Fundamental Definitions and Concepts 1.1. SURVEYING : OBJECT Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction and elevation. It also includes the art of establishing points by predetermined anoular and linear measurements. The application of surveying requires skill as well as the knowledge of mathematics, physics, and to some extent, astronomy. Levelling is a branch of surveying the object of which is (i) to find the clevations of points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and (ii) to establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum, The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling deals with measurements in a vertical plane. The knowledge of surveying is advantageous in many phases of engineering. The earliest surveys were made in connection with land surveying. Practically. every engineering project such as water supply and irrigation schemes, railroads and transmission lines, mines bridges and buildings etc. require surveys. Before plans and estimates are prepared, boundaries should be determined and the topography of the site should be ascertained. After the plans ‘are made, the structures must be staked out on the ground. As the work progresses, lines and grades must be given. In surveying, all measurements of lengths are horizontal, or else are subsequently reduced to horizontal distances. The object of a survey is to prepare plan or map so that it may represent the area on a horizontal plane. A plan or map is the horizontal projection of an area and shows only horizontal distances of the points. Vertical distances between the points are,.however, shown ‘by contour lines, hachures or some other methods. Vertical distances are usually represented by means of vertical sections drawn separately 1.2. PRIMARY DIVISIONS OF SURVEY The earth is an oblate spheroid of revolutions, the length of its polar axis (12,713,800 metres) being somewhat less than that of its equatorial axis (12,756,750 metres). Thus. the polar axis is shorter than the equatorial axis by 42.95 kilometres. Relative to the diameter of the earth this is less than 0.34 percent. If we neglect the irregularities of the earth. the surface of the imaginary spheroid is a curved surface, every element of which is normal 1SURVEYING 2 to the plumb line. The intersection of such @ surface with a plane passing through the centre of the earth will form a line continuous around the earth. The portion of such a line is known as ‘level line’ and the circle defined by the intersection is known as ‘great circle’. Thus in Fig. 1.1, the distance be- tween two points P and Q is the length of the arc of the great circle passing through these points and is evidently somewhat more than the chord intercepted by the arc Consider three points P, Q and R (Fig. 1.1) and three level lines passing through these points, The surface within the triangle POR so formed is a curved surface and the lines forming its sides are arcs of great circles. The figure is a spherical triangle. The angles p, q and r of the spherical FIG. 1.1 triangle are somewhat more than correspond- ing angles p’, q’ and r’ of the plane triangle. If the points are far away, the difference will be considerable. If the points are nearer, the difference will be negligible. ‘As to whether the surveyor must regard the earth's surface as curved or may regard it is as plane depends upon the character and magnitude of the survey, and upon the precision required. ‘Thus, primarily, surveying can be divided into two classes (1) Plane Surveying (2) Geodetic Surveying. Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane triangles. The level line is considered as straight and all plumb lines are considered parallel. In everyday life we are concerned with small portions of earth’s surface and the above assumptions seem to be reasonable in light of the fact that the length of an arc 12 kilometres long lying in the earth’s surface is only 1 cm greater than the subtended chord and further that the difference between the sum of the angles in a plane triangle and the sum of those in a spherical triangle is only one second for a triangle at the earth's surface having an area of 195 sq. km. Geodetic surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into account, All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles are spherical triangles. It, therefore, involves spherical trigonometry. All geodetic surveys ‘imclude work of larger magnitude and high degree of precision, The object of geodetic survey is to determine the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which form control stations 10 which surveys of less precision may be referred.FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS 3 1.3. CLASSIFICATION Surveys may be classified under headings which define the uses or purpose of the resulting maps. (A) CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON TIE NATURE OF THE FIELD SURVEY () Land Surveying (®) Topographical Surveys: This consists of horizontal and vertical location of certain points by linear and angular measurements and is made to determine the natural features of a country such as rivers, streams, lakes, woods, hills, etc., and such artificial features as roads, railways, canals, towns and villages. ii) Cadastral Surveys ; Cadastral surveys are made incident to the fixing of property lines, the calculation of land area, or the transfer of land property from one owner to another. They are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities and of State and Federal jurisdictions. (iii) City Surveying : ‘They are made in connection with the construction of streets, water supply systems, sewers and other works. (2) Marine or Hydrographic Survey. Marine or hydrographic survey deals with bodies of water for purpose of navigation, water supply, harbour works or for the determination of mean sea level. The work consists in measurement of discharge of streams, making topographic survey of shores and banks, taking and locating soundings to determine the depth of water and observing the fluctuations of the ocean tide. 3) Astronomical Survey. The astronomical survey offers the surveyor means of determining the absolute location of any point or the absolute location and direction of any line on the surface of the earth. This consists in observations to the heavenly bodies such as the sun or any fixed star, (B) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE OBJECT OF SURVEY (1) Engineering Survey. This is undertaken for the determination of quantities or to afford sufficient data for the designing of engineering works such as roads and reservoirs, or those connected with sewage disposal or water supply. (2) Military Survey. This is used for determining points of strategic importance. (3)Mine Survey. This is used for the exploring mineral wealth. (4) Geological Survey. This is used for determining different strata in the earth's crust. (5) Archaeological Survey. This is used for unearthing relics of antiquity (C) CLASSIFICATION BASED ON INSTRUMENTS USED An alternative classification may be based upon the instruments or methods employed, the chief types being : (1) Chain survey (2) Theodolite survey (3) Traverse survey (4) Triangulation survey (8) Tacheometric survey (6) Plane table surveySURVEYING (7) Photogrammetric survey and (8) Aerial survey. The book mainly deals with the principles and methods of the above types. 1.4. PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING The fundamental principles upon which the various methods of plane surveying are based are of very simple nature and can be stated under the following two aspects @) Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference The relative positions of the points to be surveyed should be located by measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been fixed, Let P and Q be the reference points on the ground. The distance PQ can be measured accurately and the relative [positions of P and Q can be plotted on the sheet to some scale. The points P and Q will thus serve as reference points for fixing the relative positions of other points. Any other point, such as R, can be located by any of the following direct methods (Fig. 1.2) : P P Pp Fr BY. Ged R f oR 90° a a @) Q Q Q Q Q @ 7 (o) © @ (e) FIG. 1.2, LOCATION OF A POINT. (a) Distances PR and QR can be measured and point R can be plotted by swinging the two arcs to the same scale to which PQ has been plotted. The principle is very much used in chain. surveying. (6) A perpendicular RS canbe dropped on the reference line PQ and lengths PS and SR are measured. The point R can then be plotted using set square. This principle is used for defining details. (c) The distance QR and the angle POR can be measured and point R is plotted either by means of a protractor or trigonometrically. This principle is used in traversing. (@ In this method, the distances PR and QR are not measured but angle RPQ and angle ROP are measured with an angle-measuring instrument. Knowing the distance PQ. point R is plotted either by means of a protractor or by solution of triangle, POR. This principle is very much used in triangulation and the method is used for very extensive work. (© Angle ROP and distance PR are measured and point R is plotted either by protracting an angle and swinging an arc from P or plotted trigonometrically. This principle, used in traversing, is of minor utility.FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS 5 Figs. 1.2(b), (¢) and (d) can also be used to illustrate the principles of determining relative elevations of points. Considering these diagrams to be in vertical plane, with PQ as horizontal. Fig.J.2 (b) represents the principle of ordinary spirit levelling. A horizontal line PQ is instrumentally established through P and the vertical height of R is measured by taking staff reading. Similarly, Fig. 1.2 (c) and (d) represent the principles of trigonometrical levelling. (2) Working from whole to part The second ruling principle of surveying, whether plane or geodetic, is to work from whole to part. It is very essential to establish first a system of control points and to fix them with higher precision. Minor control points can then be established by less precise methods and the details can then be located using these minor control points by running minor traverses etc. The idea of working in this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control and localise minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater magnitudes if the reverse process is followed, thus making the work uncontrollable at the end. 1.5. UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS There are four kinds of measurements used in plane surveying: 1. Horizontal distance 2. Vertical distance 3. Horizontal angle, and 4. Vertical angle. Linear measures. According to the Standards of Weights and Measures Act (India), 1956 the unit of measurement of distance is metres and centimetres. Prior to the introduction of metric units in India, feet, tenths and hundredths of a foot were used. Table 1.1 gives the basic linear measures, both in metric as well as in British system. while Tables 1.2 and 1.3 give the conversion factors. TABLE 1.1 BASIC UNITS OF LENGTH British Units I Metric Units | 12 inches. == —L_foot 10 millimetres. = 1 centimetre 3 fee = 1 yard 10 centimetres = 1 decimetre { sk yards = 1 tod, pole of perch [10 decimetres 1 metre { 8 furlongs = 1 mile 10 hectometres = 1 kilometre | 100 inks chain 1852 mewes = mauteal_mile_ nternaional) feet | 6 tee = 1 fathom | 120 fathoms = 1° cable length 6080 feet 1 nautical_mileSURVEYING (a) Sexagesimal System 1 circumference = 360° (degrees of -arc) 1 degree =60' (minutes of arc) 1 minute = 60" (seconds of arc) (b) — Centesimal System 1 circumference = 4008 (grads) 1 grad = 100° (centigrades) 1 centigrad’ = 100 (centi-centigrads) (c) Hours System 1 circumference =24" (hours). 1 hour = 60" (minutes of time) 1 minute = 60" (seconds of time). The sexagesimal system is widely used in United States, Great Britain, India and other parts of the World. More complete tables are available in this system and most surveying instruments are graduated according to this system. However. duc to facility in computation and interpolation. the centesimal system is gaining more favour in Europe. The hours system is mostly used in astronomy and navigation. 1.6. PLANS AND MAPS A plan is the graphical srepresentation, to some scale, of the features on. near or below the surface of the .carth as projected on a horizontal plane which is represented by planc of the paper on which the plan is drawn, However, since the surface of the earth is curved and the paper of the plan or map is plane, no part of the surface can be represented on such maps without distortion. In plane surveying, the areas involved are small, the earth’s surface may be regarded as plane and hence map is constructed by orthographic projection without measurable distortion. The representation is called a map if the scale is small while it is called a plan generally, only horizontal distances and directions are the vertical distances are also represented by contour if the ‘scale is large. On a plan, shown. On a topographic map, however, Tines, hachures. or other systems. 1.7. SCALES The area that is surveyed is vast and, therefore, plans are made to some scale. Scale is the fixed ratio that every distance on the plan bears with corresponding, distance on the ground, Scale can be represented by: the following methods (1) One em on the plan represents some whole ‘number of metres on th is called engineer's scale. we ground, such as Lem=10 m etc, This type of scale es (2) One. unit of length on the plan represents, some number of same units i i oe 0 ete. This ratio of map distance to the correspon ing st ce 1 ‘on the ground, such as. 7g" e jent 0} on i repre re fraction. it casuremel ed representative fr ft is ii £ units of measurement and is cal distance is independentFUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS x representative fraction (abbreviated as R.F.) can be very easily found for a given engineer's scale. For example, if the scale is 1cm=50m 1 1 RR =p). 50 x 100 © 5000 scales are also known as numerical scales (3) An alternative way of representing the scale is to draw on the plan a graphical scale. A graphical scale is a line sub-divided into plan distance corresponding to convenient units of length on the ground. The above wwo types of At the plan or map is to be used after a few years, the numerical scales may mot give accurate results if the sheet or paper shrinks. However, if a graphical scale S also drawn. it will shrink proportionately and the distances can be found accurately That is why, scales are always drawn on all survey maps. Choice of Scale of a Map F ‘The most common scales for ordinary maps are those in which the number of metres represented by one centimetre is some multiple of ten. The preliminary consideration in choosing the scale are : (1) the use to which the map will be put, and (2) the extent of territory to be represented. ‘The following vwo general rules should be followed 1. Choose a scale large enough so that in plowing or in scaling distance trom the finished map. it will not be necessary to read the scale closer than 0.25 mm. 2. Choose as small a scale as is consistent with a clear delineation of the smallest details to be plotted . Table 1.10 gives the common scales generally used in various surveys. TABI 110 { Type or purpose of | Seale RE i 1 survey i Es - 4 Nia Topographic Survey | | ‘i | 4 1. Building sites. | 1 cm = 10 mor less | Foy oF less | i | 1 1 { } 2 Town planning schemes. | 1 cm = 50 m 10 100m | 3000 © THOT } | reservoirs et. | iy j 3. Location surveys hom = 50 m 0 200m | 3000 20000 | i i 1 L ‘ | 4. Small scale topographic maps. 1 em = 0.25 km to 2.5 km| Bo ° 350007 i i 1 U i (by Cadastral maps [1 em = Sm wo 05 km S00 "S000 1 i i { u ' 1 (©) Geographical maps 11 em = Skin 19 160 km SOOO" TRH f } i 4 Gd) Lanputaina secuons | ! i \ 1 Morin wate J. om = 10m w 200 m| Too © 307 i 5 | | te) Cross-sections i | \ | (Bow horizontal and verical | 1 em = imwo2m | oo 200 ' scales equal) | | t ne —SURVE) af YING Types of Scales Scales may be classified as follows : 1. Plain: scale 2. Diagonal scale 3. Vernier scale 4. Scale of chords. 1.8. PLAIN SCALE A plain scale is one on which it is possible to measure two dimensions only, such as units and lengths, metres and decimetres, miles and furlongs, etc. Example 1.1. Construct a plain scale 1 cm to 3 metres and show on it 47 metres. Construction : Take a 20 cm length [~ | = 47m and divide it into 6 parts, each representing 10 metres. Sub- ide the first left hand di- vision into 10 equal parts, each 10 ° 10 20 be #0 A reading 1 metre. Place zero Scale tm=3m of the scale between the sub- divided parts and the undivided part and mark the scale as shown in Fig. 1.3. To take 47 metres, place one leg of the divider at 40 and the other at 7, as shown in Fig. 1.3. Indian Standard on plain scales IS : 1491-1959 has recommended six different plain scales in metric units used by engineers, architects and surveyors. The scale designations along with their R.F. are given in the table below: FIG. 1.3 PLAIN SCALE. Designation Seale RE 1. Full size 1 4 T 2, 50 cm to a metre z 3. 40 cm to a metre Ai , 23 4, 20 cm to a metre 5 e 5. 10 cm to a metre 1 0 6. 5 cm to a metre a ee 7. 2 om to a metre 1 a 30 8&1 om wa mee ay i 9. $ mm to a metre 1 : 0 10. 2 mm to a metre att 2 300 — e 1. 1 mm to a metre 1 Too 12. 05 mm to a metre 1FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS u 1.9. DIAGONAL SCALE On a diagonal scale, it is 1 possible to measure three and centimetres; units, tenths and hundredths; yards, is divided imo a number of parts by using the triangles in which like sides are proportional. Short length PQ be divided into 10 parts (Fig a Tine QR perpendicular to PQ Divide it imo ten equal parts. Joi of the divisions, 1, 2,3 etc., diagonal in corresponding points into 10 equal parts. Thus, dimensions such as metres, decimetres feet and inches etc. A short length principle of ‘similar For example let a 14), At Q draw and of any convenient length. in the diagonal PR. From each draw lines parallel to PQ to cut the 1, 2, 3 etc., thus dividing the diagonal 1-1 represents 1 pg 2-2 represents 2 PQ 9-9 represents 2 PQ exc. Example 1.2 Construct a diagonal scale 1 cm=3 metres 10 read metres and decimetres and show on that 33.3 metres. Construction : Take 20 cm length and divide it into 6 equal parts, each part representing 10 metres. Sub-divide the first left hand part into 10 divisions, each representing 1 metre. At the left of the first sub-division erect a perpendicular of any suitable length (say 5 cm) and divide it into 10 equal parts and draw through these pars lines parallel to the scale, Sub-divide the top parallel line into ten divisions (each representing 1 metre) and join these diagonally to the corresponding sub-divisions on the first parallel line as shown in Fig. 1.5 where a distance of 33.3 metres has been marked. peccossp°o SSkekaslses Scale 1¢m=3m FIG. 1.5 DIAGONAL SCALE. Indian Standard on diagonal scales : : ae “1562-1962 recommends four diagonal scales 4, B,C and D, as shown in the table below :if st Examples - 1 : A plan represents an area of 14143 sq.m. and measures 8.5 cm x 6.5 cm, Find out R.F. of the scale. (Dec. 2008, GTU Jan. 2010, May 2018) Solution : Area on the plan 8.5 x 6.6 55.25 cm? 14143 m? Area on the ground 55.25 cm? RP. = "14143 m? | licm® ~ 356 m? _ lem x lcm ~ 16 mx 16m lem 16 m = _ lem “1600 cm. oo 1600 scale of map: 1 cm = 16m Example - 2: A plan represents an area of 93750 sq.m and measures 6 cm x 6.25 om. Find out scale of map (plan}, and construct a seale which can (Jan. 2013, Dec. 2015) measure up to 1 m. Solution : Area on the map = 6 x 6.25 = 37.5 cm? Area on the ground = 93750 m? 37.5 cm? 93750 m? lem? 2500 m” lem xilcm 50 m x 50 mExample - 3 : A plan represents an area of 14145 sq.m and measures 8.5 cm x 6.5 cm. Find out scale of the map and draw a scale on which 1 m can be read. (Dec. 2013) Solution : 10 9 8 - 157m -| 6 HE ‘ | 3 2 1 = o it 100 50 oO 100 200m SCALE: tom=tém RF = aah FIG. 2.6 Area on the map = 8.5 x 6.5 = 3 ‘Area on the ground = 14145 m? _ 55.25 cm? RP. = 14145 m? lem? ~ 256 m? _ lem x1em -Jomxl6m lem lom RF. = 76m ~ 16x 100 cm 1600 scale of the map is 1 cm = 16 m. Let, maximum 300 m distance is to be shown on the map. length of scale = 202 = 18.75 omDivide 18.75 cm length into three’ equal parts, each representing 100 m. A diagonal scale is shown in figure. ‘A distance of 157 m has been shown on it. Example - 4: An area of 64 cm? on the map represents 4096 m2 area on the ground. Find out R.F. of the scale. Solution : Area on the map = 64 cm? Area on the ground = 4096 m? 64 cm? 4096 m? RF. lcm? ~ 64 m? lcm x1lcm 8mx8&m lem lem RF. = §m > 8x 100 om Scale of map : 1 cm = 8 m. Example - 5 : A distance of 10 km is shown by 2 cm on the map. Construct a scale for the map and show 53 km on it. (Dee, 2011) Solution : Scale : 2 cm = 10 km lem=5 km i SCALE:. tem =Skm RF = 559500 FIG. 2.7 o.,rrrrrr—C Crmlem __lom Im RF. = Skm ~ 5000 m ~ 5000» 100 cm / 1 ~ 5,00, 000 Now, let's construct plain scale to measure 60 km. Length of scale = 2 = 12 cm Divide 12 cm length into 6 equal parts, each of 2 cm. Each 2 cm part will show 10 km distance. Example ~ 6 : Construct a scale having RF = ane and show 228 m distance on scale. (Similar, April 2010) Solution : - RF. = 3500 lem lem seale of a map = 3500 em ~ 25 m scale: 1 cm = 25 m We have to show a distance of 228 m on the scale. Thus, let's construct a diagonal scale on which 300 m distance can be measured. Length of scale = 309 = 12 cm. 100 50 0 700 200m SCALE: 1em=25m L FIG. 2.8 — RE = 9500Divide 12 cm length into 3 equal parts, each of 4 cm length and representing 100 m distance. Example - 7 : Explain the construction of diagonal scale and construct diagonal scale for 1 cm = 4.5 km and show 63.2 km on it. Solution : 0.3 1 a 63.21 ey oa HH 0.0 10 5 0 10 20 30 40 ‘som 60 km F aoe SCALE stem =4.5km RF = aot, FIG. 2.9 lem lem RE. = Zeke 7 S = 16.67 om Divide 16.67 cm length in to 5 equal parts. 16.67 Length of each part will be = 3.334 cm representing 10 km distance. A distance 48.7 km is shown on the scale. Solution : Scale of map ; 1 cm = 15 m Example - 9 : Construct a scale having R.F. = +40 and show on it 108 m distance. 108m 105 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 11CM= = SCALE :1CM=15M , RF Seo FIG. 2.11 100