9/19/2022 Habeel Ahmad 1

BASIC CONCEPTS &

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
9/19/2022 Habeel Ahmad 2

Key Concepts
➢ Basic Electrical Quantities and Associated Units:
➢Charge,
➢ Current
➢ Voltage, and
➢ Power
➢ Current Direction and Voltage Polarity
➢ Passive Sign Convention and Calculating Power
➢ Ideal Voltage and Current Sources
➢ Dependent Sources
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Outline
➢ Introduction
➢ Units and Scales
➢ Electric Charge, Current and Voltage
➢ Power & Energy
➢ Passive Sign Convention
➢ Circuit Elements
➢ Voltage & Current Sources
➢ Independent and Dependnet Sources
➢ Networks and Circuits
➢ Ohm’s Law
➢ Conductance
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Circuit Elements
➢ As discussed earlier, an element is the basic building block of a circuit

➢ An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements

➢ Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or the
currents through) the elements of the circuit
➢ There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive
elements and active elements
➢ An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element
is not, it only absorbs or dissipates energy
➢ Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors
➢ Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational
amplifiers
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Circuit Elements: Sources

➢ Our aim is to gain familiarity with some important active elements

➢ The most important active elements are voltage or current sources

that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them
➢ There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources

An ideal independent source is an active element that

provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit variables
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Circuit Elements: Independent Sources

➢ An Ideal independent voltage source
delivers requisite current to a circuit
element to maintain its terminal voltage
➢ Figure shows the symbols for
independent voltage sources

➢ Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an

active element that delivers a specified current
completely independent of the voltage across the
source
➢ The symbol for an independent current source
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Circuit Elements: Dependent Sources

➢ An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in
which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current existing at some other location in the system being
analyzed
➢ Sources such as these appear in the equivalent electrical models
for many electronic devices, such as transistors, operational
amplifiers, and integrated circuits
➢ Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped
symbols, as shown
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Circuit Elements: Dependent Sources

➢ Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a
voltage or current of some other element in the circuit, and the
source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four
possible types of dependent sources

a. A current-controlled current source (CCCS)

b. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
c. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)
d. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
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Circuit Elements: Dependent Sources

➢ In Figs. a and c, K is a dimensionless scaling constant

➢ In Fig. b, g is a scaling factor with units of A/V; in Fig. d, r is a
scaling factor with units of V/A
➢ The controlling current ix and the controlling voltage vx must be
defined in the circuit
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Circuit Elements: Dependent Sources

➢ It does seem odd at first to have a current source whose value depends on a voltage, or
a voltage source which is controlled by a current flowing through some other element
➢ Even a voltage source depending on a remote voltage can appear strange

➢ Such sources are invaluable for modelling complex systems making the analysis
algebraically straightforward
➢ Examples include the drain current of a field effect transistor as a function of the gate
voltage, or the output voltage of an analog integrated circuit as a function of differential
input voltage
➢ When encountered during circuit analysis, we write down the entire controlling
expression for the dependent source just as we would if it was a numerical value
attached to an independent source
➢ This often results in the need for an additional equation to complete the analysis,
unless the controlling voltage or current is already one of the specified unknowns in our
system of equations
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Circuit Elements: Ex 2.3

In the circuit of Fig. a, if v2 is known to be 3 V, find vL.
Solution:
➢ We have been provided with a partially labeled circuit diagram and the
additional information that v2 = 3 V
➢ This is probably worth adding to our diagram, as shown in Fig. b
➢ Next we step back and look at the information collected
➢ We notice that the desired voltage vL is the same as the voltage across the
dependent source. Thus, vL = 5v2
➢ At this point, we would be done with the problem if only we knew v2 !
➢ We see that we actually do know v2 — it was specified as 3 V.
➢ We now have two (simple) equations in two unknowns, and solve to find
vL = 3 x 5 = 15 V
➢ An important lesson at this early stage of the game is that the time it takes to completely label a circuit
diagram is always a good investment
➢ As a final step, we should go back and check over our work to ensure that the result is correct
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Circuit Elements: Dependent Sources

➢ Dependent and independent voltage and current sources are active elements; they
are capable of delivering power to some external device
➢ For the present we will think of a passive element as one which is capable only of
receiving power
➢ However, we will later see that several passive elements are able to store finite
amounts of energy and then return that energy later to various external devices;
since we still wish to call such elements passive, it will be necessary to improve
upon our two definitions a little later
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Circuit Elements: Networks and Circuits

➢ The interconnection of two or more circuit elements forms an electrical Network

➢ If the network contains at least one closed path, it is also an electric circuit

➢ Note: Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are circuits (see Fig. 2.21)!
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Circuit Elements: Networks and Circuits

➢ A network that contains at least one active element, such as an independent voltage
or current source, is an active network
➢ A network that does not contain any active elements is a passive network
➢ We have now defined what we mean by the term circuit element, and we have
presented the definitions of several specific circuit elements, the independent and
dependent voltage and current sources
➢ Throughout the remainder of the book we will define only five additional circuit
elements: the resistor, inductor, capacitor, transformer, and the ideal operational
amplifier (“op amp,” for short)
➢ These are all ideal elements. They are important because we may combine them into
networks and circuits that represent real devices as accurately as we require
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Circuit Elements: Networks and Circuits

➢ Thus, a transistor may be modeled by the voltage terminals designated vgs and the
single dependent current source. Note that the dependent current source produces a
current that depends on a voltage elsewhere in the circuit
➢ The parameter gm , commonly referred to as the transconductance, is calculated using
transistor-specific details as well as the operating point determined by the circuit
connected to the transistor
➢ It is generally a small number, on the order of 10−2 to perhaps 10 A/V

➢ This model works pretty well as long as the

frequency of any sinusoidal source is neither very
large nor very small
➢ The model can be modified to account for frequency-
dependent effects by including additional ideal circuit
elements such as resistors and capacitors
 Ohm’s Law
➢ Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the
flow of electric charge

➢ This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as

resistance and is represented by the symbol R

➢ The resistance of a material depends upon its molecular structure and

physical dimensions

➢ Since electrons are responsible for flow of charge through a material,

a material having free electrons has a lower resistance to flow of
charge
 Ohm’s Law
➢ The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A
depends on A and its length 𝑙, as shown below:
 Ohm’s Law
➢ We can represent resistance (as measured in the laboratory), in
mathematical form as:

➢ Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters and

depends upon the molecular structure

➢ Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low

resistivities, while insulators, such as mica and paper, have high
resistivities

➢ The resistor is the simplest passive element

 Ohm’s Law
Table below presents the values of ρ for some common materials and
shows which materials are used for conductors, insulators, and
semiconductors
 Ohm’s Law
➢ The relationship between current and voltage for a resistor is given by Ohm’s law
➢ Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the
current 𝒊 flowing through the resistor

➢ Ohm defined the constant of proportionality

to be the resistance, R

➢ R in the above equation is measured in the

unit of ohms, designated Ω
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Ohm’s Law
➢ We may deduce from the previous equation that
𝑣
𝑅= ; so that 1Ω = 1 V/A
𝑖

➢ To apply Ohm’s law, we must pay careful attention to the current

direction and voltage polarity
➢ The direction of current 𝒊 and the polarity of voltage 𝒗 must conform
with the passive sign convention
➢ This implies that current flows from a higher potential to a lower
potential in order for 𝒗 = 𝒊𝑹
➢ If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, 𝒗 = −𝒊𝑹

➢ The value of R can range from zero to infinity, hence it is important

that we consider the two extreme possible values of R
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Ohm’s Law – Short Circuit

➢ An element with R = 0 is called a short circuit, as shown below

➢ For a short circuit, 𝒗 = 𝒊𝑹 = 0 ; showing that the voltage is zero but

the current could be anything
➢ In practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to
be a perfect conductor, thus
➢ A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero
 23

Ohm’s Law – Open Circuit

➢ Similarly, an element with R = ∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown

➢ For an open circuit,

𝒗
𝒊= lim =0
𝑹→∞ 𝑹

indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything
➢ An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity
Ohm’s Law: Power Absorption

https://youtu.be/FwEz9ygPHiM
 Ohm’s Law: Power Absorption
Figure 2.24 shows several different resistor packages, as well as the most common
circuit symbol used for a resistor

(a) Several common resistor packages

(b) A 560 Ω power resistor rated at up to
50 W
(c) A 5% tolerance 10-teraohm
(10,000,000,000,000 Ω) resistor
manufactured by Ohmcraft
(d) Circuit symbol for the resistor,
applicable to all of the devices in (a)
through (c).
 Ohm’s Law: Power Absorption
➢ Someone inadvertently connected a 100 Ω, 2 W carbon resistor across a 110 V source

➢ The ensuing flame, smoke, and fragmentation were rather disconcerting, demonstrating clearly
that a practical resistor has definite limits to its ability to behave like the ideal linear model
➢ In this case, the unfortunate resistor was called upon to absorb 121 W; since it was designed to
handle only 2 W, its reaction was understandably violent
Practice Problems:
With reference to Fig, compute the following:
𝑣 −44
2.11 R if i = −2 μA and v = −44 V. 𝑅= = = 22 MΩ
𝑖 −2×10−6
𝑣2 1
2.12 The power absorbed by the resistor if v = 1 V and R = 2 kΩ. 𝑃 = = = 500 µW
𝑅 2×103

2.13 The power absorbed by the resistor if i = 3 nA and R = 4.7 MΩ.

𝑃 = 𝑖 2 𝑅 = 3 × 10−9 2 × 4.7 × 106 = 9 × 4.7 × 10−12 = 42.3 pW
 27

Fuses
➢ The capacity for handling current flow is an important consideration when designing
circuits
➢ Electrical components and electrical leads should be capable of carrying the current
flow that the circuit is designed for
➢ For example, you would not want to use 1/8 watt resistors or hairline thin wiring for
power handling in an electric car!
➢ Similarly, it is desirable to minimize hazards associated with unintentional short
circuit conditions
➢ Such unintentional short circuits could cause very large spikes in current that can
damage electrical components, or more severely, cause a fire or electric shock
➢ To protect against overcurrent conditions, fuses are often incorporated in a series
connection to the circuit
➢ A fuse is simply a resistor that is specially designed to (safely) fail at a particular
current condition
 28

Fuses
➢ At this level of current flow, the material in the fuse will melt and result in an open-
circuit condition that protects the circuit from dangerous current levels
➢ In addition to designing a fuse to fail at a particular current level, fuses also aim to
achieve very low resistance to minimize power consumption
➢ Blowing a fuse is very similar to the failure mechanism in burning out an
incandescent light bulb, and it needs to be replaced following failure
➢ Circuit breakers may also be used to provide overcurrent protection
➢ The physical mechanism in a circuit breaker for preventing overcurrent is very
different than a fuse, and it may also be reset and reused following a “trip” condition
➢ The size and cost of circuit breakers are often much higher than fuses, and the choice
of which device to use is dependent on the needs for the particular application
 29

Conductance
➢ We sometimes prefer to work with the reciprocal of resistance (1/R), which is called
conductance (symbol G, unit siemens (S))
➢ An older, unofficial unit for conductance is the mho, which was often abbreviated as ℧
and is still occasionally written as Ω−1
➢ A resistor R has conductance G = 1/R
➢ The i-v equation (i.e. Ohm’s law) can be written as i = Gv
➢ The absorbed power is again necessarily positive and may be expressed in terms of the
conductance by
𝑖2
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣 2𝐺 =
𝐺
➢ Thus a 2 Ω resistor has a conductance of 1/2 S, and if a current of 5 A is flowing through
it, then a voltage of 10 V is present across the terminals and a power of 50 W is being
absorbed
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Summary & Review

➢ In this chapter, we introduced the topic of units—specifically those relevant to electrical
circuits—and their relationship to fundamental (SI) units
➢We also discussed current and current sources, voltage and voltage sources, and the fact that the
product of voltage and current yields power (the rate of energy consumption or generation)
➢ Since power can be either positive or negative depending on the current direction and voltage
polarity, the passive sign convention was described to ensure we always know if an element is
absorbing or supplying energy to the rest of the circuit
➢ Four additional sources were introduced, forming a general class known as dependent sources
➢ They are often used to model complex systems and electrical components, but the actual value of
voltage or current supplied is typically unknown until the entire circuit is analyzed
➢ We concluded the chapter with the resistor—by far the most common circuit element—whose
voltage and current are linearly related (described by Ohm’s law)
➢ Whereas the resistivity of a material is one of its fundamental properties (measured in Ω ・ cm),
resistance describes a device property (measured in Ω) and hence depends not only on resistivity
but on the device geometry (i.e., length and area) as well
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Summary & Review

➢We conclude with key points of this chapter to review, along with appropriate examples:
➢The system of units most commonly used in electrical engineering is the SI
➢The direction in which positive charges are moving is the direction of positive current flow;
alternatively, positive current flow is in the direction opposite that of moving electrons
➢To define a current, both a value and a direction must be given
➢ Currents are typically denoted by the uppercase letter I for constant (dc) values, and either
i(t) or simply i otherwise
➢ To define a voltage across an element, it is necessary to label the terminals with + and −
signs as well as to provide a value (either an algebraic symbol or a numerical value)
➢ Any element is said to supply power if positive current flows out of the positive voltage
terminal
➢ Any element absorbs power if positive current flows into the positive voltage terminal
(Example 2.1 and Example 2.2)
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Summary & Review

➢ There are six sources: the independent voltage source, the independent current source, the
current-controlled dependent current source, the voltage-controlled dependent current source,
the voltage-controlled dependent voltage source, and the current-controlled dependent
voltage source (Example 2.3)
➢ Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a linear resistor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it; i.e., v = Ri (Example 2.4)
➢ The power dissipated by a resistor (which leads to the production of heat) is given by
p = vi = i2R = v2/R (Example 2.4)
➢ Wires are typically assumed to have zero resistance in circuit analysis
➢ When selecting a wire gauge for a specific application, however, local electrical and fire
codes must be consulted (Example 2.5)
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END