Introduction to Computer and mechanical equipment that makes up a computer.

Software is the series of instructions

In this chapter we will study broad survey of concepts and terminology related to that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.
computers. The idea of computer literacy is introduced. We will discover what a computer is
The concept of Input, Process and Output
and what it does. We learn about the evolution, history generation of computer, the power
of computers, computer hardware, software, and components. Categories of computers are Computers follow a cycle of operation known as the input-process output cycle. Raw facts

identified, including personal computers, minicomputers, mainframe computers, and known as data are provided to the computer. They are encoded in a way that the computer

supercomputers. is able to understand them. The computer then processes the data with the help of certain
st
In this 21 century, Computers have touched every part of our lives: the way we instructions provided to it and produces a meaningful and desired output known as

work, the way we learn, the way we live, even the way we play. It almost is impossible to go information. Processing is nothing but manipulation of data in accordance with the needs of

through a single day without encountering a computer, a device dependent on a computer, the user.

information produced by a computer, or a word that was introduced or whose meaning has
Some important terms used in computer:
changed with the advent of computers. Because of the significance of computers in today’s
world, it is important to be computer literate. Being computer literate means you have Data: - Data is a plural form of Datum. It is a collection of facts, figures, objects and raw

knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses. materials. The data must be giving the meaningful information. It is only the raw
components or meaningless until it is not arranged for communication.
Definition of Computer
Example:

The term 'Computer' is brought out from the Latin word 'Computare', which means There, Students, class, fifty, are, It is data only & has no meaning.

to calculate, to do something. There are fifty students in class. It is information that gives a meaning.

Basically, Computer is an electronic computing machine which performs Information: It is an organized form of related data that has complete meaning.

the executions according to given set of instruction called program. It accepts the data,
Example: There are fifty students in class.
processes it and produces the information.
Instruction: It is a command given to computer to perform some specific task. These
A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its
commands are depend on programming language and operating system being used. But
own memory that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules,
whatever the forms of command fetched by user they must be converted in machine
produce results, and store the results for future use. Computers process data to create
oriented code (binary code 0 & 1) so that computer hardware may understand.
information. Data is a collection of raw unprocessed facts, figures, and
symbols. Information is data that is organized, meaningful, and useful. To process data into
information, a computer uses hardware and software. Hardware is the electric, electronic,
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Process: Process is a technique of the processing unit of computer to convert data into Bridge ware: The computer components and programs used to translate instructions and
information. It is the stage where the input data is manipulated in order to produce information written for one type of computer into a format that another type of computer
meaningful information. can understand is called bridge ware. This is necessary because different computers are
made by different manufacturers.
Program: Program is a set of instruction that tells computer to perform specific
The following are the characteristics of computers:
task.Everything in computer is done by using a computer program. Some examples of
computer programs: A web browser like Mozilla Firefox and Apple Safari can be used to  Speed: The computer was invented as a high speed calculator. Since then
view information from web. Without program computer are useless. computers have been made to work at higher speeds. Speed is measured in terms
of the processing time the computer takes to execute a given instruction. The lesser
Software: A group of several computer program which is made with the set of instruction
the time, the faster is the computer. We do not talk in terms of seconds or even of
that enables the user to interact with the computer.Simple if we say, any set of instructions
milliseconds (thousandth of a second). Today the units of speed are measured as:
that directs a computer to perform specific operations. Operating system like Windows,
Application software like Ms- Office etc. Millisecond (MS) One thousand of a second 10^-3 Microsecond (US)
One millionth of a second 10^-6 Nanosecond (NS) One billionth
Hardware: Hardware means the object which is tangible that we can actually touch and
of a second 10^-9
seen. It is a physical parts of computer by which computer is made.Motherboard, CPU, RAM,
Picoseconds (PS) One trillionth of a second 10^-12
hard drive, etc. are some examples of hardware.
Phemtosecond (
Firmware:A set of several micro instructions permanently stored in small memory chip (such A powerful computer is capable of adding two 18-digit numbers in 300 to 400 nano
as the Basic Input Output System or BIOS of a PC ROM) at the time of manufacturing is called seconds i.e. about 3 million calculations per second.
firmware.These programs are provided by hardware manufacturer along with the  Storage: A computer can store large amount of data and information which can be
computers. Generally these are booting programs which help in the starting of a computer. retrieved whenever required. This large storage capacity is achieved through
Such programs cannot be erased or overwritten. Some Typical examples of devices Secondary Memory device that is the key for storing data permanently. The
containing Firmware are embedded systems such as traffic lights, consumer appliances, examples for various secondary devices are Floppy disk, Optical disks (CD and DVD),
digital watches, computers, computer peripherals, mobile phones, and digital cameras. The Zip drives, Thumb drives etc. The data of smaller size can be easily fetched and they
Firmware contained in these devices provides the control program for the device. can be copied to the primary memory (RAM). Storage capacity of computer is
Human ware: measured in terms of bytes, kilobytes, megabytes and so on.
The man- machine interface is called a human ware. The people who work with the 1bit 0 or 1 (Binary Number)
computer are collectively called the human ware or livewire. 4 bit 1 Nibble

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 8 bits 1 Byte  Diligence: Computers are machines and that do not get tired or ‘lose concentration’
1024 Bytes 1 Kilobytes (KB) like human. Even if a million calculations are to be made, it will perform the
1024 KB 1 Megabytes (MB) millionth one with exactly the same accuracy and speed even if operations are
1024 MB 1 Gigabytes (GB) repeated any number of times as the first.
1024 GB 1 Terabytes (TB)  Automation: The biggest advantage of computers is that it is automatic in its
1024 TB 1 Petabyte (PB) operation. Once a programming logic is initiated the computer performs repeated
1024 PB 1 Exabyte (EB) operations without human interventions until program completion.
1024 EB 1 Zettabyte (ZB)  Reliability: The computer gives very accurate results with predetermined values.
1024 ZB 1 Yottabyta (YB) They correct and modify the parameters automatically, giving suitable signals. They
A character is represented by one byte (eight bits). It can be a letter, digit, give formatted results with high degree of precisions.
punctuation mark or special characters. A word allocates 2 bytes of memory. Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer
 Accuracy: The computer is 100% accurate machine. This never does any kind of
Advantages:
mistake. Any mistakes, glitches or errors are not due to computer itself, its due to
human rather than due to technological weakness.  It saves time
 Versatility: Computers are capable of performing almost any task, provided that  Solves vast equations and other mathematical problems
the task can be reduced to series of logical steps. Modern computers possess  Communicative device
certain abilities that are peculiar to them. They are:  Creation of Virtual reality
 Perform complex and repetitive calculations a rapidly and accurately.  Helps to earn money in easy steps
 Store large amounts of data and information for subsequent  Increase efficiency
manipulations.  Can be used for research and other educational purposes
 Provide information to the user  Helps to explore world through the internet
 Facilitate the process of decision making  Helps to make phone call, send message instantly etc.
 Draw and print graphs Advantages:
 Converse with users through terminals  Piracy of original contents
These are a few operations which the computers are capable of executing.  Hacking may cause different physical damages to an organization
 Unnecessarily wasting time on extra stuffs like pornographic materials, games other
contents
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  User gets fully dependent on machine only Computer in Communication:
 May cause eye and other health problem Now, Computer has become easiest means of communication and made the people
 May decrease privacy of an organization communicate face to face. Variety of data communication packages like E-mail, internet
phone, bulletin board system, chatting, video calling, video conferencing, Facebook, twitter
Application of Computer
etc. are available to bring people in
After the development of computer the life of people has become easier than before in
Computer in Bank:
every field. From beginning to till all the developments made in this computing field really
change the way to operate the computer. As for result we have a smart and intelligent It was a day people had to be wait and standing in line hourly for any transaction in bank.

computer in our hand and accessing the world with a single touch. Since then computers are But now the uses of computer and internet made any services like to account status,
used in each and every field such as at home, office, education, airlines and railway maintain ledger, to provide online services to customers who want to perform banking

reservation, communication, medical research etc. Some of the application areas are listed transaction staying at home. It allows customer to make withdraw via ATM (Automated
below. Telling Machine) immediately. Fund Transferring from one account to another has become
possible.
Computer in Office:
Computer in Health & Medical Field:
 To prepare store and retrieve data as electronic files and print as hard copy
 To handle correspondence and office communication Computers are widely used in hospital to help doctor in diagnosis, keeping patient records,

 To facilitate administrative work and prepare papers diseases, treatment, drugs etc. Doctors can get information from distant banks and expert

 To reduce the workload of employee by sharing the data among several systems. They can discuss with colleagues using teleconferencing. Computer and its other

workstation through network technology are used by doctors to take image and diagnoses like CAT (Computerized Axial

Computer in Education: Tomography), CT-Scan (Computed Tomography Scan), PET (Position Emission Tomography)

In educational sector computers are known to be as a teaching aid, information and Videos X-Ray etc. There are many computerized automatic medical equipment which

resources and computing and research tools. Moreover, it can be used helps in diagnosis such as Pace Maker, Eye testing machine, Ultra sonography equipment

 Modernizing Education etc.

 Improving Student Performance Computer in Desktop Publishing:

 Learning Job Skills
Nowadays, all magazines, newspaper, books, comics etc. are published using computer.
 To make learning process a lot more simple and efficient
Modern DTP software makes it easy to apply style and layout texts and graphics.
 To feel virtual environment for studying and learning etc.
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Computer in Robots:  Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, and Airplanes etc.
The word robot comes from a Czech word whose meaning is to labour for many years the
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and
term robot was associated with science fiction rather than science fact. That association has
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipment.
changed now.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
The basic difference between industrial robots and other automated machines is that a determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
robot can be programmed to carry out a complex task and be reprogrammed to carry out
As mentioned above, Computer is considered as an incredible gift of science and accepted
another complex task. A complex task is a series of actions involving mechanical
by all for different purposes.
manipulations.
History of Computer
Computer in Space Technology:
It is very hard to believe that there was a time when people used to live in jungle. They were
It would be impossible to explore outer space without computers. Computers are
not civilized and educated even though they were unconscious about the education to
used for the design and operation of artificial satellites, rockets and other space exploration
develop their self. As they became civilized, felt the need to count number. Variety of
vehicles. These days, weather pattern in the earth, damages due to natural disasters such as
methods they used to count the numbers like collecting pebbles, scratching on wall and
flood, earthquakes etc, are predicted by analyzing the data sent by artificial, using
drawing lines to find out quantity. They used their fingers for the counting the numbers but
computers.
only ten fingers were not enough to count large numbers and remember them for long
Transportation and communication sectors are benefited a lot due to computer technology. th
period of time. As a result, during 15 century, the Hindu philosophers developed a new
Computers are used in traffic control system of land as well as air. It prevents unnecessary method of counting system using numeric digits from 0 to 9, which is called decimal numeric
delays due to traffic jams. It also reduces the chances of collision of airplanes. Computers are system. Science then, several calculating devices developed in different era.
used for the reservation and cancellation of tickets of aero planes. Bus railway and other
Mechanical Era:
transportation means.
ABACUS: It was one of the first mechanical device used for calculation created by Chinese
Computer in Engineering Design:
3000 years ago. It was made up wooden frame and divided into two parts, the upper parts
Computers are widely used in engineering purpose.One of major areas is CAD (Computer was called heaven and lower part was called earth.The frame contained similar parallel bars
aided design). That provides creation and modification of images. Some fields are: & some balls were arranged with same assigned value. It can be slides from one bar to
another bar &could only perform addition and subtraction.

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Napier's Bone: Scottish mathematician John Napier developed a principal of calculation Father of Computer science
called logarithm in 1614 AD to perform arithmetical calculation faster and easier. On the
Charles Babbage is considered as a father of computer science because he was the first
same principal he invented an instrument which contains some bone rods engraved with
person who gave the concept of five functional unit such as Input Unit as, Memory Unit,
numbers in 1617 AD which was called Napier's Bone. This device could perform
Arithmetic Unit, Control Unit and Output unit (the store, the mill, punch card) to develop
multiplication, division, square root and powers.
Analytical Engine in 1842. Before the development of Analytical engine he attempted to
Slide Rule: In 1620 AD, another calculation device called Slide Rule was constructed by invent Difference Engine but he could not make it complete due to lack of funding and
William Oughtred an English Mathematician on the principal of logarithms. It had two required equipment. But Charles Babbage couldn't loss their patience and developed
movable marked ruler kept side by side, one of which slides over the other. It was designed Analytical Engine which was really similar with architecture of modern computer. So for all
for multiplication, division, finding of powers, roots and other more complicated his contribution he is known as Father of computer science.
calculations. It was also considered as first analog computing device.
Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace:She is called first computer programmer because she was the
Blaise Pascal: In 1642 AD, A French mathematician Blaise Pascal invented a first mechanical first lady in the history of computer who assisted Charles Babbage making first computer
calculator to assist his father Ethinne Pascal who was a tax superintendent. It had toothed program (A program that would repeat the same set of instruction and carry out instructions
wheels or gears with each wheel or gear having digits 0 to 9 engraved on it. To see the result if certain conditions existed) to use in Analytical Engine. This techniques are still in use today
a simple monitor was used. The machine had a capacity to add and subtract up to 8 digits. to make computer program more efficient. Due to this contribution American Defense
honored her with ADA.
Stepped Reckoner: A German mathematician Baron Gottfried Wilhelm Von Leibniz modified
the Pascal's machine and used the same principal to invent his new machine called Stepped Tabulating Machine: In 1880, Dr. Herman Hollerith, a census statistician in US bureau of
reckoner in 1671 AD. It could perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and statistic developed a faster calculating machine called Tabulating machine which could
could find out square root for the first time. Since then this machine was used up to 1960. process on the punch card. He established a company with the name of Tabulating Machine
Company (TMC). At that time, it was very successful company and later it was integrated
Jacquard Loom: In 1802 AD, Joseph Marie Jacquard discovered a mechanism for automatic
with other similar companiesand founded International Business Machine (IBM) Company in
weaving cloth. It was based on a principal of present and absence of some holes like 0 and 1.
1924, which is the largest manufacturing company in this world till today.
This principal gave him the concept of binary number.
Electromechanical Era:
Charles Babbage and his invention: Charles Babbage was a great mathematician, inventor
and philosopher at Cambridge University. He developed two electromechanical calculator Mark-I:In 1937 prof. Howard Aiken developed a first an elctromechanical computer called
named Difference Engine in 1822 AD and Analytical Engine in 1833 AD. This was very Mark-I based on Charles Babbage's principal after 100 years of his death. It was very huge
achievements in the history of computer. (51 x 8 x 3) cubic feet and technically complicated as produce a lot of heat due to more
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electricity consumption. As the main memory 18000 Vacuum Tubes were used. Afterwards, computer in storage media and became possible to modification. Due to this contribution,
Mark-II was developed similar to Mark-I which was used 19000 vacuum tubes. he became a famous figure of Father of stored program in computing history.

ABC (Atnasoff Berry Computer):Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was the first electronic EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer): in 1949 AD, Prof. Maurice Wilkes a
computer which was designed and built by John Vincent Atanasoff and his assistant, Clifford mathematicians from Cambridge University developed the first practical electronic stored-
E. Berry. It was a specific use computer designed to solve systems of linear algebraic program computer. It occupied a room of four by five meters, contained 3000 vacuum tubes
equations. and used a mercury delay line storage system where access time was one milliseconds.
Programs were fed into the machine using punched paper tape and output result were
Electronics Era:
passed through a teleprinter. It performed addition in 1500 microsecond and multiplication
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer): In 1945 AD, John Mauchly, and in 4000 microseconds.
American physicist, and J. Presper Eckert, an American engineer, proposed an electronic
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer): It was invented by John Presper
digital computer, called the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), which
Eckert and John William Mauchly in the year 1946, who were also the inventors of ENIAC
was built on the concepts of John Atanasoff at the Moore School of Engineering at the
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). EDVAC was one among the earliest
University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. At that time, It was regarded as the first
electronic computers that used binary system and it was a stored program device. It could
successful, general digital computer.
perform operations such as automatic subtraction, addition, programmed division,
The ENIAC was over 100 feet long, circling a room 30 feet by 50 feet. It was 10 feet high and multiplication and automatic checking. It had a memory of 1000 words capacity and this was
about 3 feet deep. Ittook up a large room and required several people to operate andit could later improved to 1024 words.Physically, EDVAC had about 12,000 diodes and 6,000 vacuum
output 5,000 addition problems in one second.The computer used 170,000 watts of power, tubes and the power consumption was 56 KW. It occupied 490 square feet of floor area and
weighed 28 tons, had 17,840 vacuum tubes, 7,200 crystal diodes, 1,500 relays, 70,000 weighed 17,300 lbs.
resistors, 10,000 capacitors and around 5 million hand-soldered joints, filled a large building
UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer):
and cost $487,000. (By today's standards, that is about ten million dollars. It was basically a
larger super-fast calculator with some input features via punch cards. After developing ENIAC, Mauchly and Eckert formed their own company in 1946. This
company built a new computer called UNIVAC-I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer-I) in 1951.
John von Neumann:1945 AD, John von Neumann was a brilliant mathematician, who
UNIVAC was delivered to the Census Bureau. Business organizations too started using
developed the principal of stored program that fundamentally changes programming and
UNIVAC. Hence, it was the first commercially used electronic computer in the world.
computing faster, more flexible and efficient. Early computer the programs being used
integrated and written permanently in a chips, son modification of programs were not
possible. But after the development of Neumann principal, the programs were stored inside
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 Generation of Computer  These computers were very large, and required a lot of space for installation.
 Since thousands of vacuum tubes were used, they generated a large amount of
In computer terminology, the word generation is described asa stage of technological
heat. Therefore, air conditioning was essential
development or innovation. A major technological development that fundamentally
 These were non-portable and very slow equipment
changed the way computers operate resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper,more
 Examples: ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC etc.
powerful and more efficient and reliable devices characterize each generation ofcomputers.
There are total five generations are known till today. Second Generation of computer (1956–1963)

First Generation of Computer (1940–1956): In these generations computers used transistors in place of vacuum tubes, which were
superior than vacuum tubes. A transistor is made up of semiconductor material like
First generation computers were vacuum tube / thermionic valves-based machines. These
germanium and silicon. It usually had three leads and performed electrical functions such as
computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. A magnetic
voltage, current or power amplification with low power requirements. Since transistor is a
drumis a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and
small device, the physical size of the computer was greatly reduced. Computers became
programs can be stored. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
smaller, faster, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable than their predecessors.
displayed on printouts. First generation computers relied on binary-coded language
Moreover, in second-generation computers, magnetic cores were used as primary memory
(language of 0s and 1s) to perform operations and were able to solve only one problem at a
and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. However, they still relied on punched
time. Each machine was fedwith different binary codes and hence were difficult to program.
cards for input and printouts for output.Machine language changed to assembly language
This resulted in lack of versatility and speed. In addition, to run on different types of
that used mnemonics (abbreviations) for instructions rather than numbers; for example,
computers, instructions must berewritten or recompiled.
ADD for addition and MULT for multiplication. As a result, programming became less
Characteristics of first generations computers: cumbersome. Early high-level programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN also

 These computers were based on vacuum tube technology. It means vacuum tube came into existence during this period.

was used as CPU component. Characteristics of second-generation computers

 Punch Card was used as input and output device.
 These machines were based on transistor technology.
 Magnetic tape and magnetic drum were used as secondary storage.
 It was smaller when compared to the first-generation computers.
 Computation time was in Milliseconds
 The computational time of these computers was reduced to microseconds from
 Storage capacity was too small (1 to 4 K)
milliseconds.
 Since Machine level language (0 and 1) was usedthese computers were difficult to
program and use.
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  These were more reliable and less prone to hardware failure. Hence, they required  The size of these computers was smaller as compared to previous-generation
less frequent maintenance. computers.
 These were more portable and generated less amount of heat.  Since hardware rarely failed, the maintenance cost was quite low.
 Assembly language was used to program computers. Hence, programming became  Extensive use of high-level languages became possible.
more time-efficient and less cumbersome.  Manual assembling of individual components was not required; therefore, it
 Second-generation computers still required air conditioning. reduced the large requirement of labour and cost. However, highly sophisticated
 Manual assembly of individual components into a functioning unit was still required technologies were required for the manufacturing of IC chips.
 Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and IBM 7090.  Commercial production became easier and cheaper.
 NCR 395 and B6500.
Third Generation of computer (1964–1971)
Fourth Generation (Early 1970s–Till Date)
In this generation integrated circuit was used as main component. An integrated circuit, also
called IC, consisted of a single chip (usually silicon) with many components such as Microprocessors:Fourth generation of computer is based on Microprocessor. Although, the
transistors and resistors fabricated on it. Integrated circuits replaced several individually technology of this generation is still based on the integrated circuit, these have been made
wired transistors. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and readily available because of the development of the microprocessor (circuits containing
efficient.Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third-generation millions of transistors). The Intel 4004 chip, which was developed in 1971, took the
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system. This integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a computer (central
allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program processing unit, memory, and input and output controls) on a minuscule chip. A
that monitored the memory. For the first time, computers became accessible to majority of microprocessor is built onto a single piece of silicon, known as chip. It is about 0.5 cm along
common people because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors. one side and not more than 0.05 cm thick.

Characteristics of Third-generation computers: Fourth-generation computers led to an era of large-scale integration (LSI) and very-large-
scale integration (VLSI) technology. LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be
 These computers were based on integrated circuit (IC) technology.
constructed on one small slice of silicon material, whereas VLSI squeezed hundreds of
 These were able to reduce computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
thousands of components on to a single chip. Ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) increased
 These were easily portable and more reliable than the second-generation
that number to millions. This way the computers became smaller and cheaper than ever
computers.
before.
 These devices consumed less power and generated less heat. In some cases, air
conditioning was still required. Characteristics of Fourth-generation Computers

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  Fourth-generation computers are microprocessor-based systems. data as per the electric signals is known as digital computer. Basically ,. Hybrid computer is
 These computers are very small in size. the combination of the feature of Ana log and Digital computers.

 These are powerful, compact, cheapest, portable and reliable among all the other-
generation computers.
 Uses of Magnetic disk and optical disk with huge capacity for secondary storage
device.
 Processing speed increased to picoseconds
 Multi-programming, multi-tasking, multimedia functions are possible.
 Since microprocessor was developed, micro computers or personal computer like
desktop computer, laptop, and Notebook computers were developed.
 The production cost is very low. In addition, requirement of labour and cost
involved at assembly stage is also minimal.
 GUI and pointing devices enable the users to learn to use the computer quickly.
 Examples: 8080 and 8086 to be followed by 80286, 80386, 80486 and now the
Pentium processor, Apple II, Altair 8800 and CRAY-1.

Computers are classified in to various classes according to On the basis of working principle,
On the basis of size, and on the basis of brand.On the basis of working principle computer
are classified in to three types Ana log computer, Digital computer, and hybrid computer.
Ana log computer measures continuous type of data and uses a physicalquantity like electric
current, voltage, temperature, etc. to present and process the data. It represent numbers by
a physical quantity; that is, they assign numeric values by physically measuring some actual
property, such as the length of an object, an angle created by two lines, or the amount of
voltage passing through a point in an electric circuit. The computer which accepts discrete

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 Types of Computer Based on working principal

In the computing fields not all the computers are same. Computers are different as per their There are three basic kinds of computers which is based on working principal, hardware
uses and that changes the way to operate the computer. As the plant and animal kingdoms structure and the way physical quantities are represented in a computer. The following are
are classified in biological science, computers are also classified. Generally, there are two the three types.
types of computer according to purpose.
Analog Computer: Analog computers are designed and developed for the purposes of
General purpose computer: This type of computers are designed and developed for a great process analog data which is continuous nature and not discrete or separate. Such type of
variety of processing job. Simply by using a general purpose computer and different data includes temperature, pressure, speed weight, voltage, depth etc. These quantities are
software, various tasks can be accomplished, including writing and editing (word continuous and having an infinite variety of values. It measures continuous changes in some
processing), manipulating facts in a data base, tracking manufacturing inventory, report physical quantity e.g. The Speedometer of a car measures speed, the change of temperature
making, application writing, billing, accounting and used at home, offices, banks etc.Most is measured by a Thermometer, the weight is measured by Weights machine. These
computers in use today are the example of General-Purpose computers. computers are ideal in situations where data can be accepted directly from measuring
instrument without having to convert it into numbers or codes.
Specific Purpose Computer:As the name states, a Specific-Purpose Computer are designed
to be task specific and most of the times their job is to solve one particular problem. They Analog computers are widely used for certain specialized engineering and scientific
are also known as dedicated computers, because they are dedicated to perform a single task applications, for calculation and measurement of analog quantities. They are frequently
over and over again. Such a computer system would be useful in playing graphic intensive used to control process such as those found in oil refinery where flow and temperature
Video Games, traffic lights control system, navigational system in an aircraft, weather measurements are important. They are used for example in paper making and in chemical
forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil exploration, and in automotive industries, keeping industry. Analog computers do not require any storage capability because they measure and
time in a digital watch, or Robot helicopter. While a specific purpose computer may have compare quantities in a single operation. Output from an analog computer is generally in the
many of the same features found in a general purpose computer, its applicability to a form of readings on a series of dial (Speedometer of a car) or a graph on strip chart.
particular problem is a function of its design rather than to a stored program. The
Digital Computers: A Digital Computer, as its name implies, digital computers counts digits,
instructions that control it are built directly into the computer, which makes for a more
which represent numbers, letters or other special symbols. This type of Computer operate
efficient and effective operation. They perform only one function and therefore cut down on
on inputs which are ON-OFF type and its output is also in the form of ON-OFF signal.
the amount of memory needed and also the amount of information which can be input into
Normally, an ON is represented by a 1 and an OFF is represented by a 0. In this way, the
them. As these computers have to perform only one task, therefore, they are fast in
computers based on binary digits i.e. 0 and 1 are called digitals computer. So we can say that
processing. A drawback of this specialization, however, is the computer’s lack of versatility. It
cannot be used to perform other operations.
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digital computers process information which is based on the presence or the absence of an laptop or a microcontroller in mobile & embedded systems.The four basic types of
electrical charge or we prefer to say a binary 1 or 0. computers are as under:

A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non-numeric data. It Supercomputer
can perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
also logical operations. Most of the computers available today are digital computers. The
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
most common examples of digital computers are accounting machines and calculators.
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like NASA
The results of digital computers are more accurate than the results of analog uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for space
computers. Analog computers are faster than digital. Analog computers lack memory exploration purpose.The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
whereas digital computers store information. We can say that digital computers count and accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an entire
analog computers measures. building.Seymour Cray designed the first Supercomputer "CDC 6600" in 1964. CDC 6600 is
known as the first ever Supercomputer.
Hybrid Computers
Uses of Supercomputers
A hybrid is a combination of digital and analog computers. It combines the best features of
both types of computers, i-e. It has the speed of analog computer and the memory and In Pakistan Supercomputers are used by Educational Institutes like NUST for research
accuracy of digital computer. Hybrid computers are used mainly in specialized applications purposes. Pakistan Atomic Energy commission & Heavy Industry Taxila uses supercomputers
where both kinds of data need to be processed. Therefore, they help the user, to process for Research purposes.
both continuous and discrete data. For example a petrol pump contains a processor that
Space Exploration: Supercomputers are used to study the origin of the universe, the dark-
converts fuel flow measurements into quantity and price values. In hospital Intensive Care
matters. For these studies scientist use IBM’s powerful supercomputer “Roadrunner” at
Unit (ICU), an analog device is used which measures patient's blood pressure and
National Laboratory Los Alamos.
temperature etc, which are then converted and displayed in the form of digits. Hybrid
computers for example are used for scientific calculations, in defense and radar systems. Earthquake studies: Supercomputers are used to study the Earthquakes phenomenon.
Besides that supercomputers are used for natural resources exploration, like natural gas,
Based on Size:
petroleum, coal, etc.
Since the advent of the first computerdifferent types and sizes of computers are offering
Weather Forecasting: Supercomputers are used for weather forecasting, and to study the
different services. Computers can be as big as occupying a large building and as small as a
nature and extent of Hurricanes, Rainfalls, windstorms, etc.

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Nuclear weapons testing: Supercomputers are used to run weapon simulation that can test The computer that uses microprocessor for processing data are called Microcomputer.
the Range, accuracy & impact of Nuclear weapons. Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all
types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing
Mainframe computer:
computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers.
Mainframe computers are extremely powerful and large computers that have the capacity The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment, education
to process the activity of multiple users at one time as they use more than thousands and work purposes. Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple,
terminal that allow thousand person to seat and perform different types of work. It is not as Samsung, Sony and Toshiba.Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation
powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are quite expensive nonetheless, and many system of a car, Netbooks, Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all
large firms & government organizations uses Mainframes to run their business operations. type of Microcomputers.
The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms because of
Based on Brand:
its size. Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity,
Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data. Banks educational institutions & IBM PC:
insurance companies use mainframe computers to store data about their customers,
students & insurance policy holders. Popular Mainframe computers are Fujitsu’s ICLVME and It stands for International Business Machine Personal Computer and developed by IBM

Hitachi’s Z800. Company. The computers manufactured by IBM (International Business Machine) company
are called IBM computers.It is commonly known as the IBM PC. IBM Company is the one of
Minicomputer:
the first leading company that manufactured computer. These computers use the
Minicomputers are used by small businesses & firms. Minicomputers are also called as processors, multimedia devices and other hardware parts developed by IBM itself and other
“Midrange Computers”. These computers also use more than fifty terminal to attach companies. IBM PC are generally expensive than compatibles. It was founded by a team of
peripherals and allow to work accordingly. It is small machine and can be accommodated on engineers and designers in 1924. It has given the new technology on the basis of Charles
a disk with not as processing and data storage capabilities as super-computers &
Babbage principal.
Mainframes. These computers are not designed for a single user. Individual departments of
a large company or organizations use Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a IBM compatible:

production department can use Mini-computers for monitoring certain production process. The term compatible means 'Able to exist together and successfully'. The Computers

Microcomputer developed on the principle of IBM computers are called IBM Compatible. These computers
use standard hardware and software designed for the IBM PC and its own additional

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features.It can perform all the tasks that an IBM computer does. They are less expensive These models were built after 1990s and mostly used in laptopswhich is rechargeable and
than original (IBM) computers. battery based system.OS/2 (an operating system introduced in 1987 by IBM and
the Microsoft Corporation for personal computers) operating system was used at the
Apple/Mac:
beginning but today Windows operating system is leading.
The personal computers developed by Apple Corporation are called Apple/Macintosh
Classification based on size and capability
computers. These computers are totally different from IBM's. Not only the hardware but
also software, operating system and other peripherals are completely different than IBM Personal computer:
and IBM compatible computers. Software made by IBM can't run in Macintosh or vice-verse.
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
Most of the users of the world have IBM PC than these computers but Apple has its own
In price,personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five
users, mostly people interested in graphic works, documentation and publishing sectors.
thousand pounds. All are basedon the microprocessor technology that enables
Based on Models: manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businessesuse personal computers for
word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheetand database
XT Computers:
management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for
XT (Extra Technology) computers are the most old technology computers having slow playinggames and recently for surfing the Internet.Personal computers first appeared in the
processing speed.These computers were totally based on text based system.I/O devices late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computerswas the Apple II,
were not flexible and faster.It cannot support GUI based operating system like Windows. Its introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, newmodels
processing speed is 4.77 MHz and Intel 8080, 8086, 8088 series of microprocessors is used. and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the

AT Computers: fray withits first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the
personal computer ofchoice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the
AT (Advanced Technology) computers are the newest technology computers which are
wayside. P.C. is short for personalcomputer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive
faster in speed and can run any type of software either text based or GUI based.Complex
IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, whichremains a major player in the personal
and long processing can be done depending on the capacity of the computers.I/O devices
computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance building IBM clones,
are flexible and reliable too. Its speed is 2 GHz and word length 64 bits. Its processors are
computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but thatcost less. Because
Intel series of 80286, 80386, Pentium II etc.
IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running

PS/2 Computers: thesame software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the

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evolution of PCs.Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly whereas tower model computers are narrow andtall. Because of their shape, desktop model
came to mean IBM or IBMcompatiblepersonal computers, to the exclusion of other types of computers are generally limited to three internal mass storagedevices. Desktop models
personal computers, such as Macintoshes.Inrecent years, the term PC has become more and designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slim line models.
more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it appliestoany personal computer based on
Laptop computer:A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap.
an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. Fornearlyevery
Nowadays, laptop computers are morefrequently called notebook computers.
other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which
Notebook computer:An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers
fallunderthe rubric of PC.
typically weigh less than 6 pounds andare small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from
Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple Macintoshes and size, the principal difference between a notebookcomputer and a personal computer is the
PCs. Theprincipal characteristics of personal computers are that they are single-user systems display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques,known as flat-panel
and are based onmicroprocessors. However, although personal computers are designed as technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality ofnotebook
single-user systems, it is commonto link them together to form a network. In terms of display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook
power, there is great variety. At the high end, thedistinction between personal computers computers arenearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory
and workstations has faded. High-end models of the Macintosh andPC offer the same capacity, and disk drives.However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun computers cost about twice as much asequivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook
Microsystems,Hewlett-Packard, and DEC. computers come with battery packs that enable you to runthem without plugging them in.
However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.
Personal Computer Types
Subnotebook computer:A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-
Tower model: The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and
sized notebook computer. Typically,subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and
mass storage devices are stackedon top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to
screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebookcomputers.
desktop models, in which these components arehoused in a more compact box. The main
advantage of tower models is that there are fewer spaceconstraints, which makes Hand-held computer:A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand.
installation of additional storage devices easier. Although extremely convenient to carry,handheld computers have not replaced notebook
computers because of their small keyboards and screens.The most popular hand-held
Desktop model:A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the
computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personalinformation
monitor sitting on top of thecomputer. Desktop model computers are broad and low,
manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying
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tosolve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. Wearable computer: The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn on the
However, these penbaseddevices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For example pace
still in their infancy. Hand-heldcomputersare also called PDAs,palmtops and pocket maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.
computers.
Workstation:
Palmtop:A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers,
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
palmtops are severelylimited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone
software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of
books and calendars. Palmtops that use apen rather than a keyboard for input are often
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally
called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their smallsize, most palmtop computers
come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network
do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in whichyou can insert disk
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device
drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-
such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes
heldcomputers and pocket computers.
without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and
PDA:Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines computing, Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers.
telephone/fax, andnetworking features. A typical PDA can function as a cellular phone, fax However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although
sender, and personal organizer.Unlike portable computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using they can also be used as stand-alone systems. N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any
a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. Thismeans that they also incorporate handwriting computer connected to a local-area network. It could be a workstation or a personal
recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to voice inputby using voice recognition computer.
technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, whichintroduced the Computer System& Components
Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers offered A system is a group of interrelated components that interact one to another to perform a
similarproducts. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the marketplace, due to specific task. It is assembled from different parts or components and these components are
their high price tags andlimited applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will interrelated in such way to achieve one or more common goal. A computer system properly
eventually become common gadgets.PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers works only when all of the components complete their assigned task. The failure of any
and pocket computers. components of computer system tends to failure of whole system.

A computer system is a combination of all functional components (Hardware,

software, firmware and human ware) of computer and its associated hardware that works

16 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

together to achieve a common goal. It is basically made of Input Unit, by which data can be receive data and instruction in order to solve any problem. Therefore, we need to inputthe
fetched to the computer, Central Processing Unit, which performs all arithmetical operation data and instructions into the computers. The input unit consists of one or more input
(addition, subtraction, multiplication and division) and Logical operation (comparison devices. Keyboardis the one of the most commonly used input device. Other commonly used
between two or more variables and expressions) and Output Unit, which display the result input devices are the mouse,
of these processed information.
Joystick, scanner, microphone etc. All the input devices perform the following functions.
A basic concept or operation of computer system is Input, Process Output and storage.
 Accept the data and instructions from the user.
A Block diagram of Computer System  Convert it to a form that the computer can understand.
 Supply the converted data to the computer system for further processing.

Processing Unit:

The Central Processing Unit is the core component and the brain of any computer
system. In a computer system all major calculations and comparisons are made inside the
CPU. The CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units
of a computer system. The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of computer system are
jointly known as the Central Processing Unit. While the control unittakes care of the flow of
data from input unit to storage unit and the flowof final results to the output unit, the
arithmetic logic unit is the place where the actual execution of instructions taking place
during theprocessing operation. Mainly it has three section units:

ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit):It is the primary area of microprocessor where various
Input
computing functions are performed. It performs all the arithmetic operations like addition,
Unit:
subtraction multiplication, division.Comparing between two digits (binary digit) on the basis
Comp of "ON" and "OFF" state representing True and False conditions.And logical operation like
uters OR, AND, NOT, NOR etc. performed by this unit.
need
Control Unit:It controls the overall operation of the computer system. It is considered as the
to
heart of the computer system. It controls all the other units, directs them to operate in a

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proper way andco-ordinates various operations performed. It instructs the input device to  Primary memory: Stores and provides data very fast. This memory is generally used
transfer the data and instructions to the main memory andthen to the arithmetic and logic to hold the program being currently executed in the computer, the data being
unit (ALU). Then, it sends the processed result from ALU to thememory unit for storage and received from the input unit, the intermediate and final results of the program. The
transfers it to the visual display unit or to the ' printer. The control unit coordinates the primary memory is temporary in nature. The data is lost, when the computer is
various parts of the computer system - the arithmeticlogic unit, the memory unit and the switched off. In order to store the data permanently, the data has to be transferred
peripheral units. Besides, it controls the flow of data into, from and within the main storage to the secondary memory. Very small portion of primary storage memory is
as per the program instructions. permanent is nature eg. ROM which holds the data permanent even if power off.
The cost of the primary storage is more or compared to the secondary storage.
To perform its control operations effectively and quickly, the control unit has four
Therefore most computers have limited primary storage capacity.
basiccomponents. They are
 Secondary Storage: Secondary storage is used like an archive. It stores several
(a) Instruction Register (b) Decoder (c) Address Register and programs, documents, data bases etc. The programs that you run on the computer

(d) Instruction Counter are first transferred to the primary memory before it is actually run. Whenever the
results are saved, again they get stored in the secondary memory. The secondary
The instruction register receives one by one the instructions to be executed in the
memory is slower and cheaper than the primary memory. Some of the commonly
requiredsequence. Then, the operation code of the instructions is transferred to decoder,
used secondary memory devices are Hard disk, CD, etc.,
which decodes the operation code. And it activates the appropriate circuits of the arithmetic
and logic unit toperform the operation. The address register enables the data in the location Output Unit:

specified in the instruction to be transferred to a specified accumulator for the arithmetic The output unit of a computer system provides the information and results of a computation
and logic unit. to outside in the form of text, picture and sound.Printers, Monitor (VDU), speaker are the

Register:A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPUin commonly used output devices. Other commonly used outputdevices are floppy disk drive,

order to store the current data and instructions which are being executed by the CPU. hard disk drive, and magnetic tape drive.

Memory Unit:The storage unit of the computer holds data and instructions that are entered How does CPU work?

through the input unit, beforethey are processed. It preserves the intermediate and final The CPU does work in the coordination of three section unit Cu (control unit), ALU
results before these are sent to the output devices.It also saves the data for the later use. (arithmetical and Logical unit) and MU (Memory unit). The steps are following:
The various storage devices of a computer system are divided intotwo categories.
At first

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  CU receives instruction from input device and stores them into RAM.  Instruction set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.
 The CU controls the flow of the data inside the computer.  Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction is termed as
 The CU checks the input instruction stored into RAM to see if any bandwidth.
calculation/comparisons are required or not. If it requires then CU sends the data  Clock speed: The instruction speed is measured on the basis of clock speed. The
into ALU section where it performs the required calculation and comparison. clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can
 The CU retrieves the result from ALU and stores them into RAM while processing is execute.It is also called Clock Rate.Every computer contains an internal clock that
undertaken by CPU. regulates the rate at which instructions are executed and synchronizes the various
 When processing is complete the CU retrieves the final result from RAM and sends computer components.The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can
them to an output to the user. execute per second. Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz

 The output can be seen by from an output while it is being held by RAM. (GHz). The microprocessors of personal computers have clock speeds ofanywhere

 At last, the user stores that output into secondary storage for future reference. from 300 MHz to over 3.8 GHz.

Microprocessor In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that executes at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-
A processor, or "microprocessor," is a single small chip of silicon that resides in every heart
bit microprocessor that runs at 25MHZ.
of computers and other electronic devices. . It is a device that performs all of the
essential functions of a computer central processor unit and allows a computer to work.  Frequency: Abbreviation for megahertz. The CPU frequency is measured in Hertz.
One MHz represents one million cycles per second. The speed of
The microprocessor is one type of ultra-large-scale integrated circuit also known as
microprocessors, called the clock speed, is measured in megahertz. For example,
microchips or chips, are complex electronic circuits consisting of extremely tiny components
a microprocessor that runs at 200 MHz executes 200 million cycles per second.
formed on a single, thin, flat piece of material known as a semiconductor. Modern
Each computerinstruction requires a fixed number of cycles, so the clock speed
microprocessors incorporate transistors (which act as electronic amplifiers, oscillators, or,
determines how many instructions per second the microprocessor can execute.
most commonly, switches), in addition to other components such as resistors, diodes,
To a large degree, this controls how powerful the microprocessor is. Another
capacitors, and wires, all packed into an area about the size of a postage stamp.The first
chief factor in determining a microprocessor's power is its data width (that is,
microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced by Ted Hoff and Stanley Mazorin 1971. The
how many bits it can manipulate at one time).
4004 was not very powerful -- all it could do was add and subtract, and it could only do that
4 bits. The CPU frequency is measured in Hertz. The frequency can also be expressed in:

The basic characteristics of Microprocessor are:  Kilohertz, or KHz, equals to 1,000 Hertz

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  Megahertz, or MHz, equals to 1,000,000 Hertz or 1,000 kHz As a result of improvement in fabrication technology, VLSI,electronic circuitry has
 Gigahertz, or GHz, equals to 1,000,000,000 Hertz, or 1,000,000 kHz, or 1,000 become so dense that a minute silicon chip can contain hundred and thousands
MHz. of transistors.

 First microprocessors ran at frequencies close to 1 MHz. Modern  Power Consumption: Another important feature is its low power consumption.
microprocessors run at frequencies exceeding 3 GHz, or 3,000,000,000 Hertz. Microprocessors are normally manufactured by Metal-Oxide semiconductor

 Word Length: It depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers, ALU etc. technology, which has the feature of low power consumption.

An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8 bit data at a time. A processor with longer  Versatility:The microprocessors are versatile.Keeping the same basic hardware, a
word length is more powerful and can process data at a faster speed as microprocessor-based system can beconfigured for a number of applications by
compared to processor with shorter word length. The word length ranges from 4 simply altering the software program.
bits for small microprocessor, to 64 bits for high-end microcomputers.  Reliability:Another important property of microprocessors is its extreme
 Width of Data Bus: This is the size of the data bus. It defines the number of bits reliability.It has been established that the failure rate of an IC is fairly uniform at
that can be transferred through data bus. the package level, regardless of its complexity.

 Width of Address Bus: This parameter decides the memory addressing capability  Micron: A unit of length equal to one millionth of a meter. It is denoted by µ
of the microprocessor. The maximum size of the memory unit is decided by this (Mu). For Example: If we pluck a hair from the head, it is very thin.
parameter. But a hair is more than 2000 times wider than a transistor on a

 Input/output Addressing Capability: The maximum number of the input/output microprocessor.Wires between transistors are even thinner.They're more than
ports accessed by the microprocessor depends upon the width of the 4000 times thinner than a hair.A hair is about 100 microns in diameter.That
input/output address provided in the input/output instruction. means, a transistor is just 0.045 microns wide.

 Data Types: The microprocessor handles various types of data formats like Example of Microprocessor:

binary, BCD, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.  8086, 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486
 Pentium Series: Pentium-I, Pentium-II, Pentium-III
Features of Microprocessor
 Dual Core, Core 2 duo
 Cost: The most important feature of a microcomputer is its low cost.Because of  Core Series: Core i3, Core i5, Core i7
the widespread use of microprocessors, the volume of production is very high. Core Processor: A standard processor has one core (single-core.) Single core processors only
That is why, microprocessor chips are available at fairly low prices. process one instruction at a time (although they do use pipelines internally, which allow
 Size: The second important feature of a microprocessor is its small size. several instructions to be processed together; however, they are still run one at a time.)
Multi-Core Processor:
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A multi-core processor is composed of two or more independent cores, each capable of a dual core version series of Core Duo. Any dual core is better than regular Core Duo.
processing individual instructions. A dual-core processor contains two cores, a quad-core Mostly only laptops really use Core Duo. There are a few desktops that use Core Duo,
processor contains four cores, and a hexa-core processor contains six cores. but it's not a very strong processor. The Core 2 Duo is an awesome processor and is
Multiple cores can be used to run two programs side by side and when an intensive program blowing a lot of things out of the water.
is running (AV Scan, Video conversion, CD ripping etc.) you can utilize another core to run
A few years ago, Intel's best processor was the Pentium 4. It had one processor
your browser to check your email etc.
inside of it. Then, Intel put two of those into one package to make a dual core processor.
Multiple cores really shine when you’re using a program that can utilize more than one core
This merely means that there are two cores on one processor.
(called Parallelization) to improve the program’s efficiency. Programs such as graphic
So there were two Pentium 4's inside the processor. A little less than two years ago,
software, games etc. can run multiple instructions at the same time and deliver faster,
Intel introduced a new processor. It was a much more efficient design, and it came with
smoother results.
two cores in one package by itself. Instead of putting two different processors in one
So if you use CPU-intensive software, multiple cores will likely provide a better experience
package, it was just built like that natively. These new processors, called the Core 2.
when using your PC. If you use your PC to check emails and watch the occasional video, you
really don’t need a multi-core processor. Since the introduction of the Core 2 Duos, there have been a few less powerful

How many cores do i3, i5, and i7′s have? processors introduced, that were slightly different and at a lower price, but still based

 A Dual-core processor has two cores. on the same architecture. So, they were still dual core processors, but not necessarily a

 A Quad-core processor has four cores. Core 2 Duo. These less expensive processors typically had a smaller amount of cache,

 An i3 processor has 2 cores. and a lower Front Side Bus standard.

 An i5 processor has 2 or 4 cores (depending on the model you have) Core i3, i5 and i7
 An i7 processor has 2, 4 or 6 cores (depending on the model you have)
Generally if we say, Core i7s are better than Core i5s, which are in turn better than Core
Dual core vsCore2 Duo
i3s. Core i7 does not have seven cores nor does Core i3 have three cores. The numbers
Dual Core & Core 2 duo both are the one and the same. AMD advertise their dual cores
are simply indicative of their relative processing powers. Their relative levels of
as such. Intel give there is a fancy logo to try and distinguish itself from other
processing power are based on a collection of criteria involving their number of cores,
manufacturers nothing more.
clock speed (in GHz), size of cache, as well as Intel technologies like Turbo Boost and
Dual core processors are processors of any brand and model type that have two
Hyper-Threading.
logical cores within the processor itself, as though it's two processors in one. Examples
would be AMD X2's or Intel Pentium D's. Core Duo is a specific model series of Number of cores
processors made by Intel. There is now a release of "Core 2 Duo" series by Intel which is
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 The more cores there are, the more tasks (known as threads) can be served at the same Read and Write Operations
time. The lowest number of cores can be found in Core i3 CPUs, i.e., which have only
A unique address is assigned to each word so that it can be moved in and out of the
two cores. Currently, all Core i3s are dual-core processors.
memory. This address is used to determine the memory location in which a given word
Currently all Core i5 processors, except for the i5-4570T, are quad cores in Australia. The is to be stored. This is called memory write operation. Similarly the address is used to
Core i5-4570T is only a dual-core processor with a standard clock speed of 2.9GHz. determine the memory location from which a word is to be retrieved from the memory.
Remember that all Core i3s are also dual cores. This is called memory read operation. The CPU performs both read and write
operations.
Model Core i3 Core i5 Core i7
CPU performs the following steps to write a word into a memory location.
Number of cores 2 4 4
 It loads the word into the memory data register (MDR)
Hyper-threading Yes No Yes
 It loads the address of the memory location into the memory address register
Turbo boost No Yes Yes (MAR)

K model No Yes Yes  It issues a signal, write, to indicate that the word in MDR is to be stored in the
memory location whose address is in MAR

Memory The following steps are required to read a word from a memory location.

Memory is the essential element of a computer. It is a type of physical electronic device  CPU loads the address of the memory location into the memory address register
that is used to store applications and data, temporarily or permanently, as required by a (MAR)
computer and/or its user. Without its memory, a computer could not functionate.  It issues a signal, read, to indicate that the word whose address is in MAR is to be
Memory plays an important role in saving and retrieving data. The performance of the read into MDR
computer system depends upon the size of the memory.  The memory loads the required word into MDR

Memory Word Basically, there are two types of memory.

A memory unit stores group of binary information called words. Each word is stored in a  Primary Memory
memory register. A memory word contains n bits that moves in and out of storage unit.  Secondary Memory
It may be an operand, an instruction, a group of alphanumeric characters or any binary
Primary Memory:
coded information.
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 Primary memory, also known as main memory is the area in a computerthat a processor volatile in nature, which means that data will be erased once supply to the storage
or computer accesses data first or directly. It is volatile in nature means the data will be device is turned off. RAM stores data randomly and the processor accesses these data
erased once supply to the storage device is turned off. As soon as a computer starts, randomly from the RAM storage. The information stored in the RAM is typically loaded
primary memory stores all running applications, including the base operating system from the computer's hard disk, and includes data related to the operating system and
(OS), user interface and any user installed and running software utility. A certain applications. When the system is switched off, the RAM loses all stored
program/application that is opened in primary memory interacts with the system information. The data remains stored on secondary storage though, and can be retained
processor to perform all application specific tasks. It has different names; Main memory, when the system is running again. It is also called read/write memory. It has two types.
Volatile memory, Internal memory, temporary memory. It has two types:
 DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory): It is a most common type of memory
 RAM (Random Access memory) which is used in PC nowadays. Dynamic RAM contain a memory cell that holds one
 ROM (Read Only Memory) bit of information and is made up of two extremely small components; a transistor
RAM (Random Access memory): and a capacitor in such way so that they may fit on a single memory chip. The
capacitor holds the bit of information 0 or 1 and the transistor acts as a switch that
RAM is semiconductor material chip that allows computer to store and retrieve
lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or charge its state.
information randomly.
 Transistor: Transistor is made up of two words transfer and register. It is an
The first form of RAM came about in 1947 byWilliams tube which was based on cathode electronic component that contains has three terminal and made up of semi-
ray tube (CRT) and data was stored on the face of the CRT as electrically charged spots. conductor materials. It amplifies the electric signal or opens or closes the electric
circuit.
The second widely used form of RAM was magnetic-core memory, invented in 1947 by
 Capacitor:A Capacitor is a device that has two metal plates placed in parallel that
Frederick Viehe. Magnetic-core memory works through the use of tiny metal rings and
stores electric charge. It is like a bucket that stores electrons. To store a 1 in the
wires connecting to each ring. One bit of data could be stored per ring and accessed at
memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons and to store 0, it is emptied. The
any time.
negative point with capacitor bucket is that it has a leak. It means the bucket empty
Third we know it today, as solid state memory, was first invented in 1968 byRobert
after a few millisecond. Therefore, for DRAM to work, either the CPU or the memory
Dennard. Known specifically as dynamic random access memory, or DRAM, transistors
controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding a 1 before they
were used to store bits of data.
discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right

RAM is a memory scheme within the computer system responsible for storing data back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of time per second.

temporarily, so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor when needed. It is

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 SRAM (Static Random Access Memory): SRAM is different than DRAM in technology.S- in calculatorsand peripheral devices such as laser printers, whose fontsare often stored
RAM preserves stored information only as long as the power supply is on. It is expensive in ROMs. It has also different types.
but consume more power and have higher speed than D-RAM. They store information  PROM(Programmable Read Only memory):PROM stands for Programmable Read
in Hip-Hope. Only Memory. Initially, when new it is bank and preloaded with binary 1s. A blank
In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory PROM can then be programmed using a special device called ROM programmer or
cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. ROM burner. Each binary 1 bit can be thought of as a fuse (untouched or
This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has unburned). The PROM chips run at 5 volts so, higher voltage (normally 12 volts) are
more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic placed on the chip so that the chips may burn as 1 to 0. It is also called OTP (One
memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot time programmable) chips because 0 cannot be converted again to 1 and can be
more expensive. Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive programmed at once and never erased.
and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPU’s speedsensitive cache, while dynamic  EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):EPROM stands for Erasable
RAM forms the larger system RAM space. Programmable Read Only Memory. This type of ROM is also initially blank. The
manufacturer can write program or data on it by using special devices. EPROM chip
ROM (Read Only Memory):A Read Only Memory is one in which information is
can be erased by exposing ultraviolet rays (UV). The UV light ray erases the chip by
permanently stored and non-volatile in nature. It is used in all personal computer and
causing chemical reaction. Thus, any binary 0s in the chip turn to 1s and the chips
other electronic device.The data and instructions in ROM are stored by the
restored with new data.
manufacturer at the time of its manufacturing. This data and programs cannot be
 EEPROM(Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):
changed or deleted after wards. The data or instructions stored in ROM can only be read
EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This
but new data or instructions cannot be written into it. This is the reason why it is called
kind of ROM can be written or erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. So data
Read Only Memory.
stored in this type of ROM chip can be easily modified. An example of EEPROM,
It is used to store frequently used instructions and data to control the basic input & referred to as flash memory or flash EEPROM, can be rewritten while it is in the
output operations of the computer. Mostly, frequently used small programs like computer rather than requiring a special device called a PROM reader.
operating system routines and data, are stored into the ROM. When the computer is
Secondary Memory
switched on, instructions in the ROM are automatically activated. These instructions
help the booting process of computer. ROM is also known as a Firmware and the best Secondary Memory is the external and permanent memory of a computer. It is non-
example of ROM is BIOS (basic input output system).In addition, it is used extensively volatile in nature because the information stored in it does not erase automatically
when the power supply is off. It has huge storage capacity than the primary memory.

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 Usually its slower access than primary memory. It is also called Auxiliary, mass memory double-sided i.e. each platter has 2 sides to store data, and each side has its own
or device. Since the RAM is not permanent, a computer system requires secondary read/write head. So, if we've got 4 platters, we've probably got 8 heads.
memory to hold data and programs permanently. The CPU cannot directly access data
An internal hard drive contains two ports: one for data and the other for power. The
and programs of secondary memory. They first need to transfer into RAM before being
data port uses either a Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) or an Advanced
used. Most widely used secondary storage devices are magnetic tapes, magnetic disk
Technology Attachment (ATA) interface, which connects to the computer’s hard drive,
(Hard disk, floppy disk), optical disk (CD, DVD) and flash drive. These devices store data,
enabling communication with the motherboard. The power port is connected by a
information and programs permanently in the form of binary digits till we don’t erase
cable, which carries the power the hard drive needs from the computer's power supply.
them.
Function of internal
Magnetic Disk |Hard Disk
components of Hard disk
Hard disk drive (HDD) is a type of permanent secondary storage memory or device
 Actuator that moves
which is fixed disk of all personal computer. It stores large volume of data as operating
the read-write arm. In
system, application and different type of files. In other words, it is a disk where all files
older hard drives, the
and data are stored permanently. The first time, the hard disk of 5 MB was developed
actuators were stepper
by IBM in 13 September 1956. It comes in variety range of storage capacity. Nowadays,
motors. In most
it is available in 1 Terra Byte (TB). There are two types of hard disks use for pc. First, in
modern hard
the computer internally which is fixed and other external is pluggable having USB ports.
drives, voice coils are
An external hard drive, so knows as external HDD or portable hard disk, is a storage
used instead. As their
device which can be connected to different computers via USB cable or wireless
name suggests, these are simple
connection for data storage, data backup or data transferring. An external hard drive
electromagnets, working rather
usually has high storage capacities and it is convenient to use.
like the moving coils that make
A hard disk from outside is nothing but a sealed box made of aluminumwith sounds in loudspeakers. They
the recording heads, and connected to a computer's bus through position the read-write arm
a controller or interface card.The hard disk contains one or more metallic circular plate more quickly, precisely, and
called platter which is coded with magnetic oxide from both side. These platters reliably than stepper motors and
typically spin at 3,600 or 7,200 rpm when the disk is operating. Each platter is usually

25 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

 are less sensitive to problems such as temperature variations. of hard drive. For example, if the cluster size was 8k and a 2k file is stored on the
 Read-write arm swings read-write head back and forth across platter. computer, 6k of that cluster will go to waste.
 Central spindle allows platter to rotate at high speed. Types of Hard Disk

 Magnetic platter stores information in binary form. There are two types of hard disk;SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) and PATA

 Plug connections link hard drive to circuit board in personal computer. (Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment) .It refer to the interface that is used for

 Read-write head is a tiny magnet on the end of the read-write arm. connecting the hard drive to our computer’s motherboard. By interface

 Circuit board on underside controls the flow of data to and from the platter. we mean, the way in which components are connected to our computer

 Flexible connector carries data from circuit board to read-write head and platter. and simply mean the electrical connections that are used in connecting

 Small spindle allows read-write arm to swing across platter. the hard drive and the computer. The computers of the present days will

 Track, Sectors and Clusters have either a 3.5 inch SATA or 3.5 inch PATA hard drives working in your

The Hard disk platter has set of computer.

concentric rings (technically Here are the main differentiating factors between the olderPATA and newer SATA.

called a "track") which are used

to store the data and each head
reads from one of these
concentric rings on the cylinder.
There can be more than a
thousand tracks on a 3.5-inch
hard disk. Further these track
are divided into number of
sector. A sector is the smallest physical storage unit on the disk. A sector stores 512
bytes of data because 512 is a power of 2 (2 to the power of 9). The number 2 is
used because there are two states in the most basic of computer languages on and Floppy Disk
off.
A cluster or file allocation unit is the smallest managed section of a hard drive that A floppy disk is a portable storage device that stores data permanently. The floppy disk drive
holds a file. The size of a hard drive cluster can vary by operating system and size is used to read and write data on a floppy disk. Floppy disk may be mini floppy disk or micro

26 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

floppy disk. The storage capacity of a Micro Floppy disk is 1.44 MB (Mega Byte) and of a Mini for system backups and regular archiving of files and records. Tape drives are capable of

floppy disk is 1.2 MB. Floppy disk gets damaged easily. So, nowadays it is not used. Floppy backing up a couple hundred megabytes to several gigabytes of data.

disk is a thin plastic disk coated with magnetic material for storage of data or information. Optical Disk

Floppy disk has a hard outer covering. Floppy disk is inserted into the disk drive while saving Before understanding optical disk, we need to know what the actual optical meaning is.

information into it or copying files into it. Thus, the file can be transferred into other Biologically, Optical means vision or ability to see and so as in the computer as optical that

computer. means LASER meaning to see that reads data on optical disk using laser beam of light. All the

The first floppy disks were created in 1969, the same year the Internet had its origin. These optical disks stores information in the form of pits and lands. Pits are raised bumps on the

disks were 8 inches in diameter and were read-only, like a CD-ROM, meaning no data could bottom surface of the disc, and lands are spaces between the pits. Pits and lands are

be written to them by the user. The first 8 inch disks only held 80KB of data, but later equivalent to the 0s and 1s that make up the digital binary language of computers. Drive

versions could hold as much as 800KB. reads the pits and lands by using a laser and a sensor. It is also called removable storage or

In 1978, a 5.25 inch disk was introduced, which could hold a whopping 360KB of data. Later media. First time in 1990, the optical disk was developed and replaced using floppy disks.

revisions of the 5.25 inch floppy disk could store 1.2MB. These disks were used in early The optical drives have the following types:

desktop PCs, such as the Apple. In 1987, the 3.5 inch HD (high density) floppy disk was  CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

released, which could hold 1.44MB after being formatted. These disks were a little more  CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWritable)

durable than the 5.25 inch disks and were also more portable. For the next decade, the 3.5  DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory)

inch floppy disk became the standard means of distributing commercial software titles and  DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable)

backing up personal data.  Blue-Ray Disc

Magnetic tape Before understanding different types of optical disks, let's take a few moment to the

Magnetic tape is a type of permanent physical storage media that stores different kinds of following:

data.It is also called tape drive which works similar to a tape recorder or a VCR. A plastic CD|DVD R +R -R

tape ribbon is coated with magnetic particles which are polarized by a magneticfield  R:The ‘R’ itself stands for Recordable. Hence a disk without the R cannot be

generated by the read/write head. It is sequential access and slower types of disk and used recorded onto.

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  -R:The Minus marked media is a Single Session Media. Meaning that we cannot add 650 MB of data whereas DVD-ROM has larger capacity and can store 4.7 GB of data. It also

more data to the disk once the burning has locked it (even if there is room for comes in –R and +R marked. There are four different DVD sizes:

more). Some systems are able to do a multisession on the -R disks (like DVD  DVD-5: It holds 4.7GB and is supported by the DVD+R/RW and DVD-R/RW formats.

Recorders) but not all systems are designed to read these extra sessions. Usually It is also known as Single-Sided Single Layer.

only the first (or none) will be readable on other media players.  DVD-9:It holds 8.5GB and is supported by the DVD+R and DVD-R formats. It is also

known as Single-Sided Double Layer (sometimes called Dual Layer).

 + R: The Plus marked media is intended for multi-sessions. Meaning that we can
 DVD-10: It holds 8.75GB and is supported by the DVD+R/RW and DVD-R/RW
add data to the disk later. We don’t have to fill it up all at once but can use it as a
formats. It is also known as Double-Sided Single Layer.
backup media to add files over a period of time.
 DVD-18: It holds 15.9GB and is supported by the DVD+R format. It is also known as

CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory):It is a kind of optical disk in which data can Double-Sided Double Layer (or Double-Sided Dual Layer).

be stored permanently. It holds the data the capacity of 700 MB. But we can store DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable): Stands for "Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable." A

between 650 to 700 or about 650 MB of data. The CD-ROM comes in two session. CD-R DVD-RW is like a CD-RW that reads and writes CD and DVD both. DVD-RW must be erased in

and CD+ R. Here, R refers to recordable meaning that the CD which has –R mark cannot order write new data.

add data later because once the data stored (full or less) the burning has locked. So, it is Blue-Ray Disc: Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a new optical disc format jointly developed

also called one time recordable disk. Likewise, the CD with +R mark can add more data by the Blu-ray Disc Association (BDA), a group of the world's leading consumer electronics,

later or multisession disk. personal computer and media manufacturers (including Apple, Dell, Hitachi, HP, JVC, LG,

CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWritable):CD-Rewritable is a type of disk in which data can be Mitsubishi, Panasonic, Pioneer, Philips, Samsung, Sharp, Sony, TDK and Thomson). The

written multiple times by a special tool CD burner (Nero Express, Ratio). The data format was developed to enable recording, rewriting and playback of high-definition video

burned on a CD-RW can be erased every time we write new data. Therefore, we have to (HD), as well as storing large amounts of data. The format offers more than five times the

completely erase a CD-RW every time we want to change the files or add new data. storage capacity of traditional DVDs and can hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc and 50GB

DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk Read Only Memory):Digital versatile disc or video disc- on a dual-layer disc. This extra capacity combined with the use of advanced video and audio

read only memory is a same as the CD-ROM. But the difference is that the CD-ROM can store codecs will offer consumers an unprecedented HD experience.

Flash Memory or Drive

28 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

Flash memory is a type of non-volatile memory designed to store the data and information Peripheral Devices

permanently. It is developed on Electrically Erasable programmable Read only memory Peripheral device is a device which is connected to pc from external side and allow to put

(EEPROM) technology first time in 1980 by FujioMasuoka. It is plug and play features having information into and get information out of computer. Keyboard, mouse, printer, scanner

USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. It is very popular for a wide array of applications such as etc. are the examples of peripheral devices. There are two type of it; Input device and

digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, PDAs (personal digital assistants), digital output devices.

audio players and solid-state drives (SSDs). It is available in different range of size. Input devices

MicroSD: A type of flash memory or card generally referred to as a T- Keyboard

Flash or TransFlash, MicroSD is a small removable flash memory card that was first Keyboard is the most popular and widely used device for entering data and instructions in a

developed by SanDisk on July 13, 2005. It is the smallest removable flash memory cards, computersystem. A keyboard is similar to the keyboard of a typewriter.A keyboard has

range in available sizes of 128 MB to 16 GB and more, often used with cell phones for storing alphabets, digits, special characters and some control keys. A keyboard also has

data like picture and music. cursorcontrol keys and function keys. Function keys allow user to enter frequently used

Memory Stick:Memory Stick is a type of flash memory developed by Sony which is used to operations in a singlekeystroke, and cursor - control keys can be used to select displayed

store data for digital cameras, camcorders, and other kinds of electronics. It is available in objects. Some of the special keys ona keyboard are given below:

two versions: Memory Stick PRO and Memory Stick PRO Duo. Memory Stick PRO cards are  Arrow Keys - To move the cursor in the top, down, left and right direction in a

50mm long by 21.5mm wide and are 2.8mm thick. Memory Stick PRO Duo cards are 31mm document.

long by 20mm wide and are only 1.6mm thick. Both versions are available in 8 GB, 16 GB and  Backspace key - To delete the character on the left of the cursor.

32 GB range of storage. High-speed versions of Memory Stick media support data transfer  Caps Lock - To capitalize letters

rates up to 80Mbps, or 10 MB/sec, which is fast enough record high-quality digital video.  Del - To delete the character from the current position of the cursor.

USB Pen Drive: It is one of the most popular permanent, portable and removable flash drive  End - To move the cursor to the end of the line.

that can store the data in gigabyte. Flash drives have many names asjump drives, thumb  Enter - To start a new paragraph in a document.

drives, pen drives, and USB keychain drives, data traveler. It is very simple to plug and play  Esc - To cancel a command.

because it comes in USB interface and could be simple interfaced with all USB compatible  Home - To move the cursor to the beginning of the line.

PC.

29 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

  Shift - To type the special characters above the numeric keys or to change the case no matter

of the ofalphabet. whattheuserdoes.Thejoystickcanmoverightorleft,forwardorbackward.Itmovesinthatdirection

 Space bar - To enter a space. atagivenspeed,controlledbythesupervisorfromaswitchunderneath.

 Tab - To enter multiple spaces between two words in a document. Scanner

Mouse A scanner is also refer to as image scanner. It is an input device that optically scans images,

A mouse is a pointing device. It is used to position the cursor on the screen. A mouse can be printed text, handwritten text or an object, and converts it to a digital image. Common

cursor click.The mouse can be used to drag and drop objects on the screen. examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scanner where the

There are two main kinds of mouse and they do this job in two different ways, either using a document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, where the device is

rolling rubber ball (in a ball-mechanical mouse) or by bouncing a light off our desk (in an moved by the hand, have evolved from text scanning used for industrial design, reverse

optical mouse).The mouse has two buttons, while some may have additional buttons, or engineering, test and measurement, gaming and other applications.

even a wheel between the buttons for scrolling up and down through the information on the Track Ball

screen. Nowadays, wireless mouse is also available. A trackball is also a pointing device. It consists of a ball which is fitted on a box. The ball can

Joystick be rotated with the figures or palm of the hand to move the cursor on the screen. The

A Joystick is a device used in video games. It is also a pointing device, which is used to move amount and direction of rotations can be detected by the potentiometers which are

the cursor position on the screen. A joystick consists of a small, vertical liver fitted on a base. attached to the ball. Track balls are generally fitted on keyboards. Before the advent of the

This lever is used to move the cursor on the screen. The screen-cursor movement in any touchpad, small trackballs were common on portable computers, where there may be no

particular direction is measured by the distance that the stick is shifted desk space on which to run a mouse.The trackball was invented by Tom Cranston and Fred

ormovedfromitscenterposition.The Long staff as part of the Royal Canadian Navy’s system in 1952, eleven years before the

amountofmovementismeasuredbythepotentiometersthatarepluggedatthebaseofthejoystick. mouse was invented.

Whenthestickisreleased,aspringbrings it Magnetic Tablet (DIGITIZER)

backtoitscenterposition.Ajoystickhasaclick,doubleclickanddrag switch A magnetic tablet is also known as - digitizer, digitizing tablet, graphics tablet, graphics pad

inputs.Whenwepushthestick,thecursordoesnotgoflying, or drawingtablet. These tablets may also be used to capture data or handwritten signature.

It can also be used to tracean image from a piece of paper which it taped or otherwise

30 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

secured to the surface. Capturing data in thisway, either by tracing or entering the corners of generally distinguished from OCR by the fact that a complicated pattern recognition engine

linear polylines or shapes is called digitizing. is not required. One of the most familiar application of OMR is the use of HB pencil bubble

Optical Recognition optical answer sheets in multiple choice question examinations.

Optical recognition occurs when a device scans a printed surface and translates the image Optical Bar Recognition (OBR) or Bar Code Reader:

thescanner sees into a machine-readable format that is understandable by the computer. It is slightly more sophisticated type of optical recognition. The bar codes are the vertical

The three types ofoptical recognition devices are as follows- zebra-striped marks you see on most manufactured retail products-every candy to cosmetics

 Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to comic books. The usual bar-code system in use is called the Universal Product Code (UPC).

 Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) Bar codes represent data, such as name of the manufacturers and the type of product, the

 Optical Bar Recognition (OBR) code is interpreted on the basis of the width of the lines rather than the location of the bar

Optical Character Recognition (OCR): code. The barcode does not have the price of the product. Bar code readers are

An OCR is the mechanical or electronic translation of scanned image of handwritten, photoelectric (optical) scanners that translates the symbols in the bar code into digital code.

typewritten or printed text into machine encoded text. It is widely used to convert books In this systems, the price of a particular item is set with in the store’s computer. Once the

and documents into electronics files, to computerize a record-keeping system in an office or bar code has been scanned the corresponding price appears on the sales clerk’s point-of-sale

to publish the text on a website. An OCR system require calibration to read a specific font, (POS) terminal and on your receipt.

some systems are capable of reproducing formatted output that closely approximates the Output Device

original scanned page including images and other non-textual components. An output device is a device which accepts results from the computer and displays them to

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): user. The outputdevice also converts the binary code obtained from the computer into

Many traditional OMR devices work with a dedicated scanner device that shines a beam of human readable form.

light onto the form paper. The contrasting reflectivity at predetermined positions on a page

is then utilized to detect the marked areas because they reflect less light than the blank

areas of the paper. Some OMR devices use forms which are pre-printed onto “trans optic”

paper and measure the amount of light which passes through the paper thus a mark on

either side of the paper will reduce the amount of light passing through the paper OMR is

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 Specifications

32 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

 Important specifications to consider when selecting microprocessor chips (MPU)
include:

 Data bus - Most microprocessor chips are available with an 8-bit, 16-bit, 24-bit, 32-bit,
64-bit, 128-bit, or 256-bit data bus.
 Microprocessor family - Products from many proprietary microprocessor families are
commonly available.
 Supply voltage - Supply voltages range from - 5 V to 5 V and include intermediate
voltages such as - 4.5 V, - 3.3 V, - 3 V, 1.2 V, 1.5 V, 1.8 V, 2.5 V, 3 V, 3.3 V, and 3.6 V.
 Clock speed - Clock speed, the frequency that determines how fast devices connected to
the system bus operate, is generally expressed in megahertz (MHz).
 Random access memory (RAM) - RAM is usually expressed in kilobytes (kB) or
megabytes (MB).
 Power dissipation - Power dissipation, the device's total power consumption,
is generally expressed in watts (W) or milliwatts (mW).
 Operating temperature - Operating temperature is a full-required range.

33 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

A microprocessor, sometimes called a logic chip, is a computer processor on a microchip.

The microprocessor contains all, or most of, the central processing unit (CPU) functions and is the "engine" that goes into motion when you turn your computer on. A microprocessor is
designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations that make use of small number-holding areas called registers. Typical microprocessor operations include adding, subtracting, comparing
two numbers, and fetching numbers from one area to another. These operations are the result of a set of instructions that are part of the microprocessor design.

When your computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first instruction from the basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as part of its memory. After that,
either the BIOS, or the operating system that BIOS loads into computer memory, or an application progam is "driving" the microprocessor, giving it instructions to perform

34 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer

Modernizing Education

Education has benefited from the inclusion of technology and computers by making it easier for students to keep up while helping teachers by improving the way lessons can be planned and
taught. Students who use computers learn to use word processors for work, and subsequently they learn computer jargon and strengthen grammatical skills. Students can also look up lessons
on websites or through email rather than lugging heavy textbooks with them every day.

Improving Student Performance

Students who use computers have been shown to attend school more steadily and perform better than students who do not use computers. Along with getting higher grades on exams, students
also stated they felt more involved with their lessons and work if they used a computer. Using computers gets students to become more focused on their work at home, in collaborative projects
with other students and on their own.

Learning Job Skills

Computers play a vital role in the modern business world, and many of even the most basic jobs involve technology and computers. Teaching students how to use computers helps them
prepare for any number of possible careers, and classes based on computer education can get even more specific. Many classes teach students to use office suite programs, create presentations
and data sheets, and learn any number of programming languages such as C++ or Java.

Efficiency

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Computers make the learning process a lot more simple and efficient, giving students access to tools and methods of communication unavailable offline. For example, students can check their
grades or lesson plans online, and also communicate directly with their teachers via email or educational platforms such as Blackboard. Students can also send work to their teachers from
home or anywhere else, letting them finish work outside the constraints of school hours and teaching them about procrastination and personal responsibility.

Research

Technology has made research far easier than in the past. Decades ago, students learned history by going to the library and thumbing through history books and encyclopedias. Today, many of
those same books are available in digital format and can be accessed online. As the Internet has grown, so too has the available research options. Students can research topics in minutes rather
than the hours it used to take

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER STUDIES IN THE CURRICULUM

Computer studies is about how computers compute. It is not about learning how to use the computer, and it is much more than computer programming. Computer studies is the study of ways
of representing objects and processes. It involves defining problems; analyzing problems; designing solutions; and developing, testing, and maintaining programs. For the purposes of this
document, the term computer studies refers to the study of computer science, meaning computer and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their hardware and software designs, their
applications, and their impact on society. The major focus of these courses is the development of programming skills, which are important for success in future postsecondary studies.Computer
studies is relevant for all students because it incorporates a broad range of transferable problem-solving skills and techniques, including logical thinking, creative design, synthesis, and
evaluation. It also teaches generically useful skills in such areas as communication, time management, organization, and teamwork. Students live in a technologically rich world, and computer
studies will provide them with the knowledge and skills to understand the underpinnings of current computer technology and prepare them for emerging technologies. A foundation in this
discipline will introduce students to the excitement and opportunities afforded by this dynamic field and will begin to prepare them for a range of rewarding careers. The computer studies
program will build a strong foundation for those who wish to move on to further study and training in specialized areas such as computer programming, database analysis, computer science,
education, computer engineering, software engineering, information technology, and game development.

Information technology is the study, design, development, implementation, support or management of computer based information systems, particularly software
applications and computer hardware. It is the capability to electronically input, process, store, output, transmit and receive data and information, including text, graphics,
sound and video as well as the ability to control machines of all kinds electronically.
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37 | P a g e |Information Technology | Fundamentals of Computer