7

01
ELECTROSTATICS
Chapter 01

Electrostatics

1. Electric Charge (vi) Charge produces electric field and magnetic field:
A charged particle at rest produces only electric
1.1 Definition
field in the space surrounding it. However, if the charged
Charge is the property associated with matter due to which it
particle is in non accelerated motion it produces both
produces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects.
electric and magnetic fields. And if the motion of
charged particle is accelerated it not only produces
1.2 Type electric and magnetic fields but also radiates energy in
There exists two types of charges in nature the space surrounding the charge in the form of
(i) Positive charge electromagnetic waves.
(ii) Negative charge (vii) Charge resides on the surface of conductor:
Charges with the same electrical sign repel each other, and Charge resides on the outer surface of a conductor
charges with opposite electrical sign attract each other. because like charges repel and try to get as far away as
possible from one another and stay at the farthest
distance from each other which is outer surface of the
Fig 1.1: Types of Charges
conductor. This is why a solid and hollow conducting
1.3 Unit and dimensional formula sphere of same outer radius will hold maximum equal
S.I. unit of charge is coulomb (C), charge and a soap bubble expands on charging.
(1mC = 10 −3
C, 1C = 10−6 C, 1nC = 10−9 C ) (viii) Quantization of charge: When a physical quantity can
have only discrete values rather than any value, the
C.G.S. unit of charge is e.s.u. 1C = 3 × 109 e.s.u. quantity is said to be quantized. The smallest charge that
Dimensional formula [Q] = [AT]. can exist in nature is the charge of an electron. If the
( −19
)
charge of an electron "e" = −1.6 10 C is taken as
1.4 Point Charge elementary unit i.e. quanta of charge the charge on any
Whose spatial size is negligible as compared to other
body will be some integral multiple of e i.e., Q = ± ne
distances.
with n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ...... Charge on a body can never be
0.5 e, ±17.2 e or ±10–5 e etc.
1.5 Properties of charge
(i) Charge is a Scalar Quantity: Charges can be 1.6 Comparison of Charge and Mass
added or subtracted algebraically. We are familiar with role of mass in gravitation, and we
(ii) Charge is transferable: If a charged body is have just studied some features of electric charge. We can
put in contact with an uncharged body, uncharged compare the two as shown below:
body becomes charged due to transfer of electrons from
one body to the other.
(iii) Charge is always associated with mass, Charge Mass
i.e., charge can not exist without mass though mass
can exist without charge. 1. Electric charge can 1. Mass of a body is a
(iv) Charge is conserved: Charge can neither be be positive, negative
positive quantity.
created nor be destroyed. or zero.
(v) Invariance of charge: The numerical value of an
2.
elementary charge is independent of velocity. Charge carried by a 2. Mass of a body
body does not increases with its
velocity as

Electrostatics
 ELECTROSTATICS 9

depend upon m0 oppositely charged while the other is similarly charged.

velocity of the body m= This process is called electrostatic induction.
1 −  2 / c2
where c is velocity
of light in vacuum,
m is the mass of the
velocity  and m0 is
rest mass of the
body.

3. Charge is quantized. 3. The quantization of

mass is yet to be
established.

4. Electric charge is 4. Mass is not Fig 1.2

always conserved. conserved as mass
can be converted NOTE:
into energy
Inducting body neither gains nor loses charge.
5. Force between 5. The gravitational
charges can be force (iii) Charging by conduction: Charging by conduction
attractive or between two involves the contact of a charged object to a neutral
repulsive masses is object. Hence when an uncharged conductor is
always attractive. brought in contact with a charged conductor, charge
is shared between the two conductors and hence the
uncharged conductor gets charged.

1.7 Methods of Charging NOTE:

A body can be charged by following methods: Inducting body neither gains nor loses charge.
(i) By friction: In friction when two bodies are rubbed
together, electrons are transferred from one body to the A truck carrying explosives has a metal chain touching the
other. As a result of this one body becomes positively ground, to conduct away the charge produced by friction.
charged while the other negatively charged, e.g., when
a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod becomes
positively charged while the silk becomes negatively
charged. However, ebonite on rubbing with wool
becomes negatively charged making the wool positively
charged. Clouds also become charged by friction. In
charging by friction in accordance with conservation of
charge, both positive and negative charges in equal
amounts appear simultaneously due to transfer of
electrons from one body to the other.
(ii) By electrostatic induction: If a charged body is
brought near an uncharged body, the charged body will
attract opposite charge and repel similar charge present
in the uncharged body. As a result of this one side of
neutral body (closer to charged body) becomes
Fig 1.3

Electrostatics
10 ELECTROSTATICS

1.8 Electroscope q1q 2

F=k
It is a simple apparatus with which the presence of electric r2
charge on a body is detected. When metal knob is touched where k is a proportionality constant.
with a charged body, some charge is transferred to the gold In SI units k has the value, k = 8.988 × 109 N m2/C2
leaves, which then diverges due to repulsion. The
9.0 × 109 N m2/C2
separation gives a rough idea of the amount of charge on the
body. If a charged body is brought near a charged
electroscope the leaves will also diverge as the charge on
body is similar to that on electroscope and will usually
converge if opposite. If the induction effect is strong enough,
leaves after converging may again diverge. Fig 1.6
In case of uncharged electroscope, if the charged body is (a) The direction of force is always along the line joining the
brought is contact, the electroscope gets charged and the two charges.
leaves diverge. when a charged body is brought near (b) The force is repulsive if the charges have the same sign
electroscope (but not is contact), different charges appear on and attractive if their signs are opposite.
different parts of electroscope resulting in divergence of (c) This force is conservative in nature.
leaves. (d) This is also called inverse square law.
(1) Uncharged electroscope 2.1 Variation of k
Constant k depends upon system of units and medium
between the two charges.
2.1.1 Effect of units
kQ1Q2
(a) In C.G.S. for air k = 1, F = Dyne
r2
(b) In S.I. for air

1 N − m2 1 Q1Q2
Fig 1.4 k= = 9 109 , F= .
4 0 C2 40 r 2
(2) Charged electroscope
Newton (1 Newton = 105 Dyne)
NOTE:
• Absolute permittivity of air or free space

−12 C2  Farad 
= 8.85  10 = .
N−m  2
m 
−1 −3 4 2
Dimension is  M L T A 

• 0 relates with absolute magnetic permeability

Fig 1.5 (0) and velocity of light (c) according to the

2. Coulomb’s Law following relation c =

1
0 0
If two stationary and point charges q1 and q2 are kept at a
distance r, then it is found that force of attraction or repulsion
between them is proportional to the product of the two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the 2.1.2 Effect of medium
distance between them. Mathematically, Coulomb’s law can (a) When a dielectric medium is completely filled in
between charges rearrangement of the charges inside the
be written as

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 11

dielectric medium takes place and the net force between the
same two charges, decreases by a factor of K known as
dielectric constant. K is also called relative permittivity r
of the medium (relative means with respect to free space).

Fig 1.7
Hence in the presence of medium
Fig 1.8
Fair 1 Q1Q 2 Force is a vector, so in vector form the Coulomb’s law is
Fm = = .
K 40 K r 2 written as

0K = 0r =  F21 =

1 q1q 2
( r2 − r1 )
40 r2 − r1 3
Here (permittivity of medium)

Medium K

Vacuum/air 1

Water 80

Mica 6 Fig 1.9

Glass 5-10 where r̂12 is a unit vector directed toward q1 from q2.

Metal  rˆ12 = − rˆ21

1 q1q 2
F12 = rˆ12
40 r 2
2.2 Vector form of Coulomb’s law
1 q1q 2 1 q 2 q1
It is helpful to adopt a convention for subscript F12 = rˆ12 = ( − rˆ21 )
40 r 2 40 r 2
notation.
1 q 2 q1
=− r̂21 = − F21
F12 = force on 1 due to 2, F21 = force on 2 due to 1 40 r 2

Suppose the position vectors of two charges q1 and q2 are r1

and r2 , then electric force on charge q1 due to charge
q2 is,

1 q1q 2
F12 = ( r1 − r2 )
40 r1 − r2 3 Remember convention for r̂ .
Similarly, electric force on q2 due to charge q1 is Here q1 and q2 are to be substituted with sign.
Position vector of charges q1 and q2 are r1 = x1ˆi + y1ˆj + z1kˆ
and r2 = x 2 ˆi + y2 ˆj + z 2 kˆ respectively, where (x1, y1, z1) and
(x2, y2, z2) are the co-ordinates of charges q1 and q2.

Electrostatics
12 ELECTROSTATICS

2.3 Principle of superposition Where q0 → 0 so that presence of this charge may not affect
According to the principle of superposition, total force acting the source charge Q and its electric field is not changed,
on a given charge due to number of charges is the vector sum therefore expression for electric field intensity can be better
of the individual forces acting on that charge due to all the F
charges. written as E = lim
q →0 q0
0
Consider number of charge Q1, Q2, Q3…are applying force on
a charge Q • Unit and Dimensional formula: Its S.I. unit –
Net force on Q will be Newton volt Joule
= = and
Fnet = F1 + F2 + ......... + Fn −1 + Fn coulomb meter coulomb  meter
C.G.S. unit = Dyne/stat coulomb.
Dimension: [E] = [MLT–3 A–1]

• Direction of electric field: Electric field (intensity) E

is a vector quantity. Electric field due to a positive
charge is always directed away from the charge and that
due to a negative charge is always directed towards the
charge

Fig 1.10
The magnitude of the resultant of two electric forces is given

by F = F1 + F2 + 2 F1F2 cos  and the force direction is given

2 2

F2 sin 
by tan  =
F1 + F2 cos  3.2 Relation between Electric Force and
Electric field
In an electric field E a charge (Q) experiences a force
F = QE . If charge is positive then force is directed in the
direction of field while if charge is negative force acts on it in
the opposite direction of field
Fig 1.11

3. Electric Field
A positive charge or a negative charge is said to create its field
around itself. Thus space around a charge in which another
charged particle experiences a force is said to have electric Fig 1.13
field in it.
3.3 Superposition of Electric Field
3.1 Electric Field Intensity ( E ) The resultant electric field at any point is equal to the vector
sum of electric fields at that point due to various charges.
The electric field intensity at any point is defined as the force
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ...
experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point.
F The magnitude of the resultant of two electric fields are given
E= by
q0

Fig 1.12

Electrostatics
 ELECTROSTATICS 13

Fig 1.15
Fig 1.14
• The number of field lines originating/terminating on a
E = E12 + E 22 + 2E1E 2 cos  and the direction is given by charge is proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

E 2 sin 
tan  =
E1 + E 2 cos 

3.4 Point Charge

Point charge produces its electric field at a point P which is
distance r from it given by
Fig 1.16
Q
EP = (Magnitude) • The number of field lines passing through
40 r 2 perpendicular unit area will be proportional to the
magnitude of electric field there.
• Tangent to a Field line at any point gives the direction
of electric field at that point. This will be instantaneous
• For + ve point charge, E is directed away from it.
path charge will take if kept there.
• For – ve point charge, E is directed towards it.

3.5 Continuous Charge Distributions

There are infinite number of ways in which we can spread a
continuous charge distribution over a region of space. Mainly
three types of charge distributions will be used. We define
three different charge densities. Fig 1.17

Symbol Definition SI units • Two or more field lines can never intersect each other.
[they cannot have multiple directions].
(lambda)  = Charge per unit length C/m • Uniform field lines are straight, parallel & uniformly
placed
(sigma)  = Charge per unit area C/m2
• Field lines cannot form a loop.
of
(rho)  = Charge per unit volume C/m3
4. Electric Flux
If a total charge q is distributed along a line of length , over 4.1 Definition
a surface area A or throughout a volume V, we can calculate Electric flux is measure of the field lines crossing a surface.
charge densities from. N
It is scalar quantity with SI unit -m2 or V-m
q q q C
= , = , =
A V “The number of field lines passing through perpendicular unit
area will be proportional to the magnitude of Electric Field
3.6 Properties of Electric Field Lines there” (Theory of Field Lines)
N
• Electric field lines originate from a positive charge &  E  N  EA ⊥
terminate on a negative charge. A

Electrostatics
14 ELECTROSTATICS

 Electric Flux,  A⊥ = EA⊥

5. Gauss’s Law
5.1 Definition
According to Gauss’s law, total electric flux through a closed
1
surface enclosing a charge is times the magnitude of the
0
charge enclosed.
Fig 1.18
1
As  increases, flux through area A decreases. If we draw a i.e. net = (Qenc.)
0
vector of magnitude A along the positive normal, it is called
Q en
the area vector, A corresponding to the area A. i.e. .  E.dA = 0

NOTE:
Gauss’s law is only applicable for a closed surface.

5.2 Gaussian Surface

Fig 1.19
The closed surface on which Gauss law is applicable is
 Electric Flux,  A = EA cos  = E . A defined as a Gaussian surface.

(Assuming Electric Field is uniform over whole area) NOTE:

NOTE: • Gaussian surface can be of any shape & size, only
condition is that it should be closed.
If Electric field is not constant over the area of
• Gaussian surface is hypothetical in nature. It does
cross section, then  =  E.dA not have a physical existence.

4.2 Unit and Dimension 5.3 Deriving Gauss’s law from Coulomb’s
Flux is a scalar quantity.
law
N.m2
S.I. unit: (volt × m) or
C
3 –3 –1
it’s dimensional formula: (ML T A )

4.3 Types of Flux Fig 1.21

For a closed body outward flux is taken to be positive, while Lets take a spherical gaussian surface with charge ‘+Q’ kept
inward flux is taken to be negative. at the centre.
We know field lines for a +ve charge are always radially
outward.
Angle between dA & E is zero.

Fig 1.22
Fig 1.20

Electrostatics
 ELECTROSTATICS 15

E=
kQ
=
Q 6.1 Electric Field due to a Line Charge
r 2
4 0 r 2 Consider an infinite line which has a linear charge density .
Q Using Gauss’s law, let us find the electric field at a distance
Net flux =  E.dA =  4 0 r 2 dA ‘r’ from the line charge.
The cylindrical symmetry tells us that the field strength will
Q Q Q
=  dA = 4 0 r 2 . 4r = 0 be the same at all points at a fixed distance r from the line.
2

4 0 r 2 Thus, if the charges are positive. The field lines are directed
radially outwards, perpendicular to the line charge.

Hence Net flux = Q/0.

NOTE:
Although we derived gauss’s law for a spherical surface
it is valid for any shape of gaussian surface and for any
charge kept anywhere inside the surface

5.4 Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law

We choose an imaginary sphere (Gaussian surface) of radius
r centred on the charge +q. Due to symmetry, E must have the
same magnitude at any point on the surface, and E points Fig 1.24
radially outward, parallel to dA .Hence we write the integral The appropriate choice of Gaussian surface is a cylinder of
in Gauss’s law as
radius r and length L. On the flat end faces, S2 and S3, E is

perpendicular dS , which means flux is zero through them.

On the curved surface S1, E is parallel to dS , so that E.dS
= EdS. The charge enclosed by the cylinder is Q = L.
Applying Gauss’s law to the curved surface, we have

L  2k
Fig 1.23 E  dS = E ( 2rL ) = or E= =
0 20 r r
net =  E.dA =  EdA = E  dA = E 4r 2 ( ) NOTE:
Qenclosed = q
This is the field at a distance r from the line. It is directed
(
Thus, E 4r 2
) =
q
0
or E =
q
40 r 2
away from the line if the charge is positive and towards the
line if the charge is negative.
From the definition of the electric field, the force on a point
charge q0 located at a distance r from the charge q is F = q 0E.
This is Coulomb’s law.

6. Applications of Gauss’s Law

Using Gauss’s law to derive ‘E’ due to various charge
distributions.

Electrostatics
16 ELECTROSTATICS

6.2 Electric Field due to a Plane Sheet of 6.3 Uniformly Charged Charge
Charge Hollow Sphere
6.3.1 Outside the Sphere
P is a point outside the sphere at a distance r from the centre.

Fig 1.25

Consider a large plane sheet of charge with surface charge According to Gauss’s law,
density (charge per unit area) . We have to find the electric
field E at a point P in front of the sheet.
Q
(
 E.ds = 0 or E 4r = 0
2 Q
)
Electric field at P (Outside sphere)
NOTE: 1 Q R 2
E out = . =
40 r 2 0 r 2
If the charge is positive, the field is away from the plane.
Q =   A 
 
 =   4R 
2
To calculate the field E at P. Choose a cylinder of area of
cross-section A through the point P as the Gaussian surface.
The flux due to the electric field of the plane sheet of charge 6.3.2 At the surface of sphere
passes only through the two circular caps of the cylinder. At surface r = R
According to Gauss law  E.dS = qin / 0 1 Q 
So, Es = . =
40 R 2 0
A
 E.dS +  E.dS +  E.dS =
0
I circular II circular cylindrical 6.3.3 Inside the sphere
surface surface surface Inside the sphere electric field is zero.
A
or EA + EA + 0 = qenclosed = 0
0
⸫ Ein = 0

or E= Graphical variation of electric field with distance
2 0

NOTE:
We see that the field is uniform and does not depend on
the distance from the charge sheet. This is true as long as
the sheet is large as compared to its distance from P.

Fig 1.26

Electrostatics
 ELECTROSTATICS 17

6.4 Uniform Spherical Volume Charge 1 Qr r

Ein = . = Ein  r
40 R 3 30
Distribution
We consider a spherical uniformly charge distribution of
radius R in which total charge Q is uniformly distributed
throughout the volume.

The charge density

total ch arg e Q 3Q
= = =
total volume 4 R 3 4R 3
3 Fig 1.28

Graphical variation of electric field with distance

Fig 1.27

6.4.1 Outside the sphere at P (r > R)

According to Gauss’s law

 E .ds = 0
Q
(
or E 4r 2 = ) Q
0
1 Q
E out = . Fig 1.29
40 r 2
Q
using  =
4 3
R
3
R 3
E out =
30 r 2

6.4.2 At the surface of sphere

At surface r = R
1 Q R
Es = . =
40 R 2 30

6.4.3 Inside the sphere

At a distance r from the centre. (r  R)
q in Qr 3
E in .ds = =
0 0 R 3

Qr 3
(
E in 4r 2 = ) 0 R 3

Electrostatics
18 ELECTROSTATICS

Electric Field Due to Various Uniform Charge Distribution

(i) At the centre of circular arc

kQ sin ( / 2 )
E=
R2 /2

(ii) At a point on the axis of ring

kQx
E=
(R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2

(iii) At a point on the axis of disc

2kQ  x 
E= 1 − 
R 2  (R 2 + x 2 )3/ 2 

(iv) Hollow sphere

For x < R
E=0
For x  R
kQ
E= 2
x

(v) Non conducting solid sphere

For x < R
kQx
E=
R3
For x  R
kQ
E= 2
x

Continued…

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 19

(vi) Infinite thin sheet

E=
2 0

(vii) Infinite wire

2k
E=
x

Electrostatics
20 ELECTROSTATICS

7. Electric Potential Energy

NOTE:

Electric potential energy is a scalar quantity so

7.1 Potential energy of 2 charges system in the above formula take sign of Q1 and Q2.
It is always change in potential energy that is defined as
U = – Wconservative force = – WCoulomb force
7.2 Electron volt (eV)
Potential energy is defined for a system of charges in a
particular configuration. It is the practical unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear
physics. As electron volt is defined as “the energy acquired
Consider a system of two charges q1 and q2. Suppose, the
by a particle having one quantum of charge, when
charge q1 is fixed and the charge q2 is taken from a point A to
accelerated by 1volt” i.e.
B.
1J
1eV = 1.6  10−19 C 
C
= 1.6  10−19 J
= 1.6 10−12 erg

7.3 Potential energy of a system of n

charges
In a system of n charges electric potential energy is calculated
for each pair and then all energies so obtained are added
1  Q1Q2 Q2 Q3 
Fig 1.30 algebraically. i.e. U =  + + ...........
40  r12 r23 
q1q 2
The electric force on the charge q2 is F = rˆ
40 r 2
8. Electric Potential
The total work done as the charge q2 moves from A to B is Suppose, a test charge q is moved in an electric field from a
r point A to a point B while all the other charges in question
2
q1q 2 q1q 2 1 1
W=  40 r 2
dr =
40
 − 
 r1 r2 
remain fixed. If the electric potential energy changes by UB –
r
1 UA due to this displacement, we define the potential
The change in potential energy U(r2) – U(r1) is, therefore, difference between the point A and the point B as

q1q 2  1 1 
U ( r2 ) − U ( r1 ) = − W =  − 
40  r2 r1 

As the potential energy of the two-charge system is assumed

to be zero when they have infinite separation.
Fig 1.31
The potential energy when the separation is r is
U
U(r) = U(r) – U() = q1q 2  1 − 1  = q1q 2 V = i.e. VB − VA
40  r  40 r q
U − U A Wext
The potential energy depends essentially on the separation
= B =  KE = 0
q q
between the charges and is independent of the spatial location
of the charged particles. Conversely, if a charge q is taken through a potential
difference VB – VA, the electric potential energy is increased
Above equation gives the electric potential energy of a pair
by UB – UA = q(VB – VA).
of charges.
Also Wext = q(VB – VA)[KE = 0]

Electrostatics
 ELECTROSTATICS 21

Potential difference between two points gives us an idea Negative charge will always move from lower to higher
about work which has to be done in very slowly moving a potential points.
charge between those points. (Because this motion will decrease potential energy of a
system)

8.1 Electric Potential due to a point

charge
9. Relation between Electric
Consider a point charge Q placed at a point A.
kQ Field & Potential
The potential at P is, V =
r In an electric field rate of change of potential with distance is
known as potential gradient. It is a vector quantity and its
direction is opposite to that of electric field. Potential gradient
relates with electric field according to the following relation
Fig 1.32
dV
E=− ; This relation gives another unit of electric field
( V is taken as 0) dr
The electric potential due to a system of charges may be volt
which is . In the above relation negative sign indicates
obtained by finding potentials due to the individual charges meter
using equation and then adding them. Thus, that potential decreases in the direction of electric field.
1 Qi
V=
40
 ri

Electric potential is a scalar quantity, hence sign of charges is

to be used in expression.
Electric potential is denoted by V.

8.2 Unit and dimensional formula

Joule
S. I. unit = = volt Fig 1.33
Coulomb
In the space around a charge distribution we can also write
[V] = [ML2T–3A–1]
E = Ex ˆi + Ey ˆj + Ez kˆ
8.3 Types of electric potential
where E x = − dV , E y = − dV and E z = − dV
According to the nature of charge, potential is of two types dx dy dz

(i) Positive potential : Due to positive charge. Suppose A, B and C are three points in an uniform electric
(ii) Negative potential : Due to negative charge. field as shown in below figure.
(i) Potential difference between point A and B is
B
NOTE:
V B − VA = −  E . dr
At the centre of two equal and opposite charge A

V = 0 but E  0. Since displacement is in the direction of electric field, hence

• At the centre of the line joining two equal and similar  = 0o
charge V  0, E = 0.
• If left free to move,
Positive charge will always move from higher to lower
potential points.

Fig 1.34

Electrostatics
22 ELECTROSTATICS

So,
B B
V B − VA = −  E . dr cos 0 = −  E . dr = −Ed
A A

9.1 Equipotential Surface or Lines

1. If every point of a surface is at same potential, then it is
said to be an equipotential surface. Regarding
equipotential surface following points should be kept in
Fig 1.37
mind :
2. The direction of electric field is perpendicular to the
equipotential surfaces or lines. 6. Equipotential surfaces can never cross each other.
3. The equipotential surfaces produced by a point charge It is a common misconception that the path traced by a
or a spherical charge distribution are a family of positive test charge is a field line but actually the path
concentric spheres. traced by a unit positive test charge represents a field
line only when it moves along a straight line.

Fig 1.35

Fig 1.36
4. For a uniform electric field, the equipotential surfaces
are a family of plane perpendicular to the field lines.
5. A metallic surface of any shape is an equipotential
surface e.g. When a charge is given to a metallic
surface, it distributes itself in a manner such that its
every point comes at same potential even if the object is
of irregular shape and has sharp points on it.

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 23

Electric Potential due to Various Charge Configurations

(i) Point charge
kQ
VP =
r
(ii) At a centre of circular arc

kQ
VP =
R

(iii) At a point on the axis of the ring

kQ
VP =
R2 + x2

(iv) At a point on the axis of Disc

VP =
2kQ
R2
( R2 + x2 − x )

(v) Hollow sphere or conducting solid sphere (i) For x  R

kQ
VP =
R
(ii) For x = R
kQ
VP =
R
(ii) For x  R
kQ
VP =
x
(vi) Uniformly charged non-conducting solid (i) For x < R

( 3R 2 − x 2 )
sphere kQ
VP =
2R 3
(ii) For x = R
kQ
VP =
R
(iii) For x > R
kQ
VP =
x

Electrostatics
24 ELECTROSTATICS

r >> d (distance ‘r’ is large as compared to d);

10. Electric Dipole AP  OP BP  OP
10.1 General information 2kp r −d
E= OP =
System of two equal and opposite charges separated by a r3 2 cos 
small fixed distance is called a dipole.
k(−q) k(+q)
(i) Dipole axis: Line joining negative charge to positive Vp = +
d cos  d cos 
charge of a dipole is called its axis. It may also be termed r+ r−
2 2
as its longitudinal axis.
(ii) Equatorial axis: Perpendicular bisector of the dipole is  
 1 1 
called its equatorial or transverse axis as it is = k(+q)  − .
r − d cos  d cos  
perpendicular to length. r+
(iii) Dipole length: The distance between two charges is  2 2 
known as dipole length (d) kq d cos 
=
(iv) Dipole moment: It is a quantity which gives information d2
r2 − cos 2 
about the strength of dipole. It is a vector quantity and is 4
directed from negative charge to positive charge along
k(qd) cos  kp cos 
the axis. It is denoted as p and is defined as the product Vp = =  p = qd .
d2 d2
of the magnitude of either of the charge and the dipole r 2 − cos 2  r − cos 2 
2
4 4
length (d).
since r >> d
()
i.e. p = q d , where d is the displacement vector kp cos  1 p cos 
Vp = = .
from -q to +q. r 2
4 0 r 2
Its S.I. unit is coulomb-metre another units is Debye (1  is angle with the axis of dipole ; r is distance from
Debye = 3.3 × 10–30 C × m) and its dimensions are M0L1T1A1. centre of dipole.
(b) Electric Field due to dipole
NOTE: Let the point P be at distance r from the centre of the
• A region surrounding a stationary electric dipole dipole on the side of the charge q, as shown in fig
has electric field only. (a). Then
• When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, its q
E −q = − pˆ
atoms or molecules are considered as tiny dipoles 40 (r + a) 2
and potential due to an electric dipole
where p̂ is the unit vector along the dipole axis
(a) Electric Potential due to a dipole
(from –q to q). Also
q
E+q = pˆ
40 (r − a) 2

Fig 1.39
(a) For points on the axis.
The total field at P is
Fig 1.38

k(−q) k(+q)
VP = +
AP BP

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 25

q  1 1  2p 2kp
E = E + q + E −q =  −  pˆ E=
3
= ( r  a )
40  (r − a) (r + a) 2  40 r r3
2

q 4a r At a point on the equatorial plane

= p̂
4 0 (r − a 2 ) 2
2
−p −kp
E= = (r  a)
3
For r > > a 40 r r3
2kp
E= (r >> a) ...(i) 10.2 Electric Dipole in uniform electric
r3

field
(ii) For points on the equatorial plane
(i) Force and Torque: If a dipole is placed in a uniform
The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two
charges + q and –q are given by field such that dipole (i.e. p ) makes an angle  with
direction of field, then two equal and opposite force
q 1
E+q = act on dipole and constitute a couple whose tendency
40 r + a 2
2
is to rotate the dipole. Hence a torque is developed in
q 1 it and dipole tries to align it self in the direction of
E −q = and are equal.
40 r + a 2
2 field. Consider an electric dipole in placed in a
uniform electric field such that dipole (i.e. p ) makes
an angle  with the direction of electric field as shown

Fig 1.41
Fig 1.40
(p is the dipole moment vector of magnitude p = q (a) Net force on electric dipole Fnet = 0
× 2a and directed from –q to q). (b) Torque  = pE sin   = p  E( )
The directions of E+q and E–q are as shown in fig. (b).
Clearly, the components normal to the dipole axis (ii) Work: From the above discussion it is clear that in
p̂ an uniform electric field dipole tries to align itself in
cancel away. The components along the dipole axis add
the direction of electric field (i.e. equilibrium
up. The total electric field is opposite to . We have
p̂ position). To change it’s angular position some work
2qa has to be done.
E = – (E+q + E–q) cos = − p̂
40 (r 2 + a 2 )3/2 Suppose an electric dipole is kept in an uniform
At large distances (r >> a), this reduces to electric field by making an angle 1 with the field, if

2qa it is again turn so that it makes an angle 2 with the

E=− pˆ (r >> a)...(ii) field, work done in this process is given by the
40 r 3
formula
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), it is clear that the dipole field at
large distances does not involve q and a separately ; it
depends on the product qa. In terms of p, the electric
field of a dipole at large distances takes simple forms :
At a point on the dipole axis

Electrostatics
26 ELECTROSTATICS

electrostatic field at the surface of a charged conductor

must be normal to the surface at every point. (For a
conductor without any surface charge density, field is
zero even at the surface).
• The charge kept in the material of a conductor will
come to its outermost surface.
We know electric field at all points inside the material
Fig 1.42
of a conductor is zero. This means ‘E’ at all points on
W = pE ( cos 1 − cos 2 ) the Gaussian surface is zero.

Potential energy: In case of a dipole (in a uniform

field), potential energy of dipole is defined as work
done in rotating a dipole from a direction
perpendicular to the field to the given direction i.e. if
1 = 90o and 2 =  then

Fig 1.44
Qen
 E.dA = 0
 E = 0  Qen = 0

Charge cannot remain inside so it comes outside

dotted surface.
Fig 1.43
W = U = U – U 90° = – pE cos 
 U = – pE cos

[U (90°) = 0] or U = −p.E

11. Electrostatics of Fig 1.45

Conductors • Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the
volume of the conductor and has the same value (as
11.1 Properties of Conductors
inside) on its surface
• Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
This follows from results 1 and 2 above. Since E = 0
Consider a conductor, neutral or charged. There may inside the conductor and has no tangential component
also be an external electrostatic field. In the static on the surface, no work is done in moving a small test
situation the electric field is zero everywhere inside the charge within the conductor and on its surface. That is,
conductor. As long as electric field is not zero, the free there is no potential difference between any two points
charge carriers would experience force and drift. In the inside or on the surface of the conductor. Hence, the
static situation, the free charges have so distributed result. If the conductor is charged, electric field normal
themselves that the electric field is zero everywhere to the surface exists; this means potential will be
inside. Electrostatic field is zero inside a conductor. different for the surface and a point just outside the
• At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic surface.
field must be normal to the surface at every point In a system of conductors of arbitrary size, shape and
If E were not normal to the surface, it would have some charge configuration, each conductor is characterized
non-zero component along the surface. Free charges on by a constant value of potential, but this constant may
the surface of the conductor would then experience differ from one conductor to the other.
force and move. In the static situation, therefore, E • Electric field just outside the surface of a charged
should have no tangential component. Thus conductor

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 27

 11.3 Cases of Earthing a Conductor

E= nˆ
0

where  is the surface charge density and n̂ is a unit

vector normal to the surface in the outward direction.
For  > 0, electric field is normal to the surface outward
; for  < 0, electric field is normal to the surface inward.
Fig 1.49
• Firstly do charge distribution before earthing.
• After charge distribution, assume some ‘x’ charge
flown to ground (after earthing).
• Do re-distribution of charge.
• Take a point on the conductor (which is earthed) & do
net potential of it equals 0. Calculate x.

Fig 1.46

11.2 Cases of Concentric Shells Initially

Fig 1.50

kQ1 k ( − Q1 ) k ( Q1 + Q 2 − x )
VP = 0 = + +  x = Q1 + Q 2
r2 r2 r2

Fig 1.47

Fig 1.51
Charge is flown from outer surface because as long as Q 1
remains on inner shell, ‘– Q1’ will be induced on inner shell.

Fig 1.48

kQ1 k ( − Q1 ) k ( Q1 + Q 2 )
Va = + +
r1 r2 r2

kQ1 k ( −Q1 ) k ( Q1 + Q 2 )
Vb = + +
r2 r2 r2

Fig 1.52

Electrostatics
28 ELECTROSTATICS

k ( Q1 − x ) k ( − ( Q1 − x ) ) k ( Q1 + Q2 − x ) Final charges
VP = 0 = + +
r1 r2 r2

Q1 − x ( Q1 − x ) Q1 + Q 2 − x
 − + =0
r1 r2 r2

Q1 Q 2 x r Fig 1.55
 + = = x = Q1 + Q 2 1
r1 r2 r1 r2  Q + Q2 
Final common potential = k .  1 
 r1 + r2 
NOTE:
As it can be seen not all charge on the surface flows to
ground. When the outermost conductor is earthed then
the charge residing on the outermost surface of outer
conductor will flow to ground.

11.4 Connection of Charged conductors Fig 1.56

Steps VP = V R

• Do charge distribution before connection. k ( Q1 − x ) k − ( Q1 − x ) k ( Q1 + Q 2 )

VP = + +
• Assume ‘x’ charge flows from one conductor to r1 r2 r2
another.
k ( Q1 − x ) k − ( Q1 − x ) k ( Q1 + Q 2 )
• Do redistribution of charges.  VR = + +
r2 r2 r2
• Equate net potential of conductor (1) equal to net
potential of conductor (2). VP = V R
k ( Q1 − x ) k ( Q1 − x ) 1 1 
 =  ( Q1 − x )  −  = 0
r1 r2  r1 r2 
 x = Q1
This indicates that all the charge on shell (1) will flow
Fig 1.53 to shell (2).

12. Self Energy of Charged

Assumption: Distance between them is very large.

Sphere
Consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius R having a
total charge Q. The electric potential energy of this sphere
is equal to the work done in bringing the charges from
infinity to assemble the sphere.

Fig 1.54
3Q 2
U=
200 R

Electrostatics
 ELECTROSTATICS 29

Two conducting plates having area ‘A’ (area is large as

compared to distance, so that field is uniform) and the
thickness of plates is small so that charge only appears on
parallel faces.

Q2
U=
8 0 R

The energy stored per unit volume around a point in an

U 1
electric field is given by u e = = 0 E2 . If in place
Volume 2
of vacuum some medium of dielectric constant K is present
1
then u e = K 0 E 2 .
2

13. Plate Theory Fig 1.59

Since the field lines are parallel, the net flux through the
13.1 Charged Conducting Plate gaussian surface will be zero, surface (1) & (2) be inside the
material of the conductor.
Qen r 2
Net Flux = = Hence it can be said that net charge enclosed will be zero
0 0
which implies the charges appearing on the facing surfaces
(cylindrical Gaussian surface)
are equal & opposite to each other.
r 2
Er 2 =
0

Fig 1.57 Fig 1.60

 Net electric field at any point ‘P’ or ‘R’ has to be zero.
E=
0 (Enet)P = 0
Net electric field at point P, near a conducting surface, having There are 4 distributions, the net field at P should be zero.
surface charge distribution ‘’ is given by [/0].
 (Q − q)
( E P )1 = ( →) = 1 (→)
13.2 Parallel Plate Theory 2 0 2A0
q
To find charge distribution on each surface of plates ( E P )2 = ( )
2A0
q
( E P )3 = ( →)
2A0
Q2 + q
( E P )4 = ( )
2A0
 ( EP )1 + ( EP )3 = ( EP )2 + ( EP )4
Q1 − q q q Q +q
This shows + = + 2
Fig 1.58 2A0 2A0 2A0 2A0

Electrostatics
30 ELECTROSTATICS

Q1 − Q2 
q= so final distributions would be Thus, E1 = E 2 =
2 2 0
To find force, imagine charged part XY (having charge  dA
placed in the cavity MN having field E 2). Thus force dF =
2
(dA)E2 or dF = dA . The force per unit area or electric
2 0
dF 2
pressure is P = = (Electrostatic pressure)
dA 2  0
Fig 1.61

The force is always outwards as (+ ) is positive i.e., whether

2

NOTE: charged positively or negatively, this force will try to expand

When charged conducting plates are placed parallel to the charged body.
each other, the two outermost surfaces get equal charges
and the facing surfaces get equal and opposite charges.

14. Force on a charged

conductor
To find force on a charged conductor (due to repulsion of like
charges) imagine a small part XY to be cut and just separated
from the rest of the conductor MLN. The field in the cavity
due to the rest of the conductor is E2, while field due to small
part is E1. Then

Fig 1.62

Inside the conductor

E = E1 – E2 = 0 or E1 = E2

Outside the conductor E = E1 + E 2 = .
0

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 31

NCERT Corner
on q1 due to q3, and so on. For each pair, the force is
given by the Coulomb’s law for two charges stated
earlier.
Important Points to Remember 7. An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way
1. From simple experiments on frictional electricity, one that the tangent at each point on the curve gives the
can infer that there are two types of charges in nature; direction of electric field at that point. The relative
and that like charges repel and unlike charges attract. closeness of field lines indicates the relative strength of
By convention, the charge on a glass rod rubbed with electric field at different points; they crowd near each
silk is positive; that on a plastic rod rubbed with fur is other in regions of strong electric field and are far apart
then negative. where the electric field is weak. In regions of constant
2. Charge is not only a scalar (or invariant) under rotation; electric field, the field lines are uniformly spaced
it is also invariant for frames of reference in relative parallel straight lines.
motion. This is not always true for every scalar. For 8. Some of the important properties of field lines are: (i)
example, kinetic energy is a scalar under rotation, but Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.
is not invariant for frames of reference in relative (ii) Two field lines cannot cross each other. (iii)
motion. Electrostatic field lines start at positive charges and end
3. Conductors allow movement of electric charge through at negative charges (iv) They cannot form closed loops.
them, insulators do not. In metals, the mobile charges 9. The flux ∆φ of electric field E through a small area
are electrons; in electrolytes both positive and negative element ∆S is given by
ions are mobile.
 = E. S
4. Coulomb’s Law: The mutual electrostatic force
between two point charges q1 and q2 is proportional to The vector area element S = S n
the product q1q2 and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance r21 separating them. Where S is the magnitude of the aera element and n
is normal to the area element, which can be considered
k(q1q 2 )
F21 = force on q2 due to q1 = r 21 planar for sufficiently small ∆S.
r212
For an area element of a closed surface, n is taken to
where r 21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 be the direction of outward normal, by convention.
1 10. Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any
and k = is the constant of proportionality.
4 0 closed surface S is 1/ε0 times the total charge enclosed
by S. The law is especially useful in determining
In SI units, the unit of charge is coulomb. The electric field E, when the source distribution has simple
experimental value of the constant ε0 is symmetry.
0 = 8.854 10−12 C2 N− m−2 11. The electric field due to a discrete charge configuration
is not defined at the locations of the discrete charges.
The approximate value of k is
For continuous volume charge distribution, it is defined
k = 9 × 109 N m2 C–2 at any point in the distribution.
5. The ratio of electric force and gravitational force 12. An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite
between a proton and an electron is charges q and –q separated by some distance 2a. Its
ke2 dipole moment vector p has magnitude 2qa and is in the
 2.4 1039 direction of the dipole axis from –q to q.
G me m p
13. Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane (i.e.,
6. Superposition Principle: The principle is based on the the plane perpendicular to its axis and passing through
property that the forces with which two charges attract its centre) at a distance r from the centre:
or repel each other are not affected by the presence of
a third (or more) additional charge(s). For an assembly
of charges q1, q2, q3, ..., the force on any charge, say q1,
is the vector sum of the force on q1 due to q2, the force

Electrostatics
32 ELECTROSTATICS

−P 1
E=
4 0 ( + r 2 )3/ 2
2

−P
 . for r  
4 o r 3
Dipole electric field on the axis at a distance r from the
centre:
2pr
E=
40 (r 2 −  2 )3
2
 for r  
40 r 3
The 1/r3 dependence of dipole electric fields should be
noted in contrast to the 1/r2 dependence of electric field
due to a point charge.
14. In a uniform electric field E, a dipole experiences a
torque τ given by
=pE
but experiences no net force.
15. Electrostatics field E is zero in the interior of a
conductor; just outside the surface of a charged
conductor, E is normal to the surface given by E =

n where n is the unit vector along the outward
0
normal to the surface and σ is the surface charge
density. Charges in a conductor can reside only at its
surface. Potential is constant within and on the surface
of a conductor. In a cavity within a conductor (with no
charges), the electric field is zero.

Electrostatics
ELECTROSTATICS 33

(a) Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric

Solved Example charge of a body is quantised’.

(b) Why can one ignore quantisation of electric charge

Example 1
when dealing with macroscopic i.e., large scale
The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4 charges? [NCERT]
µC due to another small sphere of charge –0.8 µC in air
Sol. The given statement ‘Electric charge of a body is
is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance between the two
quantized’ means that only integral number (1, 2,3,...,
spheres? (b) What is the force on the second sphere due
n) of electrons can be transferred from one body to
to the first [NCERT]
another. That is, charges cannot be transferred from one
Sol. Charge of the first sphere is, q1 = 0.4 C = 0.4  10-6C body to another in fraction.

Charge of the second sphere is, q2 = -0.8C (b) On a macroscopic scale or large-scale, the number
of charges is as large asthe magnitude of an electric
= -0.8  10-6C charge.
So, quantization is considered insignificant at a
We have the electrostatic force given by Coulomb’s law
macroscopic scale for an electric charge and electric
as,
charges are considered continuous.
1 q1q 2
F= Example 3
40 r 2
Four point charges qA = 2 µC, qB = –5 µC, qC = 2 µC,
and qD = –5 µC are located at the corners of a square
q1q 2
r= ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge of
4 0 F 1 µC placed at the centre of the square? [NCERT]

Substituting the given values in the above equation, we Sol. Consider the square of side length 10cm given below
get, with four charges at its corners and let O be its centre.

0.4 10−6  8 10−6  9 109

r=
0.2

 r = 14410−4

 r = 0.12 m

Therefore, we found the distance between charged

sphere to be r = 0.12 m.
From the figure we find the diagonals to be,
(b) What is the force on the second sphere due to the
first?
AC = BD = 10 2 cm
Ans. From Newton’s third law of motion, we
know that every action has an equal and  AO = OC = DO = OB = 5 2 cm
opposite reaction.
Now the repulsive force at O due to charge at A.
Thus, we could say that the given two spheres would
attract each other with the same force. q A q0 (+2C)(1C)
FAO = k =k ...(1)
OA 2
( )
2
So, the force on the second sphere due to the first sphere 5 2
will be 0.2N
And the repulsive force at O due to charge at D,

q Bq0 (−5C)(1C)
Example 2 FBO = k =k ...(3)
( )
2 2
OB 5 2
34 ELECTROSTATICS

And the attractive force of O due to charge at C, 9  109  3  10−6

E=2
qC q0 (−5C)(1C) (10  10−2 ) 2
FCO = k =k ...(4)
( )
2 2
OC 5 2  E = 5.4  106 NC-1

We find that (1) and (2) are of same magnitude but they Therefore, the electric field at mid-point O is E =
act in the opposite direction and hence they cancel out 5.4106 NC-1 along OB.
each other. Similarly, (3) and (4) are of the same (b) We have a test charge of magnitude 1.5  10-9 C placed
magnitude but in the opposite direction and hence they at midpoint O and we found the electric field at this
cancel out each other too. Hence, the net force on
point to be E = 5.4  106 NC-1. So, the force experienced
charge at centre O is found to be zero.
by the test charge would be F,
Example 4
F = qE
Two point charges qA = 3 C and qB = - 3 C are located
 F = 1.5  10-9  5.4  106
20 cm apart in vacuum.
 F = 8.1  10-3 N
(a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the
line AB joining the two charges ? This force will be directed along OA since like charges
repel and unlike charges attract.
(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5  10-9 C
is placed at this point, what is the force experienced by Example 5
the test charge? [NCERT] An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10 –9 C m is
aligned at 30° with the direction of a uniform electric
Sol. The situation could be represented in the following
field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC–1. Calculate the
figure. Let O be the midpoint of line AB. magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole.
[NCERT]

Sol. We are given the following:

→

We are given :
Electric dipole moment, p = 4  10-9 Cm

AB = 20 cm →
Angle made by p with uniform electric fields,  = 30o
AO = OB = 10 cm
→
Take E to be the electric field at point O, then, Electric field, E = 5  104 NC-1

The electric field at point O due to charge +3C would Torque acting on the dipole is given by
be,
 = pE sin
−6 −6
3  10 3  10
E1 = = NC−1 along OB Substituting the given values we get,
40 (AO) 2 40 (10 10 −2 ) 2
  = 4  10-9  5  104  sin 30o
The electric field at point O due to charge – 3 C would
be, 1
  = 20  10-5 
2
3 10−6 3 10−6
E2 = = NC−1 along OB
40 (OB) 2
40 (10 10−2 ) 2   = 10-4 Nm

Thus, the magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole

The net electric field,
is found to be 10-4 Nm.
 E = E 1 + E2
ELECTROSTATICS 35

Example 6 through all its six faces.

q
Figure shows tracks of three charged particles in a total =
uniform electrostatic field. Give the signs of the three 0
charges. Which particle has the highest charge to mass The electric flux through one face of the cube
ratio? [NCERT]
total
could be now given by, = .
6
1 q
=
6 0
0 = 8.854  10-12N-1C2m-2 = Permittivity of free
space
Sol. From the known properties of charges, we know The net charge enclosed would be, q = 10C = 10
that the unlike charges attract and like charges repel  10-6 C
each other. Substituting the values given in the question, we
So, the particles 1 and 2 that move towards the get,
positively charged plate while repelling away from 1 10 10−6
= 
the negatively charged plate would be negatively 6 8.854 10−12
charged and the particle 3 that moves towards the  = 1.88  105 Nm2C-1
negatively charged plate while repellingaway from
the positively charged plate would be positively Example 8
charged.
A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0 × 103
Now, we know that the charge to mass ratio (which Nm2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian surface of
is generally known as emf) is directly proportional 10.0 cm radius centred on the charge. (a) If the radius
to the displacement or the amount of deflection for a of the Gaussian surface were doubled, how much flux
givenvelocity. would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value
of the point charge? [NCERT]
Since the deflection of particle 3 is found to be
maximum among the three, it would have the Sol. We are given:
highest charge to mass ratio.
Electric flux due to the given point charge,  = - 1.0 
Example 7 103 Nm2/C

A point charge +10 µC is a distance 5 cm directly above Radius of the Gaussian surface enclosing the point
the centre of a square of side 10 cm, as shown in Fig. charge, r =10.0cm
What is the magnitude of the electric flux through the
Electric flux piercing out through a surface depends
square? (Hint: Think of the square as one face of a cube
on the net charge enclosed by the surface according to
with edge 10 cm.) [NCERT]
Gauss’s law and is independent of the dimensions of
the arbitrary surface assumed to enclose this charge.
Hence, if the radius of the Gaussian surface is doubled,
then the flux passing through the surface remains the
same i.e., -103 Nm2/C.
(b) Electric flux could be given by the relation,

q
total =
0
Sol. Consider the square as one face of a cube of edge
length 10cm with a charge q at its centre, according Where, q = net charge enclosed by the spherical surface
to Gauss's theorem for a cube, total electric flux is 0 = 8.854  10-12N-1C2m-2 = Permittivity of free space
36 ELECTROSTATICS

 q = 0

Substituting the given values, Sol.

 q = -1.0  103  8.854  10-12 = -8.854  10-9 C

 q = -8.854 nC

Example 9

A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown

charge. If the electric field 20 cm from the centre of the
sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C and points radially inward, what
is the net charge on the sphere? [NCERT]
(a) Given that,
Sol. We have the relation for electric field intensity E at a Diameter of the sphere, d = 2.4 m.
distance ( d ) from the centre of a sphere containing net
charge q is given by, Radius of the sphere, r = 1.2 m.

q Surface charge density,

E= ....(1)
4 0 d 2  = 80.0C/m2 = 80  10-6/m2

Where, Total charge on the surface of the sphere,

Net Charge, q = 1.5  103 N/C  Q =   4r2 = 80  10-6  4  3.14  (1.2)2

Distance from the centre, d = 20 cm = 0.2 m  Q = 1.447  10-3 C

0 = 8.884  10-12 N-1 C2m-2 = Permittivity of free space Therefore, the charge on the sphere is found to be 1.447
 10-3C.
1
= 9 109 Nm 2C−2 (b) Total electric flux (total) leaving out the surface
40 containing net charge is given by Gauss’s law as,
From (1), the unknown charge would be,
Q
total = ............(1)
q = E(40)d 2 0

Substituting the given values we get, Where, permittivity of free space,

1.5 103  (0.2)2 0 = 8.854  10-12 N-1C2m-2.
q= = 6.67 10−9 C
9 109
We found the charge on the sphere to be,
 q = 6.67 nC
Q = 1.447  10-3C
Therefore, the net charge on the sphere is found to be
6.67 nC. Substituting these in (1), we get,

Example 10 1.447 10−3

total =
A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m 8.8854 10−12
diameter has a surface charge density of 80.0 µC/m2. (a)
Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total  total = 1.63  10-8 NC-1m2
electric flux leaving the surface of the sphere? Therefore, the total electric flux leaving the surface of
[NCERT] the sphere is found to be 1.63  10-8 NC-1 m2
ELECTROSTATICS 37

Example 11 Example 12

Two large, thin metal plates are parallel and close to In a certain region of space, electric field is along the z-
each other. On their inner faces, the plates have surface direction throughout. The magnitude of electric field is,
charge densities of opposite signs and of magnitude however, not constant but increases uniformly along the
17.0 × 10–22 C/m2. What is E: (a) in the outer region of positive z-direction, at the rate of 105 NC–1 per metre.
the first plate, (b) in the outer region of the second plate, What are the force and torque experienced by a system
and (c) between the plates? [NCERT] having a total dipole moment equal to 10 –7 Cm in the
negative z-direction? [NCERT]
Sol. The given nature of metal plates is represented in the
figure below: Sol. We know that the dipole moment of the system, P = q 
dl = -10-7 Cm. Also, the rate of increase of electric field
per unit length is given as

dE
= 105 NC −1
dl
Now, the force (F) experienced by the system is given
by F = qE

dE
F=q  dl
Here, A and B are two parallel plates kept close to dl
each other. The outer regionof plate A is denoted as
dE
I , outer region of plate B is denoted as III , and the F=P
region between the plates, A and B, is denoted as II . dl

It is given that:  F = -10-7  105

Charge density of plate A,  =17.0 10−22 C / m2  F = -10-2 N

Charge density of plate B,  = −17.0 −22C / m2 Clearly, the force is equal to -10-2 N in the negative z –
In the regions I and III , electric field E is zero. This is direction i.e., it is opposite to the direction of electric
because the charge is not enclosed within the respective field.
plates. Thus, the angle between electric field and dipole
Now, the electric field E in the region II is given by moment is equal to 180o. Now, the torque is given by 
= PE sin
||
E=  = PE sin 180o = 0
0
Therefore, it can be concluded that the torque
Where, experienced by the system is zero.

Example 13
Permittivity of free space 0 = 8.854  10-12 N-1C2m-2
Two charges 5 × 10–8 C and –3 × 10–8 C are located 16
Clearly, cm apart. At what point(s) on the line joining the two
charges is the electric potential zero? Take the
17.0 10−22
E=  E = 1.92  10-10 N/C potential at infinity to be zero. [NCERT]
8.854 10−12
Sol. It is provided that, First charge, q =  −C
Thus, the electric field between the plates is 1.92  10- Second charge, q2 = −0-8C
10
N/C. Distance between the two given charges,
d =cm = 0.16 m
38 ELECTROSTATICS

Case 1. When point P is inside the system of two q1 q2

0= +
charges. 4 o s 4 o (s − d)
Consider a point named P on the line connecting the q1 q2
two charges.  =−
4 o s 4 o (s − d)
q1 q2
 =−
s (s − d)

r is the distance of point P from q1. 5 10−8 −3 10−8

 =−
s (s − 0.16)
Potential at point P will be,
0.16 8
 =
q1 q2 s 5
V= +
4o r 40 (d − r) We get,

Where, o is the Permittivity of free space s = 0.4 m = 40 cm

But V = 0 so, Therefore, the potential is zero at 40 cm distance

from the positive charge.
q1 q2
0= +
4 o r 4 o (d − r) Example 14
q1 q2
 =− A spherical conductor of radius 12 cm has a charge
4 o r 4 o (d − r) of 1.6 × 10–7C distributed uniformly on its surface.
q1 q2 What is the Electric field [NCERT]
 =−
r (d − r)
(a) inside the sphere
5  10 −8 −3  10 −8
 =−
r (0.16 − r) (b) just outside the sphere
0.16 8
 = (c) at a point 18 cm from the centre of the sphere?
r 5
Sol. (a) It is provided that,
We get,
Spherical conductor’s radius, r =12cm = 0.12m
r = 0.1m =10cm The charge is evenly distributed across the
conductor. The electric field within a spherical
Therefore, the potential is zero at 10 cm distance conductor is zero because the total net charge within
from the positive charge. Case 2. When point P is a conductor is zero.
outside the system of two charges.
(b) Just outside the conductor, Electric field E is
given by
q
E=
4 o r 2
Potential at point P will be,
Where, o is the Permittivity of free space
q1 q2 1
V= + Value of = 9 109 NC−2 m −2
4o s 40 (s − d) 4o
1.6 10−7  9 109
Where, o is the Permittivity of free space E=
(0.12)2
But V = 0 so,  E = 105 NC−1
Clearly, the electric field just outside the sphere is
105 NC-1.
ELECTROSTATICS 39

(c) Let electric field at a given point which is 18 cm any random shape. Take a closed circle such that
from the sphere centre = E1 a part of it is inside the hole along a field line while
The formula for electric field is given by, the rest is within the conductor. The network
q performed by the field in taking a test charge over
E1 = a closed circuit is zero because the field is zero
4o d 2
inside the conductor. Hence, the electric field is
Where, o is the Permittivity of free space zero, whatever theframe is.
1
Value of = 9 109 NC−2 m −2 Example 16
4o
Four charges are placed on corners of a square as
1.6 10−7  9 109
E= shown in figure having side of 5 cm. If Q is one micro
(0.18) 2
coulomb, then electric field intensity at centre will be
 E = 4.4 104 NC−1
Therefore, the electric field at a given point 18 cm
from the sphere centre is 4.4  104 NC-1.

Example 15

A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r 1 and

outer radius r2 has a charge Q.

(a) A charge q is placed at the centre of the shell.

What is the surface charge density on the inner and (a) 1.02 × 107 N/C upwards
outer surfaces of the shell?
(b) 2.04 × 107 N/C downwards
(b) Is the electric field inside a cavity (with no
charge) zero, even if the shell is not spherical, but (c) 2.04 × 107 N/C upwards
has any irregular shape? Explain. [NCERT] (d) 1.02 × 107 N/C downwards
Sol. Provided that, Sol. (a)

Charge located at the centre of shell is +q. Hence, a |EC| > |EA| so resultant of EC & EA is ECA = EC –
charge of magnitude -q will be induced to the inner EAdirected toward Q
surface of the shell. Therefore, net charge on the
Also |EB| > |ED| so resultant of EB and ED i.e.
shell’s inner surface is -q.
EBD = EB – ED directed toward –2Q charge
Surface charge density at the shell’s inner surface is
given by the relation, hence Net electric field at centre is

−q E= ( ECA ) + ( E BD )
2 2
1 = ...(i)
4r12
By proper calculations
A charge of +q is induced on the outer surface of the 10−6
| E A | = 9 109  = 0.72 × 107 N/C
shell. A charge of magnitude Q is placed on the outer  5 
2

surface of the shell. Therefore, total charge on the  10−2 

 2 
outer surface of the shell is Q + q. Surface charge
density at the shell’s outer surface is, 2  10−6
| E B |= 9 10  2
= 1.44  10 N / C ;
 5 
−q   10−2 
2 = 9  2  7
4r22

(b) Yes, the electric field intensity is zero inside

a cavity, even if the shell is notspherical and has
40 ELECTROSTATICS

2  10−6 (b) For external points, whole charge acts at

| E C |= 9  109  2
= 1.44  107 N / C centre, so electric field at distance x > r2.
 5 
  10−2 
 2  1 Q+q
E ( x) = rˆ
4 0 x 2
10−6
| E D |= 9  109  2
= 0.72  107 N / C ;
 5  Example 18
  10−2 
 2  A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10-7 C and qB
= – 2.5 × 10-7 C located at points A = (0, 0, – 15 cm)
and B = (0, 0, + 15 cm) respectively. What are the
So, |ECA| = |EC| – | EA| = 0.72 × 107 N/C and |EBD| =
total charge and electric dipole moment of the
|EB| – |ED| system?
= 0.72 × 107 N/C.
Hence from equation – (i)
E = 1.02 × 107 N/C upwards.

Example 17

A spherical conducting shell of inner radius r 1, and

outer radius r2 has a charge ‘Q’. A charge ‘q’ is
placed at the centre of the shell.
(a) What is the surface charge density on the
(i) inner surface (ii) outer surface of the shell?
Sol. Given qA = 2.5 × 10-7 C, qB = – 2.5 × 10-7 C
(b) Write expression for the electric field at a point
x > r2 from the centre of the shell. 2l = AB = 30 cm = 0.30 m
Total charge of the system q = qA + qB
Sol. (a) Charge Q resides on outer surface of spherical q = 2.5 × 10-7 C – 2.5 × 10-7 C
conducting shell. Due to charge q placed at centre, q=0
charge induced on inner surface is –q and on outer
Electric dipole moment, p = q.2l
surface it is +q. So, total charge on inner surface –q
and on outer surface it is Q + q. p = 7.5 × 10–8
cm directed along negative z-axis

( )
p = 7.5 × 10–8 cm –kˆ

Example 19

A cube of side b has a charge q at each of its vertices.

Determine the potential and electric field due to this
charge-array at the centre of the cube.

Sol. O is the centre of cube ABCDEFGH. Charge q is

placed at each of eight corners of the cube.
q Electric Potential:
Surface charge density on inner surface = −
4r12
Q+q
Surface charge density on outer surface =
4r22
ELECTROSTATICS 41

Sol. How to proceed: Here, the charge q3 is attracted

towards q1 and q2 both. So, the net force on q3 is
Side of cube = b towards origin.
Length of each diagonal
= b + b + b = 3b
2 2 2

Distance of each corner from centre O.

= half the diagonal
3b
=.
2
Potential at O due to charge at each corner
1 q By this force charge is accelerated towards origin, but
=
40 ( 3 b / 2) this acceleration is not constant. So, to obtain the
speed of particle at origin by kinematics we will have
1 2q
= to first find the acceleration at same intermediate
4 0 3 b position and then will have to integrate with proper
limits. On the other hand, it is easy to use energy
conservation principle as the only forces are
 Net potential at O due to all 8 charges at corners of the
conservative.
cube
Let v be the speed of particle at origin. From
1 2q 1 16q
V = 8 = . conservation of mechanical energy, Ui + Ki = Uf + Kf
40 3 b 40 3 b
or
Electric Field : The electric field at O due to charges
1  q 3 q 2 q 3 q1 q 2 q 1 
at all corners of the cube is zero, since, electric fields  + + +0
40  (r32 )i (r31 )i (r21 )i 
due to charges at opposite corners such as A and H,G
and D, B and E, F and C are equal and opposite.
1  q 3 q 2 q 3 q1 q 2 q 1  1
=  + +  + mv
2

Example 20 40 (r
 32 f ) (r )
31 f
(r )
21 f 
2

Two point charges q1 = q2 = 2mC are fixed at Here, (r21)i = (r21)f. Substituting the proper values, we
x1 = + 3m and x2 = – 3m as shown in figure. A third have
particle of mass 1 g and charge q3 = – 4mC is released  (−4)(2) (−4)(2) 
from rest at y = 4.0 m. All these charges are on a
(9.0 109 )  +  10 = (9.0 10 )
−12 9

 (5.0) (5.0) 
frictionless plane. Find the speed of the particle as it
reaches the origin.  (−4) (2) (−4) (2)  1
 (3.0) + (3.0)   10 + 2  10  v
−12 −3 2

 
42 ELECTROSTATICS

 16   16  1 Sol. Let P be a point on the equator of an electric dipole

(9 10−3 )  −  = (9 10−3 )  −  + 10−3  v 2 formed of charges –q and +q at separation 2a.
\  5  3 2
The distance of point P from centre of dipole = r
2 1
(9 10−3 ) (16)   = 10−3  v 2 r 2 + a2
 15  2 AP = BP =
1  q q 
\ v = 6.2 m/s Electrostatics potential at P, VP =  − 
40  BP AP 
Example 21

A long thin rod lies along the x-axis with one end at
the origin. It has a uniform charge density l C/m.
Assuming it to infinite in length, the electric field at
point x = – a on the x-axis will
 
(a) (b)
 0 a 2 0 a
 2
(c) (d)
4 0 a  0 a
1  q q 
Sol. (c) VP =  2 2 − 2 2 =0
40  r + a r +a 
Thus, electrostatic potential at each equatorial point of
an electric dipole is zero.

Example 24
For infinite length (i) Two point charges 4Q and Q are separated by
 a distance 1 m in air. At what point on the line
Electric field at a point along axis =
4 0 r joining the charges is the electric field intensity
r=a zero?
 (ii) Also calculate the electrostatic potential
E=
4 0 a energy of the charges if Q = 2 × 10-7 C.

Example 22 Sol. (i) Let x be the distance of point P from charge 4Q

where electric field intensity is zero, then
Depict the equipotential surfaces for a system of two
identical positive point charges placed a distance ‘d’ E = E1 + E2 = 0
apart.

Sol. Equipotential surfaces due to two identical charges is

shown in fig.

As E1 and E2 are oppositely directed.

In magnitude,
1 4Q 1 Q 4 1
 =  2 =
Example 23 40 x 2
40 (1 − x) 2
x (1 − x) 2
Find the electrostatic potential at equatorial point of
an electric dipole.
 x2 = 4(1 – x)2  x =  2 (1 – x)
ELECTROSTATICS 43

If we take (+) sign x = 2 (1 – x). makes a small angle q (say of about 5 degrees) with
2 the field direction (see figure). What will be the
This gives m x = = 66.7 cm minimum time, needed for the rod to become parallel
3
to the field after it is set free
If we take (–) sign, x = – 2(1 – x)  x = 2 m, Which
is not possible since the charges are having same
sign, the point must lie between the two charges.
Hence the answer will be only 66.7cm.
(ii) Electrostatic potential energy,
1 (4Q)(Q) 1 4Q 2
U= =
40 r 40 r
mL  mL
4  (2  10−7 ) 2 (a) t = 2 (b) t =
= 9 × 109 × = 1.44 × 10–3 J 2pE 2 2qE
(1)
3 mL 2mL
Example 25 (c) t = (d) t = 
2 2 pE pE
Three particles, each having a charge of 10micro Sol. (b)
coulomb are placed at the corners of an equilateral
triangle of side 10cm. The electrostatic potential In the given situation system oscillate in electric field
energy of the system is (Given with maximum angular displacement q. It’s time period
1 of oscillation (similar to dipole)
= 9 109 N − m2 / C  )
4 0 I
T = 2 where I = moment of inertia of the
(a) Zero (b) Infinite pE
(c) 27 J (d) 100 J system and p = qL
Hence the minimum time needed for the rod becomes
Sol. (c) Potential energy of the system, T  I
parallel to the field is t= =
4 2 pE
2 2
L L ML2
Here I = M   + M   =
2 2 2

 ML2  ML
Þ t= =
2 2  qL  E 2 2qE
Example 27
A regular hexagon of side 0.10 m has a charge 5 mC
at each of its vertices. Calculate the potential at the
centre of the hexagon.
Sol. The potential due to similar charges is additive.
 (10  10−6 )2 
9 
 3 = 27 J
Let O be the centre of the hexagon.
U = 9  10
 0.1 
 

Example 26

A point particle of mass M is attached to one end of

a massless rigid non-conducting rod of length L.
Another point particle of the same mass is attached to
other end of the rod. The two particles carry charges
+q and – q respectively. This arrangement is held in
a region of a uniform electric field E such that the rod
44 ELECTROSTATICS

In triangle OAB, all angles are 60º, so Sol.

OA = OB = AB = a
So, in a regular hexagon distance of each corner from
centre is equal to the side of the cube
r = OA = OB = OC = OD = OE = OF = a = 0.10 m
1 q
The net potential at O, V = 6  .
40 a

Here q = 5mC = 5 × 10-6 C, a = 0.10 m

10−6
 V = 6 × 9 × 109 × 5 × = 2.7 × 106 volt
0.10

Example 28

An infinite plane with uniformly distributed positive

charge has surface charge density s. A small metallic At equilibrium of Pendulum
sphere S of mass m and charge +Q is attached to a T sin q = Fe
thread and tied to a point P on the sheet AB. The angle T cos q = mg
which PS makes with the plane AB is given by Fe QE
tan  = =
mg mg
Q
tan  =
2 0 mg
 Q 
 = tan −1  
 2 0 mg 

Example 29
Two infinite plane parallel sheets separated by a
distance d have equal and opposite uniform charge
densities s. Electric field at a point between the sheets
is
 Q  
(a) tan −1   (a) Zero (b)
 0 mg  0
 Q   2
(b) cot −1   (c) (d)
 20 mg  2 0 0
Sol. (b)
 Q 
(c) tan −1  
 20 mg 
 Q 
(d) cot −1  
 0 mg 

Electric field at point between the sheets

= E1 - EII
 −   
E1 = EII = = + =
2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 0
ELECTROSTATICS 45

Example 30
A point charge Q is placed outside a hollow spherical
conductor of radius R, at a distance (r > R) from its
centre C. The field at C due to the induced charges on
 1 
the conductor is  k = 
 40 

Q
(a) Zero (b) k
(r − R )
2

Q
(c) k directed towards Q
r2
Q
(d) k directed away from Q
r2
Ans. (c)
Sol. According to the figure show below. The total field at
C must be zero. The field at C due to the point charge
is E =
Q
towards left k . The field at C due to the induced
r2
kQ
charges must be 2 towards right i.e. directed
r
towards Q