International Journal of Linguistics

ISSN 1948-5425
2020, Vol. 12, No. 6

Functions of L1 Use in EFL Classes: Students’

Observations

Mu'ath Algazo
Education Studies/Applied Linguistics, University of Western Ontario (UWO)
London, Ontario, Canada
E-mail: [email protected]

Received: October 21, 2020 Accepted: December 14, 2020 Published: December 20, 2020
doi:10.5296/ijl.v12i6.17859 URL: https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v12i6.17859

Abstract
This study aims to identify functions (Note 1) of teachers’ first language (L1) use in English as a
foreign language (EFL) classes in public schools in Jordan based on students’ observations. The
questionnaire items were selected based on the most common uses of L1 in second language (L2)
classrooms as identified in the literature. The questionnaire was designed to elicit students’
observations to identify functions of EFL teachers’ L1 in English classes. The participants were
104 EFL students in Grades 10 and 11 in four Jordanian public schools. Participants’ responses to
the questionnaire were analysed quantitatively using SPSS, a statistical software package. The
study found that the students observed that their teachers shared their L1 with them in English
classes to: 1) Explain complex grammar points, 2) Define some new vocabulary items, 3) Explain
difficult concepts or ideas, 4) Give instructions, 5) Praise the students, 6) Translate the reading
texts, and 7) Explain the similarities and differences between Arabic and English in terms of
grammar, structure or pronunciation. However, the students did not observe that their teachers
used the L1 in order to maintain discipline in the class as previous studies have found. The
findings suggest that teachers’ L1 use in the L2 classroom may indicate the usefulness of this
practice and call to license EFL teachers to use their L1 in English classes in public school in
Jordan and other similar EFL contexts.
Keywords: L1 use, EFL classes, Jordanian public schools
1. Introduction
During the last quarter of the twentieth century, applied linguists began to note the positive role of
L1 use in the L2 classroom. Since then, many studies (e.g., Aoyama, 2020; Atkinson, 1987;
Auerbach, 1993; Chavez, 2016; Cook, 2001; Kocaman & Aslan, 2018; Littlewood & Yu, 2011;

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Lucas, T., & Katz, A. 1994; Pacheco, 2018; Polio & Duff, 1994; Turnbull, 2001; Shvidko, 2017)
have examined this issue from different perspectives. Some studies (e.g., Bruen & Kelly, 2017;
De la Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Rolin-Ianziti & Brownlie, 2002; Sali, 2014) have investigated
teachers' functions of L1 use while others (e.g., Aoyama, 2020; Sampson, 2012; Storch &
Aldosari, 2010; Storch & Wigglesworth, 2003) examined functions of students' L1 use. Several
studies also (e.g., Al Nofaie, 2010; Shuchi & Islam, 2016; Tsagari & Diakou, 2015) explored
teachers' and/or students' attitudes toward the L1 role in the L2 classroom. Results from most of
these studies show that both teachers and students have positive attitudes toward the role of L1 in
the L2 classroom because it can help achieve pedagogical functions, such as defining new
vocabulary items or explaining complex grammar lessons—both of which enhance the L2
teaching and learning process (Debreli & Oyman, 2016; Sharma, 2006; Tang, 2002).
However, a review of existing literature on L1 use in the L2 classroom shows that little research
has been conducted on students’ than on teachers’ observations of L1 use (Debreli & Oyman,
2016). This lack of research is particularly notable in foreign language (FL) contexts such as
Jordan, where Arabic is the official language of the country and English is taught as a foreign
language in all private and public schools from Grade 1 to 12 (Alhabahba, Pandian & Mahfoodh,
2016; Swaie, 2019). Hence, this study looks at students’ observations on the role of L1 in the L2
classroom in an attempt to identify functions of L1 use by teachers in EFL classes in public
schools in Jordan. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following question:
What are the functions of teachers’ L1 use in the English classes in Jordanian public schools?
2. Literature Review
2.1 Functions of L1 Use in the L2 Classroom
Several studies (see, for example, Alrabah, Alotaibi & Aldaihani, 2016; Alshehri, 2017; De la
Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Ma, 2019; Polio & Duff, 1994; Rolin-Ianziti & Brownlie, 2002; Tang,
2002) have focused on identifying functions of L1 use and how they serve the L2 teaching and
learning process. Of these, some studies (e.g., Alrabah, Alotaibi & Aldaihani, 2016; Alshehri,
2017; De la Campa & Nassaji, 2009; Lasagabaster, 2013) explored the outcomes that teachers
achieved by using the L1 in the L2 classroom, while others (e.g., Aoyama, 2020; Sampson,
2012; Storch & Aldosari, 2010) investigated students’ reasons for sharing their L1 among each
other in group or pair work.
Overall, studies vary in terms of the number and type of functions examined and identified.
For example, Forman (2012) found that there are six functions of L1 teachers’ talk, whereas
De la Campa and Nassaji (2009) identified 14 such functions. The same was evident in
studies that focused on L2 learners’ functions of L1 use: Ma (2019) reported three functions
achieved by L2 learners, while Storch and Aldosari (2010) identified five. These differences
in findings are presumably related to differences in settings, participants, students’
proficiency level, and instruments for data collection, methods of data analysis, and other
circumstances. Nevertheless, these studies concluded that using the L1 in L2 classrooms can be
an effective tool in certain situations to overcome some L2 teaching and learning challenges,
and can serve many different functions such as comprehension check, translation, and giving

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instructions. It is also worth noting that, in the literature, the functions of using L1 by teachers
are different from students’ functions.
2.2 Functions of Teachers’ L1 Use
Many studies (e.g., Al-Hadhrami, 2008; Alrabah, Alotaibi & Aldaihani, 2016; Alshehri, 2017;
Bruen & Kelly, 2017; Cook, 2001; Forman, 2012; Sali, 2014) have observed that teachers
resort to their L1 to achieve purposes that may be difficult to achieve through the sole use of
the L2. For example, in the EFL context of Thailand, Forman (2012) reported six pedagogical
functions (i.e., animating, translating, explaining, creating, prompting & dialoguing) of
teacher talk across both L1 and L2 in EFL environments. Forman's study shows how
bilingual teacher talk represents a default pedagogy in this EFL context, and how L1 use
serves as a resource for embedding new forms and meanings from the L2.
Another example from the EFL context of Turkey, Sali (2014) conducted a study in which he
identified three pedagogical functions of teachers’ L1 use in EFL classes in secondary
schools: 1) Academic function to communicate the content of the lesson 2) Managerial
function to regulate the classroom interactions and proceedings efficiently, and 3)
Social/cultural function to establishing rapport with the students. The results demonstrated
that L1 use in EFL classes serve many pedagogical functions which facilitate and increase
interactions in the classroom.
In the Arab World, Al-Hadhrami (2008), investigated EFL teachers’ perspectives in Saudi
Arabia for their L1 use in their English classes. The study found that teachers primarily used
their L1 for the translation of new ideas, concepts, and vocabularies. They also used it to give
instructions and manage the classroom more efficiently. Such findings lend support to
Auerbach’s (1993) proposition that "when the native language is used, practitioners,
researchers, and learners consistently report positive results" (p.18). In other words, teachers
find that sharing L1 with their students can create a more productive leaning environment in a
challenging milieu.
Furthermore, the productive role of L1 in the L2 classroom is not limited to FL contexts, but
it extends to second language (SL) contexts. In an English as a second language (ESL)
context, Baker (2011) noted four potential advantages of practicing L1 use in the L2
classroom: 1) it helps learners to gain deeper and fuller understandings of the subject matter;
2) it enables learners to develop their weaker language; 3) it increases home-school
cooperation because of the dual use of languages; and 4) it increases the integration of fluent
learners with low-proficiency learners. Garcí a, Johnson, Seltzer, and Valdés (2017) also
suggested four pedagogical purposes: 1) supporting learners to engage in class and
comprehend the subject matter; 2) enabling learners to develop linguistic practices for
academic contexts; 3) creating a space for learners’ bilingualism; and 4) supporting
social-emotional and bilingual identity development.
In closing, we notice that most studies in the literature assert that the role of L1 in the L2
classroom, in both FL and SL contexts, can be very beneficial and can enhance L2 teaching
and learning. The role of L1 allows more flexibility and creates a very motivated learning

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milieu in the L2 classroom by allowing students who are struggling in L2 learning to switch
to their L1 and participate in the class activities (Baker, 2011; Garcí
a & Kleifgen, 2018).
3. Methodology
3.1 Setting and Participants
This study was conducted in four public schools in Jordan. One hundred and four students from
Grades 10 and 11 participated in filling out a questionnaire (Note 2). Table 1 displays the
demographic information of the participants.
Table 1. Demographic information of student-participants (n=104)
Males Females
Grade 10 0 56
Grade 11 23 25
3.2 Data Collection
Data were collected using a questionnaire includes eight statements about common purposes
of teachers’ L1 use in the L2 classroom, adopted and modified from previous studies as
shown in Table 2. The students were asked to identify how frequent their teachers use each
one of the listed purposes and indicate the option that best described their observations on a
scale of six options (i.e., Always, Usually, Often, Occasionally, Rarely, Never).
Table 2. Source for questionnaire items
“My English language teachers use Arabic in the English language Source
class to:”
1-
Explain complex grammar points Sharma (2006)
A-
Help define some new vocabulary items Sharma (2006)
B-
Explain difficult concepts or ideas Sharma (2006)
C-
Give instructions Sharma (2006)
D-
Praise the students Mohebbi and Alavi (2014)
E-
Translate the reading texts Lucas and Katz (1994)
F-
Maintain discipline in the class Mohebbi and Alavi (2014)
G-
Explain the similarities and differences between Arabic and EnglishAl-Nofaie (2010)
in terms of grammar or structure or pronunciation.
3.3 Data Analysis
The collected data was analyzed using SPSS, a statistical software package. Every item in the
questionnaire was tabulated as a percentage and mean value in order to understand the meaning
of the data gathered. The first three options (i.e., Always, Usually, Often) were considered
indicative of the participant’s agreement to the statement whereas the other three options
(Occasionally, Rarely, Never) were regarded as indicative of their disagreement. Table 3 shows
the value of each option in the questionnaire.

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Table 3. Value of questionnaire options

Option Never Rarely Occasionally Often Usually Always

Value 0 1 2 3 4 5

4. Findings and Discussion

Findings regarding students’ observations about the functions of L1 uses in the L2 classroom
show that the majority of students thought that their teachers revert to using L1 in order to 1)
Explain complex grammar points, 2) Help defining some new vocabulary items, 3) Explain
difficult concepts or ideas, 4) give instructions, 5) Praise the students, 6) Translate the reading
texts, 7) Explain the similarities and differences between Arabic and English in terms of grammar
or structure or pronunciation. However, students did not think that maintaining discipline in the
class is one of the teachers’ L1 uses in the L2 classroom as previous studies have found. Table 4
shows the results of students’ responses regarding their teachers’ purposes of L1 during L2
lessons.
Table 4. The teachers' functions of L1 use (N=104) (Note 3)
Teachers’ L1 functions inMean Always Usually Often Occasionally Rarely Never
the L2 classroom N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%)
1. Explain complex grammar3.46 28 (26.9) 36 (34.6) 12 (11.5) 13 (12.5) 14 (13.5) 1 (1)
points
2. Help define some new3.60 28 (26.9) 37 (35.6) 16 (15.4) 17 (16.3) 4 (3.8) 2 (1.9)
vocabulary items
3. Explain difficult concepts or3.73 32 (30.8) 32 (30.8) 23 (22.1) 14 (13.5) 3 (2.9) 0
ideas
4. Give instructions 2.96 15 (14.4) 33 (31.7) 20 (19.2) 13 (12.5) 15 (14.4) 8 (7.7)
5. Praise the students 2.67 17 (16.3) 23 (22.1) 18 (17.3) 18 (17.3) 11 (10.6) 17 (16.3)
6. Translate the reading texts 2.63 14 (13.5) 25 (24) 20 (19.2) 14 (13.5) 16 (15.4) 15 (14.4)
7. Maintain discipline in the2.35 18 (17.3) 15 (14.4) 12 (11.5) 20 (19.2) 18 (17.3) 21 (20.2)
class
8. To explain the similarities3.19 25 (24) 27 (26) 16 (15.4) 18 (17.3) 15 (14.4) 3 (2.9)
and differences between
Arabic and English in terms
of Grammar, structure, or
pronunciation

Most students’ answers were always, usually, or often for most items except Question 7. For
Question 7, maintaining discipline in the class, a small majority (56.7%) of students felt this was
an infrequent function.
With respect to mean values, Questions 1 (3.46), 2 (3.60), 3 (3.73), and 8 (3.19) show that the
tendency among the participants was to give answers between often and usually. In Question 4,
the mean was 2.96, which indicates that the participants’ answers averaged often. In addition, the
mode (the most common answer) of Question 4 was 4 (Usually) which indicates the tendency of

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the participants to agree with the statement. In the case of Questions 5 (2.67) and 6 (2.63), the
mean shows that the tendency among the participants was to answer often, as the mean of each
item was higher than 2.5, and the mode value of each one was 4 (Usually) which confirms that
the tendency of the participants was to agree with the statement. For Question 7, the mean was
2.35 which indicate that the tendency among the participants was to give the answer occasionally,
as the mean is less than 2.5 which indicates that the tendency of the participants was to disagree
with the statement.
The mean values of the questionnaire items indicate that teachers’ L1 use in EFL classes in public
schools in Jordan comes for different functions such as explaining grammar or giving instructions.
These functions, except maintain discipline in the class, were also reported in previous studies
(see, for example, Mohebbi & Alavi, 2014; Lucas & Katz, 1994; Sharma, 2006). However, the
study found that students did not think that their teachers use Arabic in order to maintain the
discipline in the classroom which is different from was reported in previous studies (e.g.,
Lasagabaster, 2013; Littlewood & Yu, 2011) in the literature. This finding may be related to the
fact that these students were in higher grades (10 & 11), and thus require less discipline than
younger classes. Another possibility is that perhaps classroom discipline is not a significant issue
in EFL classes. In addition, two schools in which the study was conducted were considered
prestigious in the area. One of the four schools is considered to be highest-ranking school of the
area, and its students mostly considered “elite” (44% of questionnaire participants were students
at this school).
The results indicate that teachers’ L1 use in Jordanian public schools is not random or haphazard,
but is purposely used to overcome some learning challenges and create a motivated learning
environment. Particularly, it was noted that EFL students often lack the intrinsic motivation to
learn an L2 (Krieger, 2012).
The results highlight the dynamic role of Arabic language and its functions in enhancing the L2
learning process in English classes in public schools in Jordan due to the challenging educational
reality of schools. These functions enhance the L2 learning process in public schools.
Specifically, the majority of Jordanian students in public schools and similar EFL context
have low- level English proficiency because they do not usually practice the target language
outside the classroom, and they do not experience it in their daily lives (Swaie, 2019). The
assigned time for English classes is also very limited in the public schools; it varies between
4-6 classes weekly for 45 minutes each class which do not offer students enough exposure to
the English language. These reasons make mastering English language by students an
insurmountable challenge and make monolingual instructions impossible to be implemented
in such milieu. Thus, the role of L1 in the EFL classes in such environments is very positive and
fruitful because it serves many functions (i.e., translation, explaining difficult concepts or ideas,
giving instructions …etc.) that enhance the EFL teaching and learning and help teachers to
achieve the ultimate goal of lessons.
5. Conclusion
This study aimed to investigate Jordanian EFL students’ observations regarding the functions of
L1 uses by their teachers. A Likert-type scale questionnaire was used to elicit students’

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observations on eight statements, where each statement referred to an L1 usage. Results

suggested that students think that their teachers revert to use the L1 in different seven situations
(i.e., explaining grammar, defining new vocabularies, explaining difficult concepts and ideas,
giving instructions, praising the students, translating the reading texts, explaining the similarities
and differences between Arabic and English). However, majority of students do not think that
maintain discipline in the classroom is one of L1 uses of their teachers.
The role of L1 in English classes has a profound influence on successful of the EFL learning
process and the findings of the study demonstrated the most popular functions are achieved
by using L1. These functions maximizing students’ comprehension and engaging in the class
activities as well as creating a motivated learning environment. Thus, the study call to
License the teacher to use their L1 in English classes in public school in Jordan and the
similar EFL contexts although it did not investigate the effect of the teaching policy on the L1
use in the English classes.
This study was limited because it relied on a stand-alone questionnaire to investigate students’
observations regarding the uses of the L1 of their teachers; follow-up interviews with
participating students would have resulted in deeper insights into their beliefs about the issue
at hand. The number of participants was also limited; exploring greater number of students
may give different results particularly nearly half of the participants were considered elites.
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Notes
Note 1. “Functions”, in this work, refers to the purposes or reasons or benefits for switching
to an L1 in the English classes.
Note 2. The original study was designed to include students of Grades 11 and 12 since these
grades represent the secondary stage in the schooling-system of Jordan. However, the Grade
12 students had finished classes by the time the study was conducted because they were
preparing for the national exam (Tawjihi) in June. Consequently, the study was changed to
include students in Grade 10 instead of Grade 12.
Note 3. The mode value of item 7 is 0 (never) while for the rest of items it is 4 (usually)

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