EXPERIMENT-1

DNA ISOLATION

Aim: To isolate DNA from available plant material such as

spinach,green pea seeds, papaya etc.
Requirement: Plant material, mortar and pestle, beaker, test tube,
filter paper, liquid detergent, NACL, ethanol,
,petridish, spool etc.
Principal: DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic
acid) and two type of nucleic acids found in living system. DNA act
as genetic material in most of the organisms, RNA, thought it also act
on genetic material in some viruses, mostly function as messenger
adapter, structural and in some case as a catalytic molecule.
Observation:The addition of ethanol to the solution causes DNA to
precipitation. The DNA fibres appear as white precipitate of very fine
threads on the glass spool.
Result:DNA fiber appears as white precipitate of very fine thread on
the glass spool.
 EXPERIMENT-2

Object: To study pollen germination on a slide.

Requirement: Flowers with pollen grain, glycerin, slides, coverslip,
2-needles, microscope, sucrose, boric acid, calcium nitrate, potassium
nitrate, magnesium sulphate ,distil water.
Procedure: -
(i) Prepare the medium for pollen growth by mixing 10gm sucrose,
10 mg boric acid, 30mg calcium nitrate in 100 ml of distilled
water.
(ii) Take a drop of nutrients medium on a slide. Dust few drops
pollen grains on it and leaves them undisturbed for 10 min.
(iii) Observe the slide under low power of compound microscope.
Observation & Conclusion: -
The pollen grains develop pollen tube arising from germ pore. This
shows that pollen grow in proper growth.
Precautions: -
1. Pollen should be dusted from a mature flower.
2. Do not disturb the Slide.
 EXPERIMENT-3

Aim: - Study of the plant population frequently density by quadrant

method
Requirement: - Meter scale, strings, nails.
Procedure: -To determine these parameter, first suitable quadrant
size has to be determined.For this an area of 100X100 cm is taken in
grass land. It is delimited by nails squares and called quadrated
10X10, 20X20, 30X30 and so on are taken as shown in the
diagram.Total number of species occurring in quadrants are counted
and tabulated. Total number of plant of each species are recorded in
table.

Population Density of a species is given by formula: -

Total no. of plants in all quadrants

= Total no of quadrants studied
Percentage Frequency:
Total no. of quadrants in which species occured
Total no of quadrants studied
Precautions: -
1. Quadrate should choose where vegetation is uniformly
distributed.
2. In this case of grasses, a title show counted as one plant.

3. The process mitosis completed under the following stages:-

1. Interphase
A. It is a stage in blow two successive cell division and hence a
non-dividing plants.
B. Nucleus is stage and discount with nucleus membrane
C. Nucleus containing chromatin network
D. Nucleus is also clearly visible
2. Early Prophase:-
a. Chromatin reticulum has opened up.
b. Chromosomes appears as slender thread like structure.
c. Each chromosoms of two chromatids held
together by centromse.
d. Thus, the chromosome consist of 2 delicate thread like
chromatids coiled around each other.
 EXPERIMENT-4

Aim: - To prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study

mitosis.
Requirement: onion root tip, glass slides, cover slips, scissor,
methyl alcohol, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, aceto carmine, distil
water, spirit lamp, microscope, blotting paper etc.
Procedure: -
1. Take a medium sized bulbs of onions and trims off the old roots
from its base by means of a sharp blade
2. Place the onion one conical flask bottle full of water with its
base touching the water. Keep it for a weak to grow the roots.
3. Cut 5mm off the tips of roots and put them into a mixture of 1:3
acetic acid and methanol. Keep for 1 hour.This is called
fixation.
4. Remove 2 or 3 root tip and hydrolyse them by warming to 60o in
HCl for 15 min.
5. Remove the root tip and wash them in water.
6. Place a drop of acetocarmine on a slide. Put once hydrolyzed
root tip in a drop and place a coverslip on the root.
7. Gently wash the root by tapping the coverslip with the blunt
end of a pencil until the cells separate and spread out into a thin
layer.
8. Gently warm the slide over a flame for a few seconds and
observe under microscope.
observation
The process mitosis completed under the following stages:-
1. Interphase
It is a stage in between two successive cell division and hence a
non-dividing plants.Nucleus is large and distinct with nucleus
membrane. Nucleus containing chromatin network.
2.Early Prophase:-Chromatin reticulum has opened up.Chromosomes
appears as slender thread like structure.Each chromosomes
of two chromatids held together by centromere.Thus, the chromosome
consist of 2 delicate thread like chromatids coiled around each other.
3). Late Prophase: -The chromosomes become shorter, thicker and
denser bodies.Chromosome untwist and become thick and rod
like.Nuclear Membrane and nucleus disappear.
4). Meta Phase: -Nuclear membrane completely
disappear.Chromosome become shorter and thicker and hence
become distinct and clearly visible under the compound
microscope.Chromosomes orient themselves towards the equator with
their centromere arranged on equatorial line forming metaphase
plate.Series of spindle fiber attack the ceutromeres to opposite pole.
5.Anaphase :-The centromere split into 2 and the fibers pull the
daughter centromere to the opposite pole.The daughter
chromosomes separated chromatids appears V, J, L & I- shaped
depending up on the position of centromere.
6). Telophase: At each pole, the daughter chromosomes start
uncoiling , elongate and become thin and invisible. Thus the
chromosome are again re-oraganised into their network. Nuclear
membrane reappears Nucleus gets reconstituted.Two daughter nuclei
are formed.
Precautions: -
1. Base of the union bulb should be in a contact of water during the
growth.
2. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 1 AM.
3. There should be no air bubble under coverslip.
4. The root tips should not dry up during warming and staining.
 EXPERIMENT-5

Aim: - To Study the germination of pollen tube on a permanent

slide.
Requirements: - Slide, Microscope
Observation: Pollen grains start germinating, various stage of
development i.e. bicelled and 3- celled male gametophytes can be
seen. Pollen tube may be branched or unbranched. It contains a
tube ,nucleus and tube male gametes.
Precautions: -
1. Do not disturb the slide
 EXPERIMENT-6

Aim: To study meiosis in onion bud cell grasshopper testis through

permanent slide.

Observation: Observe the slides of onion bud cell or grasshopper

testis and find out the different stages of meiosis. Meiosis occurs in
germ cells and from diploid gametogonia.It is formed of 2 divisions:
Meiosis-1 and Meiosis- 2.
A.Prophase: It is formed of the following steps with peculiar
characters:
a. Leptotene :Long thin threads- like chromosomes with headed
appearance, called- chromosomes.Nucleus larger than that of
non-dividing cells.
b. Zygotene: Synapsis between homologous chromosomes to form
bivalent.Chromosomes are more shorter and thicker.
c. Pachytene: Each chromosome differentiates two sister
chromatids to form a dyad, so a divalent forms a tetrad.Chiasma
formation and crossing over between non-sister chromatids.
d. Diplotene:Separation of homologus chromosome and
termination of chiasma.Chromosome are more indorsed so all
shorter and thicker.
B. Metapase-1:Arrangement of bivalent in two metaphase plates at
equator.Two spindle fibers attached to centromere of
chromosomes.
C.Anaphase:Separation of homologous chromosomes towards
opposite poles (disjunction) so causing reduction of
chromosome number.Each chromosomes is formed of 2 sisters
chromatids
D.Telophase: Organizing of chromosome at opposite poles in two
nuclei, nucleolus appear in each nucleus. Disappearance of
astral and spindle fibers.

Cytokinesis:It may or may not be present

Meiosis –II (Equational division)
Is formed of 4 phase that are:
A. Prophase: It is formed of the following stages with peculiar
characters.
B. Metaphase-II: It is characterized by arrangement of
chromosome in one metaphase plate at the equator.
C. Anaphase-II: It is characterized by the formation and separation
of chromatids.
D. Telophase-II: It involves the formation of daughter nuclei at the
pole and disappearance of astral and spindle fibers.

Cytokinesis –II:
It involves division of cytoplasm between daughter nuclei by cell
furrow formation in animal cell. (Cell plate formation in plant cell)
 EXPERIMENT-7

Aim: To study of the flower adapted to pollution by wind insects.

Requirements: - Specimens of flower, forceps, needle.
Observation:

a. Wheat: (Tritium aestivum)

1. The flower is very small having perianth in the forum of 2 small
Lodicules which offer least resistance to the movement of
pollen.
2. The flower has 3 exerted stamens with versatile fixation.They
yield pollen to the air easily.
3. The stigma are 2 and feathery to catch the wind borne pollen
easily.
b. Acacia:
1. The flower is small with a small corolla tube.
2. Stamens are numerous with long filament and exposure to air.
3. Enormous quantity of pollen is yielded.
c. Brassica:
1. Flowers are brightly colored yellow to attract insects.
2. Stamens have different length i.e. 2 outer smallest & 4 inner
bigger.
3. These are 4 prominent nectaries which are sought by bees and
insects.
Petunia: -
1. Flowers are large, showy & have variously colored corollas.
2. Stamens are fused with corolla tube to tha insects
rupture the anthers when they go inside the flowers to suck
nectar.
3. Bright nectaries occur at the base of stamens which are sought
after by the insects.
 EXPERIMENT-8

Aim: Study of mendelian inheritance using seeds of different color /

size of any plant.
Requirement: Seeds of any plant (like pea),pencil, eraser , note book.
Observation: - Ratio of seeds color in plant in F1 ratio of seed color
in plant in F2 generation.
Result: - About ratio matches with mendelian ratio.
 EXPERIMENT-9

Aim: To study the process of controlled pollination, emasculation

tagging and bagging.
Requirements: Pea seeds, pots, polythene ,thread, brush.
Procedure:
1. Select 5 round seeds and 5 wrinkled seeds of pea.
2. Sow them in separate pots and let them grow until buds appear.
3. Label the pots immediately after sowing seeds.
4. Remove the immature stamens of floral buds of wrinkled seed
plant with the help of forceps.This is called emasculation.
5. Select at least 10 flowers on the plant for emasculation.
6. Cover the emasculated flower with polythene bag immediately.
So that self- pollination & undesired cross pollination is
avoided. This is known as bagging.
7. Once the flower become fully matured , take out pollen from
anther of second parent plant and artificially transform them to
stigma of emasculated flower.
8. Collect the pods and seeds by the
i. Pea plant raised from round seeds.
ii. Emasculated flowers from wrinkled seed.
iii. Other flowers from wrinkled seeds
Observation:
Round seed pea plant (pisum sativum) produces both round and
winkled seed in ratio of 3:1
Conclusion: -
1. Shape in pea seed has two contrasting factors wrinkled and
round.
 2. Wrinkled seed shape is a recessive character and round seed
shape is a dominant character.
3. Wrinkled shape expresses itself only when both the recessive
genes are present.
Precautions:
1. Only healthy seeds are to be taken.
2. Emasculation is to be done before the onset of maturation of
anther.
 EXPERIMENT-10
Aim: To identify disease causing organism like ascaris, entamoeba,
plasmodium, ringworm through permanent slides of diseases that they
cause.
Requirements: Permanent slides or specimens of the organism and
microscope.
Observation: -
1. Ascaris (Round Worm)
Comments: -
i. It is found in the intestine of man specially of children.
ii. The body is elongated, cylindrical with pointed ends.
iii. The male body is shorter and posterior and is curved having
pointed ends.
iv. In female the body is much elongated & posterior end (in
female) or cloacal aperture (in male) lies just in front of
posterior end.
v. Excretory pore is present on ventral side just behind anterior
end.
Classification:

Phylum - Nematode
Census - Ascaris
Species - Lumbricoides
2. Entamoeba histolytic: -
Comments:
i. It is formed as parasites in the human intestine.
ii. Its body is divisible into an outer ectoplasm, inner endoplasm
and covered by plasma lemma.
iii. The endoplasm has a single large nucleus and food vacuoles
with ingested blood corpuscles
iv. It has lobe with pseudopodium.
v. Entamoeba causes a disease called amoebic dysentry or
amoebiasis.
vi. Symptoms of amoebiasis include constipation, abdominal
pain & stools with excess mucus and blood.
Classification:
Phylum - Protozoa
Crenel - Entamoeba
Species - Histolytic
3. Plasmodium (Malarial parasite)
Comments:
i. Malarial parasite enters human body as sprozoite by the bite
of female anopheles mosquito.
ii. Sporozoite is spindle shaped and uninucleate organisms
covered by the pellicle.
iii. Sporozoite multiply with in the liver cells and then attracts
RBCs.
iv. In RBCs the parasite passes through trophozoite, signetring
and amoeboid stage.
v. The rapture of RBCs is associated with release of toxic
substance causing chill and high fever in every 3 to 4 days.
Classification:
Phylum - Protozoa
Genus - Plasmodium
 Species - Vivax
Ring worms:
Comments:
i. Fungi belonging to genera microporum, trichophyton &
epidermophyton are responsible for the ringworm.
ii. It is one of the most common infectious disease in man.
iii. Appearance of dry, scaly lesions, on various parts of the body
such as skin, nails & scalp are the main symptoms of the
disease.
iv. Ringworms are acquired from soil or by wind, towels &
clothes of infected person.
 Testes and Ovary-11
Aim: To study the discrete stages of gametogenesis in mammalian
testis and ovary.
Requirement: Permanent slides of T.S of testis and ovary, compound
microscope, lens-cleaning paper and cleaning fluid.
Principal : Male reproductive organ (Testes) -------- Spermatogenesis
Female reproductive organ (Ovary) ----------Oogenesis
Comments:
i. A mammalian ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal
epithelium followed by a thick layer of fibrous tissue, the
tunica albuginea.
ii. The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
iii. In the stroma, graffin’s follicles in various stage of
development like primary oocytes and secondary oocytes are
found.
iv. A graffin’s follicle consists of an ovary, surrounded by a
group of follicular cells.
 EXPERIMENT-12
FLOWERS ADAPTED TO POLLINATION BY DIFFERENT
AGENCIES

Aim: To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different

agencies (wind, insect and birds)
Requirement : Fresh flowers of maize or any other cereal/
grain,Salvia/ ocimuns and brassica mustard , forceps hand lens/ slide,
needle etc.
Principle: The process of transfer of pollen grains from anther to the
stigma of either the same flower or another flower of the same species
is called pollination.
Pollen grain are immobile, hence required external agencies to reach
to the stigma. The external agencies involved in pollination may be
abiotic ( wind and water )or biotic like insects, birds, rats etc.
Place the given flower on a slide and observe it with help of hand
lens.
Obeservation: The flower of maize show following adaptationfor
pollination by wind.
1.The maize plant is monoecious and bears unisexual flowers.
2.The male flowers are born in terminal infloresence.
3.Flowers are small and inconspicuous.the pollen grains are produced
in very large number.
4.Anther are versatile and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.
Salvia Flowers (Entomophiles or insect pollinated flowers):
The flower of salvia show following adaptations for pollination by
insects.
i. The flowers are showy or brightly colored for attracting
pollinating insects.
ii. The flowers are born in verticillate inflorescence to become
conspicuous.
iii. Flower secrete nector to feed visiting insect, nectar glands are
placed in such position that an insect must touch both the
anther and stigma.
iv. The flowers having landing platform for the insects.
v. The flowers are protandrons with bilipped corolla and have
turn pipe or lever mechanism.