depends on friendly process because by planning to travel at the best speed, less
the vehicle’s battery SoC when arriving at the charging station. Be­ pollution is released.
sides, charging operation takes a great deal of time, and therefore As a recommendation for further investigation, interested re­
clearly affects the route planning. searchers can develop practical issues that can indicate the real patterns
• As can be seen, despite the extensive literature in the field of green of daily traffic congestion and provide various analyzes of what-if sce­
transportation, most of the publications have assumed homogeneous narios, for example, planning horizons, depot location, fleet size and
vehicles consist of only ICEVs and EVs, which is not exactly the mix, departure time, customers’ demand, and negotiation of their time-
current picture. A different and rarely used approach is the utiliza­ windows, that can help to a better understanding of the operation of
tion of heterogeneous fleet incorporating fewer polluting means of logistics systems in cities.
transport and alternative technologies. Furthermore, few optimiza­
tion approaches were developed for determining the optimal com­ • Handling the variation of energy consumption
bination of different types of vehicles such as ICEVs, EVs, and HEVs
(fleet size and mix problem) whose specific characteristics must be There are extensive variants of VRP that can be used in combination
covered in adequate formulations. with the PRPs and make them comprehensive, more applicable and
• From both an environmental and energy standpoint, research on closer to real-world issues. Since the amount of fuel consumption closely
EVs, as first priority for the reduction of energy consumption, has depends on the vehicle’s conditions, the flexibility in using various types
grown significantly. However, investigations on the EVs’ technolo­ of vehicles may lead to a significant reduction in fuel consumption. The
gies are currently facing several weak points, which can be sum­ behavior of the fleet mix under effective factors is not still investigated
marized as follows: (i) the long charging time of EV’s battery in extensively in the current literature.
comparison with the relatively fast process of fueling an ICEV’s tank, Due to its significant practical relevance, examining the variation of
(ii) the low energy density of battery in comparison with the fossil energy consumption according to various practical factors is one of the
fuels used in the ICEVs, and (iii) the scarcity of public and/or private serious challenges. Future researches may handle more external factors
charging stations for EVs. associated with the ECR function like environmental temperature and
• Unlike a conventional vehicle, an EV need to be recharged frequently weather conditions.
due to its short battery length in terms of travel distance, i.e., its
restricted driving range. Therefore, users have to take into consid­ • Extension of queuing models
eration how many miles can be covered before the battery needs to
be recharged. This undoubtedly limits their use as a means of Another extension of the Green-VRP can be modeling techniques like
transportation. Thus, providing the necessary charging stations and queuing and scheduling fueling/charging in peak hours which has been
integrating them into the transportation network are important is­ gaining an increasing interest in the recent literature. As inconvenience
sues that need to be addressed. These main issues include (i) the caused by a long waiting time for charging would threaten the market
number and type of charging stations that should be established, (ii) adoption of EVs, it is essential to pay more attention to queuing issues in
the location of these stations, and (iii) their optimal capacity. future research. Note that standing time in the queue can be affected by
• Metaheuristics have frequently been used to solve Green-VRPs that partial charging and it may substantially change the structure of the
were studied in combination with one or more optimization or problem.
heuristic techniques. The GA, ALNS, and VNS were the most popular
metaheuristics in solving single objective nonlinear and very • Charging policies of HEVs
complicated programming problems, whereas NSGA-II was the most
common algorithm in solving the multi-objective optimization Also, the researches can be further extended to investigate the effect
problems. The hybrid approaches account not just for uncertainty of partial and fully charged batteries on speed variation and fuel con­
and real-time decision making, but also other aspects such as multi- sumption of HEVs. To render they applicable, other developments could

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

be to incorporate in-route partial charging and also the use of the so- would be sufficient and they only require to provide energy between
called regenerative braking which is an energy recovery mechanism segments with dynamic charging infrastructure.
that allows the electric engine to store charge while traveling on
downhill roads. They can also study how it affects speed when there is a • Battery swapping system with using drones
switch over between battery and fuel.
The biggest problem with EVs is their limited driving range. Utilizing
• Development of optimization techniques drones for battery swapping can be an innovative approach and a smart
platform for autonomously swapping the power source which facilitates
The development of new solution methods such as hybrid the use of EVs, especially in the countryside. In this case, the range of
optimization-simulation techniques to efficiently cope with the com­ service provided by the BSSs will be increased to the maximum time of
plexities of incorporating fleet size and mix, including dynamic sce­ flight of the drones (around 30 min depending on the drone). This
narios especially with other types of uncertainty sets would be valuable infrastructure will allow EVs to conduct larger and longer operations
in promoting the desired shift towards more sustainable sources of en­ and also accelerate the use of them in the market. There is growing hope
ergy. We also strongly believe that promising research avenue lies in the for the development of this mechanism and technical research on it in
integration of new features in the field of AFVs. For example, the the future.
development of the rewards-driven mechanism (Gharaei et al., 2015) or
maintenance operation (Duan et al., 2018). • Portable charging of EVs

• Multi-trip optimization in a time-dependent setting By introducing the mobile EV chargers on the market, which have
the ability to quickly charge at level 3 speeds, EV owners no longer need
Although time-dependent multi-trip optimization has never been to be tied down to a charging station. Alternatively, they can receive the
studied before, it forms an interesting line of research for being new charge when they are grocery shopping or grabbing a coffee through
which brings new challenges previously unvisited when tackling real opening an app on the smartphone and ordering range to their electric
life-size samples. The frequent use of economically and more energy- car at the push of a button. EV owners can drive long distances and
efficient resources in the planning horizon through multi-trip optimi­ receive more range anywhere, anytime. We now need more research on
zation results in more cost savings and further reduction of emissions, how this new service may operate and how it will affect future trans­
especially in metropolitan areas where trips are rather short, and vehi­ portation systems, and there is also a need to introduce new models and
cles may be dispatched and reloaded for an extra round of travel. algorithms that take into account complexities and different character­
istics of constructing such networks. We believe that research on the
• Analysis of the potential of autonomous ground vehicles in reducing the efficiency of portable charging systems under different network and
emissions demand scenarios is an interesting topic and their new challenges and
opportunities provide a rich vein of research.
As reported in Greenblatt and Shaheen (2015), by the mid-21st
century, the share of fully autonomous vehicles will increase dramati­ • Wireless charging of EVs
cally and will significantly change the road transport system. Wide­
spread implementation of autonomous vehicles would be a turning point Plug-in charging is common today, but in the near future it will
in terms of improving road safety and the environmental impact of road become high-power fast wireless charging. Waiting in queuing for
traffic. Autonomous vehicles play a key role not only in significantly charging is generally undesirable, and such traditional charging systems
improving traffic safety and increasing the potential mobility of people in future cities are unnecessary with a sufficient number of wireless
who are currently unable to drive independently but also to provide charging systems. With wireless charging systems embedded in EVs,
opportunities to reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions. properly established all over the city as well as at owners’ homes, it is
Properly planned autonomous vehicles will be able to fully utilize the not necessary to plug EVs into the charging system anymore. Drivers just
ecological principles of driving during the journey, reduce fuel con­ have to park on a coil normally located on or buried in the ground.
sumption by 20% and greenhouse gas emissions by the same amount. Therefore, adaptation charging infrastructure with such technology and
Moreover, smoothly driving minimizes the need for acceleration, which including them into strategic decisions such as network design can
is known as a particularly energy-intensive process. It is, therefore, potentially solve some real-life issues and also lead to higher satisfaction
necessary to examine the theoretical approaches of autonomous vehicles of electric vehicle users.
in transport problems, and also their environmental impacts that depend
on various factors originating from the vehicle itself, user reactions and • Smart charging of EVs
the transportation network. It is important to use available real-world
data to make a more realistic evaluation of the potential/upcoming Smart charging refers to a system that shares the data of an electric
benefits. vehicle and a connected charging device with a charging operator.
Unlike conventional charging mechanisms that cannot connect to the
• Dynamic charging of EVs along arcs cloud, smart chargers allow the stations’ owners to monitor, manage,
and restrict the charging machines remotely. This naturally leads to a
Dynamic charging methods that allow the vehicle to charge while wide range of interesting optimization problems associated with con­
driving along the arcs have an important role in adopting a wide range of trolling network capacity and managing energy consumption.
EVs, both for the transportation of cargo and passenger. It stems from
the fact that dynamic charging lessens the necessity of overnight or Acknowledgement
stationary charging at the depot node during service and strengthens the
reliability of electric vehicles. It not only has the benefit of avoiding The authors wish to sincerely thank the editor Prof. Ou Tang and the
time-consuming recharging breaks during service, in the long run, it also two anonymous reviewers for the valuable suggestions and constructive
reduces the price of electric kinds of vehicles, because smaller batteries criticisms to improve the manuscript substantially.

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M. Asghari and S.M.J. Mirzapour Al-e-hashem International Journal of Production Economics 231 (2021) 107899

Appendix A

List of all acronyms and abbreviations.

Acronym/Abbreviation Definition

ACO Ant colony optimization

AFS Alternative fuel station
AFV Alternative-fuel powered vehicle
ALNS Adaptive large neighborhood search
ATS Adaptive tabu search
AVNS Adaptive variable neighborhood search
BCO Bee colony optimization
BSS Battery swap station
CFFV Conventional fossil fuel-powered vehicle
CG Column generation
CS Commercial solver
DEA Differential evolution algorithm
DP Dynamic programming
ECR Energy consumption rate
ECV Electric commercial vehicle
EDA Estimation of distribution algorithm
EOL End of life
EP Evolutionary programming
ES Evolution strategy
EU The European Union
EV Electric vehicle
EVNS Evolutionary variable neighborhood search
EVRP Electric vehicle routing problem
GA Genetic algorithm
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GIS Geographic information system
GRASP Greedy randomized adaptive search procedure
Green-PDP Green pickup and delivery problem
Green-VRP Green vehicle routing problem
HC Heuristic concentration
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
HEVRP Hybrid electric vehicle routing problem
ICEV Internal combustion engine vehicle
ILS Iterated local search
IP Integer programming
LNS Large neighborhood search
NRGA Non-dominated ranking genetic algorithm
NSGA-II Non-dominated genetic algorithm II
PBA Path-based approach
PHEV Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
PRP Pollution routing problem
PSO Particle swarm optimization
RL Reverse logistics
SA Simulated annealing
SoC State of charge
SS Scatter search
TS Tabu search
VNS Variable neighborhood search
VRP Vehicle routing problem
WSM Weighted sum method

Appendix B

Research protocol and instruction.

Topic Description

Background
•Needs for a study on the topic To decrease energy consumption in fleet operations meeting the environmental-related issues and financial indexes
•Main research question How optimization techniques can better contribute to deal with the challenges of different types of engines?
How the outcome of the investigations can be related to the solution of real-life problems?
•Needs for extension Providing a systematic and up-to-date review and clear classification of the existing studies on the Green-VRP
Finding lack of investigations and pointing out future research opportunities of research in the Green-VRPs
Search Strategy
•Search fields Title; Abstract; Keywords
•Publication type Review articles and research articles
•Scientific database Scopus, ScienceDirect, EBSCO, Link, Springer
•Snowball approach Search for additional articles in academic databases and bibliographies and through forward/backward snowball searches based on all
previously selected articles
Selection Criteria
•Time span January 2000 to May 2020
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(continued )
Topic Description

•Language Limited to English

•Search string TITLE-ABS-KEY{(“vehicle routing problem” OR “route optimization”) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (“green transportation” OR “green logistics” OR
“electric vehicle” OR “hybrid electric vehicle” OR “pollution routing problem” OR “CO2 emissions” OR “GHG emissions” OR “alternative fuel
vehicle” OR “Green-VRP” OR “GVRP” OR “HEV” OR “PRP” OR “PHEV”)}
•Boolean operators OR between keywords; AND between database search fields
•Inclusion criteria when reading Papers with a focus on three-vehicle classes including ICEVs, EVs, and HEVs of different types in the Green-VRP
search fields
•Exclusion criteria when reading So-called grey literature such as technical reports, theses, conference papers, book chapters, etc.
search fields
•Peer-reviewed journals Academic journal papers
Synthesis Narrative; Tabulation
Study Limitations Intrinsic constraints in the context of the study such as the high variety of green problems

Appendix C. Notations

Table 1A
The notations used in Eq. (1).

G = (N, A) a complete graph with

N as the set of nodes including 0 as the depot (N0 = N/{0})
A as the set of arcs defined between each pair of nodes
R set of speed levels R = {1, 2, …, r, …}
vr average speed at each level r ∈ R
dij distance from ito j
e estimated cost of emitted GHG
w empty vehicle weight
p a wage paid to the driver of a vehicle per unit time
sj total time that a driver spends on a tour
cf additional running costs associated with repairs and maintenance
xij 1, if a vehicle travels on arc (i, j) ∈ A; 0, otherwise
β a vehicle specific constant
αij an arc specific constant
fij amount of commodity flowing on arc (i, j) ∈ A
zrij 1, if a vehicle travels at speed level r ∈ Ron arc (i, j) ∈ A; 0, otherwise

Table 2A
The notations used in Eq. (2).

k engine friction factor

M mass of the vehicle (kg)
V engine displacement (l)
N engine speed [radian per second (rps)]
ρ air density (kg/m3)
A surface area in front of the vehicle (m2)
θij road angle (rad)
g gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
aij acceleration (m/s2)
vij speed (m/s)
Cr coefficients of rolling resistance
Cd coefficients of drag
γ a conversion factor (g/s to l/s)
ω amount of heat release when a gram of fuel burns (g/kJ)
η a measure of efficiency for diesel engines
ηtf drive efficiency constant

Table 3A
The notations used in constraints (5)-(8).

G = (N, A) a graph with

N as the set of nodes including 0 as the depot (N0 = N/{0})
A as the set of arcs defined between each pair of nodes (vi )
K set of vehicles
fmax charge capacity
r̃ki a binary value that indicates whether vehicle recharging is allowed at customer i
gi service time
γ percentage of the charge capacity that can be obtained via a quick charge at customer locations (0 < γ ≤ 1)
F(vi , vj ) an arbitrary function that represents the amount of energy required to travel a distance without loss of generality
fmax ≥ 2F(vi , vj ) so that every customer can be feasibly served by the depot regardless of the feasibility of recharging at any given customer
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Table 3A (continued )
xkij a binary decision variable that indicates whether a vehicle k travels between locations vi and vj
rki a binary decision variable that indicates whether a vehicle k recharges at customer i incurring a recharging service time penalty gr before continuing its tour
yki a positive variable that represents the service start time at customer i

Table 4A
The notations used in Eq. (10).

m vehicle mass
a(t) acceleration of the vehicle (m/s2) which takes negative values when the vehicle decelerates (a(t) = dv(t)/dt)
g gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
θ road angle (rad)
Cr rolling resistance parameter that varies as a function of the road surface type
c1 rolling resistance parameter that varies as a function of the road condition
c2 rolling resistance parameter that varies as a function of the vehicle tire type
ρAir air density (kg/m3)
CD aerodynamic drag coefficient of the vehicle
Af frontal area of the vehicle (m2)
v(t) vehicle speed (m/s)

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