10

TE
Occurrence and extraction of
metals

Metals are used in constructing these commercial buildings and

Chapter preview the Big Wheel.

10.1 Occurrence and uses of metals

10.2 Extraction of metals from their ores
10.3 Relating the discovery of metals with the ease of extraction of metals
10.4 Conserving metals

Prior knowledge & Quick review

(For Chapter 10)
 All answers
The armour of Iron Man

You probably have watched the Iron Man movies. Iron Man, the main character of these movies, usually
appears wearing an armour as shown in the photo below.

Iron Man is fighting against an enemy.

Iron Man’s armour is strong, lightweight and highly heat resistant. It can return to its original
shape after it is deformed, and thus can protect him from being hurt. Would you expect iron, one of the
highly abundant metals in the Earth’s crust, to be a material suitable for making Iron Man’s armour?

Think about...
1 Can you suggest one common ore of iron?

2 How can we obtain iron from this ore?

3 Why is it important to conserve metals?

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

armour 盔甲
deformed 變形
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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10.1 Occurrence and uses of metals

Uses of metals
Metals have characteristic properties which make them different from
other materials such as wood, rock, glass and plastic. Although all metals
have some physical properties in common (refer to Book 1B, Section 6.1),
each metal has its own properties.

Before we look into the sources of metals, let us relate the uses of
some metals to their properties. See Example 10.1.

Example 10.1

Relating the uses of metals to their properties

The table below shows some information of aluminium, copper, iron and silver.

Relative strength
Electrical Melting point Density at Corrosion Relative
Metal –3 (1 = lowest; 4 =
conductivity / °C 20°C / g cm resistance price
highest)

Aluminium very good 660 2.70 1 high medium

Copper very good 1085 8.96 3 high expensive

Iron good 1538 7.87 4 low cheap

very
Silver very good 962 10.5 2 high
expensive

Based on the above information and your general knowledge, select one metal (from the above table)
which would best be used for each of the following tasks. Explain your answer in each case.
(a) Making overhead power cables (b) Making footbridge
(c) Making water pipes (d) Making jewellery

Solution
(a) Aluminium. This is because it has very good electrical
conductivity and has a low density.
Learning tip
(b) Iron. This is because it is very strong and relatively cheap. Steel is an alloy of iron. It is
much stronger than iron. Hence,
(c) Copper. This is because it is non-poisonous, very strong
steel, instead of pure iron, is
and corrosion resistant. used for making a footbridge.
(d) Silver. This is because it has an attractive shiny appearance
and is corrosion resistant. Besides, it is expensive.

steel 鋼 footbridge 行人天橋

overhead power cable 架空電纜
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Occurrence of metals
The Earth’s crust is made up of many substances. About 24% by mass of
the Earth’s crust are metals. The two most abundant metals in the Earth’s
crust are aluminium and iron. See Figure 10.1.

silicon
oxygen 27.7%
46.6%

aluminium
iron 8.1%
5.0%

all other elements

1.5%
magnesium
2.1% sodium calcium
potassium 2.8% 3.6%
2.6%

Figure 10.1 Percentage abundance by mass of some elements in the Earth’s crust

Rocks which contain useful minerals are called ores. Most of the metals
Think about it we use are extracted from metal ores. Very few metals, such as gold and
Why do gold and platinum, are found as free elements in their ores in nature (Figure 10.2(a)
platinum occur as free and (b)).
elements in nature?

(a) A gold nugget (b) A platinum nugget

Figure 10.2 (a) Gold and (b) platinum exist as free elements in nature.

Most metals occur in nature in the form of compounds (usually

oxides, sulphides or carbonates of the metal). These metal compounds are
found in metal ores.

metal ore 金屬礦石 nugget 小塊

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 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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Table 10.1 lists some of these metal ores and the main metal compounds
in these ores.

Main metal compound

Common ore Photo of the ore
present

Bauxite
aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
(an ore of aluminium)

Zinc blende
zinc sulphide (ZnS)
(an ore of zinc)

Haematite
iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3)
(an ore of iron)

Galena
lead(II) sulphide (PbS)
(an ore of lead)

Activity 10.1
Copper pyrite copper(II) iron(II) sulphide
The occurrence and uses (an ore of copper) (CuFeS2)
of metals in daily life
Search the Internet (or
other sources) for
information on the
occurrence and daily uses
of metals. After the Cinnabar mercury(II) sulphide
search, present your (an ore of mercury) (HgS)
findings in a set of
computer presentation
slides.

Argentite
silver sulphide (Ag2S)
(an ore of silver)

Table 10.1 Some common metal ores and the main metal compounds in these ores

argentite 輝銀礦 copper pyrite 黃銅礦 zinc blende 閃鋅礦

bauxite 鋁土礦 galena 方鉛礦
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cinnabar 硃砂 haematite 赤鐵礦
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Class practice 10.1
Bauxite and zinc blende are common ores for aluminium and zinc
respectively.
(a) What is the meaning of the term ‘ore’?
(b) What is the main metal compound present in each of these ores?

10.2 Extraction of metals from their ores

Metals have a wide range of uses in daily life. Before metals can be used
for different purposes, they have to be separated from their ores. The
process of separating a metal from its ore is called extraction. See Figure
10.3.

making
extraction products

metal ore metal metal product

(bauxite) (aluminium) (aluminium can)

Figure 10.3 Aluminium can for soft drinks is made from aluminium which is extracted from bauxite.

Experiment 10.1 Unreactive metals like gold can be extracted from its ore by physical
Extracting metals from separation (e.g. panning). See Figure 10.4.
metal ores

Experiment video
Extracting metals
from metal ores

Figure 10.4 Gold panning

Metals that occur in nature in the form of compounds can be extracted

from their ores by using chemical methods. For metal ores in the form of
oxides, three chemical methods are commonly employed to extract the
metals from these oxides.

extraction 提取 panning 淘金
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 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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These chemical methods are:

• Heating the metal ore alone

• Heating the metal ore with carbon

• Electrolysis of the molten metal ore

Heating the metal ore alone

Extraction of silver by heating silver oxide
Unreactive metals can be extracted by heating their metal oxides. For
example, silver oxide decomposes to silver metal and oxygen by strong
heating (Figure 10.5).

heat
silver oxide silver + oxygen
black silvery

glowing
splint oxygen glowing
evolved splint
silver
relighted
oxide

Figure 10.5 Decomposition of silver oxide to silver metal by strong heating. The other product oxygen can be tested by
using a glowing splint.

The extraction of metals involves the reduction of their ores. The

removal of oxygen from a metal oxide is a reduction.

Extraction of mercury from its ore

Mercury exists as mercury(II) sulphide (HgS) in its ore, cinnabar. In the
extraction of mercury, cinnabar is heated in the presence of air to give
mercury(II) oxide first, which upon further heating decomposes to mercury.

heat
mercury(II) sulphide + oxygen mercury + sulphur dioxide

electrolysis 電解 molten 熔融的

reduction 還原<作用/反應>
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Heating the metal oxide with carbon (Reduction
with carbon)
Oxides of some metals like zinc, iron and lead are more stable. These metal
oxides do not decompose upon heating. Such metals can be extracted by
heating their metal oxides with carbon.

Since the extraction involves the removal of oxygen from the metal
oxides, the reaction involved is also a reduction. In such reaction, carbon is
a reducing agent as it removes oxygen from the metal oxides.

Extraction of lead from its ore

Lead exists as lead(II) sulphide (PbS) in its ore, galena. The extraction of
lead from galena involves two steps. Firstly, the ore galena is heated
strongly in air to form lead(II) oxide:

heat
lead(II) sulphide + oxygen lead(II) oxide + sulphur dioxide

The lead(II) oxide is then heated with carbon to give lead.

heat
lead(II) oxide + carbon lead + carbon dioxide

In the laboratory, we can obtain lead from lead(II) oxide by heating the
oxide with carbon powder in a crucible (Figure 10.6). At the temperature of
a Bunsen flame (about 600°C), carbon removes oxygen from lead(II) oxide,
giving lead metal.

mixture of carbon powder

crucible and lead(II) oxide
pipe-clay crucible
tripod
triangle

mixture of
carbon powder
tripod and lead(II) oxide
heat

pipe-clay
triangle

Figure 10.6 Set-up for extracting lead from lead(II) oxide by heating the oxide with carbon
powder

reducing agent 還原劑

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 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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Extraction of iron from its ore
Iron exists as iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) in its ore, haematite. The extraction of
iron is often carried out inside a blast furnace. In the extraction, a mixture
of iron ore, coke and limestone is added to the blast furnace (Figure 10.7).

Extended learning 10.1 iron ore + coke +

limestone
Why is limestone added to the
blast furnace? hot waste gas
Sand (silicon dioxide) is the major
impurity in haematite. It can be
removed from the ore by using
limestone. In the blast furnace,
limestone (calcium carbonate) 250°C
decomposes by heat to calcium 700°C
oxide and carbon dioxide. furnace gets
calcium carbonate hotter
calcium oxide + carbon dioxide 800°C–1000°C

Then calcium oxide will react

with the silicon dioxide in the
impurity, forming a slag of calcium 1500°C
hot air
silicate (CaSiO3).
calcium oxide + silicon dioxide
hot air
calcium silicate molten slag molten slag
runs off
Solid slag is a useful building
material, especially for building molten iron molten iron
runs off
roads.

Figure 10.7 Extracting iron from its ore in a blast furnace

Learning tip
The temperature of the Hot air is blasted (blown strongly) from the lower part of the furnace.
hot air blast is between
550°C and 850°C. This air The coke burns in the hot air to form carbon dioxide (CO2). Heat is released
is hot enough to react during burning which helps to heat up the furnace.
with the coke.

The carbon dioxide formed then reacts with more hot air to form
carbon monoxide (CO). The carbon monoxide removes oxygen from
iron(III) oxide to give iron.

iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide iron + carbon dioxide

At the temperature of the blast furnace, iron melts. The molten iron
produced sinks and runs off from the bottom of the furnace (Figure 10.8).

Figure 10.8 Molten iron being

collected in a steel-made container

coke 焦炭 limestone 石灰石 blast 吹入 slag 爐渣

calcium silicate 硅酸鈣 sand 砂 blast furnace 鼓風爐
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impurity 雜質
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Example 10.2

Understanding the extraction of copper from its ores

Copper can be extracted from its ore, copper pyrite (CuFeS2). The extraction involves two stages.
Stage 1: Heating copper pyrite with air and sand to obtain copper(I) sulphide
Stage 2: Heating the copper(I) sulphide obtained strongly in air at 1200°C to produce copper
(a) Write the formula of copper(I) sulphide.
(b) Write a word equation for the reaction in Stage 2.
(c) Suggest why the extraction of copper from copper pyrite causes air pollution problems.
(d) Copper can also be obtained from copper(II) oxide.
(i) Suggest how copper can be obtained from copper(II) oxide in the school laboratory.
(ii) State an expected observation in this experiment.
(iii) Write a word equation for the formation of copper from copper(II) oxide.

Solution
(a) Cu2S
(b) Copper(I) sulphide + oxygen copper + sulphur dioxide
(c) Copper(I) sulphide reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide, Learning tip
which is a gas that causes acid rain. Copper can be extracted
by either heating
(d) (i) Mix carbon powder with copper(II) oxide. Then heat the copper(I) sulphide
mixture strongly. strongly in air or heating
copper(II) oxide with
(ii) A reddish brown solid is produced.
carbon.
(iii) Copper(II) oxide + carbon copper + carbon dioxide

Electrolysis of the molten metal ore

The metal compounds in the ores of reactive metals e.g. sodium,
magnesium and aluminium, are very stable. Thus, these metals cannot be
Learning tip extracted by heating their oxides with carbon. Instead, they are extracted by
The extraction of metals
by electrolysis also
electrolysis. Electrolysis is an expensive but effective method for extracting
involves reduction. reactive metals.

Aluminium can be extracted from bauxite (an ore of aluminium that

contains mainly aluminium oxide) by electrolysis (Figure 10.9). During
electrolysis, purified ore is melted and electricity is then passed through
the ore to extract the aluminium from it. The extraction can be summarized
by the following equation:
electricity
aluminium oxide aluminium + oxygen
(from bauxite)

electrolysis 電解 purified 提純了的

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 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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graphite (positive
Learning tip electrode) graphite
Aluminium oxide has a very (negative
high melting point electrode)
(2040°C). Cryolite (sodium
aluminium fluoride,
Na3AlF6) is added to lower
a molten mixture of
the melting point to about purified aluminium
950°C. This helps save ore and cryolite
energy.
molten aluminium

tapping hole
steel cell

Figure 10.9 Electrolysis of molten aluminium ore

Key point
Three chemical methods commonly used in extracting metals from
their oxide ores:
• Heating the metal ore alone
• Heating the metal ore with carbon
• Electrolysis of the molten metal ore

Class practice 10.2

Propose a method of extraction for each of the following metals. Write the
word equation(s) for the reaction(s) involved in each case.
(a) Mercury from cinnabar which contains mainly mercury(II) sulphide
(b) Zinc from zinc blende which contains mainly zinc sulphide
(c) Sodium from rock salt which contains mainly sodium chloride

10.3 Relating the discovery of metals with the

ease of extraction of metals
According to the main types of materials used by humans, there are four
periods in history, namely, The Stone Age, The Copper Age, The Bronze
Age and The Iron Age. In different ages, different materials were used to
make various objects such as tools, weapons, containers, etc. See ‘The Stone
Age to the Iron Age at a glance…’ on p.14.

cryolite 冰晶石 tapping hole 喉管插孔 The Iron Age 鐵器時代

The Bronze Age 青銅器時代 The Stone Age 石器時代
11
The Copper Age 銅器時代
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The most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust is aluminium. However,
th
it was not widely used until the 20 century. Iron was used earlier than
aluminium in history. This is because the compounds in iron ores are less
stable than those in aluminium ores. Hence, people discovered and used
iron earlier than aluminium.

If the compounds present in metal ores are more stable, it is more

difficult to extract the metals from these ores. For example, sodium
chloride in rock salt is very stable. It is necessary to use electrolysis to
extract sodium from rock salt. However, electrolysis was not invented until
1800. Sodium metal was only discovered after the invention of electrolysis.

Key point
In general, the less stable the compounds present in a metal ore, the
earlier the metal was discovered in history.

In other words, the order of discovery of metals is related to the

ease of the extraction of metals. The years of discovery of some common
metals and the usual methods of their extraction are listed in Table 10.2.

Metal Year of discovery Usual method of extraction

Potassium A.D. 1807 Electrolysis of the molten metal

ore
Sodium A.D. 1807

Calcium A.D. 1808

Magnesium A.D. 1808

Aluminium A.D. 1827

Zinc A.D. 1746 Heating the metal ore with

carbon
Iron 3000 B.C.

Lead

Copper

Mercury Heating the metal ore alone

Silver

Platinum Physical separation

Gold 5000 B.C.

Table 10.2 The years of discovery of some common metals and the usual methods of their extraction

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 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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Example 10.3

Understanding factors affecting the availability and price of metals in the market
Calcium is an expensive metal. It can be extracted by the electrolysis of molten calcium chloride.
(a) Write a word equation for the electrolysis.
(b) Suggest why calcium was used much later than copper in human history.
(c) Explain why the extraction of calcium is costly.
(d) Suggest a reason why potassium is more expensive than calcium.

Solution
(a) Calcium chloride calcium + chlorine
(b) Calcium compounds are more stable than copper compounds. It is more difficult to extract
calcium from its ore.
(c) Calcium chloride has a high melting point (775°C). A large
amount of heat/energy is required to melt it and electricity is
required to carry out the electrolysis. This accounts for the Think about it
cost of the extraction. What are the other factors that
may affect the price of a metal?
(d) Potassium is less abundant than calcium in the Earth’s crust.

Class practice 10.3

1. P, Q and R are three different metals. When the ores of these metals are
heated strongly separately, only the ore of Q leaves a solid with a metallic
lustre. When the ores of P and R are each heated with powdered carbon,
the ore of R leaves a solid with a metallic lustre. P can only be extracted
from its molten ore by electrolysis.
(a) Arrange the above metals in order of the ease of extraction from their
ores, putting the easiest first.
(b) Deduce the order of discovery of the metals, putting the earliest first.
2. Consider the following information about iron and gold:

Metal Year of discovery Relative abundance (%)

Iron 3000 B.C. 5.0

Gold 5000 B.C. 0.0000004

Propose reason(s) for each of the following:

(a) Gold is a rare metal but it was discovered much earlier than iron.
(b) Despite the fact that the extraction of gold involves only a physical
method and that of iron involves both physical and chemical methods,
gold is much more expensive than iron.

13
 The Stone Age to the Iron Age
at a glance…

2 500 000 B.C. The Stone Age

Stones, animal bones, gold and silver were the main materials used.

millstone ivory weapon silver plate gold bowl

5000 B.C.
The Copper Age
Copper was the main material used.

copper vessel copper pot copper sword

3300 B.C.
The Bronze Age
Bronze (an alloy formed from copper and tin) was the main material used.

bronze helmet bronze ritual vessel

1000 B.C. and

onwards The Iron Age
Iron, steel, aluminium and many other metals were the main materials used.

iron scissors steel bicycle spoke wheel aluminium soft drink cans

bicycle spoke wheel 單車輪輻 millstone 石磨

14 bronze ritual vessel 青銅鼎 sword 劍
helmet 頭盔 vessel 器皿
ivory 象牙的
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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STSE issue 10.1
Extracting copper by bioleaching
Copper-rich ores are running out. Copper is now extracted from ores that contain a low percentage (only 1–2%)
of copper by mass. Using traditional large-scale extraction methods are not economical and inefficient.
Moreover, these methods also lead to a lot of waste rocks.

Scientists have developed a method for extracting copper

from its ores. They found that a kind of bacteria can break down
copper ores and produce an aqueous solution containing
dissolved copper compounds. They then use scrap iron or
electrolysis to extract copper from the solution. This extraction
method is called bioleaching. This kind of bacteria can be found
in nature and is not harmful to us. However, the bacteria used in
bioleaching only works in the temperature ranging from 35°C to
40°C. And the time needed for the extraction is quite long.
The copper-containing solution produced by
the action of bacteria is collected in a pond.
Questions
1. Suggest why traditional extraction methods of copper are considered as environmentally unfriendly.
2. Suggest why bioleaching is considered a less polluting method.

10.4 Conserving metals

Limited reserves of metals

Metal ores are limited in amount in the Earth’s crust and are non-
renewable. If we go on using metals at the same rate as today, the supply
of many metals will run out within 100 years. Table 10.3 shows the
reserves of several metals in China and some other countries.

Zinc Lead Nickel Copper Gold Silver

China 44 000 18 000 2800 26 000 2 41

United States 11 000 5000 100 48 000 3 26

Australia 68 000 36 000 20 000 88 000 10 88

Russia 22 000 4000 6900 61 000 7.5 45

Table 10.3 Reserves of several metals in China and some other countries (Source of information: US
Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2021; the reserves are all measured in thousand
tonnes.)

bioleaching 生物淋濾法 scrap 廢棄的

thousand tonne 千公噸
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Conserving metals is important. We should use metals wisely so that
metal reserves can last longer.

Three common ways to conserve metals are:

Learning tip
‘Reuse’, ‘reduce’ and 1. Reusing metal articles — many metal articles can be reused e.g.
‘recycle’ are regarded
barbecue forks, metal containers, etc.
as 3Rs.
2. Reducing the use of metals — we should reduce the use of metals
whenever possible.
3. Recycling metals

Recycling of metals
Think about it Recycling metals is the processing of used metals to make new metal
Aluminium cans are
products. It is done by melting down used metals and purifying them.
usually mixed with steel
cans in the collection Currently, metals such as aluminium, lead, iron, copper, tin, zinc, silver
bins. How do we separate and gold are widely recycled. Figure 10.10 shows how aluminium can be
them?
recycled from used soft drink cans.

1 Collect used aluminium

cans.

2 Separate the collected aluminium cans

5 Make new aluminium cans Recycling of
from other wastes. Then crush them
using the aluminium ingots. into blocks for easy transportation.
aluminium cans

3 Shred the aluminium cans

Figure 10.10 Stages 4 into small pieces and melt
Purify the molten aluminium and
involved in the recycling them in furnace.
mould it into aluminium ingots.
of aluminium cans

recycling 循環再造 reusing 重用 ingot 鑄塊 shred 切碎

16 reducing 減少 mould 塑造
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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Evaluating the recycling of metals from social,
economic and environmental perspectives
Benefits of recycling
Recycling of metals brings us the following benefits:

1. It conserves metal ore resources. For example, recycling one tonne

of aluminium saves four tonnes of bauxite.

2. It saves energy and other resources such as electricity, water and

fuels. For example, the amount of energy required for recycling
aluminium is just 5% of that required for extracting aluminium from
bauxite.

3. It reduces metal wastes and land used for waste disposal.

4. It reduces pollution. Recycling reduces the need to mine metal ores

and extract metals. This reduces land pollution, air pollution and water
pollution arising from mining and extraction of metals, and the
damages made on the habitats of wildlife.

5. Recycling activities promote public awareness of conserving metals.

Problems associated with recycling

Activity 10.2 However, there are problems associated with the recycling of metals.
Metal-recycling industry 1. It is difficult and time-consuming to sort out metal wastes from
of Hong Kong
other materials in the rubbish.
Search the Internet (or
other sources) for
information on the metal-
2. The cost of collecting, sorting and transporting metal wastes is
recycling industry of high.
Hong Kong. After the
search, answer the 3. The cost of melting and purifying metals is high.
questions in an Activity
worksheet. 4. Many people still have not got into the habit of recycling.

Class practice 10.4

Aluminium is used in making soft drink cans. Used aluminium cans are often
collected for recycling.
(a) Suggest why aluminium is a material suitable for making soft drink cans.
(b) What is the meaning of ‘recycling metals’?
(c) Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust. Suggest TWO
reasons why it is important to recycle used aluminium objects.

mine 開採
public awareness 公眾意識
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National security issue
Activity 10.3
Metal resource security in China
Metals and alloys are widely used for construction, infrastructure and manufacturing products. The
development of green technology such as electric vehicles and equipment for renewable energy further
increases metal demands. However, metal resources are of limited amounts in the Earth’s crust and are not
evenly distributed among different countries.
China consumed over 800 million tonnes of steel in 2020. It needs huge amounts of iron ore for making
steel. China’s domestic iron ore is relatively low-grade (i.e. has low iron content) and is expensive to extract and
process. So the iron ore it used is imported mainly from Australia, Brazil and India. However, various reasons
such as fluctuating prices of imported iron ore and political relations between countries may affect the steady
supply of iron ore to China. Hence, China is now trying to secure its iron ore supply by using more scrap steel,
investing new mines overseas, exploring new import sources and increasing domestic production of iron ore,
etc.
China, as well as other countries, needs to develop strategies to ensure that the supply of resources (e.g.
metals) can meet its demands so that its manufacturing activities and the life of its people can be protected.
Strategies of this kind are known as national resource security.

Iron ore reserve /

Country
China thousand tonnes
56.5%
Australia 50 000

Others Brazil 34 000

22.3%
Russia 25 000

China 20 000

Ukraine 6500
South
Korea India 5500
Russia India
3.6% USA Japan
3.9% 5.3%
3.9% 4.5%
 eserves of iron ore in some countries in
R
Percentages of crude steel produced by some countries 2020. (Source of information: U.S.
in 2020. The global crude steel production was 1864.0 Geological Survey Mineral Commodity
million tonnes in 2020. (Source of information: World Summaries, January 2021)
Steel Association, 2020 crude steel production)
Tasks
Form groups of four to answer the following questions.
1. Search, the Internet or other sources, for information on the reserves and production of each of the
following minerals in China and other countries.
(a) Copper (b) Lead (c) Zinc (d) Nickel
(e) Bauxite (f) Tin (g) Silver (h) Gold
2. Search, the Internet or other sources, for information on the metal recycling in China and other countries
such as the United States and Japan. (Hint: what metals are recycled in these places and their amounts?)
th
3. In the 20 century, most of the products ended up to be wastes after use. Nowadays, the government of
China is switching to the strategy of ‘resources’ ‘products’ ‘recycled resources’ with view to
maintaining its resource security. Discuss both the benefits and difficulties in implementing this strategy.
4. Search, the Internet or other sources, for the meaning of the terms ‘resource security’ and ‘sustainable
development’. Hence, suggest why resource security is important for the sustainable development of the
world.

resource security 資源安全 domestic 本國的；國內的 mine 礦場

18 sustainable development 可持續發展 fluctuating 波動的 reserve 藴藏量
green technology 綠色科技 scrap steel 廢棄鋼材
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
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Chapter review
Progress check

Chapter review
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
state the sources of metals and their occurrence in nature
explain why extraction of metals is needed
understand that the extraction of metals involves reduction of their ores
describe and explain the major methods of extraction of metals from their ores
write word equations for the extraction of metals
relate the ease of obtaining metals from their ores to the stability of the metal compounds
deduce the order of discovery of some metals from their relative ease of extraction
describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence the need to recycle metals
evaluate the recycling of metals from social, economic and environmental perspectives
discuss the importance and problems of recycling metals

e-Dictionary
Key terms (For Chapter 10)
Page Page
1. electrolysis 電解 10 5. reducing 減少 16
2. extraction 提取 6 6. reducing agent 還原劑 8
3. metal ore 金屬礦石 4 7. reduction 還原<作用/反應> 7
4. recycling 循環再造 16 8. reusing 重用 16

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 III Metals

Key concepts
10.1 Occurrence and uses of metals
Chapter review

1. Only very few metals (e.g. gold and platinum) can be found in a free state in nature. Most
metals exist as compounds in ores. The following table lists some common metal ores and the
main metal compounds present in these ores.

Metal Common ore Main metal compound present

Aluminium bauxite aluminium oxide (Al2O3)

Zinc zinc blende zinc sulphide (ZnS)

Iron haematite iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3)

Lead galena lead(II) sulphide (PbS)

copper(II) iron(II) sulphide

Copper copper pyrite
(CuFeS2)

Mercury cinnabar mercury(II) sulphide (HgS)

Silver argentite silver sulphide (Ag2S)

10.2 Extraction of metals from their ores

2. Metals can be obtained from their ores through extraction.

3. Metals can be extracted from their oxide ores by

(a) heating the metal ore alone
(b) heating the metal ore with carbon (reduction with carbon)
(c) electrolysis of the molten metal ore

10.3 Relating the discovery of metals with the ease of extraction of metals

4. Different metals were discovered at different times in human history. In general, the less stable
the compounds present in a metal ore, the earlier the metal was discovered in history.

10.4 Conserving metals

5. Metal ores are limited in amount in the Earth’s crust and are non-renewable. There is a need for
conservation.

6. Three common ways to conserve metals are:

(a) Reusing metal articles
(b) Reducing the use of metals
(c) Recycling metals

7. Recycling metals is the processing of used metals to make new metal products. It is done by
melting down used metals and purifying them.

20
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
TE All answers
Concept map
Complete the concept map by filling in the items listed below:

Chapter review
aluminium, carbon, compounds, electrolysis, extraction, recycle, silver

(a)
Reuse Reduce

Ways of conservation

METALS

Extraction methods
exist as

(b) (f)
Physical Heating the Heating the
separation metal ore alone metal ore with
(e.g. aluminium oxide) (e)
or elements (e.g. gold)

discovery
of metals example example example example
affected by

(d) (g)
Ease of Gold Iron
(c)

of metals

21
 III Metals
All answers TE
Chapter exercise
A. Fill in the blanks
Section 10.1 Section 10.3
1. Very few metals are found as 3. The order of discovery of metals is related to the ease
in their ores in nature. Most metals exist as of of metals.
compounds in their ores.
4. The less stable the compounds present in a metal
Chapter exercise

Section 10.2 ore, the to extract the metal

2. Metals can be chemically extracted from their oxide from the ore, the the metal was
ores by: discovered in history.
(a) the metal ore alone Section 10.4
(b) Heating the metal ore with 5. Metal ores are limited in amount in the Earth’s
(c) of the molten metal ore crust and are . There is
a need for metals.

B. Practice questions
Section 10.2
Direction: Questions 6–8 are about the extraction of zinc, iron and aluminium from their ores. Complete the sentences
with suitable words.

6. (a) The most common ore of zinc is , in which zinc exists as zinc sulphide.

(b) In the extraction of zinc from its ore, the ore is heated strongly in air to form . Then
carbon is used for reduction.

(c) The reactions involved can be represented by the following word equations:

zinc sulphide + zinc oxide +

+ carbon +

7. (a) is a common ore of iron. Iron is extracted from this ore in a blast furnace.

(b) In the extraction, a mixture of iron ore, and is added from the top of
the furnace.

(c) Then hot air is blasted from the lower part of a furnace. After a series of reactions,
is produced.

(d) Carbon monoxide reduces in the ore to iron. The reaction can be represented by
the following word equation:

+ carbon monoxide iron +

8. (a) The most common ore of aluminium is . It consists mainly of .

(b) Aluminium can be extracted from this ore by . In the extraction, the purified ore is
and electricity is then passed through the ore to extract the aluminium from it.

(c) The reaction involved in the extraction can be represented by the following word equation:

+ aluminium
22
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
All answers
C. Multiple-choice questions
Section 10.1 Section 10.3
9. Which of the following metals is/are found as a free 12. X, Y and Z are three different metals. X exists as a free
element in nature? element in nature. Z can be extracted from its ore by
(1) Gold heating with coke. Y can be obtained by electrolysis
(2) Copper of its molten ore. Which of the following correctly
(3) Platinum shows the discovery sequence of these metals (the
first metal being discovered is put first)?
A. (1) only
B. (2) only A. Z, Y, X

Chapter exercise
C. (1) and (3) only B. X, Z, Y
D. (2) and (3) only C. Z, X, Y
D. X, Y, Z
10. Which of the following is the major compound
present in haematite? Section 10.4

A. FeO 13. Which of the following are problems associated with

B. Fe2O3 metal recycling?
C. Fe3O4 (1) Separating metal wastes from other wastes is
D. FeCl2 difficult.
(2) The cost of sorting and transporting metal
Section 10.2
wastes is high.
11. Which of the following methods is commonly used (3) The cost of melting and purifying of used metals
for extracting mercury from mercury(II) oxide? is high.
A. Heating mercury(II) oxide strongly A. (1) and (2) only
B. Heating mercury(II) oxide with carbon B. (1) and (3) only
C. Heating mercury(II) oxide with carbon monoxide C. (2) and (3) only
D. Electrolysis of the molten mercury(II) oxide D. (1), (2) and (3)

D. Structured questions
Section 10.1
14. Consider the following matter from which metals can be extracted.

bauxite haematite cinnabar galena

(a) What do we call this kind of matter? (1 mark)

(b) Where could we find the above matter in nature? (1 mark)
(c) Lead can be extracted from one of the above matter.
(i) Name this matter.
(ii) Name the major compound that can be found in this matter.
(2 marks)

23
 III Metals

Section 10.2
15. A mixture of lead(II) oxide and carbon powder is strongly heated in a boiling tube as shown below. Grey beads form
in the boiling tube and gas bubbles evolve which turns limewater milky.

a mixture of lead(II) oxide

and carbon powder
heat

limewater
Chapter exercise

(a) What are the grey beads produced? (1 mark)

(b) What is the gas evolved during the reaction? (1 mark)
(c) Write the word equation for the reaction between lead(II) oxide and carbon. (1 mark)
(d) Will there be any reaction if lead(II) oxide is replaced by
(i) copper(II) oxide?
(ii) magnesium oxide?
For each of the above, write the word equation for the reaction if applicable.
(2 marks)
16. The extraction methods of mercury and copper are summarized in the following table.

Metal ore Extraction method

Cinnabar
Heating the metal ore in the presence of air
(consisting of mercury(II) sulphide)

Copper pyrite Stage 1: Heating the metal ore with sand and air
(consisting of copper(II) iron(II) sulphide) Stage 2: Heating the copper(I) sulphide formed strongly in air

(a) Write the word equation(s) for the reaction(s) involved in the extraction of mercury and that of copper (for
stage 2 only). (2 marks)
(b) Arrange aluminium, mercury and copper in order of the increasing ease of extraction. (1 mark)
(c) Arrange the three metals mentioned in (b) according to their order of discovery, putting the earliest discovered
metal first. Explain your arrangement. (2 marks)

Learn more: Building a better answer (see p.153–154)

24
 Occurrence and extraction of metals 10
TE All answers
Exam practice
A. Multiple-choice questions
Section 10.2 3. A certain mass of a sample of Ag2O(s) is strongly
1. Which of the following processes would produce heated in a test tube. Which of the following shows
oxygen? the relationship of the mass of the contents (m) in
the test tube with time (t) from the start of heating?
A. Heating silver oxide
B. Heating copper(II) oxide A. B.
C. Heating sodium oxide with carbon
D. Heating iron(III) oxide with carbon monoxide
m m

2. Which of the following processes would produce a

metal? t t
A. Heating zinc oxide strongly
C. D.
B. Heating aluminium oxide with carbon

Exam practice
C. Electrolysis of solid sodium chloride
D. Heating iron(III) oxide with carbon monoxide m m

t t

(HKDSE 2018 Paper 1A Q3)

B. Structured questions
Section 10.3
4. The extraction methods of gold, iron, aluminium and silver are shown in the table below.

Metal Extraction method

Gold Physical separation
Iron Heating the metal ore with carbon
Aluminium Electrolysis of the molten metal ore
Silver Heating the metal ore alone

(a) Arrange these metals in order of the ease of extraction from their ores, putting the metal which is the easiest
to be extracted first. (1 mark)
(b) What is the relationship between the ease of extraction and the reactivity of metals? (1 mark)
(c) Arrange these metals in ascending order of reactivity. (1 mark)
(d) Deduce the order of discovery of these metals, putting the metal that was discovered earliest first. (1 mark)
(e) Aluminium was discovered after the invention of electricity. Why? (1 mark)

25
 III Metals

Section 10.4
5. The table below shows some information about four metals.

Percentage Relative strength

Corrosion
Metal abundance by mass in (1 = lowest; 4 = Relative price
resistance
the Earth’s crust highest)

Aluminium 8.1 1 high medium

Copper 0.0068 2 high high

Platinum 0.00004 3 very high very high

Iron 5.0 4 low low

(a) Even though platinum is the least abundant among the four metals, it was the first discovered in human
history. Suggest why. (2 marks)
(b) Suggest a reason why platinum is the most expensive among the four metals. (1 mark)
(c) Most copper ores now contain only 2% of copper by mass. Suggest why it is still worth to get copper from
Exam practice

these ores. (2 marks)

(d) Based on the above information, select one metal which would best be used for making each of the following
objects. Explain your choice in each case.
(i) Window frames
(ii) Ship bodies
(iii) Necklaces
(6 marks)

26
Answers to Chapter exercise (ii) No. (This is because magnesium is
a reactive metal/more reactive than
Chapter 10 carbon.) 1
16. (a) mercury(II) sulphide + oxygen
A. Fill in the blanks (p.22)
mercury + sulphur dioxide 1
1. free elements
copper(I) sulphide + oxygen
2. (a) Heating
copper + sulphur dioxide 1
(b) carbon
(b) Mercury, copper, aluminium 1
(c) Electrolysis
(c) Mercury, copper, aluminium 1
3. extraction
The more easily a metal can be extracted
4. easier; earlier
from its ores, the earlier it was discovered. 1
5. non-renewable; conserving

B. Practice questions (p.22) Chapter 11

6. (a) zinc blende A. Fill in the blanks (p.58)
(b) zinc oxide 1. metal reactivity series
(c) oxygen; sulphur dioxide; zinc oxide; zinc; 2. electrons; positive; electrons
carbon dioxide 3. lower
7. (a) Haematite 4. displace
(b) coke; limestone 5. ionic; spectator
(c) carbon monoxide
(d) iron(III) oxide; iron(III) oxide; carbon dioxide B. Practice questions (p.58)
8. (a) bauxite; aluminium oxide 6. (a) 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
(b) electrolysis; melted (b) 2Al(s) + 3F2(g) 2AlF3(s)
(c) aluminium oxide; oxygen (c) 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
(d) 2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.23) (e) 3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g)
9. C 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Copper pyrite is a common ore of copper. Copper (f) 4FeS2(s) + 11O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s) + 8SO2(g)
exists as copper(II) iron(II) sulphide (CuFeS2) in 7. (a) Calcium burns quite vigorously with a brick-
this ore. red flame to produce a white powder.
10. B 2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
11. A (b) Sodium melts to form a silvery ball and moves
mercury(II) oxide mercury + oxygen about quickly on the water surface. In addition,
12. B it burns with a golden yellow flame.
The more easily a metal can be extracted from its 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
ores, the earlier it was discovered. (c) An intense white light is produced. A white
13. D solid forms.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
D. Structured questions (p.23)
(d) Zinc dissolves and colourless gas bubbles are
14. (a) (Metal) ores 1
given out.
(b) In the Earth’s crust 1
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(c) (i) Galena 1
(e) Magnesium dissolves and colourless gas
(ii) Lead(II) sulphide 1
bubbles are given out.
15. (a) Lead 1
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(b) Carbon dioxide 1 + –
8. (a) H (aq) + OH (aq) H2O(l)
(c) lead(II) oxide + carbon – +
(b) Cl (aq) + Ag (aq) AgCl(s)
lead + carbon dioxide 1 + 2+
(c) Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + 2H2O(l)
(i) Yes. 2+ –
(d) Pb (aq) + 2I (aq) PbI2(s)
copper(II) oxide + carbon +
(e) 2H (aq) + CaCO3(s)
copper + carbon dioxide 1 2+
Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

T1
 C. Multiple-choice questions (p.59) 16.0 × 11
(c)
9. B 55.8 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4 + 7.0 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)
Sodium reacts vigorously with water while there is × 100% = 63.3%
no reaction between silver and water. (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 10
(d)
10. D 23.0 × 2 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 10
11. A × 100% = 62.9%
12. A 9. (a) Percentage by mass of H in CH4
1.0 × 4
13. D = × 100% = 25%
12.0 + 1.0 × 4
14. A Mass of H in 10.0 g of CH4
15. B = 10.0 g × 25% = 2.5 g
P is the least reactive as it exists as a free element (b) Percentage by mass of Mg in (CH3COO)2Mg
in nature. Q is more reactive than R as Q can 24.3
=
displace R from the aqueous solution of a (12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 3 + 16.0 × 2) × 2 + 24.3
compound of R. × 100% = 17.1%
16. B Mass of Mg in 28.5 g of (CH3COO)2Mg
The ionic equation of the reaction is Ag (aq) +
+
= 28.5 g × 17.1% = 4.87 g
–
Cl (aq) AgCl(s) (c) Formula mass of FeCl3․6H2O
= 55.8 + 35.5 × 3 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 6 = 270.3
D. Structured question (p.60) Percentage by mass of Cl in FeCl3․6H2O
17. (a) P: aluminium oxide; Q: hydrogen; 35.5 × 3
= × 100% = 39.4%
R: aluminium chloride; 270.3
S: aluminium sulphate 4 Mass of 2 mol of FeCl3․6H2O
(b) 2Al(s) + 3H2O(g) Al2O3(s) + 3H2(g) 1 = 2 × 270.3 g = 540.6 g
+ 3+
(c) 2Al(s) + 6H (aq) 2Al (aq) + 3H2(g) 1 Mass of Cl in 2 mol of FeCl3․6H2O
(d) Aluminium atoms lose electrons to form = 540.6 g × 39.4% = 213 g
positive ions less readily than (d) Formula mass of CaCl2․6H2O
magnesium atoms. 1 = 40.1 + 35.5 × 2 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 6 = 219.1
Percentage by mass of H2O in CaCl2․6H2O
Chapter 12 (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 6
= × 100% = 49.3%
219.1
A. Fill in the blanks (p.99) Mass of 1.25 mol of CaCl2․6H2O
23
1. 6.02 × 10 ; Avogadro constant = 1.25 × 219.1 g = 273.9 g
2. molar mass Mass of H2O in 1.25 mol of CaCl2․6H2O
3. relative atomic mass; number = 273.9 g × 49.3% = 135.0 g
4. Limiting reactant 10. (a) C H
5. actual yield; theoretical yield
Mass / g 75 25
B. Practice questions (p.99) Number of
23 24 75 25
6. (a) 2 × 6.02 × 10 = 1.204 × 10 moles of atoms
12.0
= 6.25
1.0
= 25
23
(b) 1.5 × 2 × 6.02 × 10 = 1.806 × 10
24 / mol
2.0 23 22
Simplest whole
(c) × 2 × 6.02 × 10 = 7.525 × 10 6.25 25
16.0 × 2 number mole =1 =4
7.
23
(a) 2 × 2 × 6.02 × 10 = 2.408 × 10
24 6.25 6.25
ratio of atoms
23 23
(b) 0.5 × 3 × 6.02 × 10 = 9.03 × 10
24.6 23
∴ the empirical formula of the compound is
(c) × 3 × 6.02 × 10 CH4.
40.1 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2
23
= 2.71 × 10
12.0
8. (a) × 100% = 75%
12.0 + 1.0 × 4
32.1
(b) × 100% = 22.6%
23.0 × 2 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4

T2
 (b) Pb O C. Multiple-choice questions (p.100)
Mass / g 86.6 13.4 11. B
+
For (A): the substance contains 2 mol of Ag ions
Number of 2–
86.6 13.4 and 1 mol of S ions
moles of atoms = 0.418 = 0.838
207.2 16.0 2+
For (B): the substance contains 1 mol of Cu ions
/ mol
2–
and 1 mol of Cr2O7 ions
Simplest whole 3+
0.418 0.838 For (C): the substance contains 2 mol of Al ions
number mole =1 =2
0.418 0.418 2–
and 3 mol of SO4 ions
ratio of atoms
2+
For (D): the substance contains 1 mol of Mg ions
∴ the empirical formula of the compound is –
and 2 mol of NO3 ions
PbO2.
12. D
(c) Na S O The mass of 1 mole of O2 is 32.0 g and that of 1
Mass / g 36.5 25.4 38.1 mole of N2 is 28.0 g.
Number of 13. A
36.5 25.4 38.1
moles of = 1.59 = 0.791 = 2.38 14. D
23.0 32.1 16.0
atoms / mol Molar mass of nandrolone
–1
Simplest = (12.0 × 18 + 1.0 × 26 + 16.0 × 2) g mol
–1
whole 1.59 2.38 = 274.0 g mol
0.791
number mole 0.791 =1 0.791 15. B
= 2.01 ≈ 2 0.791 = 3.01 ≈ 3
ratio of
Mole ratio of X atoms to O atoms
atoms
83.0 100 – 83.0
= :
∴ the empirical formula of the compound is 39.1 16.0
Na2SO3. = 2.123 : 1.063
(d) C N H O =2:1
Mass / g 40.67 23.73 8.47 27.13
16. C
2.47 4.40 – 2.47
Mole ratio of ZnSO4 to H2O = :
Number of 40.67 23.73 8.47 27.13 161.5 18.0
moles of 12.0 14.0 1.0 16.0 = 0.0153 : 0.107
atoms / mol = 3.39 = 1.70 = 8.47 = 1.70 = 1 : 6.99
Simplest ≈1:7
whole 3.39 1.70 8.47 1.70 17. B
number mole 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70 Number of moles of CaCO3
ratio of = 1.99 ≈ 2 = 1 = 4.98 ≈ 5 = 1 10.01
atoms = mol = 0.100 mol
40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
∴ the empirical formula of the compound is ∴ theoretical mass of CaO produced = 0.100 ×
C2NH5O. (40.1 + 16.0) g = 5.61 g
(e) 18. C
Cu Cl H2O 4.31 g
Percentage yield of the reaction = × 100% =
100 – 37.11 5.61 g
76.8%
Mass / g 37.11 41.68 – 41.68 =
21.21 D. Structured questions (p.101)
Number of 19. (a) False
23
moles of 37.11 41.68 21.21 32.0 g of oxygen (O2) contains 6.02 × 10
= 0.584 = 1.17 = 1.18
formula units 63.5 35.5 18.0 molecules while 32.0 g of ozone (O3)
/ mol 32.0 g 23 –1
contains –1 × 6.02 × 10 mol
Simplest 16.0 × 3 g mol
23
whole 1.18 = 4.01 × 10 molecules. 1
0.584 1.17
number mole =1 =2 0.584 (b) False
0.584 0.584
ratio of = 2.02 ≈ 2 2+
1 mol of Pb(NO3)2 contains 1 mol of Pb
formula units –
ions and 2 mol of NO3 ions. Hence, 1 mol
∴ the empirical formula of the compound is of Pb(NO3)2 contains 3 mol of ions. 1
CuCl2․2H2O.
T3
 20. (a) SnF2 1 Distilled water contains dissolved air and the
(b) 118.7 + 19.0 × 2 = 156.7 1 dissolved air (oxygen) can be removed from the
19.0 × 2 water by boiling.
(c) × 100% = 24.3% 1
156.7
(d) 1.50 g × 24.3% = 0.365 g 1 D. Structured questions (p.137)
15. (a) 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2nH2O(l)
Chapter 13 2Fe2O3․nH2O(s) 1
A. Fill in the blanks (p.135) (b) It removes water (moisture) from the air. 1
1. Corrosion; oxygen; water (c) It prevents air from dissolving in the
2. Rusting boiled distilled water. 1
3. potassium hexacyanoferrate(III); phenolphthalein (d) (i) Tube 1 and Tube 4 1
4. (a) acidic substances This is because there is no water in
(b) soluble ionic Tube 1 and there is no air (oxygen)
(c) High in Tube 4. 1
(d) less reactive (ii) Tube 2
(e) scratched; bent; sharp This is because tap water contains
5. (b) Electroplating soluble ionic compounds. The presence
(c) Sacrificial of dissolved ions greatly increases the
(d) Cathodic conductivity of tap water. This speeds
6. aluminium oxide; anodization up the rusting of iron. 1
16. (a) Galvanized iron refers to an iron that has
B. Practice question (p.135) a zinc layer coated on its surface. 1
7. (a)  (b)  (b) The zinc in galvanized iron prevents iron
(c)  (d)  from contacting oxygen and water. 1
(e)  (f)  (c) No. Iron can still be protected from
(g)  (h)  corrosion even the zinc layer of galvanized
(i)  (j)  iron fences is damaged. This is because 1
zinc is more reactive than iron, it will
C. Multiple-choice questions (p.136)
corrode (or will be oxidized) in preference
8. D
to iron. 1
When copper corrodes, green solid is found on its
(d) By painting 1
surface. When silver corrodes, it becomes
17. (a) When aluminium is exposed to air, a thin
tarnished.
layer of aluminium oxide quickly forms on
9. B
its surface. 1
Sugar is water soluble but no ions would form when
The oxide layer sticks to the surface of
it dissolves in water. This is because sugar is not an
aluminium very strongly and is impermeable
electrolyte.
to both oxygen and water. Hence, it can
10. C
protect the aluminium from further
When an iron nail is wrapped with, attached or
corrosion. 1
connected to a less reactive metal, rusting becomes
(b) (i) Positive terminal 1
faster.
(ii) Negative terminal 1
11. C
(c) The mobile phone cases can be dyed to
In option (C), the iron nail is prevented from rusting
give attractive colours. 1
by sacrificial protection.
The mobile phone cases are harder. 1
12. B
13. C
The aluminium object to be anodized is connected
to the positive terminal of the d.c. power source.
Answers to Exam practice
Dilute H2SO4 is used as an electrolyte.
14. D
Chapter 10
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.25)
1. A
T4
2. D 5. B
3. D (78%) 6. B
Upon strong heating, silver oxide decomposes to Reactant Product
silver and oxygen. The oxygen escapes from the side side
test tube and hence the mass of the contents in the Number of Ti atoms 1 y (1)
test tube decreases. As the heating proceeds, Number of O atoms 2 z (2)
more silver oxide would have decomposed. When Number of Cl atoms 2w 4y (3)
all the silver oxide is reduced, the mass of the Number of C atoms x z (4)
contents in the test tube would remain unchanged. From (1), y = 1
From (2), z = 2
B. Structured questions (p.25)
From (4), x = z; ∴ x = 2
4. (a) Gold, silver, iron, aluminium 1
From (3), 2w = 4y; ∴ w = 2
(b) The less reactive a metal, the more easily
7. B (83%)
the metal can be extracted from its ores. 1 Reactant Product
(c) Gold, silver, iron, aluminium 1 side side
(d) Gold, silver, iron, aluminium 1 Number of Ni atoms 3 3
(e) This is because aluminium is extracted Number of O atoms 6 6
from its molten ores by electrolysis. 1
Number of H atoms 6+x 12 (1)
5. (a) This is because platinum is the least
Number of Cl atoms x + 4y 12 + z (2)
reactive among the four metals and exists
Number of Au atoms y y
as a free element in nature. 1
Net charge –y –z (3)
It can be extracted easily from its ores
From (1), 6 + x = 12; ∴ x = 6
by physical separation. 1
From (3), –y = –z
(b) Platinum is very rare in the Earth’s crust. 1
From (2), x + 4y = 12 + z; ∴ y = 2; z = 2
(c) Copper ores are running out/very hard
8. D (54%)
to find. 1
The more reactive a metal, the more stable is its
The demand for copper is very high. 1
carbonate and the carbonate is more stable to
(d) (i) Aluminium 1
heat. Z may be zinc as the thermal decomposition
This is because it is corrosion
of zinc carbonate gives zinc oxide, which is yellow:
resistant and it is relatively cheaper
ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
than copper. 1
9. D (65%)
(ii) Iron 1
This is because it is very strong and B. Structured questions (p.62)
relatively cheap. 1 10. (a) Magnesium oxide 1
(iii) Platinum 1 (b) Magnesium burns with a very bright white
This is because it is rare and very light. 1
corrosion resistant. 1 (c) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) 1
(d) When calcium burns with oxygen, a
Chapter 11 brick-red light instead of a very bright
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.61) white light is produced. The brightness of
1. B the light produced by calcium is lower.
2. C Hence, calcium cannot be used to replace
The balanced equation for the reaction in (2) is: magnesium in a flashbulb. 1
(2): 2MgCO3 + 4HCl 2MgCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O 11. (a) Hydrogen/H2(g) 1
3. B (b) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) 1
A more reactive metal will displace the less reactive (c) The solution turns blue because the
metal from the oxide of the less reactive metal. reaction produces calcium hydroxide,
4. A which is alkaline. 2
X is more reactive than Y because Y cannot (d) No observable change 1
displace X from the oxide of X upon heating. Copper does not react with cold water. 1

T5
 (e) No. Potassium reacts vigorously with Number of molecules in 2 g of He = 0.5 × L = y,
water and it burns/the reaction evolves a where L represents the Avogadro constant. This
gas very rapidly in the set-up. This poses y
means that L = .
a danger. 1 0.5
y
12. (a) Oxygen 1 Hence, number of molecules in 38 g of F2 = 1 ×
0.5
(b) Silver 1 = 2y.
(c) Hydrogen 1 4. D (60%)
(d) Potassium/sodium 1 Number of moles of SO2 in 8.0 g of SO2
8.0
(e) (i) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) = mol = 0.125 mol
32.0 + 16.0 × 2
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) 1 Number of moles of O2 in 2.0 g of O2
+
Or, Zn(s) + 2H (aq) 2.0
2+ = mol = 0.0625 mol
Zn (aq) + H2(g) (1) 16.0 × 2
2+
(ii) Zn(s) + Cu (aq)
2+
Zn (aq) + Cu(s) 1 Number of molecules in 8.0 g of SO2 = 0.125 × L =
(f) A, C, B 1 n, where L represents the Avogadro constant. This
13. (a) Lead 1 n
means that L = .
(b) 2Al(s) + 3PbO(s) Al2O3(s) + 3Pb(s) 1 0.125
Hence, number of molecules in 2.0 g of O2 = 0.0625
(c) (i) Yes. 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s)
n
Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s) 1 × = 0.50n.
0.125
(ii) No. This is because aluminium is less 5. C
reactive than magnesium. 1 Percentage by mass of Ca in CaCO3
14. (a) Zinc is more reactive than copper. 1 40.1
= × 100% = 40.0%
Zn(s) + CuO(s) ZnO(s) + Cu(s) 1 40.1 + 12.0 + 16.0 × 3
(b) Zinc is less reactive than aluminium. 1 Percentage by mass of Ca in Ca(NO3)2
40.1
15. (a) S, Q, R, P 1 = × 100% = 24.4%
40.1 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2
(b) (i) P 1
Percentage by mass of Ca in Ca(OH)2
(ii) Q 1 40.1
(c) P 1 = × 100% = 54.1%
40.1 + (16.0 + 1.0) × 2
(d) The blue aqueous solution turns colourless. 1 Percentage by mass of Ca in CaSO4
Reddish brown solid/precipitate forms. 1 40.1
= × 100% = 29.4%
2+
Mg(s) + Cu (aq)
2+
Mg (aq) + Cu(s) 1 40.1 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4
6. C
Chapter 12 Percentage by mass of Fe in Fe2O3
55.8 × 2
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.102) = × 100% = 69.9%
55.8 × 2 + 16.0 × 3
1. B Mass of Fe2O3 present in 100 g of iron ore = 100 ×
7 –1 –1
Molar mass of the gas = g mol = 28.0 g mol 70% = 70 g
0.25
The molar mass of C2H4 is (12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 4) g ∴ mass of Fe that can be extracted = 70 g × 69.9%
–1
mol = 28.0 g mol
–1 = 48.9%
2. A 7. C (82%)
Number of moles of H2O in 36 g of pure water Mass of O in 24.0 g of CuSO4․5H2O
36 16.0 × 9
= mol = 2 mol = 24.0 g ×
1.0 × 2 + 16.0 63.5 + 32.1+ 16.0 × 4 + 5 × (1.0 × 2 + 16.0)
Hence, 36 g of pure water contains 2 × 3 × 6.02 × = 13.8 g
23
10 of atoms and contains 2 × 6.02 × 10 of
23 8. D
100 – 62.9 62.9
molecules. Mole ratio of X to H2O = :
106.0 18.0
3. C = 0.35 : 3.49
2
Number of moles of He in 2 g of He = mol = 0.5 = 1 : 9.97
4.0
mol ≈ 1 : 10
38
Number of moles of F2 in 38 g of F2 = mol
19.0 × 2
= 1 mol

T6
9. C (55%) For (D): molar mass of ZnCl2 = 65.4 + 35.5 × 2 g
–1 –1
Let the relative atomic mass of X be a. mol = 136.4 g mol
a 26.8 15. B
=
39.1 × 2 + a + 16.0 × 4 100 Number of moles of O atoms in the oxide
100a = (142.2 + a) × 26.8 2.4
a = 52.0 = mol = 0.15 mol
16.0
From the Periodic Table, X is Cr. It is a transition Number of moles of Y atoms = 0.1 mol (given)
metal and is in the fourth period of the Periodic Mole ratio of Y atoms to O atoms = 0.1 : 0.15 = 2 :
Table. 3
10. A So, the formula of the oxide is Y2O3. Y might be
Mole ratio of X atoms to O atoms aluminium because the ratio of Al atoms to O atoms
8.42 – 2.40 2.40 in the empirical formula of aluminium oxide is 2 : 3.
= :
40.1 16.0
= 0.150 : 0.150 B. Structured questions (p.104)
=1:1 16. C H O
11. A Mass / g 63.1 5.3 31.6
From the equation, mole ratio of SiCl4 to Si = 1 : 1.
Number of
8.50 63.1 5.3 31.6
Theoretical yield of Si = × 28.1 g = moles of = 5.26 = 5.30 = 1.98
28.1 + 35.5 × 4 12.0 1.0 16.0
1.40 g atoms / mol
Mass of Si made = 1.40 g × 90% = 1.26 g Simplest 5.26 5.30 1.98
12. A whole = 2.66 = 2.68 =1
1.98 1.98 1.98
Let the relative atomic mass of X be a. number mole
0.80 ratio of atoms 8 8 3
Number of moles of X = mol
a ∴ the empirical formula of vanillin is C8H8O3. 1
0.40
Number of moles of O = mol = 0.025 mol Let the molecule formula of vanillin be
16.0
(C8H8O3)n, where n is an integer.
0.80
a n × (12.0 × 8 + 1.0 × 8 + 16.0 × 3) = 152.0 1
2
Mole ratio of X : O = = n=1
0.40 3
16.0 ∴ the molecular formula of vanillin is C8H8O3. 1
a = 48.0 17. C N H O
∴ X is titanium. (The relative atomic mass of titanium Mass / g 63.58 9.27 5.96 21.19
is 47.9) Number of 63.58 9.27 5.96 21.19
13. D (62%) moles of atoms 12.0 14.0 1.0 16.0
N mol of Fe2O3 requires 3N mol of CO for complete / mol = 5.30 = 0.662 = 5.96 = 1.32
reaction. However, only 2N mol of CO is available.
Simplest whole 5.30 0.662 5.96 1.32
Hence, CO is the limiting reactant. number mole 0.662 0.662 0.662 0.662
From the equation, mole ratio of CO to Fe = 3 : 2. ratio of atoms = 8 =1 =9 =2
2N 4N
∴ number of moles of Fe formed = ×2= ∴ the empirical formula of paracetamol is
3 3
14. C C8NH9O2. 1
Zinc reacts with chlorine according to the following Let the molecule formula of paracetamol be
equation: (C8NH9O2)n, where n is an integer.
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) ZnCl2(s) n × (12.0 × 8 + 14.0 + 1.0 × 9 + 16.0 × 2)
For (A): 1 mol of Zn atoms requires 1 mol of chlorine = 151.0 1
molecules for complete reaction. n=1
1g ∴ the molecular formula of paracetamol is
For (B): 1 g of Zn requires –1 × (35.5 ×
65.4 g mol
–1 C8NH9O2. 1
2) g mol = 1.09 g of chlorine for complete reaction.
18. (a) Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g) 1
For (C): percentage by mass of Cl in ZnCl2 =
35.5 × 2
× 100% = 52.1%
65.4 + 35.5 × 2

T7
 (b) From the equation, mole ratio of Mg to 5. A
MgO = 1 : 1. In cathodic protection, a conductor such as
Theoretical mass of MgO produced graphite or platinum alloy is connected to the
4.86 positive terminal of the d.c. power supply.
= × (24.3 + 16.0) g 1
24.3 6. D (93%)
= 8.06 g 1
7. D (55%)
19. (a) Number of moles of C2H2
In option (D), the iron nail corrodes fastest. This is
2.00
= mol = 0.0769 mol because the iron nail is connected to a less reactive
12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 2 1
Number of moles of Br2 metal and is immersed in an aqueous solution of a
5.20 soluble ionic compound. Besides, the positive pole
= mol = 0.0325 mol
79.9 × 2 of the d.c. power supply draws electrons away from
0.0325
0.0325 mol of Br2 requires only mol the iron nail in the set-up. This also promotes the
2 2+
= 0.0163 mol of C2H2 for complete reaction. formation of Fe (aq).
Hence, Br2 is the limiting reactant. 8. A (66%)
From the equation, mole ratio of Br2 to The oxide of aluminium and that of iron are both
C2H2Br4 = 2 : 1. insoluble in water.
Theoretical yield of C2H2Br4
B. Structured questions (p.140)
1
= 0.0325 × × (12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 2 + 79.9 9. (a) Fe2O3․nH2O 1
2
× 4) g 1 (b) The rust formed is just loosely attached to
= 5.62 g 1 the iron surface. It falls off from the iron
(b) Actual yield of C2H2Br4 = 5.62 g × 90% surface easily. 1
= 5.06 g 1 When the fresh iron surface is exposed to
20. (a) From the equations, 1 mol of FeS2 air, it reacts with oxygen and water. Thus,
produces 1 mol of Fe. rusting continues until the iron object
Theoretical yield of Fe corrodes completely. 1
12.96 (c) (i) Tin layer prevents iron from contacting
= × 55.8 g 1
55.8 + 32.1 × 2
oxygen and water. 1
= 6.03 g 1
(ii) Magnesium is more reactive than iron.
(b) (i) Percentage yield of Fe
5.98 g It will lose electrons (corrode) instead
= × 100% = 99.2% 1 of iron. 1
6.03 g
(ii) Any TWO of the following: OR
• The reactions may not complete. 1 Magnesium blocks offer sacrificial
• Impurities are present in the iron protection to iron for preventing
pyrite. 1 underground water pipelines from
• Some iron is lost during transfer or rusting. (1)
weighing. (1) (iii) The car battery provides electrons to
(Accept other reasonable answers.) the car body, preventing iron from
forming iron(II) ions. 1
Chapter 13 10. (a) Tube 1: iron nail rusts because air (oxygen)
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.139) and water are present. 1
1. C Tube 2: iron nail does not rust because
Rusting refers to the corrosion of iron only. there is no water. 1
2. B (87%) Tube 3: iron nail does not rust because
The iron hook in contact with a less reactive metal there is no air (oxygen). 1
(e.g. copper) would corrode faster. Tube 4: iron nail does not rust because
3. D the paint can serve as a protective layer
Zinc offers sacrificial protection to iron for that prevents the iron nail from contacting
preventing the crash barrier from rusting. oxygen and water. 1
4. B (86%) Tube 5: iron nail does not rust because
stainless steel is resistant to corrosion. 1
T8
 (b) Magnesium is more reactive than iron. 1 2. C
It provides sacrificial protection to iron for Potassium burns with a lilac flame and hydrogen is
preventing steel from rusting. 1 produced when it is added to water. The reaction is
(c) Aluminium has a coating of aluminium exothermic.
oxide. 1 3. A
It protects the metal from further corrosion. 1 4. B
(The author is responsible for the solutions and A more reactive metal can displace any less
that (a) they have neither been provided nor reactive metal from an aqueous solution of the
approved by AQA and (b) they may not necessarily compound of the less reactive metal.
constitute the only possible solutions.) 5. A
11. (a) Steel is mainly made up of iron. The iron Number of moles of atoms in 28.0 g of N2
reacts with oxygen and water as the cables 28.0
= mol × 2 = 2 mol
are exposed to air. 1 14.0 × 2
Number of moles of atoms in 2.0 g of H2
(b) Steel is much stronger than aluminium. It
2.0
can support a heavier load (weight). 1 = mol × 2 = 2 mol
1.0 × 2
(c) (i) The paint would be scratched off Number of moles of atoms in 18.0 g of O2
when cable cars move. 1 18.0
= mol × 2 = 1.13 mol
(ii) The oil can serve as a protective layer 16.0 × 2
that prevents the iron from contacting Number of moles of atoms in 34.0 g of Cl2
oxygen and water. 1 34.0
= mol × 2 = 0.958 mol
35.5 × 2
(iii) Oil can also serve as a lubricant. 1
Number of moles of atoms in 40.0 g of Ar
(iv) Repeated applications are required. 1 40.0
OR = mol = 1 mol
40.0
Dust would stick to the oil. (1) 6. D
12. (a) Oxygen and water 2 Molar mass of the substance
(b) Zinc 1 36 g –1
= = 90.0 g mol
(c) Magnesium is higher than iron in the 0.4 mol
reactivity series. It would lose electrons 7. D
(corrode) instead of iron. 1 Mole ratio of NiSO4 to H2O
2.29 3.91 – 2.29
Copper is lower than iron in the reactivity = :
154.8 18.0
series. Placing copper blocks on the ship’s = 0.0148 : 0.09
hull would speed up the corrosion of iron. 1 = 1 : 6.08
(d) (i) Fe2O3 + 2H3PO4 2FePO4 + 3H2O 1 ≈1:6
(ii) Iron(III) phosphate acts as a barrier 8. A
which prevents iron from contacting Let the relative atomic mass of metal M be a.
oxygen and water. 1 For oxide X, mole ratio of M atoms to O atoms
(Cambridge Assessment International Education 3.760 4.707 – 3.760
= :
bears no responsibility for the example answers to a 16.0
questions taken from its past question papers =1:1
which are contained in this publication. In ∴ a = 63.5
examinations, the way marks are awarded may be For oxide Y, mole ratio of M atoms to O atoms
different.) 3.760 4.234 – 3.760
= :
63.5 16.0
= 0.0592 : 0.0296
=2:1
Answers to Part exercise ∴ the formula of oxide Y is M2O.
9. D
Chapter 13
Number of moles of Al
A. Multiple-choice questions (p.142) 1.00
= mol = 0.0370 mol
1. D 27.0
In general, the more easily the metal that can be Number of moles of Cr2O3
extracted from its ore, the earlier it was discovered. 4.00
= mol = 0.0263 mol T9
52.0 × 2 + 16.0 × 3
 0.0370 14. (a) (i) The iron wool reacted with oxygen in
As 0.0370 mol of Al requires only mol =
2
the air. 1
0.0185 mol of Cr2O7 for complete reaction. Hence,
As the oxygen inside the burette was
Cr2O3 is in excess.
consumed, the pressure inside the
Theoretical yield of Cr = 0.0370 × 52.0 g = 1.924 g
burette was reduced. The atmospheric
∴ percentage yield of the reaction
pressure forced the water in the trough
1.75 g
= × 100% = 91.0% into the burette. 1
1.924 g
10. C (ii) Fe changed to Fe2O3․nH2O in rusting. 1
Let the relative atomic mass of metal T be a. Fe2O3․nH2O has a higher formula
T + Cl2 TCl2 mass than Fe. 1
4.86 (b) (i) To study the effect of temperature on
Number of moles of T = mol
a
the rate (speed) of rusting 1
Number of moles of TCl2
19.06 (ii) Independent variable: temperature 1
= mol Dependent variable: mass of iron wool
a + 35.5 × 2
From the equation, 1 mole of T produces 1 mole of after the experiment 1
TCl2. Control variable: mass of iron wool at
4.86 19.06 the start of the experiment/volume of
∴ : =1:1
a a + 71.0 air inside the burette at the start of
a = 24.3 the experiment 1
11. D (38%) (iii) The rate (speed) of rusting increases
Oxygen is the limiting reactant as the copper or with temperatures. 1
iron used is in excess here. 15. (a) X, iron, Y 1
Helium has no reaction with the metals. Y can displace both iron and X from their
12. D respective chloride solutions. 1
2+ 3+
Fe can form Fe and Fe ions while Mg can form Iron can displace X from the chloride
2+
only Mg ions. solution of X, whereas it cannot displace
Y from the chloride solution of Y. 1
B. Structured questions (p.143)
(b) (i) Y(s) + FeCl2(aq) YCl2(aq) + Fe(s) 1
13. (a) Potassium compounds are mostly soluble in
OR
water. Thus, these compounds dissolve in 2+ 2+
Y(s) + Fe (aq) Y (aq) + Fe(s) (1)
the water body forming dissolved salts. 1
(ii) Fe(s) + XCl2(aq) FeCl2(aq) + X(s) 1
Calcium carbonate is water insoluble. Thus,
OR
it is found in sediments. 1 2+ 2+
Fe(s) + X (aq) Fe (aq) + X(s) (1)
(b) The electronic arrangements of potassium
(c) Displacement reaction 1
and calcium atoms are 2,8,8,1 and 2,8,8,2
(d) Y
respectively. 1
This is because Y is more reactive than iron
In order to attain the stable electronic
and it would lose electrons (corrode)
arrangement of argon atom, a potassium
instead of iron. 1
atom has to lose only one outermost shell
electron while a calcium atom has to lose
two. 1
(c) Both potassium and calcium are reactive
Answers to Revision test
metals. They are both extracted by
electrolysis of the molten metal ores.
Chapter 13
However, electrolysis can only be used A. Multiple-choice questions (p.146)
after the invention of electricity. 1 1. D
(d) For potassium compounds: lilac 1 2. B
For calcium compounds: brick-red 1 3. B

T10
4. D Each sodium atom has fewer protons
Reactant Product (positively charged) in the nucleus than
side side
each calcium atom. The outermost shell
Number of Cu atoms x x
electron in the sodium atom is less
Number of H atoms y 8 (1) strongly bound to the nucleus compared
Number of N atoms y 2x + 2 (2) to those in the calcium atom. (1)
Number of O atoms 3y 6x + 6 13. (a) 2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) 2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g) 1
From (1), y = 8 (b) 2ZnO(s) + C(s) 2Zn(s) + CO2(g) 1
From (2), y = 2x + 2 Carbon is used as a reducing agent in
i.e. 8 = 2x + 2 this step. 1
∴x=3 (c) Number of moles of ZnS
5. B 2437.5
= mol = 25.0 mol 1
6. D 65.4 + 32.1
1 mole of C2H4 contains 4L hydrogen atoms. Number of moles of C
Let the number of moles of C2H4 that contains n 480.0
= mol = 40.0 mol 1
hydrogen atoms be x. 12.0
1 4L From the equations, 25.0 mol of ZnS
By simple proportion, = 25.0
x n requires only mol = 12.5 mol of C
n 2
x=
4L for complete reaction. Hence, C is in excess.
7. C Theoretical yield of Zn
Mass of water of crystallization in 5.0 g of = 25.0 × 65.4 g = 1635 g 1
CuSO4․5H2O (d) (i) Sacrificial protection 1
(1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 5 (ii) Zinc loses electrons more readily than
= 5.0 g ×
63.5 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4 + (1.0 × 2 + 16.0) × 5 iron. It ‘sacrifices’ itself while the iron
= 1.8 g
does not rust. 1
8. C
(iii) Magnesium 1
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
(iv) Cathodic protection 1
Mass of MgSO4 produced
3.0 14. (a) Town gas is flammable. 1
= × (24.3 + 32.1 + 16.0 × 4) g = 14.9 g (b)
24.3 Cu O
9. C 22.16 – 20.10 22.68 – 22.16
10. A Mass / g
= 2.06 = 0.52
11. D Number of
The reactivity of the elements in Group I of the 2.06 0.52
moles of atoms = 0.0324 = 0.0325
63.5 16.0
Periodic Table increases down the group. / mol

B. Structured questions (p.147) Simplest whole

0.0324 0.0325
number mole =1 =1
12. (a) Sodium burns with a golden yellow flame 0.0324 0.0324
ratio of atoms
while calcium does not burn. 1
Sodium moves about quickly on the water ∴ the empirical formula of the oxide of
surface while calcium sinks in water. 1 copper is CuO. 3
(b) (i) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) (2 marks for correct calculations steps)
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) 1 (c) CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(g) 1
(ii) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) OR
Ca(OH)2(s) + H2(g) 1 CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g) (1)
(c) Each sodium atom has to lose one (d) This is to prevent the hot copper formed
outermost shell electron in order to attain from reacting with oxygen again. 1
a stable octet electronic arrangement but
each calcium atom has to lose two. 1
OR

T11