18 Instruments used in Microbiology Lab with Principle and Uses

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1. Analytical Balance

An analytical balance is a type of balance that is commonly used for the measurement of
mass in the sub-milligram range.
 Equal arm A/B

Working Principle

 These types of balances are made with a measuring pan enclosed in a transparent covering
that prevents small particles or air currents from getting collected on the pan.
 An electric analytical balance uses the force necessary to counteract the mass rather than
measuring the mass itself.
 An electromagnet is used to create a force required to achieve a balance with the mass of
the substance, and the resulting force is displayed.

Uses

 As they are highly precise and based on advanced technology, analytical balances are
explicitly used in laboratories for the effective completion of tasks like weighing test
materials and sampling amounts, formulation, density determination, purity analysis, quality
control testing, and material and conformance testing.

2. Autoclave
An autoclave is a pressurized chamber used for the process of sterilization and disinfection by
combining three factors: time, pressure, and steam

In general, an autoclave is run at a temperature of 121° C for at least 30 minutes by using

saturated steam under at least 15 psi of pressure.

Working Principle

 Autoclaves use steam as their sterilization agent. The basic principle of an autoclave is that
all the items within the autoclave come in direct contact with the steam for a particular
period irrespective of the nature of the material- whether it is liquid, plastic ware, or
glassware.
 The amount of time and the temperature depends on the type of material being sterilized
and the increase in temperature of the cycle allows for shorter periods.

Uses

 Autoclaves are mostly used for the sterilization of medical or laboratory equipment with the
capacity of sterilizing a large number of materials at once.
 They are commonly used for the preparation of culture media during laboratory
applications.

Types

3. Bunsen burner
Bunsen burner is a standard tool used in laboratories, named after Robert Bunsen. It is a gas-
fueled single open flame.

Working Principle

 This burner is made with a metal tube on a flat base with a gas inlet at the bottom of the
tube, which may have an adjustable valve. On the sides of the tube are openings that can be
adjusted with a collar to control the amount of air that can enter.
 Once the burner is connected to a gas source, the gas is forced by the gas pressure so that
the gas reaches the top where the flame is ignited with a match or a lighter.
Uses

 It is commonly used for processes like sterilization, combustion, and heating. In medical or
microbiology laboratories, it is commonly used for micro-loop sterilization.

4. Centrifuge

A centrifuge is a device that allows the rotation of an object about a single axis, where an
outward force is applied perpendicularly to the axis. A laboratory centrifuge is motor-based
and allows the rotation of a liquid sample resulting in the separation of the components of the
mixture.

Centrifugation is the technique of separating components where the centrifugal force/

acceleration causes the denser molecules to move towards the periphery while the less
dense particles move to the center.

Working Principle

 A centrifuge works on the principle of sedimentation, where the high speed of the rotation
causes the denser particles to move away from the center while smaller, less dense particles
are forced towards the center.
 Thus, the denser particles settle at the bottom while the lighter particles are collected at the
top.
 In a laboratory tabletop centrifuge, the sample tubes are aligned at an angle so that the
particles have to travel a shorter distance before they hit the bottom.
Uses

 The primary application of a centrifuge is the separation of particles suspended in a

suspension. It can be used for the separation of cell organelles, nucleic acid, blood
components, and separation of isotopes.

Hematocrit centrifuge
Hawksley Hematocrit Centrifuge
Microhematocrit reader for 1 capillary tube

Figure: AHN myLab® Hematocrit Centrifuge. Image Source: AHN Biotechnologie GmbH.

Microhematocrit centrifuges are used for determination of volume fractions of

erythrocytes (red blood cells) in blood and for separation of micro volumes of blood and
solutions. It provides hematocrit values (HCT) for testing in biochemistry, immunity,
genetics, blood separation and for general clinical tests.

 Hematocrit centrifuges are specialized centrifuges used for the determination of volume
fraction of erythrocytes (RBCs) in a given blood sample.
 This centrifuge provides hematocrit values that can be used for testing in biochemistry,
immunity, blood test, and other general clinical tests.
 Hematocrit centrifuges may be used to help diagnose blood loss, polycythemia (an elevation
of the erythrocyte count to above-normal levels), anemia, bone marrow failure, leukemia,
and multiple
.ESR STAND

Normal Values of ESR

ESR values tend to rise with age and are generally higher in women. Higher values are often
found in states of anemia.

ESR between the age of 20 to 90 years is 12-19 (mm/hr) in males and 18-23 (mm/hr) in
females.

At birth, the value of ESR has been found as 1-2 and rises to 4 mm/hr 8 days after delivery
and then to 17 mm/hr by day 14.

It varies between the range of 3-20 (mm/hr) till puberty.

ESR DISPOSABLE TUBES

5. Colony Counter

A colony counter is used to estimate the density of a liquid culture by counting the number of
CFU (colony forming units) on an agar or culture plates.

Working Principle

 This instrument can accommodate different sizes of plates which are scanned on top with
UV, white light and/or fluorescent illumination.
 One can accomplish the counting either manually with the touch pressure or with a digital
counter.

Uses

 A colony counter is primarily used for counting the number of colonies present on a culture
plate to estimate the concentration of microorganisms in liquid culture.
6. Deep Freezer
Working Principle

 Deep freezers are based on the principle that under extremely low temperatures, there is
minimum microbial growth which allows for the protection and preservation of different
substances.
 Based on this principle, we can even preserve cultures over a long period of time without
any change in the concentration of the microorganisms.

Uses

 A deep freeze can be used for the preservation of different things used in the laboratories
for a very long period of time. Deep freezers are used in laboratories to store and preserve
medical equipment, food items, blood samples, medicines, and injections, etc. for a more
extended period of time.

7. Homogenizer

Homogenizer is a device used in laboratories for the mixing of various liquids and materials
like tissue, plant, food, soil, and many others.

Working Principle

 This instrument is based on the principle that when large globules in coarse emulsion are
passed under high pressure through a narrow orifice, they break down into smaller particles
giving a more uniform and stable mixture.
 A homogenizer has a metal rod with narrow parallel openings in the form of a comb at the
end which acts as the orifice for the homogenization process.

Uses

 A homogenizer is primarily used to disrupt cells to acquire cell organelles for different
microbiological processes.
 It is used in the preparation step before the extraction and purification of different
macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids.

8. Hot plate

A hot plate is a stand-alone appliance used in microbiology laboratories as a tabletop heating

system.

Working Principle

 Unlike the traditional ways of producing heat through fire, a hot plate produces heat by the
flow of electricity.
 On a hot plate, electricity runs through the coils which have a high level of electrical
resistance. The resistance in the coils converts the electrical energy into heat energy which
causes the coils to release heat.
Uses

 In a laboratory, hot plates are used to heat glassware and its components.
 They are used over water baths as water baths might be hazardous in case of any spills or
overheating.

9. Hot air oven

A hot air oven is an electrical device that is used for sterilization of medical equipment or
samples using dry heat.

Working Principle

 A hot air oven is a type of dry heat sterilization which is performed on dry materials and on
substances that do not melt or catch fire under high temperatures.
 There are two types of hot air ovens based on the working principle
o Forced air hot air oven: In this type of hot air oven, the heated air inside the oven is
distributed throughout the oven with a fan. This prevents the rising of hot air
towards the top while keeping the cold air at the bottom. This allows for the
adequate heating of materials inside the oven.
o Static air hot air oven: In this type of oven, the heat is produced by coils present at
the bottom of the oven with no fan. The hot air rises and doesn’t allow the effective
sterilization of the materials.
 The equipment inside the oven acquires heat and passes the heat towards the center, one
layer at a time which allows for effective dry heat sterilization.

Uses

 A hot air oven can be used to sterilize materials like glassware, metal equipment, powders,
etc.
 It allows for the destruction of microorganisms as well as bacterial spores.
10. Incubator

Types :

Benchtop incubators, Cooled incubators, Shaker incubator

CO2 incubators This type of incubator is used for the growth of the cultivation of different bacteria requiring
5-10% of CO2 concentration.

An incubator is a device that is used in laboratories for the growth and maintenance of
microorganisms and cultures. Incubator provides an optimal temperature, pressure, moisture,
among other things required for the growth of microorganisms.

Working Principle

 The incubator is based on the principle of maintaining a proper atmosphere for the growth
of microorganisms.
 Incubators have a heating system that allows for the temperature within the incubator to be
adjusted according to the type of organism cultivated inside.
 Similarly, they are provided with adjustments for maintaining the concentration of CO2 to
balance the pH and humidity required for the growth of the organisms.
 Variation of the incubator like a shaking incubator is also available, which allows for the
continuous movement of the culture required for cell aeration and solubility studies.

Uses

 Incubators have a wide range of applications including cell culture, pharmaceutical studies,
hematological studies, and biochemical studies.
There are two types of incubators in relation to airflow: circulated air incubators and still-
air incubators. Circulated air incubators, also known as forced air incubators, have built-in
fans that continually circulate air to maintain sufficient oxygen and keep the temperature
even.

 Incubators can also be used in the steam cell research area.

11. Laminar Air Flow/ Laminar Hood
BIOSAFETY CABINET The primary purpose of biosafety cabinets is to protect the laboratory
personnel and the environment from the pathogenic microorganism.

Laminar Hood is a closed device primarily for processes or instruments sensitive to microbial
contamination. Laminar flow hoods are available in horizontal or vertical airflow
configurations. A horizontal flow hood will move air from the back of the unit through HEPA
or ULPA filters and to the front of the work surface. A vertical flow hood will move air from
the top of the unit through filters and down to the work surface.

A Laminar flow hood/cabinet is an enclosed workstation that is used to create a

contamination-free work environment through filters to capture all the particles
entering the cabinet.

In a biosafety cabinet, both the sample and user are protected while in the laminar flow
cabinet, only the sample is protected and not the user
Working Principle

 A Laminar Hood is made up of stainless steel, avoiding joints and corners to prevent the
accumulation of bacterial spores.
 This device creates a sterile environment with the flow of sterile air through a High-Efficiency
Particulate Air (HEPA) filter and shortwave ultraviolet germicidal lamp that sterilizes the
workstation.
 Laminar Air Flow has to turn on 15 minutes before to ensure complete sterilization and the
workstation should be cleaned with ethanol before and after use.

Uses

 Laminar Hood is commonly used to conduct processes that are sensitive to contamination.
 It is used for experiments related to plant tissue culture and for the experiments of genetic
transformation.

12. Magnetic Stirrer

Magnetic Stirrer is a device commonly used in microbiology laboratories for the purpose of
mixing liquids.

Working Principle

 This device consists of a rotating magnetic or an electromagnet creating a rotating magnetic

field that allows the stir bar (a piece of heavy metal) to move around in the vessel.
 It is coupled with a heating system to heat the liquid while it is mixed.

Uses

 It is usually used for mixing various liquid components in a mixture in a chemical or

microbiology laboratory.
 This device is used in place of other stirrers as it is noise-free and because the size of the stir
bar is so tiny, there is less chance of contamination.

13. Microscope

Microscopes are devices that allow the observer to have an exceedingly close view of minute
particles.

Working Principle

 There are many different types of microscopes, each of which works on its respective
principles. However, there is some commonality in them.
 The basic principle in a microscope is magnification. Based on the relative position of the
object from the lens or electromagnets, different positions, nature, and magnification of the
image can be achieved.
 Different types of microscopes are developed to cater to the specific needs of the
observation. However, the common theme is magnification.
Uses

 Based on the type of microscopes, different microscopes are used for different purposes.
 They are primarily used for the observation of minute particles which cannot be observed
with naked eyes.

14. pH Meter

A pH meter is a device used in laboratories that measure the H-ion concentration in water-
based solutions to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the solution. A pH meter is often
termed a “potentiometric pH meter” as it measures the difference in electric potential
between the reference and a pH electrode.
A pH meter is an instrument used to measure hydrogen ion activity in solutions - in other
words, this instrument measures acidity/alkalinity of a solution. The degree of hydrogen
ion activity is ultimately expressed as pH level, which generally ranges from 1 to 14

Working Principle

 In a potentiometric pH meter, single or multiple glass electrodes, connected to a bulb

selective to hydrogen ions, are attached to a metal rod.
 When the bulb with the electrodes is dipped into a solution, hydrogen ions in the solution
exchange with positive charges on the electrode generating an electrochemical potential
which is displayed in terms of pH units on display.

Uses

 A pH meter is primarily used to measure the acidity of pharmaceutical chemicals, cultures,

soil, and water treatment plant.
 It can be used to measure the acidity level in wine and cheese during their production.

15. Spectrophotometer

The spectrophotometer is an optical instrument for measuring the intensity of light in relation
to wavelength. Based on the amount of light absorbed by a colored solution, a quantitative
analysis of the solution can be done. A spectrophotometer is an instrument that measures the
amount of light absorbed by a sample.

Working Principle

 Spectrophotometry is based on the Beer-Lambert Law, which states the absorbance of light
by a solution (of a particular wavelength) is directly proportional to the concentration of the
substance.
 Different wavelengths of light are passed through a solution as different substances have
better absorbance at different wavelengths. Based on the absorbance of a particular
wavelength, the quantitative analysis of a solution can be done.
Uses

 In a microbiology laboratory, a spectrophotometer is applied for the measurement of the

substance concentration of protein, nucleic acids, bacterial growth, and enzymatic reactions.

16. Vortex Mixture/ Vortexer

A vortex mixture is one of the basic technologies used for the mixing of samples in glass
tubes or flasks in laboratories.

Working Principle

 It is based on the simple principle of causing reactions and homogenization by agitating the
mixture.
 Motorized draft shafts present on the mixer oscillate and transfer the movement to the
sample tubes causing the sample fluids to undergo turbulent flow.

Uses

 Vortex mixer is mostly used for the mixing of various sample fluids in the sample tubes and
also allows for the homogenization of cells and cell organelles.

17. Water Bath

Water Bath is a conventional device that is used for chemical reactions that required a
controlled environment at a constant temperature.

Working Principle

 A sensor in the device transfers water temperature to a reference value which is then
amplified and a control system generates a signal for the heating system which heats the
water to the desired temperature.

Uses

 Water baths are primarily used for heating samples under a controlled temperature.
 These are suitable for heating chemicals that might be flammable under direct ignition.

18. Water Distiller

ARCHIVE WATER DISTILLER LAB. W D

A water distiller is a device that purifies water by the process of distillation. This instrument
is commonly used in medical laboratories, microbiology laboratories, organic chemistry
laboratories, and medical industries.

Working Principle

 A water distiller is based on the principle of distillation.

 According to this process, water is first brought to a boil and then condensed into liquid
form to obtain pure distilled water.

Uses

 It is used to obtain distilled water required for many lab tests as well as for the preparation
of culture media.
5 Types of Microscopes

There are mainly 5 common types of microscopes as follows:

1. Bright-Field or Light Microscope

2. Dark Field Microscope
3. Phase Contrast Microscope
4. Fluorescence Microscope
5. Electron Microscope

A good microscope should have three properties:

1. Good resolution: Resolution power refers to the ability to produce separate images of
closely placed objects so that they can be distinguished as two separate entities. The
resolution power of:
o The unaided human eye is about 0.2 mm (200 μm)
o The light microscope is about 0.2 μm
o An electron microscope is about 0.5 nm
The resolution depends on the refractive index. Oil has a higher refractive
index than air.
2. Good contrast: This can be further improved by staining the specimen.
3. Good magnification: This is achieved by the use of concave lenses.
Electron Microscope

It was invented by Ernst Ruska in 1931. It differs from a light microscope in various ways.

There are two types of EM:

 Transmission EM (MC type, examine the internal structure, resolution 0.5 nm, gives 2-
dimensional view)
 Scanning EM (examine the surfaces, resolution 7 nm, gives 3-dimensional view)

Specimen preparation: Cells are subjected to the following steps to prepare very thin
specimens (20 to 100 nm thick)
 Fixation: Cells are fixed by using glutaraldehyde or osmium tetroxide for stabilization.
 Dehydration: Specimen is then dehydrated with organic solvents (e.g. acetone or ethanol).
 Embedding: Specimen is embedded in plastic polymer and then, is hardened to form a solid
block. Most plastic polymers are water-insoluble; hence complete dehydration of specimen
is a must before embedding.
 Slicing: Specimen is then cut into thin slices by ultramicrotome knife, and slices are mounted
on a metal slide (copper).
TISSUE PROCESSOR LATEST MICROPROCESSOR BASED
MTP-EP SERIES
THE UNIT COMES WITH LARGE GRAPHICAL LCD DISPLAY AND MEMBRANE KEYPAD WHICH MAKES IT
USER FRIENDLY. IT HAS A PROGRAMMABLE MEMORY UPTO 9 PROGRAMS AND WITHADVANCE
SAFETY DEVICE.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS :
NUMBER OF STATIONS : 12
REAGENT STATIONS : 10
PARAFFIN WAX BATH STATION : 2
PROGRAMMABLE MEMORY : 9 PROGRAMS
DELAY START : UPTO 9DAYS
INFILTRATION TIME OF EACH STATION : 1 MIN TO 99HRS 59 MINS
AUTOMATIC STAINING MACHINE
AUTOMATIC STAINING MACHINE
AUTOMATIC STAINING MACHINE

automatic microtome knife sharpner

Automatic microtome knife sharpner
Leather knife strop
Leather knife strop & stropping
disposable Microtome blade holder
types of microtome knives
 disposable microtome knives

Ultramicrotome

•For ultra thin sections (40-100 nm),

•normally plastic embedded tissue.
•Thick sections are cut with glass at 0.5 microns, •diamond knives are for much thinner
sections at 40-100nm.
•Knife is sometimes on edge of small water
container, which captures and floats ribbons
cryo ultramicrotome
GLASS STAINING DISHES

Tissue embedding unit

has independent heating zones that are controlled through a microprocesor. It has a large
storage tank, the tank incorporates the filter which ensures continuous flow of paraffin from
the tank. The flow of paraffin from the tank can be controlled manually or through foot
switch. The heated operation platform and the forceps holder makes it easy to embed the
tissues. The unit has a storage tank, preservation boxes, forceps holder, parafiin nozzle whose
heating can be controlled through microprocessor and it can be programmed for the
weekdays for both on and off.

salient features:

 large paraffin tank suitable for high throughput lab

 illuminated wotk platform
 easy to read and operate control panel
 mold warmer and cassette bath
 optional cold spot
 it is programmable for weekdays and each heating zones temperature can be
individually set which makes it easy for the user
 separate heating zones for storage tank, 2 preservation boxes, paraffin nozzle, forceps
holder and work platform.
 excess paraffin collecting tray collects the excess paraffin from different heating
zones.
 model : mtc-te
tissue embedding centre supplied same as above
with 3litre capacity of paraffin tank.

cryostat

Freezing Microtome
Compartment - Micro Processing/Embedding Cassettes

Single Compartment Biopsy Processing / Embedding Cassettes with Lid

COLOR CODES OF VACUTAINER TUBES & ITS USES

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uses/medical-paramedical-studynotes

Here is the list of Color codes of the tube, the Additives present in them and their common uses –

S.No. COLOR CODES ADDITIVE COMMONLY USED FOR

CBC, BLOOD TYPING (Rh Factor &
EDTA (Ethylene diamine ABO Screening), Cross match, Hb,
1.) Purple / Lavender
tetra-acetic acid) Red cell Indices, ESR by Wintrobe's
method etc.
Prothrombin time (PT), Activated
Tri-Sodium Citrate
Partial Thromboplastin Time (APTT),
2.) Light blue (Blood:Anticoagulant ratio
Fibrinogen thrombin time and other
is 9:1)
blood Coagulation tests.
Basic Metabolic Panel (BMP),
Comprehensive metabolic Panel
3.) Light green Lithium Heparin
(CMP) and other plasma
determination tests.
Trace Elements like Cu, Zn, etc,
4.) Royal Blue None/ Di-sodium EDTA Toxicology and Nutrient
determination etc.
Gold (commonly BMP, CMP, LFT, KFT, Lipid Profile
Polymer Gel and Powdered
5.) known as Serum and other biochemistry assays,
Glass Clot activator
Separator tube) Serological tests etc.
BMP, CMP, Lipid Profile, Serology
Powdered glass Clot
6.) Red tests, Therapeutic drug monitoring,
Activator
blood bank procedures etc.
S.No. COLOR CODES ADDITIVE COMMONLY USED FOR
Arterial blood gas analysis, alpha-
7.) Dark green Sodium Heparin TNF, Lymphocyte Immunotherapy
etc.
Blood Sugar testing, Toxicology tests
8.) Gray Sodium Fluoride
etc.
Tri-Sodium Citrate
9.) Black (Blood:Anticoagulant ratio ESR by Westergren method
is 4:1)
Blood Bank studies, HLA
ACD (Acid-Citrate
10.) Yellow Phenotyping, Paternity testing, Tissue
Dextrose)
typing etc.
Rh factor, ABO typing, CBC, Blood
11.) Pink Dried EDTA
banking procedures etc.
 Manual Rotary Microtome

Stereo Microscopes

The main advantages of stereo microscopes are that they can examine opaque specimens and
provide a 3-D view of the sample. They also offer a large working distance allowing users to
manipulate the specimens viewed by the scope. Because a stereo microscope permits the user to
handle and manipulate the subject, they are often referred to as a dissection scope. These scopes
are used by researchers to examine a wide variety of specimens and are also used to prepare
specimens for observation with higher power light or electron microscopes
 Section/Slide Dryer

Microtome is an instrument with the help of which sections of tissues are cut and
the process of cutting thin sections is known as Microtomy. The thickness of
sections produced during microtomy may be between fractions of 50-100 nm, in
ultramicrotomy, to several 100 microns. The common range is between3- 5µm for
L/M. These sections are stained using suitable staining techniques followed by
observing them under the microscope.

1.) Rotary microtome

The Rotary microtome is so-called because of a Rotary action of the handwheel

responsible for the cutting moment. The block holder is mounted on a steel
carriage, which makes up and down in groves this type of instrument is the most
ideal for routine and research work it is excellent for cutting serial sections
Parts of the rotary microtomes

 Block holder
 Knife clamp screw
 Knife clamps
 Block adjustment
 Thickness gauge
 The angle of tilt adjustment
 Operating handle

Tissue Flotation Bath - Digital with Slide Warmer

 Blood collection tube colors and tests

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Laboratory Pumps
Pumps are commonly used in the laboratory to provide suction for the filtration or aspiration of
samples, and to reduce vapor pressure in instruments such as rotary evaporators and lab ovens.
Laboratory Stirrers and Hot Plates

Histology Hot Plates

Microbiology equipment include microscopes; slides; test tubes; petri dishes; growth mediums, both
solid and liquid; inoculation loops; pipettes and tips; incubators; autoclaves, and laminar flow hoods.

A Petri dish (alternatively known as a Petri plate or cell-culture dish) is a shallow transparent lidded
dish that biologists use to hold growth medium in which cells can be cultured, originally, cells of
bacteria, fungi etc. A petri dish is a flat, shallow dish made of glass or plastic with a suitable lid.
 Plastic Transparent Petri Dish

A Petri dish with bacterial colonies on an agar-based growth

medium

Pipettes are used to carefully transfer liquid. A multichannel pipette is an electronic device used in
science labs to accurately measure and fill numerous vials of liquid at once. ... Pipettes and
micropipettes are chemical droppers used to measure and dispense exact amounts of liquids.

The can be a manual or an electronic pipette. (single channel), there are

now multiple (i.e. 8 or 12 .others are 16, 48 and 64). Having the ability to
use multiple channels to aspirate/dispense can increase productivity and
reduce ergonomic concerns, because you can aspirate/dispense more at a
time when compared to a single channel pipette.

To contain and To deliver (TC & TD): Manufacturer stamp TC or TD

near the top of the pipette. TC pipette holds or contains a particular
volume but does not dispense that exact volume, whereas TD pipet will
dispense that exact volume indicated.

Micropipettes:

These are pipettes to measure micro liter of volume. Inner wall of pipette
can be coated with liquid so most micropipettes are calibrated to contain
(TC) that stated volume rather than to deliver it.

Measuring pipettes are used for the transferring and measurement of

reagents and making dilutions and are not considered sufficiently
accurate for measuring samples and calibrators. Micropippet is also a
measuring pippet which can measure less than 1mL.

Figure 8-1 Types of manual pipettes.

ESR STAND DISPOSABLE ESR PIPETTES

Hayem’s fluid for RBC counting and its
composition:
 NaCl – 0.5 g for isotonicity.
 Na2SO4 – 2.5 g Break RBCs and prevents their Rouleaux formation.
 HgCl2 – 2.5 Antibacterial/antifungal and as preservative.
 Distilled H2O up to 100 ml.

Diluents for Leukocyte Counting:

Turk’s Solution is used for WBC’s counting. Its composition is as follow:

 1.5 ml of glacial acetic acid – for a destruction of RBC’s and platelets.

 1 ml aqueous gentian violent – to stain nuclei of WBC’s.
 100 ml – Distal water.

Diluents for platelet counting (Rees-Ecker’s

solution) and its Composition:
 3.8 g Na citrate as anticoagulant.
 0.2 ml neutral formaldehyde (38%) – as Antifungal and fixative for the cells.
 0.5 g brilliant cresyl blue in 50 ml distal water – for staining of platelets.
 Distal water up to 100 ml – as diluent.
Hemocytometer
neubauer counting chamber

An inoculation loop, also called a smear loop, inoculation wand or microstreaker, is a simple tool
used mainly by microbiologists to pick up and transfer a small sample (inoculum) from a culture of
microorganisms, e.g. for streaking on a culture plate.

Inoculating loops and needles (sometimes called microstreakers or inoculating wands) are
hand-held devices for inoculating plated or tubed growth media with microorganisms such as
bacteria or yeasts prior to incubation, multiplication and growth. The inoculum is typically
streaked onto, or stabbed into, solid agar-based media, or simply introduced and dispersed
into liquid media. Inoculating loops and needles are also useful for sampling and transferring
small quantities of microorganism prior to further analysis, microscopic examination, or
serial dilution.

Inoculating loops and needles consist of a handle with a terminal loop or needle which is
designed to pick up and transfer a small quantity of inoculum (typically 1 to 10μL) from a
donor culture to the growth medium of choice. Some loops are calibrated and colour-coded to
transfer semi-quantitative amounts of inoculum.

Inoculation loop. This tool, here made of metal, is used by microbiologists to smear samples on a
nutrient medium in a petri dish when cultivating a microbial culture.
Disposable Inoculating loops and needles

Disposable Loops are smooth and flexible to facilitate uniform streaking without damaging the gel
surface. Disposable inoculating loops do not require flaming and thus eliminate the risk of infection.
Loops are not calibrated. Manufactured from polystyrene for strength and flexibility.

Test tubes are handheld tubes used for mixing or heating chemicals in a laboratory. They are
open at the top and rounded at the bottom, and usually made of glass or plastic materials. Some are
designed to be reused, while others are disposable. A type of labware, test tubes are sometimes
called culture or sample tubes, depending upon the application. Note, however, that culture tubes
do not have a lip.

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clinical_research_labware/test_tubes GlobalSpec © 2021
How Test Tubes Are Used

Chemists use test tubes to mix, heat and/or hold small quantities of chemicals for assays and
laboratory experiments. Biologists use them to culture and handle various organisms, fluids,
and samples. Some test tubes, such as those used in coagulation screens, contain prepared
contents. In hospitals, labs, and other medical facilities, blood collection tubes have colored
tops or stoppers (screw caps) for drawing specific types and screens.

Material Types

There are several material types of test tubes: glass, plastic, metal and ceramic. Glass and
plastic are the most common while metal and ceramic are less common. There are several
sub-types of glass and plastic test tubes.

Glass Test Tubes

Glass test tubes are thick-walled and heat and/or chemical resistant. They are sometimes
easier to see-through than plastic tubes, but often more expensive.

Fused silica is suitable for applications that require good, long-term thermal stability.

Borosilicate glass can withstand thermal shock and chemical attack, making it a common test
tube material for chemistry applications.

Quartz glass combines high resistance to thermal shock with high transmission of infrared
radiation (IR). Chemically pure and chemically resistant, it also has excellent high-
temperature properties.

KIMAX® (Kimble Chase) is made of borosolicate glasses and resistant to breakage and
chemical attack. It is sometimes disposable and/or recyclable.
Pyrex® (Corning) is another propriety type of boroslicate glass. Like KIMAX, it has higher
mechanical strength and heat resistance than some other types of commercial glasses.

Zerdour® (Schott Glass) is a lithium aluminosilicate glass-ceramic with a very low

coefficient of expansion.

Other types of glass labware are also available.

Plastic Test Tubes

Suppliers also provide test tubes made from a variety of plastic materials. These products are
lighter weight and generally less expensive than glass tubes. They may also resistance to
ultraviolet (UV) light and pressure.

EPDM tubes offer good resistance to sunlight, weathering, and the ozone. The suggested
operating temperature for EPDM is -70°F to 275°F.

Fluoroelastomer products have good heat, oil and chemical resistance; however, they often
have poor low-temperature performance.

Neoprene tubes are useful over a wide range of temperatures and resist degradation from UV
light.

Nitrile has a suggested operating range of -30°F to 275°F, making it a good choice for some
low-temperature applications.

Nylon and polyamide products have good pressure ratings, and PharMed® (Norton
Company) test tubes have high tensile-strength.

PE test tubes have excellent chemical resistance, but poor temperature resistance.
Polyethylene (PE) also has outstanding chemical properties, but is semi-opaque.
Plastic test tubes also include products made from polypropylene (PP),
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyurethane (PU), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Microscope slides are usually made of optical quality glass, such as soda lime glass or
borosilicate glass, but specialty plastics are also used. Fused quartz slides are often used when
ultraviolet transparency is important, e.g. in fluorescence microscopy. The frosted tip of the slides
allows the user to easily identify the specimen by writing directly on the slide.

Frosted End, One Side, 75 x 25mm

Packed 72 slides per box. Pre-cleaned.
75 x 25mm, Frosted End
Thickness: 0.038 to 0.042" (0.96 to 1.06mm)

Glass Microscope Slide, plain

75 x 25mm Thickness: 1mm (0.97 to 1.07mm thick)

two slides: ground edges, 90º corner, and beveled edge, clipped corners.
 FLAME PHOTOMETER

Flame photometer is an analytical instrument used in clinical laboratories for determining of

sodium, potassium, lithium and calcium ions in body fluids

What is the principle of flame photometer?

The principle of flame photometer is based on the measurement of the emitted light intensity
when a metal is introduced into the flame. The wavelength of the colour gives information about
the element and the colour of the flame gives information about the amount of the element present
in the sample.

What are the parts of flame photometer?

There are four basic components to a Flame Photometer – a flame, nebulizer and mixing
chamber, colour filters, and a photo detector. The Flame is a burner that is within the
instrument needed for temperature control and to heat up the solution. The Nebulizer breaks
up the sample into atoms

What is difference between flame photometry and atomic emission spectroscopy?

The key difference between flame emission spectroscopy and atomic absorption spectroscopy is that
during flame emission spectroscopy, certain wavelengths are emitted from atoms, whereas during
atomic absorption spectroscopy, certain wavelengths are absorbed by atoms
 atomic absorption spectroscopy

In flame atomic emission spectroscopy, the wavelengths recorded are from the light emitted by
different atoms as they return to a lower energy state from a higher energy state. Flame atomic
emission spectroscopy is usually limited to alkali metals.
atomic mass spectroscopy
colorimeter
What are the different types of spectrophotometer? [ Lab info.com]

1. Visible light spectrophotometer – This type of spectrophotometer uses a visible light from a
tungsten lamp. It is typically used for routine laboratory work, specifically the portable and
bench-top spectrophotometer models.
2. UV/Visible spectrophotometer – A visible light spectrophotometer is turned into a UV-
visible unit with the aid of a second lamp. It can measure up to 1100 nm. It comes with a
wide array of features like scanning function, user interface, integral printer, and multiple
cell setting.
3. Near-infrared spectrophotometer – It functions the same way as the UV
spectrophotometer, but the difference is it measures the response of a sample when
exposed to infrared light. It provides a non-invasive analysis and a quantitative finding with
only a minimal sample preparation. Near-infrared spectrophotometer is helpful in
monitoring highly absorbing solids. It also provides essential information like fat, protein,
fiber, and starch content.
4. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy – it is a powerful tool used to determine the
structure of organic compounds. It provides structural detail of the entire molecule as well
as dynamic information of organic reactions.
5. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer – a flame evaporates water from the sample causing
it to dissociate into ions. The dissociation leads to changes in the intensity of light as seen by
the detector. Hence, help in finding out the concentration of the sample. Atomic absorption
spectrophotometer’s high precision analysis is useful in toxicology, environmental testing,
and quality control laboratories.
6. Mercury spectrophotometer/analyzer – It instantly measures the trace amount of mercury
in water.
7. Fluorometers – It measures the fluorescence release once the object being studied is
exposed to a single wavelength of light.
 spectrophotometer[visible]

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UV/visible spectrophotometer.
a near infrared spectrophotometer.
An atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

a mercury analyzer
Image 2: The principle of a spectrophotometer as shown in the diagram above.
Picture Source: encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com

The main components of a spectrophotometer are the light source, a device that separates the light
into component wavelengths, a sample holder and a detector.

A spectrophotometer is made up of two instruments: a spectrometer and a photometer. The

spectrometer is to produce light of any wavelength, while the photometer is to measure the
intensity of light. The spectrophotometer is designed in a way that the liquid or a sample is placed
between spectrometer and photometer.

Differences between a colorimeter and a spectrophotometer

1. They differ greatly in functions. A colorimeter is designed to measure the absorption ability
of a particular color in a given sample. On the other hand, the spectrophotometer measures
the sample’s transmittance or reflectance of color as a function of wavelength.
 2. They differ in range. A colorimeter only works with light in the visible part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. On the other hand, the spectrophotometer has the ability to
work with both infrared and ultraviolet light and visible light

Chocolate agar plate

Difference between blood agar and chocolate agar

There is really nothing much of a difference between the two. In fact, the compositions are
the same. The manner of preparation is the difference between them as chocolate agar
requires lysis of the red blood cells when added to the molten agar base.

As a result of RBC lysis, intracellular nutrients are released such as hemoglobin, coenzyme
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and hemin into the agar which is used by fastidious
organisms like H. influenza. It is the lysis of the red blood cells that give the medium its
chocolate-brown color; hence, the reason for the name chocolate agar
Blood agar plate

MacConkey agar plate

MacConkey Agar Facts

1. MacConkey Agar is a modified neutral red bile salt agar by Alfred Theodore MacConkey.
2. It is one of the earliest methods used to cultivate and identify enteric organisms.
3. MacConkey Agar is useful in isolating pathogens present in foods and coliforms in water
samples.
4. Bacteria categorized as lactose-fermenting form pink colonies and have a zone of bile salt
precipitate surrounding it.
5. Non-lactose fermenting bacteria develop into colorless and transparent colonies. There is no
precipitation formed.

They are a source of nutrients needed for growth such as vitamins, minerals, nitrogen, and
amino acids.

 Agar – It acts as a solidifying agent.

 Lactose monohydrate – It provides a source of fermentable carbohydrate enabling
differentiation to take place.
 Distilled water
 Bile salts and Crystal violet – They inhibit the growth of organisms that belong to
the Gram-positive family.
  Neutral red – It identifies the pH level. If the pH level is below 6.8, it turns red. A
colorless reading means that the pH is greater than 6.8.
 Sodium chloride – It provides essential electrolytes needed for transportation and
osmotic balance.

CLED (Cystine Lactose Electrolyte Deficient) Agar PLATE

CLED Agar is an abbreviation for Cystine Lactose Electrolyte-Deficient Agar. It is a type of

differential medium recommended for diagnostic urinary bacteriology. The medium supports the
growth of all urinary potential pathogens and provides distinct colony morphology. It is electrolyte
deficient to prevent the swarming of Proteus species.
Trichuris trichiura (sometimes Trichocephalus trichiuris) - causes trichuriasis in humans]

Whipworm
 Ascariasis is an infection of the small intestine caused by Ascaris
lumbricoides, which is a species of roundworm.
Schistosoma mansoni (A), Schistosoma japonicum (B), and Schistosoma haematobium (C).