DR. A.N.

KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA

SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 01
AIM- To determine resistivity of two wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Two wires of different materials
• Battery Eliminator
• Voltmeter
• Milliammeter
• Rheostat
• Plug Key
• Connecting Wires
• A piece of sand paper
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY
According to Ohm’s law, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its
ends, provided the physical state (pressure, temperature and dimensions) of the conductor remains unchanged.
VαI
or , V= RI
or, R = 𝑉𝐼

Where R is termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor.

The relationship between the resistance of a material and its length and the area of the cross section is given by the formula,
𝑙
R = ρ𝐴
𝐴
Or, ρ = R𝑙

𝜋𝑑 2
Or, ρ=R 4𝑙

Where ρ is the resistivity of the material of the wire and d is the diameter of the wire.
PROCEDURE :
• The ends of the connecting wire is cleaned with the help of sand paper in order to remove any insulating coating on them.
• The given wire, rheostat,battery,key,voltmeter and milliammeter is connected as per the circuit diagram. All connections
must be neat and tight.
• One must make sure that the pointers in the voltmeter and milliammeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring
scale. If not, then the pointer must be adjusted by using a screwdriver.
• The range is noted down and the least count is determined out of the given voltmeter and milliammeter.
• The key K is inserted and the rheostat is slid to the end where current flow is minimum.
• The rheostat is adjusted to get a small deflection in milliammeter and voltmeter and is recorded.
• At least six sets of readings are taken by adjusting the rheostat gradually.
• A graph is plotted with V along X-axis and I along Y-axis.
• The slope of the V-I graph is determined. The reciprocal of the slope gives the resistance of the wire.
• Diameter of the wire and length of the wire is determined by using a screw gauge and a meter scale respectively.
OBSERVATIONS
• Range of the given ammeter =
• Least Count of the given ammeter =
• Range of the given voltmeter =
• Least Count of the given voltmeter =
• Least Count of Screw gauge =
• Length of the Wire 1 (l1) =
• Length of the Wire 2 (l2) =
TABLE – 1 (Variation of Potential difference with Current for Wire 1 and wire 2)
Sl.No. Ammeter Reading (mA) Voltmeter Reading (V)

wire1 wire2 wire1 wire2

1
2
3
4
5
6
TABLE – 2 (Measurement of the diameter of Wire 1 and wire 2)
Sl.No. Main Scale Reading (x) Circular Scale division Diameter (cm) Mean Diameter
coinciding (y) d = x + (y X L.C)
wire1 wire2 wire1 wire2 d1 d2 wire1 wire2
1
2
3

CALCULATIONS
Resistance of the given wire 1 (R1) = Slope of V- I graph for wire
∆𝑉
= = ........ Ω
∆𝐼
Resistivity of the given wire 1

ρ1 = R1 d12 = .........Ω cm
4 l1
Resistance of the given wire 2 (R2) = Slope of V- I graph for wire 2
∆𝑉
= = ........ Ω
∆𝐼
Resistivity of the given wire 2

ρ1 = R2 d22 = .........Ω cm
4 l2
RESULT
• Ohm’s Law is verified as the V-I graph is a straight line.
• The resistivity of the given wire 1 =........... Ω cm.
• The resistivity of the given wire 2 =........... Ω cm.

PRECAUTIONS
• The connecting wires used should be thick copper wire and all the connections must be neat and tight.
• Voltmeter and milliammeter must be of proper range.
• The key should be inserted only while taking readings.

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 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 02
AIM- To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Metre bridge
• Battery Eliminator
• Galvanometer
• Resistance box
• Jockey
• One-way key
• Resistance wire
• Connecting Wires
• A piece of sand paper

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY

Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform
cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle,
𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
=
𝑹 𝒍
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:

𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
X=𝑅 𝒍

PROCEDURE :

• The arrangement of the apparatus should be as shown in the circuit diagram.

• The wire whose resistance is to be determined should be connected in the right gap between C and B.
• The resistance box should be connected in the left gap between A and B.
• All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
• The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end of the bridge.
• The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in one direction then the circuit connections
are not correct. Note the galvanometer deflection.
• Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of the jokey should be gentle from left to the
right of the galvanometer.
• Choose an appropriate value from the resistance box such that when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire, there
shouldn’t be any deflection.
• Note the position of D to know the length of AD = 𝑙 .
• Record the observations in a tabular form.
OBSERVATIONS
Table for unknown resistance (X)
SL. NO. Resistance from box Length AD = 𝑙 (cm) Length CD = 100 - 𝑙 (cm) Unknown Resistance
(R) (in Ω) X = [R(100- 𝑙)]/ 𝑙 (in Ω )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

CALCULATION:

X1+X2+X3+ X4+X5+X6+X7+X8
Mean value of X = = ............ Ω
8

RESULT:

The value of unknown resistance X = ........... Ω

PRECAUTIONS

• The connections should be neat, tight and clean.

• Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
• The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
• The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
• The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.

**************
 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 03
AIM- To verify the laws of combination (series or parallel) of resistances using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Metre bridge
• Battery Eliminator
• Galvanometer
• Resistance box
• Jockey
• Two resistance wires
• Connecting Wires
• A piece of sand paper

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
For series combination

For parallel combination

THEORY
Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform
cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s bridge.
Then according to Wheatstone’s principle,
𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
=
𝑹 𝒍
The unknown resistance can be calculated as:
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍
X=𝑅 𝒍

When two resistors r1 and r2 are connected in series, their combined resistance is given as follows:
Rs = r1 + r2
When connected in parallel, the resistance of the combination is given by

The values of individual resistances r1 and r2 are determined first and thereafter those of the series and parallel combinations.
PROCEDURE :

• Set up the circuit as shown in the figure above.

• Connect r1 and r2 as shown in the figure.
• Tighten all plugs in the resistance box by pressing and rotating each plug to assure that all plugs make good electrical
connections. Using sandpaper clean the ends of connecting wires before making the connections.
• Remove some plug(s) from the resistance box to get the suitable value of resistance R
• Get a null point D on the metre bridge wire by sliding the jockey between ends A and C.
• Note the value of the resistance R and lengths AD and DC.
• Calculate the experimental value of the equivalent series or parallel resistances.
• Repeat the experiment for two more values of resistances R. Obtain the mean value of unknown resistance.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

SL.No Resistance Resistance from the Length Length 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 Mean

R (Ω) resistance box R (Ω) AD = 𝑙 DC=(100 – 𝑙) X=𝑅 𝒍 resistance (Ω)
1

r1 only 2 r1 =

3
1

r2 only 2 r2 =

3
1
r1 and
r2 in 2 RS =
series
3
1
r1 and
r2 in 2 RP =
parallel
3

RESULT

• The experimental value of RS /Rp = ......Ω

• The theoretical value of RS/Rp = .......Ω
• Within limits of experimental error, theoretical and experimental values of Rs /Rp are the same. Hence, the law of resistance
in series/parallel is verified.

PRECAUTIONS

• Ensure the connection is neat, clean and tight

• Insert key only while taking an observation
• Move jockey gently over the metre bridge wire

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 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 04
AIM- To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit .

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Galvanometer
• Battery Eliminator
• Two(10000Ω and 500Ω) resistance boxes
• Two one-way keys
• A rheostat
• A screw gauge
• A meter scale
• Connecting Wires
• A piece of sand paper

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY

The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method

𝑹𝑺
G = 𝑹−𝑺

where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.

The figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by

𝑬
k = (𝑹+𝑮)𝜭

where E is the e.m.f of the cell/battery eliminator and ϴ is the deflection produced with resistance R.
PROCEDURE :

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

• Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

• See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight.
• Take out the high resistance from the resistance box R and insert the key K 1 only.
• Adjust the value of R so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale.
• Note the deflection. Let it be θ.
• Insert the key also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that deflection in the
galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained (i.e θ/2).
• Note the value of resistance S.
• Repeat the steps four times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every time.

(b) Figure of merit

• Find the e.m.f of the cell/battery eliminator by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of
the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of the cell. Let it be E.
• Make connections as in circuit diagram.
• Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection ϴ when the circuit is closed.
• Note the values of resistance R and deflection θ.
• Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
• Find the figure of merit k using the formula.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Resistance(R) in Ω Deflection in the Shunt resistance Half Galvanometer Mean
SL.No. galvanometer(ϴ) (S) in Ω deflection resistance(G) inΩ
(ϴ/2)
1.

2.
3.
4.

SL.No. Reading of battery Resistance from Deflection (ϴ) Figure of merit Mean
eliminator (E) in volt R.B (R) in Ω in div. (k) in A/div.
1.
2.
3.

RESULT

• Resistance of given galvanometer = …….. Ω

• Figure of merit of given galvanometer =......... A/div

PRECAUTIONS

• All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

• All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight.
• The e.m.f. of cell or battery eliminator should be constant.
**************
 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 05

AIM- To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• An optical bench
• a concave mirror with mirror holder
• two optical needles
• a metre scale.

RAY DIAGRAM

THEORY

The relation between u, v and f for a concave mirror is

1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢

Where
f = focal length of concave mirror
u = distance of object needle from the pole of the mirror
v = distance of image needle from the pole of the mirror.

PROCEDURE :

• Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the mirror forward
and backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
• Measure the distance between the mirror and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the rough focal length
of the mirror.
• Clamp the holder with mirror in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark and adjust the mirror
such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.
• Take the thin optical needle (object needle) and adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on
horizontal line through the pole of the mirror.
• Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
• With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the same side of the object, an inverted and enlarged
image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the middle of the mirror.
• Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) on the same side of the object and adjust the height of the
image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.
• Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.
• Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the mirror, the object needle and the image
needle in the observation table.
OBSERVATIONS

POSITION OF
SL.NO. u (cm) v (cm) f (cm) Mean
LENS OBJECT IMAGE (cm)
(cm) NEEDLE (cm) NEEDLE (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

CALCULATIONS

Mean value of focal length,

𝑓1+ 𝑓2+ 𝑓3+ 𝑓4+ 𝑓5+ 𝑓6

f= = ........ cm
6

RESULT

Rough focal length of the given concave mirror = ……. cm

The focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from the mirror formula is found to be ............. cm

PRECAUTIONS

• Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the mirror.
• Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
• The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.

**************
 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 06
AIM- To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v .

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• An optical bench
• a convex lens with lens holder
• two optical needles
• a half metre scale.

RAY DIAGRAM

THEORY

The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

Where
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.

GRAPHS
PROCEDURE :

• Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the lens forward and
backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
• Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the rough focal length of
the lens.
• Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.and adjust the lens such
that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.
• Take the thin optical needle (object needle) and adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on
horizontal line through the optical centre of the lens.
• Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
• With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lie in the middle of the lens.
• Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) on the other end of the optical bench and adjust the height of
the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.
• Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.
• Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the object needle and the image
needle in the observation table.

OBSERVATIONS
POSITION OF 𝟏 𝟏
(cm) (cm)
SL.NO. u (cm) v (cm) 𝒖 𝒗
LENS OBJECT IMAGE
(cm) NEEDLE (cm) NEEDLE (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATIONS

(i) Plot the various points for different sets of values of u and v from observation table in the second quadrant. The
graph comes out to be a hyperbola as shown in graph between u and v.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis and meeting the curve at point A. Draw AB and AC
perpendicular on X’- and Y-axes, respectively.

The values of u and v will be same for point A. So the coordinates of point A must be (2f, 2f) because for a convex
lens,when u=2f and v=2f.

Hence, AB=AC=2f or OC=OB=2f

Therefore, the value of focal length, f = ........cm

𝟏 𝟏
(ii) Plot the various points for different sets of values of 𝒖 and from observation table in the second quadrant. The
𝒗
𝟏 𝟏
graph comes out to be a straight line as shown in graph between 𝒖 and .
𝒗

The straight line cuts the two axes at an angle of 450 at points P and Q respectively and making the equal intercepts
on the axes. Measure the distance OP and OQ.
𝟏 𝟏
Therefore, the value of focal length, f = 𝑶𝑷 = 𝑶𝑸 = .......cm
RESULT

Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm

The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from

PRECAUTIONS

• Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
• Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
• The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only real, inverted image of it is formed.

**************
 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 07
AIM- To find the focal length of a convex mirror by using a convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• An optical bench
• a convex lens with lens holder
• a convex mirror with mirror holder
• two optical needles
• a half metre scale.

RAY DIAGRAM

THEORY

Focal length of convex mirror

𝑹
f=𝟐
Where
PI = R = radius of curvature of convex mirror

PROCEDURE :

• Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wall (screen) and move the lens forward and
backward to get a sharp image on the wall.
• Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the rough focal length of
the lens.
• Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.and adjust the lens such
that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the optical bench.
• Take the thin optical needle (object needle) and adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on
horizontal line through the optical centre of the lens.
• Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.
• Clamp the holder with convex mirror near the lens upright, keeping reflecting surface of the mirror towards
lens. Adjust the height of the mirror to make its pole lie on horizontal line through the optical centre of the
lens.
• See the inverted image of the object needle formed by reflection from the convex mirror.
• Adjust the height of the needle so that the two tips are seen in one line. Move the convex mirror back and
forth till tip to tip parallax is removed.
• Note the position of the index mark on the base of the convex mirror upright.
 • Remove the convex mirror, keeping upright in its position.
• With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the object needle will be seen.
• Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) on the other end of the optical bench and adjust the height of
the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the image when seen with right open eye.
• Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright.
• Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of convex lens, convex mirror,the object needle
and the image needle in the observation table.

OBSERVATIONS

POSITION OF
SL.NO.
OBJECT NEEDLE CONVEX LENS CONVEX MIRROR IMAGE NEEDLE R (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS

𝑅1+𝑅2+𝑅3
Mean value of PI(R) = = .........cm
3
R
Therefore, f = 2 = ..........cm

RESULT

The focal length of the given convex mirror = ………. cm.

PRECAUTIONS

• The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror and centre of the lens should be at the same height.
• The convex mirror should be placed close to the convex lens.
• Tip to tip parallax should be removed.

**************
 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 08
AIM- To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence
and angle of deviation.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• a drawing board
• a white sheet of paper and pencil
• a prism
• drawing pins and office pins
• metre scale
• graph paper and a protractor

RAY DIAGRAM

THEORY

With the increase in angle of incidence (i), first the angle of deviation (Dm) decreases then for a certain angle of
incidence, the angle of deviation becomes minimum and then the angle of deviation increases.

The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by

𝐴+𝐷𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
μ= 2
𝐴
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )

Where Dm is the angle of minimum deviation and A is the angle of the prism.

PROCEDURE :

• Place the white sheet of paper on the drawing board and fix it with the help of drawing pins.
• XX’ is the straight line which is drawn parallel to the length of the paper such that it is in the middle of the
paper.
• Mark points Q1, Q2, Q3…… on the straight line XX’ at a distance of 5 cm each.
• N1Q1, N2Q2, … are the normals that are drawn on the points Q 1, Q2,… as shown in the ray diagram.
• Make angles of 35°, 40°…. 60° by drawing straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2,…….. With respect to the normals.
• To take one edge of the prism for all the observation, mark any corner of the prism as A.
• Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XX’ and on the point Q 1 and also in the middle of AB.
• Mark the boundary of the prism.
 • On the line, R1Q1, fix office pins vertically and mark them as P 1 and P2. the distance between these pins
should not be less than 10mm.
• Through prism face, AC, look for the images of the points P 1 and P2.
• Close your left eye and with the right eye open, bring it in line with the two images.
• Fix the other two office pins vertically and name them as P3 and P4. These pins should be 10cm apart from
each other. P3 and P4 should be in one straight with respect to the images of P 1 and P2.
• Encircle the pricks of pins P3 and P4.
• For points, Q2, Q3,…. for angle 40°, 45°,…..60°, repeat the steps 7 to 13.
• To get emergent rays S1T1, S2T2, ….. draw straight lines through P4 and P5.
• Inward the boundary of the prism to produce T1S1, T2S2….. so that they meet incident rays R1Q1, R2Q2,…. at
points F1, F2,…
• To obtain the angle of deviation D1, D2, …. measure the angles K1F1S1, K2F2,S2,…….
• To get angle A, measure the angle BAC in the boundary of the prism.

OBSERVATIONS

SL.NO. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE(i) ANGLE OF DEVIATION(D)

1. 350
2. 400
3. 450
4. 500

5. 550
6. 600

GRAPH

CALCULATIONS

From the graph the value of angle of minimum deviation is found to be (Dm) = …..
𝐴+𝐷𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( )
and μ= 2
𝐴 = ........
𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( 2 )
RESULT

• The angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ………

• Refractive index of the material of the prism, μ = ……
• The graph indicates that the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases to attain the
minimum value of Dm and then increases as the angle of incidence increases.
PRECAUTIONS

• 35°-60° is the angle of incidence that needs to be maintained.

• The distance between between the pins should not be less than 6cm.
• The angle of prism used should be the same for all the observations.

**************
 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 9
AIM- To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
• Glass slab
• A travelling microscope
• Lycopodium powder

DIAGRAM

THEORY
When a glass slab is placed on a horizontal surface, and its bottom surface is viewed from the top, due to refraction, it
appears to be elevated. The apparent thickness of the slab is determined from the distance between the apparent
bottom and the top of the glass slab. The refractive index with respect to the medium and air is given as:

real thickness of the slab

μ = apparent thickness of the slab

𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟏
μ=
𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟐

PROCEDURE :

• To get a sufficient amount of light, place the travelling microscope (M) near the window.
• To make the base of the microscope horizontal, adjust the levelling screw.
• For clear visibility of the cross wire, adjust the position of the eyepiece.
• For the vertical scale of the microscope, determine the vernier constant.
• Mark point P(+) on the base of the microscope using black ink.
• To avoid the parallax between the cross-wires and the mark P, make the microscope vertical and focus on P.
• Let R1 be the vernier scale and main scale reading on the vertical scale.
• Place the glass slab with least thickness over the mark P.
• Let P1 be the image of the cross mark. Move the microscope upwards and focus on P1.
• For reading, R2 on the vertical scale repeat step 7.
• Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab.
• To focus the particle near S, raise the microscope further upward.
• For reading, R3 on the verticle scale repeat step 7.
• Repeat the above steps for different thickness glass slabs.
• Record the observations.
OBSERVATIONS
Vernier constant for the vertical scale of microscope = ……..cm

SL. Reading on a vertical scale when a

No. microscope is focused on Real thickness Refractive
Apparent thickness
Cross mark Cross mark Lycopodium (R3 – R1) in cm index
(R3 – R2) in cm
without slab with slab powder R3 in 𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟏
μ=
R1 in cm R2 in cm cm 𝑹𝟑 −𝑹𝟐

1. 𝝁𝟏=
2. 𝝁𝟐=
3. 𝝁𝟑=

CALCULATIONS
𝜇 1 + 𝜇2 + 𝜇3
Mean value , μ= = ..........
3

RESULT
The value of refractive index (μ) of the given glass slab is found to be .................

PRECAUTIONS

• The glass slab should be placed on the horizontal surface.

• The parallax in a microscope should be removed properly.
• To avoid back lash error, the microscope should be moved upward.

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 DR. A.N. KHOSLA DAV PUBLIC SCHOOL, ROURKELA
SESSION: 2023-24
PHYSICS PRACTICAL FOR STD. XII
EXPERIMENT – 10
AIM- To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

• A p-n junction diode

• A 3-volt battery
• A 30-volt battery
• A high resistance rheostat
• One 0-3 volt voltmeter All are built in a single apparatus
• One 0-30 volt voltmeter
• One 0-10 mA ammeter
• One 0-100 μA ammeter
• Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

THEORY

Forward bias diode : A diode is said to be forward bias if p-end of the junction is at higher potential w.r.t n-end of
the junction.
Reverse bias diode : A diode is said to be reverse bias if p-end of the junction is at lower potential w.r.t n-end of the
junction.
*Static resistance is the normal ohmic resistance in accordance with ohm’s law. It is the ratio of voltage and current
and is a constant at a given temperature.
𝑉
Static resistance =
𝐼
*Dynamic resistance is a concept of resistance used in p-n junction. It is defined as the ratio of change in voltage to
the change in current at a specific region of the V I graph.
∆𝑉
Dynamic resistance = ∆𝐼

PROCEDURE :

• Make the connections as per the circuit diagrams.

• Make all connections neat, clean and tight.
• Note the least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and milli-ammeter (mA)/ micro-ammeter(μA).
• Adjust the rheostat of the potential divider arrangement to a minimum value and slowly increase the
potential difference across the diode by varying the rheostat.
• Note the reading in the voltmeter and corresponding reading in the ammeter.
• Vary the potential difference so as to have 12 to 15 observations.
• Plot the graph taking potential difference on x-axis and current on y-axis.
VARIATION OF POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (V) WITH CURRENT(I)

OBSERVATIONS

For forward bias

Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Range of milli-ammeter = …….mA
Least count of the milli-ammeter = .....mA
Table for forward bias voltage and forward current
SL.NO VOLTMETER READING(V)(volt) AMMETER READING(I)(Ma)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
For reverse bias
Range of voltmeter = …….V
Least count of the voltmeter = …….V
Range of micro-ammeter = …….μA
Least count of the micro-ammeter = …….μA
Table for reverse bias voltage and reverse current
SL.NO VOLTMETER READING(V)(volt) AMMETER READING(I)(Ma)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

RESULT

In forward bias of a p-n junction diode with increase in bias voltage ,the forward current increases slowly in the
beginning and then rapidly.

In the reverse bias of a p-n junction, when reverse bias voltage increases , initially there is a very small reverse
current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. (But if reverse bias voltage increases then reverse current
also increases to a large value).

PRECAUTIONS

• All connections should be neat and tight.

• Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
• Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

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