PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION

Dactyloscopy – is a science that deals with the study of interpreta4on, classifica4on of FP,
iden4fica4on of pa9ern of FP classifica4on formula. In Greek words, “Daktylos or Daktyl” means
finger and “Skopien” means to study or examine. In La4n Dactylus or dactyl = finger.
Dactylography – refers the scien4fic study of fingerprints as a means of iden4fica4on. This
includes FP comparison and case presenta4on in courts.
Dactylomancy – is the scien4fic study of fingerprint for purposes of personality interpreta4on.

HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS

In China, fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purposes of iden4fica4on was
found on a Chinese clay seal made not later than the 3rd century B.C. (Japan = TEGATA)

In England, Thomas Bewick, an English engraver, author, and naturalist engraved the pa9erns of
his own fingers on every woodwork he had finished to serve as his mark so as to establish its genuineness.
1. Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets recoding business transac4ons in
ancient Babylon and clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbprints.
2. Some of these seals can be seen in the
3. Emperor Te In Shi was the first one to use fingerprint in China.

• Scholars refer to the impression of fingerprints on clay tablets recoding business transac4ons in
ancient Babylon and clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing thumbprints.
• Some of these seals can be seen in the SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D.C. Chinese
documents iden4fied with the Tang Dynasty (618-907) refer to fingerprint being impressed upon
business contracts. It is conjectural as to what extent these earlier instances of fingerprin4ng were
intended for actual iden4fica4on of the persons impressing the prints. History shows that
Emperor Te In Shi was the first one to use fingerprint in China.
•
1686 – Profess Marcelo Malpighi, an Italian anatomist (GRANDFATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY according to Dr.
Edmond Locard – “Father of Poroscopy”), commented in his wri4ngs on elevated ridges on the finger4ps
and alluded to diverse figures on palmar surfaces

1788 - J.C.A. Mayer stated in his book (Anatomische Kupfertafein Nebst Dazu Geharigen) that although the
arrangement of the skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similari4es are closer
among some individuals

1685 - G. Bidloo published a treaty describing sweat pores and ridges

Are there any early publica4on concerning Fingerprints?

1823 - Johannes Evangelist Purkinje, (FATHER OF DACTYLOCOSPY) a Czechoslovakian professor of anatomy
at the University of Breslau, published a thesis in La4n (Commen4o de Examine Physiogico Organi Visus Et
systema4s Cutansi – A Commentary of the Physiological Examina4on System: Dec. 22, 1823, Breslau,
Germany) describing the ridges, giving them names and established certain rules for classifica4on (nine
groups). He involves vague differen4a4on of fingerprints or uses them for iden4fica4on.

1856 - Herman Welcker took the prints of his own palm. In 1897, (forty one years later) he printed the
same palm to prove that the prints do not change.

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What are the historical events concerning Fingerprints as Method of Iden4fica4on?
1858 -Sir William J. Herschel (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY), he used fingerprints in India to prevent fraudulent
collec4on of army pay account and for iden4fica4on of other documents. The first person Herschel printed
appears to have been one RAJYADHAR KONAI.

1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds, an English (Scoish) doctor sta4oned in Tokyo, Japan, wrote a le9er to the English
publica4on, “NATURE” – “On the Skin Furrows of the Hand”, (dtd Oct. 28, 1880) on the prac4cal use of
fingerprints for the iden4fica4on of criminals. He recommended the use of a thin film of printers ink as a
transfer medium and is generally used today.

1880 - Sir Francis Galton, a noted Bri4sh anthropologist and a cousin of scien4st Charles Darwin began
observa4on which led to the publica4on in 1882 of his book “Fingerprints.” Galton’s studies established
the individuality of classifying fingerprint pa9erns
He said that the possibility of two prints being alike was 1:64Billion

1891 - Juan VuceAch, an Argen4ne police official, installed fingerprints files as an official means of criminal
iden4fica4on; based his system of the pa9ern typed by Sir Francis Galton; and he also claimed the first
official criminal iden4fica4on by means of fingerprints len at the scene of crime.

§ In 1892, at La Piata, Argen4na, a woman named Rojas who had murdered her two sons and had
cut her own throat, though not fatal, blamed the a9ack on a neighbor. Bloody fingerprints on a
door post were iden4fied by Vuce4ch as those of the woman herself which led to her confession.

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Harry Jackson (1861–) was the first man to be convicted in the United Kingdom via fingerprint evidence.

On June 27, 1902, a burglary occurred in a house in Denmark Hill, London, and some billiard balls were
stolen. The inves4ga4ng officer no4ced a number of fingerprints on a freshly painted windowsill,
apparently where the burglar made his entry.

He immediately called the Metropolitan Police Fingerprint Bureau, and Detec4ve-Sergeant Charles
Stockley Collins went to the scene. He examined the marks and decided that the len thumb made the
clearest impression. Aner sa4sfying himself that the marks had not len by any member of the household,
Collins took a photograph of it.

What are the important dates concerning the development and use of fingerprint in the United States?
1882 - Gilbert Thompson of the Us Geode4c survey used thumb print for camp orders on an expedi4on to
New Mexico. This was not official but it was proven useful (the record was dated Aug. 8, 1882).

1902 - Sir Henry P. Forest, chief medical examiner of New York Civil Service Commission and an American
preacher in fingerprint science in the US for the New York Civil Service commission to prevent applicants
from having be9er-qualified persons to take the test for them.

1903 - New York State Prison in Albany claims the first prac4cal, systema4c use of fingerprints in the US to
iden4fy criminals

Captain James Parke of the ins4tu4on installed the iden4fica4on system where the fingerprints of
prisoners were taken and classified and the fingerprint system was officially adopted in June of the year.
Today, New York State uses the American system that is similar to the Henry System and represents the
system ini4ated by Capt. Parke in 1903.

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1904 - Maj. R. Mccloughry, the warden of the Federal Peniten4ary of Leavenworth when the office of the
A9y. General of the U.S. granted permission to establish a fingerprint bureau therein. It was the first
na4onal government use of fingerprints

1904 - John Kenneth Ferrer (Perrier) of the Fingerprint Branch of the New Scotland Yard a9ended the St.
Louis Missouri World’s Fair. He had been assigned to guard the Bri4sh Crown Jewels. American police
officials became interested in fingerprint through him and he became their instructor.

1904-The City of St. Louis Missouri, became the first city to adopt fingerprint. The police department
officials adopted the system on October 29, 1904.

1911 - The State of Illinois, made the first criminal convic4on based solely upon fingerprint evidence. It
was known as the first judicial ruling on such evidence, (People vs. Jennings, 252 Illinois 543- 96 NE 1007,
43 LRA (NS) 1206 for 1991)

1915 - The Interna4onal Associa4on for Criminal Iden4fica4on was founded. The word “criminal” was later
dropped from the Associa4on’s name. It is the first organized body of professional iden4fica4on experts.
16. 1916-The Ins4tu4on of Applied Science established at Chicago, Illinois was the first school to teach
fingerprint iden4fica4on (June 16, 1916).

"We are disposed to hold from the evidence of the four witnesses who tes4fied, and from the wri4ngs we
have referred to on this subject, that there is a scien4fic basis for the system of fingerprint iden4fica4on,
and that the courts cannot refuse to take judicial cognizance of it."
People vs. Jennings, 252 III. 534, 96 N.E. 1077 (1911

Mary K. Holland – the first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy

1925 - The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania used compulsory foot and fingerprin4ng of new born infants
and mothers which was enacted into law by Act of General Assembly as approved on April 20, 1925.

1937 - The Ins4tute of Applied Science installed Photographic and Firearms Iden4fica4on (Forensic
Ballis4cs) laboratories. The ins4tute was the first private school in U.S. which installed laboratories for
instruc4onal purposes only

What about Historical Development of Fingerprints in the Philippines?

1900 - Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippines in the Phil. Constabulary.

1918 - The Bureau of Prisons records show that carpetas (commitment and convic4on records) already
bear fingerprints.

Under the management of Lt. Asa N. Darby during the American occupa4on in the Philippines, a
modern and complete fingerprint file has been established for the Philippine commonwealth.

1937-The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the Phil. Constabulary was Mr. Generoso Reyes.
Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano C. Gurrero of the Federal Bureau
of Inves4ga4on (FBI) gave the first examina4ons in fingerprints and Agus4n Patricio top the exam.

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1933-The first convic4on based on fingerprints was handed by the Supreme Court of the Phil. in the case
People vs. Medina and this case is considered the leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence
concerning fingerprin4ng (December 23).

The science of fingerprin4ng was first offered as a subject in the Philippines through the effort of
the Plaridel Educa4onal Ins4tu4on.

Give some important Events, Dates or PersonaliUes showing the basis of the Legality of FingerprinUng

In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of the People vs. Jennings (252 Ill. 534, 96NE 1077 (1911) pass upon
the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.

In the case of State vs. Conners (87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl. 812 (1915) ) it was held competent to show by a
photograph the fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house entered, without producing that post in
court, and to show by expert tes4mony that the fingerprints found on the post were similar to the
fingerprints of the defendant.

In the case of Lamble vs. State (Lamble V. State, 96 N. T. L. 231; 114 ATL. (N.J.) 346 (1921)) which involved
the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court was of the opinion that it was not
necessary to produce the door as evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the fingerprints noted
on the door should be sufficient along with the iden4fica4on of the fingerprints by an expert to show these
of the defendant. The court referred the case of States V. Conners (Supra).

People vs. Medina (59 Phil. 330) - The first leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on the
science of fingerprin4ng.

IMPORTANT PERSON TO REMEMBER

HANS GROSS – Australian Magistrate to described, “Search for Truth” as the ul4mate goal of all
inves4ga4ve work. “FATHER OF MODERN CRIMINALISTICS”

John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, a9empted to erase his fingerprints by burning
them with acid but as 4me went by the ridges were again restored to their “natural” feature. The acid he
applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the bulbs of his fingers but re occur later.
Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful experiments on themselves by burning their
finger4ps with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal had shown that aner the healing of the epidermis (outer
skin), the original pa9erns of fingerprints reappeared

Robert James PITTS- The man without fingerprints. Aner he commi9ed burglary in Charlo9e, North
Carolina he went to Newark, New Jersey to visit a doctor who wanted to experiment with the altera4on
of fingerprints. The skin was removed from the distal phalange of each finger, down to the regenera4ve
dermal layer, and the fingers were then sewn into incisions made on each side of Pi9’s chest. This was an
a9empt to gran chest skin onto the finger4ps.

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APLHONSE BERTILLION – “ANTHROPOMETRY” Father of personal iden4fica4on.

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SIR EDWARD RICHARD HENRY – developed the Henry system classifica4on at Scotland Yard which was
accepted by almost all English speaking country. Known as Father of Fingerprint.

HERMAN WELCKER – He took his own fingerprint twice with a lapse of 41 years, and show that ridges
remain the same.

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PATTERN INTERPRETATION
Arches – 5%
Loops – 60%
Whorls –35%

DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT

INDIVIDUALITY – no two persons have the same fingerprint
INFALLIBLE – F.P. is a posi4ve and reliable means of iden4fica4on. It cannot be easily forged.
CONSTANCY AND PERMANENCY – fric4on ridge once fully developed will remain the same
throughout his life.

State the principal uses of fingerprints - Some of the uses of fingerprin4ng include:
• Iden4fica4on of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the scene of the crime
• Iden4fica4on of fugi4ve through a comparison of fingerprints
• Assistance to prosecutors in presen4ng their cases in the light of defendants’ previous records
• Furnishing idn4fica4on data to proba4on and parole officers and to parole boards for their
enlightenment in decision making
• Exchanging of criminal-iden4fying informa4on with iden4fica4on bureaus of foreign countries in
cases of mutual interest
• Means of personal iden4fica4on

RELATED SCIENCE TO THE STUDY OF F.P.

CHIROSCOPY – study of palm “Greek word Cheir - hand”
PODOSCOPY – study of footprint “Greek word Podo - foot”
POROSCOPY - study of pores “Greek word Poros - A Pare

CHEILOSCOPY

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PHALANGE
The skeletal finger covered with fric4on skin
1. Basal or Proximal – at the base of the finger nearest the palm
2. Middle Phalange – the next and above the basal phalange
3. Terminal Phalange – located in the 4p of the finger

FRICTION SKIN – epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with ridges and furrows. Also called papillary skin.

Ridge - elevated or hill-like structure/ black line with 4ny white dots

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Furrow – depressed or canal-like structure. The white space between ridges.

Sweat Pores – 4ny opening for the sweat

Sweat Duct – passage way of sweat
Sweat Glands – producer of sweat

• Recurving ridge – is a ridge that curves back in the direc4on in which it started.
• Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed end is angular and
serves as a point of convergence.
• Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly separa4ng, one ridge going one
way and the other ridge, another way.

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 • BifurcaUng ridges – A single ridge which splits into two ridges forming a “Y” shape forma4on or
structure.
• Eyelet, lake or Eye – it is a single ridge which bifurcates where the bifurca4ng ridges converge at
a certain point to form again into a single ridge.
• Dot or Series of Dots – They are fragmentary ridges formed like a dot or dots.
• Short or Series of Short Ridges – they are fragmentary ridges formed by short or series of short
ridges.
• Ridge Ending - It is a termina4on or ending of ridge or ridges.
• Fragmentary Ridges – They consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges embodied intensely.
These ridges are considered in the classifica4on of fingerprints if they appear as dark and as thick
as the surrounded ridges within the pa9ern area.
• Ridge Hook – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter in length than the main
ridge.
• Ridge Bridge – This is a connec4ng ridge between two ridges.
• Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin, short or broken
which appears in the depressions between two well-formed ridges.
• Sufficient Recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and a buing
at right angle.
• Appendage – A short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
• FricUon ridges – Are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by
which fingerprints are made. They are also called papillary ridges or epidermal ridges.
• Furrows – Are depressions or canals between the ridges which maybe compared with the low area
in a 4re tread.
• Rod or Bar – is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop pa9ern.
• Core – It is a point on a ridge forma4on usually located at the center or heart of a pa9ern.
• Delta or Triradial Point – It a point on the first ridge forma4on at or directly in front or near the
center of the divergence of the type lines.
• Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
• Up thrust - Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a horizontal place.
• Shoulder of a loop – It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or curves.
• Puckering – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curl slightly.

PATTERN AREA – part of loop or whorl pa9ern surrounded by the type line and consis4ng of delta, core
and ridges.

RECURVING RIDGE – single ridge that curves back to the direc4on it was started.

APPENDAGE – shot ridge at the top of the recurve.

ROD OR BAR – short or long ridge found inside the recurve and directed towards the core or parallel to
the recurve.

OBSTRUCTION RIDGE – short ridge found inside the recurve which block the inner line of flow towards
the core

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DERMAL PAPPILLAE – are irregular pegs composed of delicate connec4ve 4ssue protruding and forming
the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palm, toes and sole of the feet.
RIDGE DESTRUCTION – temporary for damage in the epidermis, permanent on the dermis layer.
Rule: a depth of 1 mm will cons4tute permanent scar

ABNORMALITIES IN FINGER
POLYDACTYL – more than regular number of fingers

MACRODACTYL – enlarged finger

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MICRODACTYL – reduced finger

ECTODACTYL – missing finger at birth

SYNDACTYL – side fusion of the finger

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ANKYLOSIS – finger cannot be bent

WEBBED FINGER

SPLIT THUMB

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What are the minu4ae which can be considered in finding the delta?
§ A bifurca4on
§ An abrupt ending ridge
§ A dot
§ A short ridge
§ Mee4ng of two ridges
§ A point of the first ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the divergence of the type
lines.

RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTA

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 a) When there is a choice between a bifurca4on and another type of delta, the bifurca4on is
selected.

b) When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the defini4on, the one nearest the
core is chosen.

• The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines toward the
core, but at the nearer end only.

The loca4on of the delta in this case depends en4rely upon the point of origin of the ridge running
between the type lines toward the core. If the ridge is en4rely within the pa9ern area, the delta is located
at the end nearer the point of divergence of the type lines.

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• If the ridge enters the pa9ern area from a point below the divergence of the type lines, however,
the delta must be located at the end nearer the core.

• A bifurca4on may not be selected as a delta if it does not open towards the core
• When there are two or more possible delta and one which is bifurca4on, the bifurca4on should
be selected

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• The dot cannot be the delta because line D cannot be considered as a type line. It does not run
parallel to type line A—A at any point. The same reason prevents line E from being a type line. The
end of ridge E is the only possible delta as it is a point on the ridge nearest to the center of
divergence of the type lines. The other type line is, of course, B—B.

• When there are two or more possible deltas which conform to the defini4on, the one nearest the
core is chosen.

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RULES GOVERNING THE CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTA
a) A bifurca4on may not be selected as a delta if it does not open towards the core
b) When there are two or more possible deltas, the one nearest the core should be selected
c) When there are two or more possible delta and one which is bifurca4on, the bifurca4on should
be selected
d) Delta may not be located on the middle of the ridge running between the type line towards the
core but at the nearer end only
Ø when a pa9ern shows a series of bifurca4on opening towards the core at the point of divergence
of the type line, the bifurca4on nearest the core is chosen as the delta.
Ø in case of a ridge near the center of the type lines despite several bifurca4ng ridge opening
towards the core, delta is located at the point of the first bifurca4on just in front of the divergence
of the type lines.

RULES IN SELECTING THE CORE:

I. The core is placed upon or within the innermost recurve
I. in pa9erns where there is only a single recurving ridge, the core is placed on the shoulder
on THE FARTHER SIDE OF THE LOOP.
II. Should the pa9ern have two or more looping ridges, that is several staples within each
other, without a rod inside the innermost staple, the core is located at the shoulder of the
innermost staple on the side farther from the delta.
II. When the innermost recurving ridge contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as the shoulders,
the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.

III. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number of rods or bars as high as the
shoulders, the core is placed upon the end if the center rod whether or not it touches the looping ridge.

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When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as high as the shoulders,
the core is placed upon the end of the further one of the two center rods. The two rods being treated as
though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

REFERENCE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA – An addi4onal formula serve as reference in case of doubvul

prints. Place at the bo9om of classifica4on formula.
LATENT PRINT – print found at the crime scene
VISIBLE LATENT PRINT – readily visible to the naked eye
INVISIBLE LATENT PRINT – generally made by sweat or perspira4on that requires developing for visibility.

CHECKING – verifying the rolled impression using the plain impression as guide reference.
BLOCKING OUT – process of placing under each pa9ern the le9er symbol represen4ng the their pa9ern
interpreta4on prior to the actual classifica4on formula.
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TYPES OF FINGERPRINT IMPRESSION
PLAIN IMPRESSION- fingerprint impression is taken simultaneously pressing the finger to the card,
used as REFERENCE CLASSIFICATION
ROLLED IMPRESSION – impression taken individually by rolling each finger from one side to the
other side and from the 4p to the end of the first joint

PLEASE REMEMBER:
Thumb finger are rolled towards the body while all other finger are rolled away from the body.

INSTRUMENT USED IN TAKING PRINT

INK SLAB – metallic or glass plate where the ink is spread for purpose
INK ROLLER – rubber made roller designed to spread the ink
FINGERPRINT INK - ink used for taking f/p
FINGERPRINT CARD – 8x8 card for recording f/p
CARD HOLDER – usually a fixed card holder placed in a flat table designed to prevent the movement of
the card in the course of the taking of the fingerprint.
LATENT PRINT TRANSFER CARD – used to preserved developed latent print
FINGERPRINT STRIP HOLDER – use to hold card for post mortem fingerprint

RULES IN TAKING FINGERPRINT

1. Subject should be instructed to stand straight and relax facing the ink slab.
2. Subject hand should be completely dried.
3. In case of Split/Webbed thumb, it should be rolled together and be classified based on : get the
bigger one ; if the same size, get the inner one.

(3) GROUPS OR FAMILIES OF FINGERPRINT

Arch (2) Loop(2) Whorl (4)
Plain Radial Plain
Tented Ulnar Central
Double
Accidental

TYPES OF PATTERN (UNDER THE GALTON/HENRY SYSTEM)

9 types (Plain arch, tented arch, excepUonal arch, loop lateral loop, twin loop, plain whorl, central pocket
loop whorl and accidental whorl)

TYPES OF PATTERN AT PRESENT (GALTON-HENRY SYSTEM WITH FBI MODIFICATION AND EXTENSION)
8 types

Padern area of the loop is surrounded by two diverging ridges known as type-lines.

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THE THREE GROUPS OF FINGERPRINT

FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
ARCH (5%)
PLAIN ARCH – a pa9ern in which the ridges flow from one side to the other side with a slight raise at the
center. (no delta and core)

TENTED ARCH (T) having an angle, up thrust or an incomplete loop form

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THREE TYPES OF TENTED ARCH
1. Tented with angle – the type in the ridges at the center from a definite angle of at least ninety
degrees, thus resembling a tent.
2. Tented resembling a loop – the type approaching the loop pa9ern and possessing two of the basic
or essen4al characteris4cs of the loop but lacking the third.
3. Tented with upthrust – the type in which one or more ridges at the center from an upthrust.

THE LOOP (60%)

ELEMENTS: core, delta, sufficient recurve

RADIAL LOOP
A type of pa9ern in which the slan4ng ridge flows towards the thumb finger
• Requisites of a loop
• It must have a core
• It must have a delta
• It must have a recurving ridge that passes between the core and the delta
• Must have a ridge count of at least one

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ULNAR LOOP
The slan4ng ridge flows towards the li9le finger

WHORL PATTERN (35%)

PLAIN WHORL
CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL
DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
ACCIDENTAL WHORL

PLAIN WHORL
Elements:
• A complete circuit
• Two deltas
• At least 1 circula4ng ridge is crossed or touched by an imaginary line passing through the two
deltas.

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 •

CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL

Elements:
• two deltas
• At least one obstruc4on ridge or recurving ridge at right angle
• No recurving ridge within the pa9ern area is crossed or touched by an imaginary line drawn
between two deltas.

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DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
Elements:
• Two separate loop forma4on
• Two separate or dis4nct sets of shoulder
• Two deltas

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ACCIDENTAL LOOP WHORL
Elements:
• Pa9ers which a combina4on of two different types of pa9ern
• Two or more deltas and core
• It must be combina4on of two different pa9ern except plain arch

What did you observe about the delta of the 3 classifica4on of fingerprint?

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CONCLUSION!
In the scheme of the classifica4on, you can make the assump4on that if a pa9ern contains no deltas, then
it is an arch, if it contains only one delta, it will be a loop, and if it contains two or more delta it is always a
whorl, specifically an accidental whorl if it has more than two delta’s.

CLASSIFICATION FORMULA
PRIMARY DIVISION
Always represented by a numerical value assigned to whorl pa9ern depending to what finger they appear.
(both arch and loop have no value)
Finger 1 & 2 RIGHT THUMB & RIGHT INDEX
Finger 3 & 4 RIGHT MIDDLE & RIGHT RING
Finger 5 & 6 RIGHT LITTLE & LEFT THUMB
Finger 7 & 8 LEFT INDEX & LEFT MIDDLE
Finger 9 & 10 LEFT RING & LEFT LITTLE
The sum of the numerical value assigned to even number of finger represent the numerator and the sum
of the assigned value to odd number represent the denominator plus the pre established 1/1 to complete
the primary division
P = 1/1 + N (E) 16 +8 + 0 +2 +1 =28
D (O) 16 + 0 +0 +2 +0 = 19

SECONDARY DIVISION
Represented by capital and small le9er combina4on based on the interpreta4on made during the blocking.
CAPITAL LETTER – derived only to those found in INDEX FINGER
(A, T, U, R, W, C, D, or X)
SMALL LETTER – derived from the thumb, middle, ring and li9le fingers only. It only includes the radial
loop (r), plain arch (a) and tented arch (t)
S = __D r a
rCt
• SUB SECONDARY DIVISION
Derived by ridge coun4ng of loop and ridge tracing of whorl found in the index, middle and ring only. BOTH
ARCH ARE ALWAYS (-)

RIDGE COUNTING - coun4ng of ridges between delta and core of a loop.

RIDGE TRACING – coun4ng the ridges intervening between tracing ridge and the right delta of whorl.
Ridge Coun>ng of Loop
Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count = I 10 or more = O
Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I
11 or more = O
Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count = I
14 or more = O
Ridge counUng = the process of counUng the ridge cross by the line from delta to core.
Incipient Ridge = ridge that is so thin or fine, not included as a ridge count.
RULES IN RIDGE TRACING
INNER WHORL – when the tracing goes above or inside the right delta and there are three or more
intervening ridge.

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 OUTER WHORL – when the tracing ridge goes below or outside the right delta and there are three
or more intervening ridge
MEETING WHORL – when there are two or less intervening ridges either above or below.

RULES IN RIDGE COUNTING

Island, dot, short ridge, long ridge and abrupt ending ridge = 1 ridge count
Ridge enclosure, mee4ng of two ridge, bifurca4ng ridge that cross in the opening or at the center of
bifurca4on = 2 ridge count

MAJOR DIVISION
Taken from thumb fingers only - Both Arch (-)
WHORL – ridge tracing = inner, outer or mee4ng
LOOP - ridge coun4ng = small, medium, large
Table 1 Table 2
1-11 = S 1-17 = S
12-16 = M 18-22 = M
17 or more = L 23 or more = L

Remember First!
The number of ridges of LEFT THUMB must be considered in selec4ng formula to be used for right thumb.
(Use Table 1 if the Len Thumb has 16 or less ridge count) Use Table 2 if the Len thumb have more than 16
ridge count.

KEY DIVISION
Geing the ridge count of the first loop except li9le finger. In case of absence of the loop, the first whorl
will be ridge counted.

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 FINAL DIVISION
DERIVED FROM THE LITTLE FINGERS ONLY = Both Arch (-)
RADIAL/ULNAR = the usual process
PLAIN OR CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – will be treated as ulnar loop
DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – get the ridge count of the top loop
ACCIDENTAL WHORL – get the least ridge count
• If both finger is missing, plain whorl mee4ng
• If all fingers are missing,
• FPC = M 32 W MMM
M 32 W MMM

METHODS OF DEVELOPING FINGERPRINT

§ DusUng Method – most common and the simplest
§ Rolling Method – used in developing prints in paper done by simply rolling the paper with powder
spreading in its surface
§ Fuming Method – done by the use of fumes such as iodine and ammonium fumes
§ Silver Nitrate method – spraying 5% solu4on of silver nitrate to the surface of the powder
§ Ninhydrin Method – one of the best method in developing prints in paper
§ Laser Method – modern method of tracing and developing prints.
§ Osborn Grid Method – consist of photographing the latent and inked print and making
photographic enlargement of each

§ Ninhydrin - reacts with amino acids to produce a purple color.

§ Silver nitrate - reacts with chloride to form silver chloride, a material which turns gray
when exposed to light.
§ Cyanoacrylate - “super glue” fumes react with water and other fingerprint cons4tuents to
form a hard, whi4sh deposit.
In modern labs and criminal inves4ga4ons, lasers and alterna4ve light sources are used to view latent
fingerprints. These were first used by the FBI in 1978. Since lasers can damage the re4na of the eye,
special precau4ons must be taken.

NINHYDRIN
ü The most cost-effec4ve chemical development method is Ninhydrin
ü Ninhydrin is used on paper, cardboard, or other porous surfaces.
ü The problem with spraying Ninhydrin solu4ons is that, since Ninhydrin reacts with amino acids,
any exposure to your body, especially to your eyes or lungs, could have serious results.
ü This poten4ally dangerous exposure is minimized by dipping or pain4ng.

Ninhydrine soluUon
o Destroy wri4ngs
Ninhydrine Petroleum Benzine SoluUon
o Wri4ng materials are not destroy

SILVER NITRATE
ü development is based on the reac4on of soluble silver nitrate with the sodium chloride (salt) that
is present in most latent fingerprints to form silver chloride.

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 ü Exposing the silver chloride to sunlight or an ultraviolet lamp causes the silver chloride to be
reduced to metallic silver, making the latent prints visible as black or dark gray traces.
ü Very old latent fingerprints retain it and can be developed by silver nitrate. Accordingly, silver
nitrate development may work when iodine fuming and ninhydrin fail completely.
ü (Note that failure of these other reagents says nothing about the age of the latent prints; even
prints that are only hours or days old may respond only to silver nitrate development.)
ü Silver Nitrate is destruc4ve, so used as last resort

CYANOACRYLATE (SUPER GLUE) FUMING

ü Super Glue fuming - works great on nonporous surfaces- metals, leather, plas4c bags.
ü Created when superglue is placed on co9on and treated with sodium hydroxide.
ü Created when hea4ng- produces toxic vapors- cyanide.
ü Fumes and object contained within an enclosed chamber for up to 6 hrs.
ü Produces white latent print.

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 FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography from the Greek words photos "light” and “graphein” ("to draw")
The word was first used by the scien4st Sir John F.W. Herschel in 1839.

Forensic came from the LaAn word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for
public discussion.

Photography
- is an art or science which deals with the reproduc4on of images through the ac4on of light, upon
sensi4zed materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical process
involved therein.

Photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography.

§ Picture is a generic term which refers to all kinds of formed image while a photography can only
be a product of photography.

Police Photography study of the general prac4ces, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime
scene, physical things, that can be used for law enforcement purposes.

Forensic photography applica4on of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal inves4ga4on.

USES IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

1. Records
2. Ques4oned documents;
3. Aerial photography;
4. Surveillance photography;
5. Detec4on of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregulari4es in cloth;
6. Detec4on of certain types of secret wri4ngs;

SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Infrared Photography
- The recording of images formed by infrared radia4on.

Ultra violet Photography

- The art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means of ultraviolet light.

Photomicrography
- Taking a magnified photograph of small object through a9aching a camera to the ocular of a
compound microscope

Photomacrography
- Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by a9aching an extended tube lens
(macro lens) to the camera.

USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

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 Personal idenUficaUon - the first use of photography in police work. Alphonse Ber4llion was the
first police who u4lized photography as a supplementary iden4fica4on in his Anthropometry

CommunicaUon - photography is considered to be one of the most universal methods of

communica4on considering that no other language can be known universally than photograph.

Record purposes - the utmost use of photography in police work.

For Court Exhibits - all evidence presented in court before being formally accepted requires that
they satisfy the basic requirement for admissibility which is relevancy and competency.

Crime Prevention – with the use of video camera and other advance photographic equipment
crime are being detected more easily even to the extent of preventing them from initially
occurring.

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN PHOTOGRAPHING

§ General View - taking an overall view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of
the scene

§ Medium View - taking of a photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into sections and
attempting to show the location of objects relative to each other. This will give us the nature of
the crime.

§ Close-up View – taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime

George Eastman (July 12, 1854 – March 14, 1932) was an American entrepreneur who founded the
Eastman Kodak Company and helped to bring the photographic use of roll film into the mainstream. Roll
film was also the basis for the invention of motion picture film stock in 1888 by filmmakers

Maddox is best known for his invention lightweight gelatin negative plates for photography in 1871, which
enabled photographers to use commercial dry plates off the shelf instead of having to prepare their own
emulsions in a mobile darkroom. Also, for the first time, cameras could be made small enough to be hand-
held.

Micro-photography - the production of photographs in which the image of an objects is reproduced much
smaller than it actually is.

MUG SHOT PHOTOGRAPHY

- It is usually use for personal iden4fica4on which is the first use of photography in police work.

X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY
- X rays are invisible electromagne4c waves. They behave much like visible light. But they can pass
through things such as wood, cardboard, and flesh, which light cannot penetrate.

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The Chinese were the first people that we know to write about the basic idea of the pinhole camera or
"camera obscura" (La4n words meaning "Dark room").

Alhazen (965-1039) An Arabian Scholar who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or
shu9ered window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the opposite
wall.

FATHER OF OPTICS
Johann Heinrich Schulze – observed that silver salts darkened when exposed to light.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce, put a plate coated with bitumen in camera obscura. He put the camera obscura
facing his house for eight hours and made a photograph. It is the earliest camera photograph that we s4ll
have today.

Henry Fox Talbot

Create permanent (nega4ve) images using paper soaked in silver chloride and fix with a salt solu4on.
(Calotype Process)

Niepce (len) began sharing his findings with Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre (right), an ar4st who owned
a theatre in Paris. They became partners three years later. Daguerre's most important discovery came in
1835, two years aner Niepce died.

Joseph Niepce - commonly known or referred to simply as Nicéphore Niépce, was a French inventor,
usually credited as the inventor of photography and a pioneer in that field.

Niépce developed heliography, a technique he used to create the world's oldest surviving product of a
photographic process: a print made from a photoengraved prin4ng plate in 1825

Daguerre's process, which he named the daguerreotype, was announced to the world on January 7, 1839.
Half a year later the French government gave Daguerre and Niepce's son, Isidore, a life4me pensions in
exchange for all rights to their inven4on. The daguerreotype was to become France's gin to the world.

DAGUERREOTYPE
The daguerreotype was the first commercially successful photographic process (1839-1860) in the
history of photography. Named aner the inventor, Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre, each daguerreotype is
a unique image on a silvered copper plate.

In contrast to photographic paper, a daguerreotype is not flexible and is rather heavy. The
daguerreotype is accurate, detailed and sharp. It has a mirror-like surface and is very fragile. Since the
metal plate is extremely vulnerable, most daguerreotypes are presented in a special housing. Different
types of housings existed: an open model, a folding case, jewelry.

Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor, nephew of Joseph Niepce, coated a glass plate with albumen which held the
chemical fast. (NIEPCEOTYPE)

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Dr. R.A. Reis German scienAst who contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic science and
established the world’s earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community and the Swiss
police.

Victor Balthazard (1910), He developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge
cases which act as an early founda4on of the field of ballis4cs.

Edwin H. Land (1947) He introduced Polaroid – one-step photography.

PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS (NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS)

X –Ray 01-30 millimicron “shadow photography”
Ultra Violet Light 30-400 millimicrons “black light”
Visible Light 400-700 millimicron
Infrared Light 700-1,000 millimicron

LIGHT
Light is radiant energy, usually referring to electromagne4c radia4on that is visible to the human eye, and
is responsible for the sense of sight.
This form of energy travels at a speed of about 299,792,458 m/s (approximately 186,282 miles per second).
in air, but they differ in wavelength and frequency.

NATURE OF LIGHT
Wave theory (ChrisUan Huygens)
o based on the transmission of mo4on along the surface of water

Corpuscular theory (Isaac Newton)

o light exert its effect through the mo4on of a very small par4cles called corpuscles
o

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 ElectromagneUc theory (Clerk Maxwell)
o concluded that light was a form of electromagne4c radia4on.

COLOR
Primary Colors Approximate Wavelength
Blue 400-500 nm
Green 500-600 nm
Red 600-700 nm
COLOR MIXING
Color AddiUon

R+B=M M+Y=R
R+G=Y M+C=B
B+G=C Y+C=G

R+B+G=W

OPTICS
- is the study of light. It is concerned with the nature of light and the way it behaves in op4cal
instruments. Light is a form of energy and so an object may only produce light when there is energy
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 present. A red-hot piece of metal receives energy in the form of heat and converts some of it into
red light.

Bending of Light
When travelling in open space, light travels in straight line. However, when light comes in contact with an
object, it may be bended in the following manner:
1. Reflec4on
2. Refrac4on
3. Diffrac4on
ReflecUon is the deflec4on or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.

RefracUon is the bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
DiffracUon is the bending of light when hits a sharp edge of an opaque object

MEDIUMS OF LIGHT
1. Transparent objects – mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely
in other respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident light.
2. Translucent objects –mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that the outline of
the source of light is not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.
3. Opaque objects – A medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass though.

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The RAT Law
When incident light hits a medium, three things might happen, the light maybe:
A. Reflected
B. Absorbed
C. Transmi9ed

SOURCES OF LIGHT:
There are two sources of light, they are known as natural and ar4ficial. Natural lights are lights which
come to existence without the interven4on of man and ar4ficial lights are lights which are man-made.

CLASSIFICATION OF DAYLIGHT INTENSITY

Bright Sunlight – a ligh4ng condi4on where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or dis4nct
shadow.
Hazy Sunlight – objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
Dull sunlight – objects in open space cast no shadow.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
Photoflood lamp - likewise known as reflectorized light or spotlight. It is a light with a reflector at
the back which focus the light to the object the common wa9ages of this lamp is 500 wa9s.

Fluorescent lamp - tube lamps in which the walls are coated with fluorescent powders with both
ends is mounted with a holder that serves as the reflector. This is commonly used by everybody
more that it is used in photography.

Incandescent bulb - are bulbs with a wire filament connec4ng two wires which sustan the
electrical charge that produces the light.

Flash bulb - are chemical lamps as it generate lights by a rapid combina4on of metal in oxygen. It
can only be used once as the bulb is busted when fired electrically.

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 Electronic flash - produces light by an instantaneous electrical in charges between two electrodes
in a gas filled glass bulbs. Which is kept in a capacitor or condenser.

TYPES OF SYNCHRONIZATION
§ Xenon sync - the flash is fired the instant the shu9er is fully opened
§ FP - flat peak sync used In focal plane shu9ers
§ S - slow sync
§ M - medium sync
§ F - fast sync

Cameras designed for use with flash bulbs generally had one or more of S (slow) sync, M (medium) sync,
F (fast) sync, or FP/FPX (flat peak) sync, designed for use with corresponding bulb types.

These sync modes close the contacts a few milliseconds before the shu9er is open, to give the flashbulb
4me to reach peak brightness before exposing the film.

Class M bulbs reach their peak illumina4on 20 milliseconds aner igni4on, and class F lamps reach their
peak at approximately 5 milliseconds

MECHANICAL DEVICE (CAMERA)

CAMERA
The principle of photography are derived from science and the images on the film or paper made by the
light rays through the camera are dependent on the same general laws which produces images upon the
re4na through the lens of the eye.

The essen4als of any camera, therefore, are light 4ght box, a lens, a shu9er, and a holder of sensi4zed
material and view finder.

Light >ght box suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure, which would prevent light from
exposing the sensi4zed material inside the camera.
The lens to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates more or less the same way as the lens of
the eye.

The shu9er the control of the dura4on of the exposure of the sensi4zed material to light. The higher the
numerical value of the shuOer speed the shorter will be the duraAon of the opening and closing of the
shuOer.
The holder of sensi4zed material to hold firmly the sensi4zed material in its place during exposure

VIEWING SYSTEM shows the photographer the scene being photographed.

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TYPES OF CAMERA
View Finder Type
- Considered as smallest and the simplest type of camera.

Single Lens Reflex Camera (SLR)

- Type of camera best suited for police work

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 Twin Lens Reflex Camera
- Camera with dual lens, one for focusing and the other one for forming the image.

View or Press Type

- Considered as the biggest and the most sophis4cated camera. Used in movie making.

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Divergent, NegaUve, or concave lens - This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides.
Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point.

Convergent, posiUve or convex lens – this lens is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides,
light passing through it are bended toward each other at the other side of the lens mee4ng at a point.

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Coma – In op4cs, the coma, or coma4c aberra4on, in an op4cal system refers to aberra4on inherent to
certain op4cal designs or due to imperfec4on in the lens or other components that results in off-axis point
sources such as stars appearing distorted, appearing to have a tail like a comet.

Curvature of field – when the sharpest image is formed not on a flat plane but on a curved surface

DistorUon – defect in shape not in sharpness

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ChromaUc AberraUon – inability of lens to focus light of varying wavelength. The lens refracts rays of short
wavelength and therefore bring blue rays to a shorter focus than the red.

AsUgmaUsm – horizontal and ver4cal axis are not equally magnified.

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Flares – A Lens flare happens when light is sca9ered or flared in a lens system, onen in response to a bright
light, producing a some4mes-undesirable ar4fact in the image.

CLASSIFICATION OF LENS ACCORDING TO DEGREE OF CORRECTNESS

• Meniscus Lens – lens that has no correc4on
• Rapid RecUlinear Lens – lens corrected of distor4on
• AnasUgmat Lens – correc4ng as4gma4sm
• ApochromaUc Lens – correc4ng both as4gma4sm and chroma4c aberra4on

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FOCAL LENGTH
o The focal length of a lens can be define as the distance from the op4cal center of the lens
to the focal plane when the lens is set or focused at infinity.

NORMAL LENS/MEDIUM FOUCS

o Lens with a focal length approximately equal to the diagonal of the film format.

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WIDE-ANGLE/SHORT FOCUS
o A lens with an angle of view that is wider than that of a normal lens, or that of the human
eye. A wide-angle lens has a focal length which is less than the diagonal of the film format.

TELEPHOTO/LONG LENS
o A lens with a narrow angle of view, a longer-than-normal focal length, the ability to
magnify images, and exhibi4ng rela4vely shallow depth of field.

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ZOOM LENS
o A kind of lens with a variable focal length.

Lens speed refers to the largest opening of the diaphragm that the light can pass through it determines
the maximum intensity of the light entering the light tight box.

A. FAST LENS – Lens with high lens speed, a high lens speed is used during nighttime or in dark room.

B. SLOW LENS – lens with low lens speed, used during daytime or where the room is very bright.

RELATIVE APERTURE
The light gathering power of the lens expressed in F-number.

DEPTH OF FIELD – is the range in front of and behind a sharply focused subject in which details also look
sharp in the final photographic image.

HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE – nearest distance at which when the lens is focused with a given
Par4cular diaphragm opening will give the maximum depth of field.

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REMEMBER!
The lower the F number, the bigger the lens opening, and the bigger the lens opening the greater the
volume of light that will be passed through the lens and will reach the sensi4zed material

FOCUSING
The seing of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image. The one that controls the degree of
sharpness of the subject

• Coincidence- otherwise known as superimposed image focusing a single object will appear double
when the object is not in focus, but moving the adjustment the doubled image will coincide to
form a single object
• Split image focusing- an image is split in two parts once the object is not in focus and focusing it
will unite the two split parts of the image
• Ground glass- once the object Is not in focus, the object will be viewed as blurred and will turn
sharp and clear once adjusted
• Scale bed- es4ma4ng the distance of the object and adjus4ng the camera control based on his
es4ma4on.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM
A film consists basically, of a random sca9ering of light sensi4ve silver halides suspended in a layer
of animal gela4n which is coated onto acetate support or base.

CHARACTERISTIC OF BLACK AND WHITE FILM

EMULSION SPEED – the sensi4vity of the film to light; the extent to which emulsion is sensi4ve to light.
The light sensi4vity of the film is also known as the FILM SPEED. Speed of the film is determined through
the numerical film speed labels given by the film manufacturer.

TWO CLASSICAL SPEED RATINGS THAT BECAME POPULAR:

ASA (American Standard Associa4on) ra4ng - This is expressed in arithme4cal value system. The
speed in numbers is directly propor4onal to the sensi4vity of the material. A film with an
arithme4cal value of 400 is four 4mes as fast as one with a speed of 100.

DIN (Deutche Industrie Norman) ra4ng – This is expressed in logarithmic value system. In this
system, an increase of 3 degree doubles the sensi4vity of the film.

ISO (Interna4onal standards organiza4on) ra4ng, this expressed in the combined arithme4cal and
logarithmic values.

ASA 12 DIN 12° ISO 12/12

ASA 25 DIN 15° ISO 25/15
ASA 50 DIN 18° ISO 50/18
ASA 100 DIN 21° ISO 100/21

SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY - responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light source.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FILMS AS ACCORDING TO ITS SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
1. MONOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensi4ve to a single color of light (for white and black)

a. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM – a film specially treated that makes it more sensi4ve to blue rays of light.

b. ULTRA-VIOLET SENSITIVE FILM – sensi4ve to UV rays only

2. PANCHROMATIC FILM – sensi4ve to ultra-violet rays, and all light found in the visible spectrum,
especially to blue and violet light.

3. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensi4ve to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to red.

4. INFRARED FILM – a special type of film that is sensi4ve to infrared and ultra-violet radia4on (radia4on
beyond the human eye’s sensi4ve).

• Granularity or graininess – This refers to the size of the metallic grains that are formed aner
development of an exposed film. Generally, the size of metallic silver grains are dependent on the
emulsion speed of the film and the type of developing solu4on that is used in processing

SENSITIZED PAPER
It is that sensi4zed material that will record the visible image in the final development and become
the photograph

The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The materials necessary to produce a
photograph (POSITIVE PRINT) are a sensi4zed paper. It has emulsion that is coated with opaque material
like paper.

PARTS OF THE SENSITIZED MATERIAL

• Emulsion - part of the film or photographic paper which contains silver grains which is the one
sensi4ve to light. BGR
• AnU- halaUon backing - one that is designed to hold back the light and prevents hala4on
• Base - supports the emulsion

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

1. Emulsion speed
a. Chloride paper – slow speed suited for contact prin4ng
b. Bromide paper – fast speed and is recommended for projec4on ideal for police
photography. Gives a black tone when properly developed
c. Chloro-bromide paper – mul4 speed and could be used in both contact prin4ng and
enlarging
d. Variable contact paper - combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a special
chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of
light.

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2. Contrast range or grade – in black and white prin4ng, it is onen necessary to adjust the paper contrast
so they can yield a natural scene result from nega4ves with density range that are either too high or too
low.

No. 0 – used for prin4ng from extremely contrast nega4ve; the low contrast in the paper sensi4zing
counteracts the high contrast in the nega4ve, to give a new print.
No. 1 – used for high contrast nega4ve.
No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal nega4ves.
No. 3 – use for nega4ves that are a li9le weak in contrast.
No. 4 – provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak nega4ves. It is useful in
prin4ng silhoue9es and other such pictures in which high contrast is desired.
No. 5 – for nega4ve so flat as to be otherwise unprintable.

3. Physical characterisUcs – Under this category, photographic papers comes in different surfaces, base
thickness or weight and color.

SURFACE TEXTURE
§ Glossy paper - designed for the fine details and brilliant image forma4on
§ Semi-mate - obscures the fine details
§ Rough papers - used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary

COLOR
• White - be9er used in police photography
• Cream - preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is desired.
• Buff papers - use to prepare for tone prints

CHEMICAL PROCESS
Aner the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during
prin4ng, the next step would Generally be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps
are Development, Stop-Bath and fixa4on.

Development – is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible.
§ Elon and hydroquinone - used as main developing agents

Stop-Bath – it halts the developer ac4on in appropriate moment. It also prevents the
contamina4on of the developer and fixer from each other.

FixaUon – A fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a thorough
washing. In this process the un exposed silver halide crystals are dissolved and removed from the
emulsion of the photographic materials. (sodium thiosulfate(hypo) is the main fixing agent that
dissolves unexposed silver halides

OTHER CHEMICAL USED:

§ AceUc & Boric Acid – serve as neutralizer
§ Sodium Sulfate – serve as preserva4ve
§ Potassium Bromide – restrainer or hardener
§ Sodium Bicarbonate and Boras Powder – Accelerator
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Dodging – process of elimina4ng unwanted por4on of nega4ve during enlarging
Dodging tools are used in the darkroom to selec4vely alter the amount of light striking photographic paper
while it is exposed.

Cropping – omiing object during enlarging and prin4ng

Vignetng – gradual fading of the image towards the side through skillful adjustment of dodging board
Dye Toning – process of changing the color tone of photograph
Burning In – addi4onal exposure on a desired por4on of the nega4ve used for purpose of making a balance
exposure

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

BallisUc - Science of mo4on of projec4le and the condi4on that affects their mo4on.
§ “ballein or ballo” which literally means to “throw”
§ Also derived from the Roman war machine “Ballista” a gigan4c catapult that was used to throw
missiles, large object at a distance like stone, dead animal or even dead person.

3 TYPES OF MOTION
Direct - forward mo4on of the bullet
Rotatory - ac4on of bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm
TranslaUonal - ac4on of bullet once it hits the target and subsequently ricocheted.

BRANCHES OF BALLISTIC
Internal mo4on of projec4le while it is s4ll inside the firearm
External movement of the projec4le aner leaving the muzzle
Forensic BallisUc – iden4fica4on of firearms
Terminal BallisUc - deals with the effects of the impact of projec4le on the target.

INTERNAL BALLISTICS
1. Firing pin hiing the primer
2. Igni4on of the priming mixture
3. Combus4on of gun powder
4. Expansion of heated gas
5. Pressure developed
6. Energy generated
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 7. Recoil of gun
8. Velocity of bullet while inside the barrel
9. Rota4on of bullet
10. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

EXTERNAL BALLISTIC
• Muzzle blast - noise created at the muzzle point
• Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point

Trajectory - actual curved path of the projec4le from the 4me it leaves the muzzle and hit the target

q Range - imaginary straight distances between the muzzle of the gun & target.
q Accurate - shooter has control of his shot
q EffecUve - bullet is s4ll capable of inflic4ng fatal injury
q Maximum - farthest distance bullet can travel
q Maximum EffecUve - farthest distance that bullet can inflict fatal injury

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Point Blank Range is any distance over which a certain firearm can hit a target without the need to
compensate for bullet drop, and can be adjusted over a wide range of distances by sigh4ng in the
firearm.
• Velocity rate of speed of bullet per unit of 4me
• Pull of gravity the downward reac4on of the bullet towards the straight surface due to its
weight.
• Air resistance force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight

q Terminal accuracy size of the bullet grouping on the target

q Terminal energy - energy when bullet strike the target
q Terminal velocity - speed of bullet upon striking the target
q Terminal penetraUon depth of entry of the bullet in the target

• Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the vic4m.
• Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the vic4m out of ac4on instantly. So it should
be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However,
stopping power depends very largely on the loca4on of the shot.

MAN BEHIND FIREARMS

v CALVIN H. GODDARD– Father of Modern Ballis4c
v JOHN M. BROWNING – wizard of modern firearm and pioneered the breech loading single shot
rifle
v SAMUEL COLT – patented the first prac4cal revolver
v MAJOR UZIEL GAL – he designed UZI (Israel) in the year 1950
v MICHAEL KALASHINOV – designed the AK
v ALEXANDER JOHN FORSYTH – Father of Percussion System
v HORACE SMITH – founder of the “Smith and Wesson”
v EUGENE STONER – designer of US M16 Armalite
v DAVID WILLIAM – maker of first known carbine
v JOHN T. THOMPSON – “Thompson Sub machine Gun”

LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM

• Firearm or arms includes rifles, musket, carbine, shot gun, pistol, revolver and all other deadly
weapon, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may be discharge by means of gun
powder or other explosive. This term also include rifle, except such of being of small caliber and
limited range used as toys. The barrel shall be considered a complete firearm for all purpose.
(sec.877 Revised Administra4ve Code)
• Firearm refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light weapon, that
expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projec4le, which is discharged by
means of expansive force of gases from burning gunpowder or other form of combus4on or any
similar instrument or implement. (Barrel, frame or receiver is considered a firearm) RA 10591

TECHNICAL DEFINITION
• Any instrument used for the propulsion of projec4le by means of expansive gases coming from
the burning gunpowder

AMMUNITION

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 Ø “Loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball,
bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives.

• Refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit cartridge- meaning a complete unfired unit
consis4ng of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.
• Also refers to a “single round.”

PARTS OF AMMUNITION
Bullet - projec4le propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of the expansive force of gases
coming from burning gunpowder.
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Cartridge case - tubular metallic container for the gunpowder. “shell” or “casing”.

Gunpowder - The powder charge which, when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to heated gas
under high pressure and propels the bullet or shots charge through the barrel and to the target.
“propellant” or “powder charge”.

Primer - The metal cup containing the highly sensi4ve priming mixture of chemical compound, which
when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite. Such ac4on is called “percussion”.

PARTS OF FIREARM
q Cylinder – serve as chamber and magazine
q Yoke – connec4ng pivot between frame and cylinder
q Center Pin – serve as the locking device for the cylinder
q Trigger Guard – prevents the trigger from unnecessary ac4on to avoid accidental firing

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 q Ratchet – device used to help in the withdrawal of the cartridge of shells from the chamber of
the cylinder
q Trigger – ac4vates the part necessary to fire the weapon
q Hammer – push the firing pin
q Flash hole – where the primer imparts igni4on to the gun powder
q Extractor – causes the empty shell to be withdrawn /pull out from chamber
q Ejector - causes the empty shell to be thrown out of the firearm
q Frame – houses the internal parts
q Barrel – ini4ate paths of bullet

PARTS OF CARTRIDGE CASE

§ Vent/Flash Hole –passage way for priming mixture to impart an igni4on to the propellant
charge.
§ Neck – part of shell which is actually occupied by the bullet.

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q Base – bo9om por4on of cartridge case
q Rim – designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to chamber.
q ExtracUng groove – designed for automa4c withdrawal of the case from chamber
q Primer Pocket – provide the means for primer to be put in central posi4on
q Body – cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder
q Shoulder – part of cartridge case which support the neck of the cartridge case
q Cannelure – secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent bullet from being push down to
the powder charge.
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q Crimp – cylindrical groove at the mouth designed for 2 purpose:
1. Hold bullet and prevent it from being pull out from shell
2. To offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to ensure burning of the gun powder

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TYPES OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO RIM
Rimmed type – the diameter of the rim is greater than diameter of the body of cartridge case

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 Semi-rimmed type – diameter of the rim is slightly greater than diameter of body of cartridge
case.

Rimless type – diameter of the rim is equal with diameter of body of cartridge case

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 Rebated type – diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of cartridge case.

Belted type - It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge.

CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMER

Pin Fire 1st cartridge of an exploding type where the pin extends through the head of the
cartridge case into the primer.
Rim Fire simplest form of modern cartridge where the priming mixture is placed in the cavity in
the rim of the head of the cartridge case.
Center Fire primer cup is forced into the middle por4on of the head of the cartridge case.

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PARTS OF PRIMER
q Primer Cup – brass gliding metal which contain priming mixture, disc & anvil
q Priming Mixture – highly sensi4ve chemical
compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. “Percussion powder”
q Anvil – provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing fric4on that would
ini4ate igni4on.
q Disc – thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from
moisture a9ack.

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Bullet
Ø A metallic or non-metallic, cylindrical projec4le propelled from a firearm by means of the
expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.

GENERAL TYPES OF BULLET

LEAD BULLET – basically composed of lead metal. It’s used was due to its density; having a good
weight is a small size and easy for cas4ng.
JACKETED BULLET – consist of regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent
lead fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistol and other high-powered guns.

PURPOSE OF COATING IN JACKETED BULLET

ü Prevent fouling of bullet
ü To withstand deformity in automa4c loading
ü To prevent deformity when carried and exposed to rough handling
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 q Full Jacketed – whole bullet up to the base is enveloped with a metallic jacket
q Semi-Jacketed – made to permit expansion of bullet when it hits a hard object. (They maybe
hollow-point bullet)

GENERAL RULE
Revolver – son metal round nose bullet
Rifle and Self-loading F/A – full jacketed bullet
AutomaUc F/A – semi-jacketed bullet

TYPE OF BULLET ACCORDING TO ITS MAXIMUM EFFECT TO THE TARGET

q Ball Type – for an4-personal and general use
q Armour Piercing – designed to penetrate light steel armour.
q Explosive Bullet – small bullet containing a charge of explosive which will detonate on impact.
q Incendiary Bullet – used to cause fire in target.
q Tracer Bullet – capable of living visible marks or traces while in flight giving the gunner the
chance to observe the strike of the shot or make adjustment in the event of a miss.

HISTORY OF GUNPOWDER
§ The formula for gunpowder appears in the wri4ngs of the 13th-century English monk Roger
Bacon
§ Berthold Schwartz, a German monk of the early 14th century, may have been the first person to
employ gunpowder for propelling a projec>le.

SMOKELESS GUNPOWDER
• A modern type of gunpowder with a clean combus4on due to the nitra4on process adding
addi4onal oxygen that made burning very efficient. (flake, cylindrical, ball or spherical, cut sheet)
1. Single Base – basic ingredients is Nitrocellulose (NC)
2. Double Base – Nitrocellulose and 1 to 40% Nitroglycerine (NG)
3. Triple Base – Nitrocellulose + Nitroglycerine + Nitroguanidine

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COMPARISON BETWEEN SMOKELESS AND BLACKPOWDER

DETECTION OF GUNSHOT WOUND

• Paraffin test was originated in Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used the paraffin wax for
collec4ng gunpowder residues from a discharge firearm.
• Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Iden4fica4on Laboratory, Mexico City introduced the test in the
United States. (BLUE SPECKS POSITIVE RESULT)

SUBSTANCE THAT GIVES FALSE POSITIVE RESULT IN PARAFFIN TEST

1. FERTILIZER
2. EXPLOSIVES
3. TOBACCO/CIGARETTES
4. URINE
5. FOOD SAMPLES
6. CERTAIN COSMETICS

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTOF PARAFFIN EXAMINATION

1. TYPE OF CALIBER OF AMMUNITION
2. LENGTH OF BARREL
3. AGE OF GUN
4. DIRECTION OF FIRING
5. WIND VELOCITY AND DIRECTION
6. HUMIDITY/ % OF MOISTURE IN AIR
7. USE OF GLOVES AND WHEN 72 HOURS HAS ELAPSED

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARM

According to Interior Barrel ConstrucAon
q Smooth Bore F/A – no rifling
q Rifled Bore F/A – have rifling inside gun barrel

According to Caliber Of ProjecAle

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 q ArUllery – projec4le 1 inch diameter or above
q Small Arm – less than 1 inch diameter and can be handled, moved and operated by one man.

TYPES OF FIREARM ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

q Single Shot F/A – fire only one shot every loading.
q RepeaUng Arm – a type of firearm designed to fire several shot in one loading.
q AutomaUc F/A – con4nuous firing in single press of the trigger & while trigger is press.
q Slide AcUon Type – loading take place by back and forth manipula4on of the forearms of the
gun.
q Bolt AcUon Type – reloading take place by manipula4ng the bolt back and forth
q Lever Type – loading take place by lever ac4on of the firearms

• The blunderbuss is a 17th to mid-19th century firearm with a short, large caliber barrel which is
commonly flared at the muzzle, to help aid in the loading of shot and other projec4les of
relevant quan4ty or caliber.
• The blunderbuss is commonly considered to be an early predecessor of the modern shotgun,
with similar military usage
• An arquebus is a form of long gun that appeared in Europe and the O9oman Empire during the
15th century. An infantryman armed with an arquebus is called an arquebusier.

Revolver hand firearm in which a rota4ng cylinder successively places cartridges into posi4on for
firing

Pistol hand firearm usually applied to simple shot and automa4c loading.

Rifle - shoulder weapon designed to fire a projec4le with more accuracy through a long-rifled
bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches.

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Shotgun smooth bore firearm and breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire a number of
lead pellets or a shot in one charge.

LENGTH OF A SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE CASE (2.75 INCHES)

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NOTE:
Odd and Even Rule in Gunshot wounds – if the number of gunshot wound of entrance and exit wound
found in the body of the vic4m is even, the presump4on is that no bullet is lodged in the body, but if the
number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit wound is odd, the presump4on is that the one or more
bullets might have been lodged in the body.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATION ON BULLETS

q Souvenir Bullet – bullet has been lodged and has remained in the body.
q Bullet MigraUon – bullet that is not lodged in a place where it was previously located.
q Bullet Embolism – special form of bullet migra4on when the bullet loses its momentum while
inside the chamber of the heart or inside the big blood vessels and carried out by the circula4ng
blood to some parts of the body where it may be lodged.
q Tandem Bullet – two or more bullet leaving the barrel one aner another.

INSTANCES WHEN THE SIZE OF THE WOUND OF ENTRANCE DOES NOT APPROXIMATE THE CALIBER OF
FIREARM.
Ø In the contact or near fire
Ø Deformity of the bullet which entered
Ø Bullet might have entered the skin sidewise
Ø Acute angular approach of the bullet

LOOSE CONTACT OR NEAR FIRE

Ø Entrance wound maybe a large circular or oval depending upon the angle of approach of the
bullet.
Ø Abrasion collar or ring is dis4nct
Ø Smudging, burning and ta9ooing are prominent with singeing of the hair
Ø Muzzle imprint maybe seen depending upon the degree of slapping of the skin of the gun
muzzle.
Ø There is blackening of the bullet track to a certain depth.
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SHORT RANGE FIRE (1 TO 15CM. DISTANCE)
Ø Edges of the entrance wound is inverted
Ø If within the flame reach (about 6 inches in rifle and high-powered firearms and less than 3
inches from an ordinary handgun), there is an area of burning.
Ø Smudging is present due to smoke
Ø Powder ta9ooing is present.
Ø Abrasion ring or collar is present

MEDIUM RANGE (MORE THAN 15CM. BUT LESS THAN 60CM)

Ø Gunshot wound with inverted edges and with abrasion collar is present.
Ø Burning effect is absent
Ø Smudging maybe present if less than 30 cm. distance.
Ø Gunpowder ta9ooing is present but of lesser density and has a wider area of distribu4on.
Ø Contact ring is present

Flare Gun – designed for tracing enemy, loca4ng or sending signals

Paradox Gun – gun which contain lands and grooves a few inch from the muzzle point
Caliber refers to distance between the lands (bore diameter)

Caliper- refers to the measuring instrument.

CALIBER ---> MILLIMETER ( X25.4)

MILLIMETER ---à CALIBER (/25.4)

Lowest: Caliber 22

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Highest: Caliber 50

STAGE IN MANUFACTURE OF BARREL

Drilling
A special deep-hole is used through the center of which lubrica4ng oil is forced under pressure. This
opera4on results to a compara4vely rough hole of uniform diameter from one end of the barrel to other.
At this stage the interior surface of the barrel will bears numerous sears and scratches resul4ng from the
irregular cuing of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish.

Lapping
• This is the polishing opera4on in which a lead plug closely fiing the inside of the barrel is drawn
back and forth on a rod carrying with is a polishing compound.

NOTE: No ma9er how many 4mes we polish or finish, large imperfec4ons maybe eliminated but not the
minute imperfec4on which serve as the basis for firearms iden4fica4on.

MODERN RIFLING TODAY

- modern method of rifling w/c uses hardened steel rod with several cuing rings and spaced
down
• HAMMER FORGED RIFLING
• BUTTON RIFLING
• BROACH RIFLING the rod
- most common rifling today which grooves are formed in barrel under very high pressure forming
rifling in barrel which hardens and polishes the inside of the barrel
• “polygonal” common in Glock and Steyer

IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER

q OBTURATION sealing of gunpowder gas aner explosion from escaping so as to maintain high
pressure in the firing chamber.
q BALLISTIC COEFFICIENT ability of bullet to maintain its velocity against air resistance
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q TRIGGER PRESSUE amount of force necessary to fire a gun. (Hair Trigger, 1.0 lb. or less.)

• Shotgun – 4 lbs
• Self-Loading Pistol – 3-4 lbs
• Revolver – 3-5 lbs
• Service Rifle – 6-7 lbs

q METAL FOULING – when bullet travels in the 4ght fiing barrel, it is rotated by the lands and
grooves, its surface is scraped by the lands and scraping is ejected fro the barrel and strike the
target. It may lodge on cloing or may cause small abrasion or superficial lacera4ons on skin
around main wound.
q SODIUM RHODIZONATE TEST/ GRIESS TEST – Test for the presence of nitrates
q LUCAS TEST A characteris4c smell that decreases in intensity with lapse of 4me and it is
observable immediately aner firing.
q BILLIARD BALL RICOCHETTE EFFECT as the shot begin to separate from one another, there is
tendency for one shot to strike one another causing changes of shot course.
q HARRISON GILROY TEST used to gather an4mony, lead and barium
q MICROGROOVE RIFLING F/A with mul4ple hallow grooves

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTIC IN FIREARM

CLASS CHARACTERISTIC proper4es of a F/A which can be determined even before the
manufacture.
Bore Diameter – distance measure between two opposite lands
Number of Lands/Grooves – always the same of equal, it must run from 3-8, but in modern firearm
are 5-6.
Width of the Groove
DirecUon of twist – either len or right twist
Pitch of Rifling – measure of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn
inside the barrel.
Depth of Groove

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TYPES OF RIFLING
Steyer type - (4) lands and grooves, right twist, width of the land and groove are equal (4RG=L).
Carbine type - four (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the groove is two (2) 4mes
the width of the land (4RG2X).
Smith & Wesson - five (5) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the land and groove are
equal (5RG=L).
Colt (6) lands and grooves, len twist, the width of the groove is two (2) 4mes the width of the
lands (6LG2X).
Browning (6) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the groove is two (2) 4mes the width of
the lands (6RG2X).
Webley (7) lands and grooves, right twist, the width of the groove is three (3) 4mes the width of
the land (7RG3X).
Winchester (6) lands and grooves, right twist, the groove is three (3) 4mes the width of the land
(6RG3X).

SHELL

CARTRIDGE

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 BULLET

Individual CharacterisUcs
o Marks produced by the random imperfec4ons or irregulari4es of tool surfaces. They are
unique to that tool and dis4nguish it from all other tools.
o These characteris4cs are generally found in the interior surface of the gun barrel and the
breech face.

MARKS FOUND IN FIRED BULLET

q Land marks caused by its contact to the elevated por4on (lands) of the bore of the firearm.
q Groove marks caused by the grooves.
q Skid marks found on the fired bullet from a revolver cause by forward movement from the
chamber to the barrel before it ini4ally rotates
q Slippage marks found on fired bullets passing through either on oily or oversize barrel.
q Stripping marks found in bullet fired from a “loose-bore” barrel wherein the rifling are
already been badly worn out
q Shaving marks commonly from revolver caused by forward movement to the barrel that is
poorly aligned to the cylinder

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 q Breech face mark - mark found at the base por4on of the shell cause by the backward
movement to the breech face of the block of the firearm.
q Extractor mark - found at the extrac4ng groove of the fired cartridge shell, cause by its
withdrawal from the chamber.
q Ejector mark - It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell from the
firearm to the area of shooAng.
q Shearing mark - called “Secondary firing pin mark” found on the primer near the firing pin mark.
q Magazine lip mark - marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the magazine lips during
the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
q Chamber mark - marks mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case cause by the
irregulari4es of nips inside the walls of the chamber.

Below shows a comparison between 2 cartridge cases that lack any individual characteris4cs but have a
similar general appearance.

• As the bullet travels through the barrel, the grooves guide the bullet and cause it to spin.
• Stria4ons, or fine lines, in the gun barrel make the same stria4ons on the bullet. These
stria4ons are unique to the firearm.

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§ AnalyUcal/Torsion Balance - measure weight of bullet
§ Bullet Comparison Microscope - comparison of fired bullet or shells
§ Bullet Recovery Box -12 “x”12”x 96, with a hinged to cover and with one end open. This long
box is filled with ordinary co9on and separated into sec4ons by cardboard pe44ons.
§ Chronograph - measure velocity of bullet
§ Caliper - measure calibre, barrel length, bullet diameter
§ Helixometer - measure pitch of rifling
§ Taper Gauge - bore diameter

IMPORTANT TERMS
• Accessories - parts of a firearm which may enhance or increase the opera4onal efficiency or
accuracy of a firearm
• AnUque firearm
ü Manufactured at least 75 years prior to the current date but not including replicas;
ü Cer4fied by the Na4onal Museum to be curio or relic of museum interest.
ü Any other firearm which derives a substan4al part of its monetary value from the fact that it is
novel, rare, bizarre or because of its associa4on with some historical figure, period or event.

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 • Demilitarized - firearm deliberately made incapable of performing its main purpose of firing a
projec4le.
• Firearms InformaUon Management System (FIMS) - compila4on of all data and informa4on on
firearms ownership and disposi4on for record purposes.
• Forfeited firearm - subject to forfeiture by reason of court order as accessory penalty or for the
disposi4on by the FEO of the PNP
• Gun club - established for propaga4ng responsible and safe gun ownership, proper apprecia4on
and use of firearms by its members, for the purpose of sports and shoo4ng compe44on, self-
defense and collec4on purposes.
• Gunsmith - business of repairing firearms and other weapons or construc4ng or assembling
firearms
• Loose firearm - unregistered firearm, an obliterated or altered firearm, firearm which has been
lost or stolen, illegally manufactured firearms, registered firearms in the possession of an
individual other than the licensee and those with revoked licenses
• Major parts - barrel, slide, frame, receiver, cylinder or the bolt assembly.
• Minor parts - parts of the firearm other than the major parts which are necessary to effect and
complete the ac4on of expelling a projec4le by way of combus4on
• Thermal weapon sight refers to a ba9ery operated, uncooled thermal imaging device which
amplifies available thermal signatures so that the viewed scene becomes clear to the operator
which is used to locate and engage targets during daylight and from low light to total darkness
and operates in adverse condi4ons such as light rain, light snow, and dry smoke or in conjunc4on
with other op4cal and red dot sights.

STANDARDS AND REQUISITES FOR ISSUANCE OF AND OBTAINING A LICENSE TO OWN AND POSSESS
FIREARMS
ü Filipino ci4zen (at least (21) years old)
ü Not been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude
ü Passed the psychiatric test administered by a PNP-accredited psychologist or psychiatrist
ü Passed the drug test
ü Applicant has passed a gun safety seminar
ü Has filed in wri4ng the applica4on to possess a registered firearm which shall state the personal
circumstances of the applicant
ü Present a police clearance from the city or municipality police office
ü Not been convicted or is currently an accused in a pending criminal case before any court of law
for a crime that is punishable with a penalty of more than two (2) years.

OWNERSHIP OF FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION BY A JURIDICAL ENTITY

ü Filipino-owned and duly registered with the SEC.
ü It is current, opera4onal and a con4nuing concern;
ü Completed and submi9ed all its reportorial requirements to the SEC; and
ü Paid all its income taxes for the year, as duly cer4fied by the Bureau of Internal Revenue.
OWNERSHIP OF FIREARMS BY THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
ü Registered with the FEO of the PNP
ü Exempt from all du4es and taxes
ü For reason of na4onal security, firearms of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), Coast
Guard and other law enforcement agencies shall only be reported to the FEO of the PNP.

CARRYING OF FIREARMS OUTSIDE OF RESIDENCE OR PLACE OF BUSINESS

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 ü Issued by the Chief of the PNP or his/her duly authorized representa4ve to any qualified person
whose life is under actual threat or his/her life is in imminent.
ü Members of the Philippine Bar;
ü Cer4fied Public Accountants;
ü Accredited Media Prac44oners;
ü Cashiers, Bank Tellers;
ü Priests, Ministers, Rabbi, Imams;
ü Physicians and Nurses;
ü Engineers; and
ü Businessmen, who by the nature of their business or undertaking, are exposed to high risk of
being targets of criminal elements.

LICENSES ISSUED TO INDIVIDUALS

ü Type 1 license – maximum of two (2) registered firearms;
ü Type 2 license – maximum of five (5) registered firearms;
ü Type 3 license – maximum of ten (10) registered firearms;
ü Type 4 license – maximum of fineen (15) registered firearms; and
ü Type 5 license – allows a ci4zen, who is a cer4fied gun collector, to own and possess more than
fineen (15) registered firearms.
• For Types 1 to 5 licenses, a vault or a container secured by lock and key or other security
measures for the safekeeping of firearms shall be required.
• For Types 3 to 5 licenses, the ciAzen must comply with the inspecAon and bond requirements.

FIREARMS THAT MAY BE REGISTERED

• Small arms may be registered by licensed ci4zens or licensed juridical en44es for ownership,
possession and concealed carry.
• Light weapon shall be lawfully acquired or possessed exclusively by the AFP, the PNP and other
law enforcement

Small arms - fired from the hand or shoulder, which are not capable of fully automa4c bursts of
discharge (Handgun, pistol, revolver, rifle, shotgun)

LIGHT WEAPONS
ü Class-A Light weapons self-loading pistols, rifles and carbines, submachine guns, assault rifles
and light machine guns not exceeding caliber 7.62MM which have fully automa4c mode
ü Class-B Light weapons designed for use by two (2) or more persons serving as a crew, or rifles
and machine guns exceeding caliber 7.62MM such as heavy machine guns, handheld
underbarrel and mounted grenade launchers, portable an4-aircran guns, portable an4-tank
guns, recoilless rifles, portable launchers of an4-tank missile and rocket systems, portable
launchers of an4-aircran missile systems, and mortars of a caliber of less than 100MM.

ISSUANCE OF LICENSE TO MANUFACTURE OR DEAL IN FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION

• (a) Secretary of DILG in the case of an applica4on for a license to manufacture
• (b) Chief of the PNP in the case of a license to deal in firearms and firearms parts, ammuni4on
and gun repair.

SCOPE OF LICENSE TO MANUFACTURE FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION

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 ü authority to manufacture and assemble firearms, ammuni4on, spare parts and accessories,
ammuni4on components, and reloading of ammuni4ons, within sites, areas, and factories stated
therein.
ü license to deal in or sell all the items covered by the License to Manufacture, such as parts,
firearms or ammuni4on and components
ü authority to subcontract the manufacturing of parts and accessories necessary for the firearms
which the manufacturer is licensed to manufacture
ü The authority to import machinery, equipment, and firearm parts and ammuni4on components
for the manufacture thereof. Firearm parts and ammuni4on components to be imported shall,
however, be limited to those authorized to be manufactured as reflected in the approved License
to Manufacture. The Import and Export Permit shall be under the administra4on of the PNP.

REGISTRATION OF LOCALLY MANUFACTURED AND IMPORTED FIREARMS

• (a) For locally manufactured firearms and major parts thereof, the ini4al registra4on shall be
done at the manufacturing facility: Provided, that firearms intended for export shall no longer be
subjected to ballis4c iden4fica4on procedures; and
• (b) For imported firearms and major parts thereof, the registra4on shall be done upon arrival at
the FEO of the PNP storage facility.

RENEWAL OF LICENSES AND REGISTRATION

ü Renewed the license every two (2) years
ü Registra4on of the firearm shall be renewed every four (4) years
ü Failure to renew (license/registra4on) within two (2) occasions shall cause the holder of to be
perpetually disqualified from applying for any firearm license.
ü Submit to FEO of the PNP, within 6 months before the date of the expiraAon of such license or
registraAon.

ACQUISITION OR PURCHASE AND SALE OF FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION

ü acquired or purchased from authorized dealers, importers or local manufacturers and may be
transferred or sold only from a licensed ci4zen or licensed juridical en4ty to another licensed
ci4zen or licensed juridical en4ty.
ü during elec4on periods, it shall be allowed on the condi4on that the transport or delivery
thereof shall strictly comply with the issuances, resoluAons, rules and regulaAons promulgated
by the COMELEC.

DEPOSIT OF FIREARMS BY PERSONS ARRIVING FROM ABROAD

ü deposit the same upon wri9en receipt with the Collector of Customs for delivery to the FEO
(PNP) for safekeeping or for the issuance of a permit to transport if the person is a compe4tor in
a sports shoo4ng compe44on.
ü If the importa4on of the same is allowed and the party in ques4on desires to obtain a domes4c
firearm license, the same should be undertaken in accordance with the provisions of RA 10591.
ü If no license is desired or leave to import is not granted, the firearm or ammuni4on in ques4on
shall remain in the custody of the FEO of the PNP

UNLAWFUL ACQUISITION, OR POSSESSION OF FIREARMS AND AMMUNITION

a. prision mayor in its medium period (unlawfully acquire or possess a small arm)
b. reclusion temporal to reclusion perpetua shall be imposed if three (3) or more small arms or
Class-A light weapons are unlawfully acquired or possessed by any person
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 c. prision mayor in its maximum period (unlawfully acquire or possess a Class-A light weapon)
ü reclusion perpetua (unlawfully acquire or possess a Class-B light weapon)
ü penalty of one (1) degree higher than that provided in paragraphs (a) to (c) in this sec4on shall
be imposed upon any person who shall unlawfully possess any firearm under any or combina4on
of the following condi4ons:
§ (1) Loaded with ammuni4on or inserted with a loaded magazine;
§ (2) Fi9ed or mounted with laser or any gadget used to guide the shooter to hit the target such as
thermal weapon sight (TWS) and the like;
§ (3) Fi9ed or mounted with sniper scopes, firearm muffler or firearm silencer;
§ (4) Accompanied with an extra barrel; and
§ (5) Converted to be capable of firing full automa4c bursts.
ü prision mayor in its minimum period (unlawfully acquire or possess a major part of a small arm)
ü prision mayor in its minimum period (unlawfully acquire or possess ammuni4on for a small arm
or Class-A light weapon. If the viola4on of this paragraph is commi9ed by the same person
charged with the unlawful acquisi4on or possession of a small arm, the former viola4on shall be
absorbed by the la9er.
ü prision mayor in its medium period (unlawfully acquire or possess a major part of a Class-A light
weapon)
ü prision mayor in its medium period (unlawfully acquire or possess ammuni4on for a Class-A light
weapon) If the viola4on of this paragraph is commi9ed by the same person charged with the
unlawful acquisi4on or possession of a Class-A light weapon, the former viola4on shall be
absorbed by the la9er;
ü penalty of prision mayor in its maximum period (unlawfully acquire or possess a major part of a
Class-B light weapon)
ü prision mayor in its maximum period (unlawfully acquire or possess ammuni4on for a Class-B
light weapon). If the viola4on of this paragraph is commi9ed by the same person charged with
the unlawful acquisi4on or possession of a Class-B light weapon, the former viola4on shall be
absorbed by the la9er.

USE OF LOOSE FIREARM IN THE COMMISSION OF A CRIME

• When inherent (considered as an aggrava4ng circumstance)
• PROVIDED: That if the crime commi9ed with the use of a loose firearm is penalized by the law
with a maximum penalty which is lower than that prescribed in the preceding sec4on for illegal
possession of firearm, the penalty for illegal possession of firearm shall be imposed in lieu of the
penalty for the crime charged.
• PROVIDED FURTHER: if the crime commi9ed is penalized by the law with a maximum penalty
which is equal to that imposed under the preceding sec4on for illegal possession of firearms, the
penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period shall be imposed in addi4on to the penalty for
the crime punishable under the RPC or other special laws.
ü If the viola4on of RA 10591 is in furtherance of, or incident to, or in connec4on with the crime of
rebellion of insurrecUon, or adempted coup d’ etat, (absorbed)
ü Commi9ed by the person without using the loose firearm, the viola4on of RA 10591 shall be
considered as a disUnct and separate offense.

ü Absence of Permit to Carry Outside of Residence. – The penalty of prision correccional and a
fine of Ten thousand pesos (P10,000.00)
ü Unlawful Manufacture, ImportaUon, Sale or DisposiUon of Firearms or AmmuniUon or Parts
Thereof, Machinery, Tool or Instrument Used or Intended to be Used in the Manufacture of
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 Firearms, AmmuniUon or Parts Thereof. – The penalty of reclusion temporal to reclusion
perpetua
ü Arms Smuggling. – The penalty of reclusion perpetua shall be imposed upon any person who
shall engage or par4cipate in arms smuggling

Tampering, ObliteraUon or AlteraUon of Firearms IdenUficaUon - penalty of prision

correccional to prision mayor in its minimum period.

Use of an ImitaUon Firearm - shall be considered a real firearm and the person who commi9ed the
crime shall be punished in accordance with RA 10591.

NOTE: replica, or other device that is so substan4ally similar in colora4on and overall appearance to an
exis4ng firearm as to lead a reasonable person to believe that such imita4on firearm is a real firearm.

LIABILITY FOR PLANTING EVIDENCE

• Prision mayor in its maximum period
any person who shall willfully and maliciously insert; place, and/or a9ach, directly or indirectly,
through any overt or covert act, any firearm, or ammuni4on, or parts for the purpose of implica4ng
or incrimina4ng the person.
• Public officer (reclusion perpetua)

GROUNDS FOR REVOCATION, CANCELLATION OR SUSPENSION OF LICENSE OR PERMIT

ü Commission of a crime or offense involving the firearm, ammuni4on, of major parts
ü Convic4on of a crime involving moral turpitude/offense where the penalty carries an
imprisonment of more than six (6) years;
ü Loss of the firearm, ammuni4on, or any parts thereof through negligence
ü Carrying of the firearm, ammuni4on, or major parts thereof outside of residence or workplace
without, the proper permit to carry the same;
ü Carrying of the firearm, ammuni4on, or major parts thereof in prohibited places;
ü Dismissal for cause from the service in case of government official and employee;
ü Commission of any of the acts penalized under Republic Act No. 9165
ü Submission of falsified documents or misrepresenta4on in the applica4on to obtain a license or
permit;
ü Noncompliance of reportorial requirements and by virtue of a court order.
ü Carrying of the firearm, ammuni4on, or major parts thereof in prohibited places;
ü Dismissal for cause from the service in case of government official and employee;
ü Commission of any of the acts penalized under Republic Act No. 9165
ü Submission of falsified documents or misrepresenta4on in the applica4on to obtain a license or
permit;
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 ü Noncompliance of reportorial requirements and by virtue of a court order.
§ A fine of (P10,000.00) shall be imposed upon any licensed firearm holder who fails to report to
the FEO of the PNP that the subject firearm has been lost or stolen within a period of thirty (30)
days from the date of discovery.
§ Fine of Five thousand pesos (P5,000.00) shall be imposed upon any person holding a valid
firearm license who changes residence or office address other than that indicated in the license
card and fails within a period of thirty (30) days from said transfer to no4fy the FEO of the PNP of
such change of address.

VARIANTS OF CRIME CAN ARISE FROM DISCHARGE OF FIREARM

Alarm and scandal – offender discharge a f/a in public place but f/a is not pointed to par4cular
person when discharged.
Illegal discharge of F/A – f/a was directed to a par4cular person who was not hit if intent to kill is
not proved.
Adempted homicide, murder, parricide – if the person was hit, automa4cally the crime is
a9empted homicide, murder or parricide if there is intent to kill. It has been held that when a
person uses a lethal weapon against another, such as f/a, intent to kill is inherent. Even if was
not hit, but was proved that there was intent to kill, there is at least a9empted homicide.
Physical Injuries – if the person was hit and injured but without intent to kill.
Threat – if the weapon is not discharged but merely pointed to another. (other light threat if
drawn in a quarrel but not in self-defense)
Grave Coercion – the threat is direct, immediate and serious and the person is compelled or
prevented to do something against his will.

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 QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

QuesUoned Document Timeline

q 1609 – trea4se on systema4c document examina4on was published by Francis Demelle of France
q 1810 – 1st recorded used of Q.D. analysis occurred in Germany. A chemical test for a par4cular ink
dye was applied to a document known as Konigin HanschriO

Alfred Dreyfus
q 1894 - French army officer who was sentenced to life in prison in because of wrongful judgment
based on ques4oned document examina4on.
The main evidence against him was the tes4mony of Alphonse Ber4llon.

q 80 BC- romans prohibited the falsifica4on of documents that transferred land to heirs.
q Middle Ages - forgery became prevalent in Europe.
q 1562 - England passed a statute prohibi4ng forgery of publicly recorded and officially sealed
documents specifically those pertaining of 4les for land.
q 1819 - England issued one pound inscribed on ordinary white paper with a simple pen and ink
resul4ng in massive forgeries and the arrest of 94,000 arrests 7,700 of which were sentenced to
death.
q 1962 - the American law ins4tute’s model penal code simplified and defined the elements of
forgery and became the standard for defining the crime of forgery

STATE VS. HAUPTMAN

“Lindbergh Baby Case”. In which Osborne proved in court as an expert that the accused Bruno Richard
Hauptmann had wri9en all the ransom notes sent. (1935)

Charles Chabot – Made the first book in English to assert that there was a science of handwri4ng
iden4fica4on.

Dr. Wilson Harrison

o Police inves4gator can detect almost 75% of all forgeries by careful inspec4on of a document
with simple magnifiers and measuring tools.
o He published the book suspect documents their examina4on
o Forgery detec4on

HISTORY AND LEGAL BASES OF FORENSIC DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

q 1812 - earliest record of expert comparison tes4mony in America was in sawwe v Dawson where
a signature on a promissory note was proven genuine. However, handwri4ng iden4fica4on did not
become popular un4l much later in the 19th century
q 1814 – Homer v wallis- the court permiing the submission of wri4ngs and the evidence of
witnesses on the comparison of a disputed wri4ng

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 q 1900 - Daniel ames wrote ames on forgery one of the first books on document examina4on.
Around this 4me experts who were mostly calligraphers began to tes4fy in court as expert
witnesses
q 1900 - mollineux was convicted for first degree murder. He mailed a bo9le labeled “emerson’s
bromo seltzer” but had powder containing cyanide of mercury. 17 expert witnesses offered their
tes4mony including Albert Osborn
q 1910 - albert Osborn published his seminal book “Ques4oned documents” the first
comprehensive book on the subject and considered as the bible of document examina4on

What is a document?
Any instrument that contains a mark, symbol, or sign, either visible or par4ally visible or invisible that
may presently convey meaning or a message to someone

• LaAn word “documentum”, means “lesson”

• French word “docere”, means to teach.

LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS

• (People vs. Moreno) CA, 338 O.G. 119: any wri9en document by which a right is established or an
obliga4on is ex4nguished.
• (People vs. Nillosquin) CA, 48 O.G. 4453: every deed or instrument executed by person by which
some disposi4on or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
• under the Best Evidence rule: any physical embodiment of informa4on or ideas; e.g. a le9er, a
contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or an Xray plate (Black’s Law Dic4onary).

WRITING WHICH DOES NOT CONSTITUTE DOCUMENTS

q A dran of a Municipal payroll which is not yet approved by the proper authority (People vs.
Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
q Mere blank form of official documents, the spaces of which are not filled up (People vs. SanAago,
CA, 48 O.G. 4558).
q Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any disposi4on or agreement are not documents but
are mere merchandise (People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).

What is a Ques4oned Document?

o A quesUoned document is one in which a document is en4rely, or in part, is subject to ques4on
as to authen4city and/or origin.
o Any signature, handwri4ng, typewri4ng, or other marks whose source or authen4city is in dispute
or is doubvul.

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CATEGORIES OF DOCUMENT
QuesUoned Document – document to which an issue has been raised or which is under scru4ny.
The focal point of the examina4on and to which the document examiner relies as to the extent of
the problem. Also referred as “Disputed Document”
Standard Document – document which the origin is known and can be proven and can be legally
be used as sample to compare with other things is ques4oned.

TYPE OF STANDARD DOCUMENT

Collected/Procured – standard specimen executed in the regular course of man’s ac4vity or that
which are executed on the day to day wri4ng ac4vity.

Requested/Dictated – “post litel motam” a standard document which are executed upon request,
they are prepare at one 4me.

COMPARISON
Ø act of seing two or more items side by side to weigh their iden4fying details.

COLLATION
Ø cri4cal comparison or side by side examina4on

PHASES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

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 EVALUATION
COMPARISON
ANALYSIS

COLLECTION

LEGAL CLASSIFICATION OF DOCUMENT

Public - any instrument notarized by a notary public or competent public official with the
solemni4es required by law.
o Civil service examina4on papers
o Official receipt required by the government to be issued upon receipt of money for public
purposes
o Residence cer4ficate
o Driver’s license

Official - any instrument issued by the government or its agents or officers having authority to do
so and the offices, which in accordance with their crea4on, they are authorized to issue. Register
of a9orneys officially kept by the Clerk of the Supreme Court in which it is inscribed the name of
each a9orney admi9ed to the prac4ce of law
• Public document is broader than the term official document. Before a document may be
considered official, it must first be public document.
• To become an official document, there must be a law which requires a public officer to issue or to
render such document.

Private – every deed or instrument by a private person without the intervenAon of the notary
public or of any other person legally authorized, by which document some disposiAon or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.

2 TYPES OF LAST WILL AND TESTAMENT

q Holographic Will – en4rely wri9en by the testator.
q Notarian Will – signed by the testator acknowledged before the notary public with witnesses.
q Commercial - any instrument executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce of any
mercan4le law containing disposi4on of commercial rights or obliga4ons.

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Other Types of Documents:
q Ancient Document – A document that is more than 30 years kept in a place where it is normally
to be found it genuine and not embellished by any altera4on.
q Electronic Document – informa4on, data, figures, symbols or other modes of wri9en expression,
described or however represented which is received, recorded, transmi9ed, stored, processed,
retrieved or produced electronically.

GRAPHOLOGY – the act of a9emp4ng to interpret the character or personality of an individual from his
handwri4ng.
PALEOGRAPHY – it is the study of early wri4ngs, old and ancient scripts. It also focuses on wri4ngs done
on papyrus, parchment, vellum, etc.
PETROGRAMS – wri4ngs and drawings printed on the surface of the rocks.
AMBIDEXTROUS – ability to write with both len and right.

CLASSIFICATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

o Document with ques4oned signature
o Document containing fraudulent altera4on
o Holographic document – a document completely wri9en and signed by one person
o Document ques4oned as to the material used in their produc4on
o Documents involving typewri4ng
o Document ques4oned as to their date or age
o Document which may iden4fy a person through handwri4ng
o Genuine document erroneously or fraudulently a9acked/disputed
o Document containing prin4ng or type prints

q PICTOGRAPHS - represented by pictures and became signs

q HIEROGLYPHICS - a kind of picture wri4ng used by the Egyp4ans

ICONOGRAPHS - Is the first form of wri9en communica4on which started as far as 20,000 ago by the
Neolithic man was graphically represented by arranged objects and drawings on the walls of the caves and
big stones.

CUNEIFORM - A system of wri4ng invented by the Sumerians that used wedge –shape symbols.

SCRIBES - are correspondence/ wri4ng for the public

AREAS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

QuesUoned Document Examiner
Ø a document examiner analyzes any ques4oned document and is capable of more than just
ques4ons of authorship, limited only by their access to laboratory equipment.

q Historical DaUng - involves the verifica4on of age and worth of a document.

q Fraud InvesUgator - focuses on the money trail and criminal intent
q Paper and Ink Specialist - examine date, type, source and/or catalogue various types of paper,
watermarks, ink, prin4ng/copy/fax machines, computer cartridges, etc., using chemical methods.
q Forgery Specialist- analyze altered, obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos
using infrared lightning, expensive spectrograph equipment, or digital enhancement techniques.

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HandwriUng Analyst psychology expert who assesses personality trait from handwri4ng samples,

TypewriUng Analyst expert on the origin, make and model used in typewri9en material.

Computer Crime InvesUgator an emerging group that relates to QDE through some common inves4ga4ve
and tes4monial procedures.

IMPORTANT TERMS TO REMEMBER

§ SYSTEM OF WRITING combina4on of basic shape & design of le9er as taught in school.
§ COPY BOOK FORM basic design of le9er that is fundamental to the wri4ng system
§ WRITING MOVEMENT factors rela4ve to the mo4on of the pen
§ SLANT degree of wri4ng inclina4on rela4ve to the baseline
§ BASELINE imaginary or straight line in which the wri4ng rest

§ WRITING visible result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole or a combina4on of
certain forms which are very visible result of mental and muscular habits acquired by long
con4nued painstaking effort
§ HANDWRITING visible effect of bodily movement which is an almost unconscious expression of
certain ideas associated with script form.

CUNEIFORM
§ System of wri4ng first developed by the ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia c. 3500-3000 BCE.
§ Is the earliest wri4ng system in the world.

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• PAPYRUS
§ A thick precursor to modern paper made from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus.
§ Papyrus is 1st known to have been used in ancient Egypt

• WRITING HABITS repeated elements of one handwri4ng which serve as an iden4fying

characteris4c.
• SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABITS elements of one’s wri4ng that are sufficiently unique and well-
fixed to serve as a strong basis of individuality.

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TYPES OF HANDWRITING
CURSIVE WRITING -wri4ng which le9er joined together
HAND LETTERING- disconnected wri4ng
NATURAL WRITING -executed normally and without any a9empt to alter it usual wri4ng habit.
DISGUISED WRITING with an a9empt of changing its usual wri4ng habits in the hope of hiding
one’s iden4ty.
GUIDED/ASSISTED executed while the writer’s hand is at steadied.

SIGNATURE name of person by himself on a document as a sign of acknowledgement.

MODEL SIGNATURE GENUINE SIGNATURE WHICH HAS BEEN USED IN PREPARING A SIMULATED
OR TRACED FORGERY.

EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE EXECUTED IN PARTICULAR DATE, TIME AND PLACE UNDER A PARTICULAR
WRITER’S CONDITION AND FOR PARTICULAR PURPOSE.

DIGITAL SIGNATURE
• Electronic signature consis4ng of a transforma4on of an electronic document or an electronic data
message using an asymmetric or public cryptosystem such as that a person having the ini4al
untransformed electric document and the signer’s public key can accurately determine.

ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE refers to any dis4nc4ve mark, characteris4cs and/or sound in electronic
form, represen4ng the iden4ty of a person a9ached to electronic document or data message with
inten4on of authen4ca4ng, signing or approving an it.

TYPES OF SIGNATURES
Highly individualized signature
o A type of signature which is not readable
o Characterized by a series of intertwining stroke, ornamenta4on and flourishes.

FORMAL/ COMPLETE signing important documents or papers

INFORMAL/CURSORY – usually use for signing daily affair, primarily of rou4ne nature
CARELESS SCRIBBLE – used for signing receipts, mail and other documents

HOW FOREGERY IS COMMITTED? Art.169 RPC?

1. By giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument payable to bearer or to order men4oned
therein, the appearance of a true and genuine document
2. By erasing, subs4tu4ng or counterfei4ng or altering by any means the figures, le9ers, words or
sign contained therein.

Payable to bearer means payable to the holder or presenter.

• A person holding instruments such as checks, promissory notes, bank drans, or bonds is a bearer.

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 • When an instrument is payable to bearer, it means whoever holds the instrument can receive the
funds due on it.

KINDS OF FORGERY
SIMPLE - no a9empt has been made to make a copy of facsimile of the genuine wri4ng.
SIMULATED - forged signature wri9en in free hand. (Most skillful)
TRACED - made by some tracing process or outline form

KINDS OF TRACING METHOD

q Carbon Process - carbon paper is interlined between the genuine signature and the document
intended to be forged or placed at the top
q IndenUon Process- intended or canal like outline of the genuine signature. Tracing with
considerable pressure the outline of the signature with a sharp pointed instrument.
q Transmided light Process- strong light directed through the two sheets of paper either from below
or behind.

ELEMENTS OF FORMS OF WRITING

q ARC rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend or crook.

q BEARD introductory up and down strokes found in some capital le9ers. “Double hitch”

q BLUNT abrupt beginning/ end at which the pen does not creates a diminishing stroke.

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q BUCKLE KNOT horizontal or loop strokes used to complete le9er A, H, F @ D.

q CENTRAL PART body of the le9er. Characterized by a small rounded or circular stroke.

q DUCTUS LINK “ductus broken” connec4on between le9ers, either joined or disconnected

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q EYELET/EYELOOP small oblong strokes

q HITCH introductory backward strokes found in most capital le9ers and in some small le9ers

q HUMPS outer por4on of an upper curved bent or crook.

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q KNOB 4ny pool of an ink at the beginning or ending strokes

q STEM/SHANK/STAFF backbone of the le9er characterized by a long downward stroke

q INITIAL STROKE/TERMINAL SPUR long running ini4al or terminal strokes

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 q THROUGH any garland form of le9er strokes

q WHIRL long upward strokes usually found opposite the stem

q FOOT – the base or bo9om of a le9er that lies on the line of wri4ng
q HOOK – the bend, curve of the inner side of the bo9om loop or curve of a small le9er
q ASCENDER – is the top por4on of le9er or the upper loop such as b, d, l, f and k
q EMBELLISHMENT added strokes that serves as an ornamental or flourish to the design of the
le9er.
q DIACRITIC strokes added to complete certain le9er. They are necessary to the legibility of le9ers.
q LINE QUALITY visible records in the wri9en strokes of the basic movement and manner of holding
instrument.

TYPES OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger – used by beginner
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 2. Hand – wrist serves a point of pivotal and of limited freedom
3. Forearm – most skillful
4. Whole Arm – used for ornamental or large wri4ng

ELEMENTS OF WRITING MOVEMENT

q Pen PosiUon rela4ve loca4on of the pen in rela4on to the paper surface.
q Pen Scope represents the reach of the hand with the wrist at rest.
q Rhythm the harmonious or balance in the recurrences of strokes or impulses.
q Skills degree of writer’s proficiency in wri4ng.
q Shading increase in the width of the le9er strokes
q Pen Emphasis act of intermi9ently forcing the pen against the paper surface with increase in
speed
q Pen Pressure average or usual pressure/force applied in the wri4ng.
q HesitaUon widening of the ink strokes when the writers slow down or stop in certain posi4on.
q Pen Liz interrup4on of strokes by sudden removal of the wri4ng instrument from the paper
q Hiatus gap between strokes w/o lining the pen
q Retracing strokes which goes back over another wri4ng strokes.
q Patching/Retouching strokes which goes back over a defec4ve por4on of the strokes to repair an
error

IDENTIFICATION OF FORGERY
o Hesita4on and pen stop at unusual places
o Abrupt change in direc4on of strokes, showing uncertainty of movements
o Concealed joining or carefully made
o patching or retouching
o Blunt ini4al and/or terminal strokes
o Lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes
o Misplaced shading or shading in more than one direc4on caused by a false part.
o Defec4ve line quality
o Slow, broken, strokes, or wavy lines (Tremors)
o Unnatural pen lining
o Presence of carbon, pencil or indented outlines along the strokes

Factors that affect WriUng CharacterisUcs

Natural VariaUons - normal devia4on found in a repeated specimen of an individual’s handwri4ng or in
the product of typewriter.

Transitory Change those changes that con4nue to exist while the basic course of deteriora4on is s4ll
affec4ng the writer, once such cause has been removed from the writer, the wri4ng will reverts in its
normal form.

Tremor weakening of the stroke characterized by wavering or shaky strokes. (tremor of fraud and genuine
tremor)

WriUng condiUon all factors affec4ng the overall quality of wri4ng such as writer’s condi4on under which
the writers was prepared.

WriUng instrument Ball point pen, Fountain Pen, Fiber Pen etc.
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Quality Assurance
 § While a student in Paris, Petrache Poenaru invented the world's first fountain pen, an
inven4on for which the French Government issued a patent on 25 May 1827.
§ Lewis Waterman (Founder of Waterman pens) is commonly an answer to who invented the
fountain pen, but his 1884 patent was for an improvement on the exis4ng pen; Waterman
patented a design in which ink was fed to the nib by gravity and air being drawn into the
reservoir to allow a constant flow of ink without flooding.

Fountain Pen “Lewis Waterman”

§ Contains an internal reservoir of liquid ink.
§ The pen draws ink from the reservoir through a feed to the nib and deposits it on paper via a
combina4on of gravity and capillary ac4on.

Ballpoint “John Loud”

§ It usually leaves rounded line showing no 4p separa4on even when pressed heavily.

Pencil - A wri4ng implement or art medium constructed of a narrow, solid pigment core inside a
protec4ve casing which prevents the core from being broken or leaving marks on the user’s hand
during use.
§ “Conrad Gessner”

COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INKS

q Indian Inks - The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or
lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable gum was added.
q Log wood Inks - They were made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium
chromate.
q Iron Gallotanate Inks - Formerly it was made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron
salts were added.

q INK – a colored fluid or viscous marking material used for wri4ng or prin4ng
q SECRET INK – a material used for wri4ng which is not visible un4l treated by some developing
process or substances and also called sympatheUc ink.
q SYNTHETIC DYE INKS – any ink consis4ng simply of a dye dissolved in water together with the
necessary preserva4ves.
q BLUE BLACK INK – the class fluid that writes blue and darkens with age to a neutral gray or black.
q NON-AQUEOUS INK – ink in which the pigment or dye is carried in any vehicle other than water.

PENCIL – a wri4ng instrument in which the marking por4on consist of a compressed s4ck of graphite or
colored marking substances usually mixed with dyes and waxes

q PENCIL GRADE – a qualita4ve descrip4on of the hardness or sonness of a pencil, that is how dark
a stroke it is capable of making

q COLORED PENCIL – a pencil whose marking pigment is not black

q COPY PENCIL/INDENIBLE PENCIL – a pencil whose marking substances consist of a mixture of

graphite and aniline dye

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Quality Assurance
PEN – any wri4ng instruments used to apply inks to the paper
q PEN NIB – one of two divisions or points that form the wri4ng por4on of a dip pen or fountain pen
q POROUS TIP PEN – a modern wri4ng instrument in which the marking element or point consist of
a porous material through which the ink can flow
q BALL POINT PEN – a wri4ng instrument having as its marking 4p a small, truly rota4ng ball bearing
that rolls the ink onto the paper
q HARD POINT PEN – a modern wri4ng instrument in which the point is a perforated plas4c unit
q FOUNTAIN PEN – a modern nib pen containing a reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber
or cartridge
q QUILL PEN – wri4ng instrument made from the wri4ng feathers of the goose and swan

PAPER – a material manufactured in thin sheets from the pulp of wood or other fibrous substance used
for wri4ng or drawing
q PAPYRUS – a wri4ng material prepared in ancient Egypt from the pithy stems of papyrus plant
q PARCHMENT – an animal skin (goat or sheep) prepared as a wri4ng or prin4ng material
q VELLUM – parchment made from young calves and kids
q WATERMARKS – translucent design impressive in certain papers during the course of its
manufacture
q PAPER ANALYSIS – the applica4on of chemicals on the paper to determine its component whether
or not it came from the same source
q SAFETY PAPER – the term is applied to paper which has been treated in such a way to minimize
the chances of successful forgery by erasure whether mechanical or chemical being carried out in
any document

MISCELLANEOUS DOCUMENT PROBLEM

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 § Altered Document - any form of changes either addi4on or dele4on to an original content of
document
§ Decipherment of Erased WriUng – Mechanical/Chemical erasures
§ Decipherment of Obliterated WriUng
§ ObliteraUon is the process of smearing over an original wri4ng to make it illegible. Done with
the use of superimposing ink.
§ INFRARED LIGHT

Other use of Infrared Light

1. Show gunpowder stains
2. Deciphering altered or faded wri4ngs due to aged
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Quality Assurance
 3. Restora4on of Wri4ng in charred documents
4. Decipherment of obliterated wri4ng
5. Differen4ate paints or pigment
6. Record subject in total darkness
7. Addi4on, interlinea4ons or inser4on

Invisible WriUng – wri4ng that has no visible ink strokes made by sympathe4c ink such as acids, juice and
others.
ü detec4on can be by heat, water chemical fuming or by ultra violet light process.

Decipherment of Contact WriUng – par4ally visible ink strokes cause by sudden contact of paper with
another paper containing fresh ink.
§ Enhance through fuming or ultra violet light process.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any examina4on or study which is made with the microscope in order to
discover minute physical details.

OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION - with the illumina4on so controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of
the document from one side at a very low angle. Decipherment of faded handwri4ng, determina4on of
outlines in traced forgery, embossed impressions, etc. are subjected to this type of examina4on.

CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

§ Keep documents unfolded in protec4ve envelope
§ Take disputed papers to the document examiners laboratory at the first opportunity.
§ If storage is necessary, keep the document in a dry place away from excessive heat and strong
light.

DON’T’S
1. Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry them in a pocket for a long period of 4me.
2. Do not mark.
3. Do not mu4late or damage by repeated folding, creasing, cuing, tearing or punching or filing
purposes
4. Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist.

TERMS TO REMEMBER
• TYPEFACE – the prin4ng surface of the type block in a conven4onal typewriter.
• TYPEFACE DEFECT - any form of peculiarity of the type prin4ng caused by actual damaged to the
typeface metal or an abnormality in the prin4ng condi4on.
• CHARACTER - include le9er, symbol, numerals or points of punctua4on.
• PICA TYPEFACE – typeface impression ordinarily spaced 10 characters to the horizontal inch
• ELITE TYPEFACE – typeface impression ordinarily spaced 12 characters to the horizontal inch.
• REMINGTON MODEL
§ (ELIPHALET REMINGTON) 1ST COMMERCIAL TYPEWRITER
• TRANSITORY DEFECT – typewriter characteris4c which can be eliminated by simply cleaning the
ribbon.
• PERMANENT DEFECT – typewri4ng characteris4c which cannot be eliminated or corrected by
simple cleaning the ribbon.

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Quality Assurance
 • ALIGNMENT DEFECT – defect in the prin4ng condi4on of the type character in which the le9ers
are printed either at the top or bo9om len or right of inclined from proper posi4on.

PRINCIPAL TECHNIQUE IN TYPEWRITING EXAMINATIONS

q measure the typeface pitch
q Verify the type size and design
q Look for individual type face defect

§ VerUcal Mal Alignment character prin4ng above or below of its proper posi4on.
§ Actual Breakage any peculiarity of typewri4ng caused by actual damage to the type face metal
§ Off-its-feet character outline is not equally printed, that is the prin4ng is heavier in one side than
the remainder of the outline of the character
REBOUND
o Character prints a double impression with the lighter one slightly off set to right or len.

TWISTED LETTER
o A typeface defect in which characters are designed to be printed at a certain angle to the baseline.
Once leans to the len, or right of its proper posi4on

CLOGGED TYPEFACE
o characterized by dirty print due to constant used without cleaning of the type bar or due to use of
new carbon.

MAKING OF PAPER MONEY

• ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal by hand
or with a machine.
• LETTERPRESS PRINTING – le9ers are made on raised pieces of metal which covered with ink and
then impressed upon the paper in the same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers
of a bank note are usually added by this le9erpress process.

Steps in Recognizing Genuine BSP Notes

§ Feel the paper genuine note is printed on a special kind of paper which is rough when your fingers
through it.
• Look for watermark is the silhoue9e of the portrait appearing on the face of the note.
• Security Fibers embedded red and blue visible fibers that are sca9ered at random on both
surfaces of a genuine note

WINDOWED SECURITY THREAD

• A narrow security thread ver4cally located like “sAtches” at the face of the note with clear text of
the numerical value in the repeated sequence and changes the color from magenta to green or
green to magenta depending on the angle of view.

IRIDESCENT BAND – A wide glistening gold ver4cal strips with the numerical value printed in series.

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SERIAL NUMBER Composed of 1 or 2 prefix le9ered and 6-7 digits. The le9ers and numerals are uniform
in size and thickness, evenly spaced and well aligned, and glow under ultra-violet light.

PORTRAIT Appears life like. The eyes sparkle, shadings are formed by the fine line that give the portrait a
characteris4c facial expression which is extremely difficult to replicate.

VIGNETTE – the lines and dashes composing the vigne9e are fine, dis4nct and sharp, the varying color
tone gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it standout of the paper.

FLOURESCENCE PRINTING fluorescent print that are invisible numerical value located off center of the
face of the note that glows when exposed to ultraviolet light.

MICROPRINTING – minute and finely printed words “Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas” or “Central Bank of the
Philippines” located at the face of the note that are clearly printed and readable.

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 Quadro Alas
Quality Assurance
ü Do not return it to the passer
ü Delay the passer by some excuse, if possible, without risking harm
ü Observe and record the passer’s appearance and that his/her companion
ü Note the license plate number and model of passer’s car
ü Place the note in protec4ve cloing
ü Report to the authority

INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS

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Quality Assurance
 § MAGNIFYING LENS Bank personnel and other people involved in currency examina4ons usually
use and ordinary hand-lens.
§ SHADOWGRAPH pictorial image formed by cas4ng a shadow, usually of the hands, upon a righvul
surface or screen.
§ STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE – a tri-dimensional (3D) enlargement is possible.
§ MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS) – those used for signatures and typewri4ng.
• TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (Goose Neck Lamps) used for controlled illumina4on;
needed in sidelight examina4on wherein light is placed at a low-angle in a posi4on oblique to
plane or document.
• TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET device where light comes from beneath or behind glass on
document is placed.
• ULTRA VIOLET LAMP usually used in the detec4on of counterfeited bills but can actually be used
to detect security features of qualified documents.
• INFRARED VIEWER primarily used to decipher wri4ngs in a charred document.
• COMPARISON MICROSCOPE similar to that of the bullet comparison microscope.

LAWS ON FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

COUNTERFEITING THE GREAT SEAL OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, FORGING THE
SIGNATURE OR STAMP OF THE CHIEF EXECUTIVE (Art. 161)

What are the punishable acts?

1. Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines
2. Forging the signature of the President
3. Forging the stamp of the President of the Government of the Philippines

USING FORGED SIGNATURE OR COUNTERFEIT SEAL OR STAMP (Art. 162)

What are the elements of this crime?
1. Great Seal of the Republic was counterfeited or the signature or stamp of the Chief Execu4ve was
forged by another person
2. Offender knew of the counterfei4ng or forgery
3. He used the counterfeit seal or forged signature or stamp

MAKING AND IMPORTING AND UTTERING FALSE COINS (Art. 163)

• There be false or counterfeited coins
• Offender made, imported or u9ered such coins
• In case of u9ering such false or counterfeited coins, he connived with the counterfeiters or
importers
• A person gave a copper cent the appearance of a silver piece, it being silver plated, and a9empted
to pay with it a package of cigare9es which he bought at a store.

What crime, if any, was commi9ed?

• A: Such person is not liable for counterfei>ng of coin, but for estafa under Art. 318. (Reyes, 2012)

Counterfei4ng means to imitate a coin that is genuine. It gives an appearance of one of legal tender.

Coin is counterfeit even if it has more intrinsic value than the coin of legal tender.
• Q: What is the criterion used in determining whether a coin is a counterfeit or not?
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Quality Assurance
 • A: The criterion is that the imita4on must be such as to deceive an ordinary person in believing it
to be genuine. Consequently, if the imita4on is so imperfect that no one was deceived, the felony
cannot be consummated.

• Q: Can former coins withdrawn from circulaUon be counterfeited under Art.163?

• Yes. Art. 163 men4ons “coin” without any qualifying words such as “current.” Note: The reason for
punishing the fabricaAon of coin withdrawn from circulaAon is the possibility that the counterfeiter
may later apply his trade to the making of coins in actual circulaAon. (Reyes, 2012)

• Q: What is punished in “imporUng” false coins?

• A: The mere act of impor4ng that is being punished, even if the coins are not placed in circula4on.

• Q: What is meant by “udering” of coins?

• A: U9ering means to circulate, to pass counterfeit coins.

MUTILATION OF COINS IMPORTATION AND UTTERANCE OF MUTILATED COINS (Art. 164)

• Mu4la4ng coins of legal currency with the further requirement that there be intent to damage or
defraud another
• Impor4ng or u9ering such mu4lated coins, with the further requirement that there must be
connivance with the mu4lator or importer in case of u9ering. MuAlaAon means diminishing or
taking off by ingenuous means part of the metal in the coin either by filing or subsAtuAng it for
another metal of inferior quality

PROHIBITING AND PENALIZING DEFACEMENT, MUTILATION, TEARING, BURNING OR DESTRUCTION OF

CENTRAL BANK NOTES AND COINS. (P.D. 247)
1. Any person who willfully deface, mu4late, tear, burn or destroy, in any manner whatsoever, currency
notes and coins issued by the Central Bank of the Philippines; and
2. Fine of not more than twenty thousand pesos and/or by imprisonment of not more than five years.

SELLING OF FALSE OR MUTILATED COIN, WITHOUT CONNIVANCE (Art. 165)

• Possession of coins counterfeited or mu4lated by another person, with intent to u9er the same,
knowing that it is false or mu4lated.
• Actually, u9ering such false or mu4lated coin, knowing the same to be false or mu4lated.

• Q: In Art. 165, is it necessary that the counterfeited coin is a legal tender?

• A: No. If the coin is a mu4lated coin, it must be a legal tender.

Legal tender is a medium of payment recognized by a legal system to be valid for mee4ng a financial
obliga4on. (Paper currency and coins are common forms of legal tender in many countries.)

FORGING TREASURY OR BANK NOTES OR OTHER DOCUMENTS PAYABLE TO BEARER; IMPORTING, AND
UTTERING SUCH FALSE OR FORGED NOTES AND DOCUMENTS; IMPORTING, AND UTTERING SUCH FALSE
OR FORGED NOTES AND DOCUMENTS (Art. 166)
• Forging or falsifica4on of treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer.
• Importa4on of such false or forged obliga4ons or notes.

Note: It means to bring them into the Philippines, which presupposes that the obliga4ons or notes are
forged or falsified in a foreign country.
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Quality Assurance
 • U9ering obliga4ons or note knowing them to be false or forged, whether such offer is accepted
or not, with a representa4on.

Note: It means offering obliga4ons or notes knowing them to be false or forged, whether such offer is
accepted or not, with a representa4on.

What are the notes and other obligaUons and securiUes that may be forged or falsified under Art. 166?
• Treasury or bank notes
• Cer4ficates
• Other obliga4ons and securi4es payable to bearer

Note: Falsifica4on of PNB checks is not forgery under Art. 166 of RPC but falsifica4on of commercial
documents under Art. 172 in connec4on with Art. 171 of the RPC.

COUNTERFEITING, IMPORTING AND UTTERING INSTRUMENTS NOT PAYABLE TO BEARER (Art. 167)
• There be an instrument payable to order or other document of credit not payable to bearer
• Offender forged, imported or u9ered such instrument
• In case of u9ering, he connived with the forger or importer

What are the acts of forgery punished under Art. 167?

• Forging instruments payable to order or documents of credit not payable to bearer
• Impor4ng such false instruments
• U9ering such false instruments in connivance with the forger or the importer

ü Connivance is not required in u9ering if the u9erer is the forger.

ü Counterfei4ng under this ar4cle must involve an instrument payable to order or other document
of credit not payable to bearer.

ILLEGAL POSSESSION AND USE OF FALSE TREASURY OR BANK NOTES AND OTHER INSTRUMENTS (Art.
168)
• Any treasury or bank notes or cer4ficate or other obliga4on and security payable to bearer, or any
instrument payable to order or other document of credit not payable to bearer is forged or falsified
by another person
• Offender knows that any of those instruments is forged or falsified
• He performs any of these acts:
ü Using any of such forged or falsified instrument
ü Possessing with intent to use any of such forged or falsified instruments

• Q: Is possession of false treasury or bank notes alone without intent to use a criminal offense
enough to consummate the crime?
• A: No. But mere possession with intent to u9er consummates the crime of illegal possession of
false notes.

FORGERY (Art. 169)

• By giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument payable to bearer or to order men4oned
therein, the appearance of a true and genuine document

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Quality Assurance
 • By erasing, subs4tu4ng, counterfei4ng, or altering by any means the figures, le9ers, words, or
signs contained therein.

• Q: When is counterfeiUng not forgery?

• A: The subject of forgery should be treasury or bank notes. If the subject of forgery were a
document other than these, the crime would be falsifica4on. (Boado, 2008)

• Q: What is the essence of forgery?

• A: The essence of forgery is giving a document the appearance of a true and genuine document.

• Q: In a case where the accused, instead of carrying out his inten4on, threw away the forged note,
can he be made liable?
• A: No, for the law will not close the door of repentance on him, who having set foot on the path
of crime, retraces his steps before it is too late (People v. Padilla, 36 O. G. 2404)

What are the five classes of falsificaUon?

• Falsifica4on of legisla4ve documents
• Falsifica4on of a document by a public officer, employee or notary public
• Falsifica4on of public or official, or commercial documents by a private individual
• Falsifica4on of private document by any person
• Falsifica4on of wireless, telegraph and telephone messages

How is a document falsified?

a. Counterfei4ng or imita4ng any handwri4ng, signature
b. Causing it to appear that persons have par4cipated in any act or proceeding when they did not in
fact so par4cipate
c. A9ribu4ng to persons who have par4cipated in an act or proceeding statement other than those
in fact made by them
d. Making untruthful statements in a narra4on of facts

NOTE: This kind of falsificaAon may be commiOed by omission

• Altering true dates
• Making any altera4on or intercala4on in a genuine document which changes its meaning.
• (The altera>on which makes a document speak the truth does not cons>tute falsifica>on)

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 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY WITH TOXICOLOGY

TYPES OF MEDICAL EVIDENCE

q AutopUc or Real Evidence – evidence made is known or addressed to the senses of the court.
q TesUmonial Evidence - Ordinary/Expert Witness
q Experimental Evidence – a medical witness may be allowed by the court to confirm his allega4on
or as a corroborated proof to an opinion he was previously stated.
q Documentary Evidence – an instrument on which is recorded by means of le9ers, figures, marks,
intended to be used for the purpose of recording that ma9er which may be eviden4ally used.
(Medical Cert.,Medical Expert, Deposi4on)

Forensic Science deals with the applica4on of science to legal ma9ers and crime solving (Johll, 2009)

Forensic Chemistry
A branch of chemistry that deals with the applica4on of chemical theories and principle in solu4on
of legal problems in rela4on to administra4on and jus4ce.

FOUR STAGES IN THE PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

• Collec4on and recep4on of the specimen
• Actual examina4on
• Report wri4ng of the result
• Court appearance

FORENSIC CHEMIST AS AN EXPERT WITNESS IN COURT

• Educa4on
• Training
• Experience

Dangerous Drugs
Drugs is any natural or syntheAc substance that is used to produced psychological or physiological effect
in human.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS
• S4mulants
• Depressant
• Hallucinogen
• Narco4cs

Forensic Drug Analysis

Mainly refers to the process of iden4fying and quan4fying specimen of drugs. It involves qualita4ve
and quan4ta4ve of drug specimen.
• Physical Test
• Chemical Test
• Confirmatory Test
Drug Tests or a process of determining the presence of a drug and its metabolites in the human body
through the fluids.
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Quality Assurance
 q Screening Test – A rapid test performed to establish poten4al/presump4ve posi4ve result.
q Confirmatory Test – validate and confirm the result of the screening test.

FORMS OF SPECIMEN TAMPERING

SubsUtuUon – replacing given specimen by other substance
DiluUon – by internal and external means
AdulteraUon – done by adding indigenous substance into a urine sample.

Forensic Drug Analysis

Validity Test
Typical reason for performing validity test:
• To analyzed unobserved urine collec4on
• To determine water a urine that has been submi9ed has been tampered.

Physical Evidence – ar4cles and materials found in connec4on with the inves4ga4on and which aid in
establishing the iden4ty of the perpetrator or the circumstances under which the crime was commi9ed,
or in general assist in the prosecu4on of criminal.

KIND OF WITNESSES
Expert witnesses - opinion of a witness regarding a ques4on of science, art or trade, when he is
skilled therein, may be received in evidence.
Ordinary Witnesses - all persons who, having organs of sense, can perceives, and perceiving, can
make known their percep4on to others, may be witnesses.

RULINGS IN THE ADMISSIBILITY OF TESTIMONIES OF EXPERT WITNESS

q Frye Rule- determine the admissibility of scien4fic evidence. It provides that expert opinion based
on a scien4fic technique is admissible only where the technique is generally accepted as reliable
in the relevant scien4fic community.
q Daubert Rule- provides a rule of evidence regarding the admissibility of expert witnesses'
tes4mony during United States federal legal proceedings.
q Kumho Rule- Ques4ons the witness’ methodology and ques4ons whether Daubert rule applied
solely to scien4fic evidence.

EXPLOSIVES
Substances containing a large amount of stored energy which is capable of undergoing a rapid
chemical reac4on.

High explosives - supersonic explosions.

Low explosives - slow deflagra4on.

HAND GRENADES
A modern hand grenade generally consists of an explosive charge ("filler"), a detonator
mechanism, an internal striker to trigger the detonator, and a safety lever secured by a coder pin.

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 • Kill radius- 15 meters
• Seconds that the grenade will explode: 3-5 seconds

NITROGLYCERINE
• Known as blas4ng oil
• Came from glycerol
• First high explosive used in commercial blas4ng
• Alfred Nobel combined NG with a special type of clay known as kielselghur and packed into s4cks
crea4ng dynamite

DYNAMITE CONTENTS
• NG
• EGDN ethylene glycol dinitrate
• Sawdust
• Support compounds
• Ammonia gela4n

• RDX- royal demoli4on explosives

• C1- RDX + plas4cizer
• C2- RDX +TNT + DNT + MNT+ NC + Dimethylformadide

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 • C3- C2 without DMF
• C4- RDX + secabate + fuel oil+ polyisobutylene
• PETN- pentaerythritol tetranitrate
• ANFO- ammonium nitrate infuel oil
• TNT- Trinitrotoluene
• DNT- dinitrotoluene

TYPES OF EXPLOSION
MECHANICAL – caused by the expansion of gas that produces high pressure beyond the capacity
of the container
ATOMIC- caused by the transforma4on of atomic elements
CHEMICAL- produced through extremely rapid transforma4on of ustable substances accompanied
by heat transforma4on

DETECTION OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUE

Paraffin test was originated in Cuba when Dr. Gonzalo Iturrios first used the paraffin wax for
collec4ng gunpowder residues from a discharge firearm.

Teodoro Gonzales of Criminal Iden4fica4on Laboratory, Mexico City introduced the test in the United
States. (BLUE SPECKS POSITIVE RESULT)

SUBSTANCE THAT GIVES FALSE POSITIVE RESULT IN PARAFFIN TEST

1. FERTILIZER
2. EXPLOSIVES
3. TOBACCO/CIGARETTES
4. URINE
5. FOOD SAMPLES

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 6. CERTAIN COSMETICS

FACTORS AFFECTING RESULTOF PARAFFIN EXAMINATION

1. TYPE OF CALIBER OF AMMUNITION
2. LENGTH OF BARREL
3. AGE OF GUN
4. DIRECTION OF FIRING
5. WIND VELOCITY AND DIRECTION
6. HUMIDITY/ % OF MOISTURE IN AIR
7. USE OF GLOVES AND WHEN 72 HOURS HAS ELAPSED

TOXICOLOGY
Science of detec4ng and iden4fying the presence of drugs and poisons in 4ssues, organs, and body
fluids.

TOXINOLOGY - deals specifically with animal plant and microbial toxins.

Toxins are natural substances produced by living organisms.
Toxic substances are synthe4c substances from chemicals which are considered toxicants.

BRANCHES OF TOXICOLOGY
Environmental Toxicology is the study of causes, condi4ons and effects of such chemicals on the
living system and biosphere.
Forensic Toxicology deals with the poison, its type, symptoms and possible treatment. In precise
form, forensic toxicology is concerned with the medicolegal aspects of deleterious effects of
chemicals on human and other animals.
Economic Toxicology is directly or indirectly related to the economics of the na4on. It deals with
the harmful effects of chemicals which are inten4onally administered for the purpose of achieving
a specific effect in the biological system.
Clinical Toxicology
It deals with diagnosis and treatment of the effects of harmful diseases caused by toxic
substances of exogenous origin i.e., xenobio4cs. These include accidental and inten4onal abuse
of chemical substances, including therapeu4c agent
MechanisUc Toxicology
It is a branch of toxicology which is associated with the elucida4on of mechanisms by
which xenobio4cs exert their deleterious effects on living beings.
Biochemical Toxicology
The study of changes at the cellular and subcellular levels as a result of toxic ac4on of
chemicals is designated as biochemical toxicology.

Genotoxicity refers to the ability of harmful substances to damage gene4c informa4on in cells.
Toxic liver disease is damage to your liver. It's also called hepatotoxicity or toxic hepa44s.

Nephrotoxicity is defining as rapid deteriora4on in the kidney func4on due to toxic effect of medica4ons
and chemicals.

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Immunotoxicity is defined as adverse effects on the func4oning of both local and systemic immune
systems that result from exposure to toxic substances including chemical warfare agents.

Arsenic- commonly used as rat and pest management with symptoms of vomi4ng, diarrhea with blood,
and severe stomach discomfort.

Cyanide - kills by preven4ng RBC from absorbing sufficient amount of oxygen it needs which results in a
process known as internal shortness of breath.

Nitric acid poisoning

Nitric acid is a poisonous clear-to-yellow poisonous liquid. It is a chemical known as a caus4c. If it contacts
4ssues, it can cause severe damage, such as burning, on contact.

TYPES OF POISONS
q Corrosive- destroy 4ssues when they come into contact with the body
q True poisons - natural poisons, such as cyanide present in silver cleaners
q CumulaUve poisons - intensity lies on the gradual accumula4on of the poisons (arsenic)

FACTORS MODIFYING THE ACTION OF POISONS

Toxicity of a poison depends upon its inherent proper4es such as physiochemical as well as
pharmacological proper4es.

The ac4on of poisons mainly depends upon the following factors discussed below:
Forms of poison: There are three forms of poison:
Physical form: Gaseous/vola4le/vaporous forms of poisons act faster than liquid poisons as they are
quickly absorbed. Similarly, liquid poisons act faster than solid poisons.
EffecUve dose (ED): The effec4ve dose is the quan4ty of a substance at which it shows its effect in the
popula4on. In most cases, ED50 is measured as a dose which induces a response in half of the targeted
popula4on.
Lethal dose: The lethal dose (LD) 50 is the amount of drug which is expected to cause death of 50%
popula4on.

HypersensiUvity: It is basically the type of reac4on ini4ated by the body against any other substances.
Some4mes, it could be related to allergy.
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There is an assump4on that hypersensi4vity does not depend on wrong doses. Every person who is
hypersensi4ve to a par4cular substance has a dose related that defines the quan4ty required to cause
hypersensi4vity to that person. The allergic response is actually a toxic response and can be some4mes
fatal.

Idiosyncrasy: It is defined as a reac4on produced by the body to a chemical gene4cally. It is a type of

person that affects only those people who are gene4cally sensi4zed to that par4cular chemical or
substance but will show no effect on others. In such cases, the person experiences discomfort for several
hours or if the dose is high can be fatal also. For example- peanut allergy in some people.

Tolerance: It is the capability of a person to not produce any effect against a chemical that usually causes
reac4on to normal persons.
It is a state of reduced or no reac4on to a chemical. There are basically two types of mechanism that
induces tolerance. First is when the toxin reaches the effec4ve site, its quan4ty is very less. This is called
disposi4onal tolerance. The second is because the 4ssues show reduced response to the toxin.

CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS BASED ON THE EFFECTS ON THE BODY

Corrosive: The poisons burn the Ussues or organs when they come in contact with them, e.g.:
Strong acids such as H2SO4, HNO3, HCL, etc.
Strong alkalis such as hydroxides of Na, K, NH4, etc.
Irritants: The poisons irritate the 4ssues or organs when they come in contact with them

Inorganic:
Nonmetallic phosphorous, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.
Metallic salts of arsenic, an4mony, mercury, copper, lead, zinc, etc.

Organic:
Vegetable—castor oil, madar, croton oil, etc.
Animals—snake venom, cantharides, insect bites, etc.
Mechanical—glass powder, needles, diamond dust, hair, etc.

Botulinum toxin, also called “miracle poison,” is one of the most poisonous biological substances known.
[1] It is a neurotoxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum, an anaerobic, gram-posi4ve,
spore-forming rod commonly found on plants, in soil, water and the intes4nal tracts of animals.

Bufotoxins are a family of toxic steroid lactones or subsUtuted Tryptamines of which some may or may
not be toxic. They occur in the parotoid glands, skin and poison of many toads (genus Bufo) and other
amphibians, and in some plants and mushrooms.
NeuroUcs: Poisons affect the nervous system and the brain [3]:

Cerebral:
• Narco4c—opium and its alkaloids
• Inebriant (depressant)—alcohol, ether, chloroform, and chloral hydrate

Spinal:
• Excitant (s4mulants)—nux vomica and strychnine
• Depressant—gelsemium

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Cardiorespiratory:
• Cardiac—aconite, digitalis, oleander, and hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
• Asphyxiants—carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide

Miscellaneous:
A number of chemicals having diverse ac4ons on their body are included in this group:
• Animal poisons
• Curare (an arrow poison)
• Poisonous food ar4cles
• Industrial poisons—methyl isocyanate (MIC)
• Fuels—petroleum and kerosene
• Insec4cides—endrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and
• naphthalene

BLOOD is the circulaAng Assue of the body, which refers to a high complex mixture of cells.

Serum is the liquid part of blood: the fluid that separates from clo9ed blood, similar to plasma but without
cloing agents.
The blood remains liquid inside the body up to 6-8 hours
clear liquid that separates when blood is allowed to clot.

Blood
- is a serological fluid that consists of several kinds of cells
- Approximately 8% of an adult's body weight is made up of blood.

Females have around 4-5 liters, while males have around 5-6 liters. This difference is mainly due to the
differences in body size between men and women.

Its mean temperature is 38 degrees Celcius.

It has a pH of 7.35-7.45, making it slightly basic (less than 7 is considered acidic).

• Whole blood is about 4.5-5.5 4mes as viscous as water, indica4ng that it is more resistant to flow
than water. This viscosity is vital to the func4on of blood because if blood flows too easily or with
too much resistance, it can strain the heart and lead to severe cardiovascular problems.
• Human blood is always red. The tone is bright red when it is oxygenated (or oxygen rich) and a
darker red when it's lacking oxygen (or oxygen poor). De-oxygenated blood only appears to be
blue, largely because it is being viewed through many layers of translucent (par4ally transmiing)
skin cells.

Hemoglobin found in the red blood cells is responsible for transpor4ng oxygen to 4ssues and carbon
dioxide to the lungs.

Serology is a science, which deals with the study of human body fluid, which are the result of secre4on
and excre4on.
- branch of science that deals with the determina4on of the type and characteris4cs of blood, blood
tes4ng, and the examina4on of bloodstain, semen, saliva and other body fluids that may or may to be
involved with DNA typing

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Plasma the liquid por4on of the blood that contains, in the suspension, the blood cells and platelets along
with the water, glucose, protein and other chemical compounds.
The normal amount of hemoglobin for an adult is 14 to 17 grams for each 100 cc of blood.

TESTS FOR BLOOD

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
q Solubility Test – recent blood shed is soluble in saline solu4on and imparts a bright red color
q Heat Test – solu4on of the blood stain when heated will impart a muddy precipitate.
q Luminescence Test – stains on dark fabric mixed with mud, paint, etc. emit bluish white
luminescence in a dark room when sprayed with solu4on

TERMS
Thrombocytes- components of the solid part of the blood that assists in the cloing process, they
are commonly called platelets.
AggluUnaUon- the joining or clumping of an4gen-bearing red blood cells and the an4bodies
specific to that an4gen.
AnUgen- in blood are inherited from substances on the red blood which are responsible for
elici4ng a blood group reac4on to specific an4bodies.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) –they carry the supply of oxygen throughout the body.
Leukocytes- they serve as the figh4ng mechanism of the body against unwanted foreign
microorganism e.g. virus and bacteria

BLOOD EXAMINATION
PRELIMINARY TEST - determine whether the stain contains blood or another substance.
Determines whether visible stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to demonstrate the
presence of blood.
CONFIRMATORY TEST - determines whether bloodstain really contains blood. Test that posi4vely
iden4fies blood.
PRECIPITIN TEST - determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin, and if non-human,
the specific animal family from which it originated.
BLOOD GROUPING TEST - determines the blood group of humans

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CHEMICAL EXAMINATIONS
1. Saline extract of the bloodstain plus ammonia will give a brownish 4nge due to the forma4on of
alkaline hema4n.
2. Benzidine test – posi4ve result color blue (1:300,000 dilu4on) This is an extremely sensi4ve test
that can be applied to minute stain. The Benzidine test never fails to detect blood even when very
old, decomposed stain with all sorts of contamina4on is examined.
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen’s Dya’s or Schombein’s Test) – posi4ve result color blue (1:50,000
dilu4on) The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, gluten, potatoes,
perspira4on and other oxidizing substances.
4. Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle-Meyer Test) – posi4ve result will show pink color (1:80,000 dilu4on)
This is an alterna4ve test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilu4on of 1:80,000 parts. A
posi4ve result with this test is highly indica4ve of blood. The nega4ve result is, therefore, valuable
and is conclusive as to the absence of blood.
5. Leucomalachite Green Test by Adler in 1904 – posi4ve result will peacock blue or bluish green.

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MICRO CHEMICAL TEST
Hemochromogen Crystal or Takayama Test – posi4ve result will show salmon color to dark brown and
pink.

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Teichmann Test
• This test determines if there is blood present on suspected dried blood stains.
• The hema4n crystals begin to form when heated blood is mixed with glacial ace4c acid where
there is salt.
• The posi4ve result is caused by the combina4on of a halogen with ferriprotoporphyrin (red-
brown to blue-black crystalline salt containing iron).
• This test produces pink crystals that can reach up to 10 micrometers in size.
•

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Acetone Hemin or Wagenhaar test
Small and dark dichroic acicular crystals made of acetone.

GROUPING TEST FOR BLOOD

These are based on the ability of blood serum of one person to clump or bring together the red
blood cells of certain individuals.
If a suspension of human red cells is mixed with its own serum, or the serum of similar group, the
cells remain even. But if they mixed with the serum of another group, the cells clump or agglu4nate

This process is called AGGLUTINATION, which was first observed by Landsteiner in 1900. This was
explained on the basis that the red blood cells (RBC) contain an an4gen or Agglu4nogen, and that the
serum contains an4bodies or agglu4nins (ablu4on-elu4on technique.)

DISPUTED PARENTAGE

BLOODSTAIN PATTERN ANALYSIS

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 It refers to the examina4on of the shapes and distribu4on of pa9erns and loca4ons of bloodstains
which can provide an interpreta4on of the physical events that gave rise to their origin.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING THE ANALYSIS

q DirecUon of travel - can be determined by the bloodstain’s shape
q Surface texture - the harder and less porous the surface, the fewer blood spa9er produced
q Origin of the blood spader - can be determined by establishing lines through the long axis of
individual bloodstains
q Impact angle - a drop of blood striking a surface at a right angle produces a nearly circular stain

USES OF BSPA
o Show assump4ons concerning events and their sequence
o Confirms or refute statements made by principals in the case

Passive - drops flows and pools

Transfer - result from objects coming into contact with exis4ng bloodstains and leaving wipes,
swipes or pa9ern transfers behind such as a bloody shoe print or a smear from a body being
dragged
Projected -Impact stains result from blood projec4ng through the air and are usually seen as
spa9er, but may also include gushes, splashes and arterial spurts.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BSP
• Low velocity (5 f/s 1.5m/s)
• Medium velocity (25-100 n/s 7.5-30 m/s)
• High velocity impact (> 100 n/s 30m/s)

Blood spader is categorized as impact spa9er (created when a force is applied to a liquid blood source) or
projec4on spa9er (caused by arterial spur4ng, expirated spray or spa9er cast off an object). The
characteris4cs of blood spa9er depend on the speed at which the blood leaves the body and the type of
force applied to the blood source.
Gunshot spader - includes both forward spa9er from the exit wound and back spa9er from the entrance
wound. Gunshot spa9er will vary depending on the caliber of the gun, where the vic4m is struck, whether

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the bullet exits the body, distance between the vic4m and the gun and loca4on of the vic4m rela4ve to
walls, floors and objects. Typically, forward spa9er is a fine mist and back spa9er is larger and fewer drops.

Cast-off - results when an object swung in an arc flings blood onto nearby surfaces. This occurs when an
assailant swings the bloodstained object back before inflic4ng another blow.

Analysts can tell the direc4on of the impac4ng object by the shape of the spa9er (tails point in the
direc4on of mo4on). Coun4ng the arcs can also show the minimum number of blows delivered.

Expirated spader - is usually caused by blood from an internal injury mixing with air from the lungs being
expelled through the nose, mouth or an injury to the airways or lungs. Expirated spa9er tends to form a
very fine mist due to the pressure exerted by the lungs moving air out of the body. Small air bubbles in the
drops of blood are typically found in this type of spa9er.

Arterial spray - refers to the spurt of blood released when a major artery is severed. The blood is propelled
out of the breached blood vessel by the pumping of the heart and onen forms an arcing pa9ern consis4ng
of large, individual stains, with a new pa9ern created for each 4me the heart pumps.

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 q Spurious children- Illegi4mate who are not natural are considered spurious children may be:
q Adulterous Children – conceived in an act of adultery or concubinage.
q Sacrilegious Children – children born of parents who have been ordained in sacris.
q Incestuous Children – children born by parents who are legally incapable of contrac4ng valid
marriage because of their blood rela4ons as marriage between brothers and sisters, father and
daughter, etc.
q Manceres – children conceived by pros4tute. It is very difficult to determine the father because
of the nature of the work.

HAIR AND FIBER ANALYSIS

Hair - refers to slender, threadlike outgrowths of the epidermis which forms a dis4nct type of body
covering in mammals.
It is composed of keraAn which is also the primary component of finger and toe nails.
Produced from the hair follicle which is developed in humans during fetal development, no new
follicles are produced aner birth.
Its shape and texture are heavily influenced by genes. Its physical appearance is also influenced
by nutri4onal status and inten4onal altera4on.

MORPHOLOGICAL PARTS OF THE HAIR

q Root bulb - shape of the root bulb determines whether the hair was pulled by force
q Shaz - contains the most informa4on about the hair
Tip would show if the hair was cut burned or if it had split ends

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q CuUcle – outer layer of the hair
q Cortex/Middle Layer – consist of longitudinal fibers bearing the pigment
q Medulla/Core – contains air bubbles and some pigments

• MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I (is the rela4onship between the diameter of the medulla and the
diameter of the whole hair. Its determina4on is performed under a microscope with micrometer
eyepiece.
• HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) (belongs to human)
• HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) (belongs to hair of cow, horse, others.
• HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) (almost all animals belong to this

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RACIAL DETERMINATION
Caucasoid- have a fine to medium coarseness. Generally straight or wavy in appearance and
possess no colors ranging from blonde to brown black
Mongoloid - straight, regularly coarse and circular with a wider diameter than other racial groups.
CuAcle is usually significantly thicker than that of the negroid. The cortex contains pigments that
are generally larger in size than those of Caucasian hairs.
Negroid- curly or kinky, have a fla9ened cross sec4on, and can appear wavy curly or coiled

TEXTILE FIBERS
q Natural Fibers
q Plant Fiber
q Animal Fibers
q Man-made Fibers

Natural Fibers
Plant Fibers

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 ü burn rapidly
ü smells like burning leaves
ü steady flame

q Codon – most common; diversity depends on type of co9on, fiber length, and degree of twist.
q Flax - a fine light-colored plant fiber used to make linen
q Ramie - a lustrous son durable fiber obtained from the bark of a bush.
q Sisal - a strong white fiber obtained from the leaves of an agave plant
q Jute – coarse fiber from the stems of Corchorus (saluyut)
q Hemp – a tough fiber from the stems of an Asian plant
q Kapok – a silky fiber obtained from the seed covering of a tropical tree.
q Coir - coarse fiber that comes from the husk of the coconut

SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS

Semen fresh is a viscid, gela4nous, s4cky, whi4sh fluid, which has a fish-like odor and is slightly
alkaline. It is ejaculated by male species. It appears grayish-white in color.
The seminal fluid contains certain substance called flavins which help give a yellowish color to
semen and cause it to fluoresce under ultra violet lights.

Normal quan4ty of seminal fluid in a single ejaculated is from 2.5 to 5 cc. (60-100 million spermatozoa per
cc)

TYPES OF EXAMINATION CONDUCTED FOR SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS:

A. Physical ExaminaUon
It is also visible to the ultra violet rays and it exhibit bright bluish fluorescence.
B. Microscopic ExaminaUon – to detect the presence of spermatozoa
The only specific test for semen is the iden4fica4on of a sperm cell under the microscope.

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 The presence of sperm cells proves that the stain is of semen. However, with the absence of sperm cells
it cannot be concluded that the stain is not of seminal origin. These are some condi4ons which may be
lead to non-detec4on of semen, like

AZOOSPERMIA - a disorder produced by male organ which produces semen without sperm cells
OLIGOSPERPIA - a semen with a very few sperm cell

a. Florence test – it has the characteris4cs and a forma4on of choline periodide crystals are observed
under the microscope.
b. Barberio test – it appears as slender yellow-Anted rhomboid needles with obtuse angles almost the
same the Florence test result.

c. Acid phosphatase test – is an enzyme found in both animal and plant cells, but in large concentra4on
of human cells which produces an orange red pigment
d. P30 test- a test conducted using a protein called P30.

GLASS EVIDENCE
Glass is a super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic
substance.

Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5).
For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It is made of
silica sand and other metallic oxide

CHARACTERISTICS OF GLASS
q Iron –greenish
q Copper - bluish
q Manganese - Brownish
q Gold - Ruby red

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THEORIES RELATED TO GLASS FRACTURE
o Glass first bends on the direc4on where force is applied, which causes the opposite side to stretch
o Glass is flexible- it bends when force is applied to it
o Glass can withstand more bending rather than stretching which causes the opposite side to start
breaking once stretch limit is exceeded
o Mist of the glass is projected forward in the direc4on of the blow.
o Backsca9er- 3 meters backward

TYPES OF GLASS FRACTURE

Radial or primary - resembles the spokes of a wheel
Concentric or secondary - the radia4ng rods are connected with one another crea4ng a cob web
appearance

FACTORS TO BE DETERMINED IN A GLASS FRACTURE

Point of impact- the front of the glass can be determined through the accumula4on of dust and dirt on
the glass
direc4on

AGE OF THE FRACTURE

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Fresh - exhibits a regular pa9ern of radial and concentric fractures
Old - shows short extension lines at the end of the radial fractures

1. SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis that determines the presence of

trace element. Shows the cons4tuent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient informa4on to
establish the origin of the samples examined. A rapid examina4on and an adequate method for glass
analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample.
2. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effec4ve as the spectrographic analysis. Determines the
type of pa9ern of glass. The type of pa9ern depends upon the composi4on of glass.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensi4ve method of determining differences of
composi4on in glass samples and it depends upon the study of the physical proper4es of glass. Proper4es
like specific gravity or density, refrac4ve index.
4. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the appearance of their
fluorescence thus indica4on of physical and chemical differences.
5. POLISH MARKS – op4cal glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing of
glass fine marks are onen len on the surface that can some4mes serve as a basis of comparison

Density analysis - based on the rela4ve densi4es of two or more pieces of glass. Comparison of the
densi4es of a known and an unknown piece of glass may help determine whether they are similar or
dissimilar.

Macro etching - applica4on of a chemical solu4on on a metal surface and observing any reac4on that may
take place
Concavity - refers to a depression of excava4on below the general level
AlteraUon - refers to changes or modifica4on made in anything
Molecule - smalless par4cle of a compound
Atom - smallest par4cle of an element
Grind - to polish or smoothen by fric4on
ObliteraUon - to conceal an object’s iden4ty
Engraved number - number that is impressed on a metal surface using an electrical or mechanical gadget
Embossed number - a number that is raised in relief from the surface or produced as a raised design,
pa9ern, or le9ering on a plain surface

CHEMICALS USED IN NUMBER RESTORATION

o Paint remover
o For hard metals – nitric acid (50ml acid in 50 ml water), cupric chloride solu4on
o For sol metals - hydrogen peroxide in ace4c acid
GUNSHOT TRAJECTORY
Odd and Even Rule in Gunshot wounds – if the number of gunshot wound of entrance and exit wound
found in the body of the vic4m is even, the presump4on is that no bullet is lodged in the body, but if the
number of gunshot wounds of entrance and exit wound is odd, the presump4on is that the one or more
bullets might have been lodged in the body.

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SPECIAL CONSIDERATION ON BULLETS
q Souvenir Bullet – bullet has been lodged and has remained in the body.
q Bullet MigraUon – bullet that is not lodged in a place where it was previously located.
q Bullet Embolism – special form of bullet migra4on when the bullet loses its momentum while
inside the chamber of the heart or inside the big blood vessels and carried out by the circula4ng
blood to some parts of the body where it may be lodged.
q Tandem Bullet – two or more bullet leaving the barrel one aner another.

Loose Contact or Near Fire

Ø Entrance wound maybe a large circular or oval depending upon the angle of approach of the
bullet.
Ø Abrasion collar or ring is dis4nct
Ø Smudging, burning and ta9ooing are prominent with singeing of the hair
Ø Muzzle imprint maybe seen depending upon the degree of slapping of the skin of the gun muzzle.

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 Ø There is blackening of the bullet track to a certain depth.
Short Range Fire (1 to 15cm. distance)
Ø Edges of the entrance wound is inverted
Ø If within the flame reach (about 6 inches in rifle and high-powered firearms and less than 3 inches
from an ordinary handgun), there is an area of burning.
Ø Smudging is present due to smoke
Ø Powder ta9ooing is present.
Ø Abrasion ring or collar is present
Medium range (more than 15cm. but less than 60cm)
Ø Gunshot wound with inverted edges and with abrasion collar is present.
Ø Burning effect is absent
Ø Smudging maybe present if less than 30 cm. distance.
Ø Gunpowder ta9ooing is present but of lesser density and has a wider area of distribu4on.
Ø Contact ring is present

TOOLS NECESSARY FOR TRAJECTORY DETERMINATION

ü Marking pens
ü Adhesive tape
ü String
ü Measuring tape
ü Inclinometer
ü Laser pointer
ü Clear plas4c protractor
ü Compass
ü Adhesive markers
ü Bubble or torpedo level

TYPES OF ASPHYXIA
Anoxic death - associated with the failure of the arterial blood to become normally saturated with oxygen
Anemic anoxic death - due to a decreased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen
Stagnant anoxic death - brought about by the failure of circula4on
Histotoxic anoxic death - due to the failure of cellular oxida4ve process. Or the failure of the u4liza4on of
oxygen

SOIL ANALYSIS
o Consists of plants, minerals, animal ma9er, and 4ny par4culates of synthe4c products such as
cement, paint, glass, asphalt, and so on.
o The size, and shapes of par4cles can be compared using reflected light microscopes.
o Can also be done with the use of X-ray diffrac4on

Petrography - branch of geology dealing with the systema4c classifica4on and iden4fica4on of rock
forming minerals, rocks and soils.
Petrographic analysis - use of a polarizing microscope to determine the op4cal proper4es of crystalline
mineral substances.

TOOLMARKS ANALYSIS
What are toolmarks - when tools are manufactured, the manufacturing process leaves certain
imperfec4ons embedded on the tools 'surfaces. These pa9erns are unique for each tool.
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“If any object or instrument reaches the surface with enough force to allow its signature design to be
indented, this form of marking is referred to as a tool mark.”.
They are impressions or marks produced by a tool or instrument on a recep4ve surface.

NegaUve impression- stamping type

Abrasion impression – fric4on type

FricUon Marks (Sliding AcUon): The second type is a mark of abrasive wear or resistance len by
the tool’s sliding or chopping ac4on that creates stria4ons on a marked surface.
FricUon marks are fine parallel striaAons and are a characteris4c feature len by a tool scraped across a
smooth surface, such as dressed wood or metal.
It is common to focus on such stria4ons when making bullet and tool mark comparisons. Parallel
lines have the poten4al to be matched using microscopic comparison

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PLACES AND SURFACES WHERE TOOLMARKS MAY BE FOUND
ü Human bone
ü Door and window frames
ü Sec4ons of sheet metal
ü Padlocks and door knobs
ü Wire, chains
ü Bolts and locks
ü Safety deposit

q Breech face mark

Mark found at the base por4on of the shell cause by the backward movement to the breech face of
the block of the firearm.
q Extractor mark
Found at the extrac4ng groove of the fired cartridge shell, cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.
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 q Ejector mark
It is located near the rim of the case cause by the throwing of shell from the firearm to the area of
shooAng.
q Shearing mark
called “Secondary firing pin mark” found on the primer near the firing pin mark.
q Magazine lip mark
Marking found at the two sides of the rim cause by the magazine lips during the loading of the
cartridge into the magazine for firing.
q Chamber mark
Marks mostly found around the body of the fired cartridge case cause by the irregulari4es of nips
inside the walls of the chamber.

Below shows a comparison between 2 cartridge cases that lack any individual characteris4cs but
have a similar general appearance.

• As the bullet travels through the barrel, the grooves guide the bullet and cause it to spin.
• Stria4ons, or fine lines, in the gun barrel make the same stria4ons on the bullet. These stria4ons
are unique to the firearm.

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MEDICO LEGAL ASPECTS OF SEXUAL CRIMES
Deflora>on – is the lacera4on or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual intercourse.
Pregnancy – is a state of a woman who has within her body the going product of concep4on.
} Delivery -is the process by which in a woman gives birth to her offspring.
} Puerperium – is the interval between the termina4on of labor (delivery) to the complete return
of the reproduc4ve organ its normal pregnant state-last from 6 to 8 weeks.

The Good Bacteria found in the vagina is called Vaginal Flora or vaginal microbiota. More popularly known
as Doderiein Bacilli which was discovered by Albert Doderlein.
Fourchede - the v- shaped structure formed by the anion of labia majora posturing and vaginal orifice.

HEALING TIME OF HYMENAL LACERATION

Superficial - 2-3 days
Extensive tear -7-10 days
Complicated - if with intervening infec4on it will take longer to heal.

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 POLYGRAPHY
The Science of Lie DetecAon

OPERATIONAL TERMS:
POLYGRAPH – is an instrument for the recording of changes in blood pressure; pulse rate, respira4on and
skin resistance as indica4on of emo4onal disturbances especially of lying when ques4oned.

The word was derived from the word POLY means “many” and GRAPHOS means “wriAng.”

What are the objec4ves of a polygraph examina4on?

ü Obtain addi4onal inves4ga4on leads to the facts of the case/offenses.
ü Ascertain if a person is telling the truth
ü Locate the fruits or tools of the crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
ü Iden4fy other persons involved.
ü Obtain valuable informa4on form reluctant witnesses
ü Eliminate the innocent suspects.

What are the principal uses of polygraph?

ü Aid in inves4ga4on
ü Speeds up processing of inves4ga4on
ü Eliminates innocent suspects
ü Pre-employment screening
ü Honesty test (Periodic test)

POLYGRAPHY – it is the scien4fic method of detec4ng decep4on, using a polygraph machine.

FEAR – is emo4onal response to specific danger that appears to beyond a persons defensive power.
STIMULUS – is a force or mo4on reaching the organism and excites the receptors.
REACTION – it is an ac4on in mental aitude evokes by external influence.
DECEPTION – is an act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
DETECTION – It is an act of discovery of existence, presence of fact or something hidden or obscure.
LYING – the u9ering or conveying of falsehood or crea4ng a false or misleading informa4on with the
inten4on of affec4ng wrongfully the acts and opinion of other.
RESPONSE – is any ac4vity or inhibi4on of the previous ac4vity of an organism resul4ng from s4mula4on.
SPECIFIC RESPONSE – is any devia4on from the normal tracing of the subject.
NORMAL TRACING – is a tracing on the chart wherein the subject answered in the irrelevant ques4on.
POLYGRAPH EXAMINER – is one who conducts and administer the test.
CHART OR POLYGRAMS – refers to the composite records of Pneumograph, Galvanograph and
Cardiosphygmograph tracings recorded from series of ques4ons.

Subject – refers to the person being examined.

Ayur Vida - Hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered as an earliest known reference
to a method of detec4ng decep4on

EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

Trial by Ordeal a judicial prac4ced by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is determined
by subjec4ng them to an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience or in the present term would
mean an employment of “3rd degree”.

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 § word “ordeal” was derived from the Medieval La4n word “Dei Indicum” which means “a
miraculous decision”.

Trial by Iron Hot Ordeal - accused will be required to touch his tongue to an extremely hot metal
9x (unless burned sooner)

Ordeal of Boiling Oil prac4ced in villages of India and certain parts of West Africa. In a trial by hot
water (judicium aquae fervenUs), also known as the “cauldron ordeal,”a large ke9le of water
would be heated to the boiling point and a ring or jewel placed at the bo9om. This form of ordeal
was meant to ascertain the guilt or innocence of a person accused of murder.

Ordeal of Cold Water a man accused of sorcery was to be submerged in a stream.

Test of the Cross ordeal - The accuser and accused each were made to stand with arms crossed
on their breasts. The one who endured the longest was deemed to have told the truth, the other,
is the liar. Prac4ced in Europe.

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The Test of the Candle accuser and accused were each given iden4cal candles and were lighted at
the same 4me. The candle that burns the longest determines which the truth.
Ordeal by heat and fire - The accused was compelled to walk bare footed through a fire; if he
remains unhurt then he is innocent

Ordeal by balance - Prac4ced in the Ins4tute of Vishnu, India; Scale of balanced is used; In one
end of the scale, the accused is placed in the other end, a counter balance; The person will step
out of the scale listened to a judge deliver an extor4on is the balance and her back in. If he were
found to be lighter than before then he should be convicted.

In the Ordeal of rice chewing, the suspect was made to chew on a handful of dry rice while being
ques4oned and then told to spit it out aner a certain amount of 4me. The rice was then examined.
If the rice came out easy enough and was moist, the suspect was judged innocent. If the Gods
made the rice dry and it stuck to the person’s mouth when they tried to spit it out, they were
accused of lying and judged guilty. This result was based more on physiological reac4ons to stress
and less on divine interven4on. It was believed that stress caused by fear of detec4on slowed
down the flow of saliva, thus causing the suspect to have a dry mouth.

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 Drinking ordeal – The accused was given a decoc4on to drink by a priest- if innocent; no harm
befalls him, but if guilt, will die. Prac4ce in Nigeria and India.

Trial by Eucharist – this trial is reserved for the clergy, and administered with pomp and ceremony.
If the accused was guilty, it was believed that angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent
the accused from swallowing the food given to him. Prac4ce in the European countries.

POLYGRAPH
The polygraph is used to test or ques4on individuals for the purpose of detec4ng decep4on or
verifying truth of statements through a visual, permanent and simultaneous recording of a person’s
cardiovascular and respiratory pa9ern as a minimum instrumenta4on requirement.

A polygraph (commonly referred to as a lie detector) is an instrument that measures and records several
physiological responses such as:
ü blood pressure
ü pulse
ü respiraAon
ü skin conducAvity

- while the subject is asked and answers a series of ques4ons, on the basis that false answers will
produce dis4nc4ve measurements. The polygraph measures physiological changes caused by the
sympathe>c nervous system during ques4oning.

Within the U.S. federal government, a polygraph examina4on is also referred to as a

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DETECTION OF DECEPTION (PDD) examina4on. Several other technologies are
also used in the field of lie detec4on, but the polygraph is the most famous.

HISTORY
The idea that lying produces physical side-effects has long been claimed. In West Africa persons
suspected of a crime were made to pass a bird's egg to one another. If a person broke the egg, then he or
she was considered guilty, based on the idea that their nervousness was to blame.

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 In ancient China the suspect held a handful of rice in his or her mouth during a prosecutor's
speech. Since saliva4on was believed to cease at 4mes of emo4onal anxiety, the person was considered
guilty if by the end of that speech the rice was dry.

HISTORY OF POLYGRAPH
§ Original Sin – Adam and Eve disobeyed God from ea4ng the forbidden fruit, the act of decep4on
was born.
§ Book of 1st king – the Judgment of King Solomon of Israel ruled between 2 women claiming to be
the mother of the child by tricking them by revealing their true feelings.
§ Erasistratus
Greek anatomist and Royal physician known for the detec4on of detec4on by feeling the pulse.
(Quickening of the pulse)

1895
Cesare Lombroso, an Italian scien4st, employed the first scien4fic instrument to detect decep4on –
HYDROSPHYMOGRAPH, measured changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were ques4oned
about their involvement of a specific offense.

1914
VITTORIO BENUSSI successfully detected decep4on with a PNEUMOGRAPH – an instrument that
graphically measures an examinee’s inhala4on and exhala4on. Benussi thus demonstrated that changes
in breathing pa9erns accompany decep4on.

1918 Harold BurO

Determined that respiratory changes were indica4ve of decep4on. And found out that changes in systolic
blood pressure were of greater value in detec4ng decep4on than respiratory changes.

CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH
CESARE LOMBROSO – accorded as the first person that u4lizes instrument in detec4ng decep4on.
His basis in detec4ng decep4on is by measuring the blood pressure and pulse rate.
This is known as HYDROSPHYGMOGRAPH

ANGELO MOSSO – he stated that FEAR influenced the heart and could be use as a basis for detec4ng
decep4on. He uses sphygmomanometer and scien4fic radio to study fear.

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Mosso uses an instrument called a "plethysmograph" in his research on emo4on and fear in subjects
during ques4oning, and he studies the effects of these variables on their cardiovascular and respiratory
ac4vity. Mosso studies blood circula4on and breathing pa9erns and how these change under certain
s4muli. The use of the plethysmograph reveals periodic undula4ons or waves in a subject’s blood pressure
caused by the respiratory cycle in response to certain s4muli. Angelo Mosso is the first scien4st to report
on experiments in which he observes that a person’s breathing pa9ern changes under certain s4muli and
that this change, in turn, causes varia4ons in their blood pressure and pulse rate.

1917
Further research by WILLIAM MARSTON in 1917 dealt with the SPHYGMOMANOMETER, which was used
to obtain periodic discon4nuous blood pressure readings during the course of an examina4on.

JOHN A. LARSON – “Father of Scien4fic Lie Detec4on”.

The present polygraph machine is a9ributed to him. He is the one who developed and study to record at
the same 4me the responses of the blood pressure, pulse rate and respira4on

GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT
STICKER – he introduced the method of detec4ng decep4on from the galvanic impression on the chart
tracing.
VERAGUTH – he used the word PSYCHOGALVANIC reflex. He believed that electrical phenomena are due
to the ac4vity of sweat glands, and such ac4vity is known as “psychogalvanic”.

Ruckmick
In 1936, the term psychogalavanic reflex used by veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick and proposed the
term “electrodermal response”. However, Veraguth believed that the electrodermal phenomena was
a9ributable not to vascular area but to the ac4vity of the sweat glands.

LEONARD KEELER - he device a metal recording bellows; rolled chart paper.

In 1949, he incorporated Galvanograph with measurement of blood pressure and respira4on into a
portable case.

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Sir James Mackenzie
o Generally overlooked in that history of the lie detector technique is the fact that so called
polygraph was in existence at least as early as 1906.

o Its inven4on, however as not for lie detec4on purposes, rather for the use in medical examina4on.
o Nevertheless, it did contain the essen4al features of present-day instrument and first construc4on
was based upon the same principle.
o Its inventor was Sir James Mackenzle, the famous English Heart Specialist which ar4cles en4tled
“The Ink Polygraph” which appeared in 1908 number of the English Journal.

Cleve Backster
o Developed the so-called Backster Zone Comparison Technique and incorporated it into the
relevant-irrelevant technique and the symptoma4c ques4on which he introduced in order to
iden4fy the outside issue that might interfere with the test.
o Introduced the quan4fica4on chart analysis

Richard O. Arther
o Chief Associate of John E. Reid introduced the Richard Arther aII Polygraph Instrument which
contains a s4mulus marker.
o This instrument is capable of recording the beginning and ending of ques4on and the moment the
examinee answered.

John E. Reid
o Developed Control Ques4on which consist of a known lie and incorporated it into the
relevant/irrelevant technique.
o “Silent answer test and guilt-complex.
TRIPOD FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPHY
Psychological Leg Basic Premise - states that specific nervous system component whose
s4mula4on can thus be diagnosed are so s4mulated by the involuntary and emo4onal processes
of the individual who is con4nuously a9emp4ng concealment of decep4on.

Physiological Leg basic Premise - among the physiological responses that may be recorded are
those that automa4cally occur only following the s4mula4on of specific nervous component
system.
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 Mechanical Leg basic Premise - polygraph is capable of making graphic record containing reliable
informa4on regarding physiological responses of the subject.

KINDS OF LIAR
§ Panic Liar - lies to avoid the consequences of certain ac4ons
§ OccupaUonal Liar - usually lies when there is a higher pay off than telling the truth
§ Tournament Liar - loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected
§ Ethnological Liar trained not to be squealer. This person loves to be interrogated and has taken
the creed that he will never reveal the truth, usually the creed of the underworld gang
§ Psychopathic Liar shows no regret for his dishonest ac4ons and no manifesta4ons of guilt. Most
difficult type of liar to deal with because such is a good actor
§ Pathological Liar person who cannot dis4nguish between right and wrong. also known as
mythomania and pseudologia fantas4ca, is the chronic behavior of compulsive or habitual lying.
Unlike telling the occasional white lie to avoid hur4ng someone's feelings or geing in trouble, a
pathological liar seems to lie for no apparent reason
§ Black Liar a person who always pretend

TYPES OF LIE
§ Lie of FabricaUon something made up or a misrepresenta4on of a truth. It is onen used by the
subject in an interview.
§ Lie of Omission used by omiing an important fact, deliberately leaving another person with a
misconcep4on.
§ Noble Lie
§ would normally discord if uncovered but offers some benefit to the liar and assists in an orderly
society therefore poten4ally beneficial to others.
§ Puffery Lie
§ exaggerated claim typically found in adver4sing and publicity announcements.
§ Lie of Compliment or False Reassurance
§ a lie intended to please others.
§ White Lie
§ a lie that would cause only rela4vely minor discord if it were uncovered and typically offers some
benefit to the hearer.
§ Red Lie
§ a lie used to destroy the ideologies by means of propaganda which is common in communist
countries.
§ Malicious Lie
a lie usually used to mislead or a dishonesty intended to obstruct jus4ce.
3 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH
1. Pneumograph detect and record changes in respira4on of the subject
2. Cardiosphygmograph detect changes in the cardiovascular ac4vity of the subject
3. Galvanograph detect changes in skin resistance of the subject

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FACTORS THAT AFFECTS THE ACCURACY OF THE POLYGRAPH RESULTS
Generally, the following are factors affec4ng polygraph examina4on accuracy:
§ The instrument.
§ The condi4on of the Subject.
§ The condi4on of the examina4on room.
§ The qualifica4on and skills of the examiner.

THE FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS

PNEUMOGRAPH
CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH COMPONENT
GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT
KEYMOGRAPH COMPONENT

Today, polygraph examiners use two types of instrumenta4on:

Ø analog
Ø computerized
In the United States, most examiners now use computerized instrumenta4on.

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METHODS OF DECEPTION DETECTION
1. Devices which record the psycho-physiological response.
2. Use of drugs that try to inhibit the inhibitor
3. Hypno4sm
4. By observa4on
5. Scien4fic Interroga4on
6. Confession

RECORDING THE PSYCHO PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE:

The nervous control of the human body includes the central nervous system (the brain and the
spinal cord) and the autonomic or regula4ng nervous system (sympathe4c and parasympathe4c). The
central nervous system primarily controls the motor and sensory func4ons that occur at or above the
threshold. It may be voluntary.

What are the limitaUons of the Polygraph?

§ It is an invaluable inves4ga4ve aid, but never a subs4tute for inves4ga4on.
§ It is not a lie detector; it is a scien4fic diagnos4c instrument.
§ It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the subject knows to be true.
§ It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
§ The test will not be given un4l enough facts have been established to permit the examiner to
prepare a complete set of suitable ques4ons.
§ The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.
§ No indica4on will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person will be considered
guilty because he refused to take the test.
§ A test will not be given un4l the accusa4ons have been explained with the subject.
§ No a9empt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evalua4on of any person.
§ No examina4on will be conducted on unfit subject

PSYCHOLOGICAL SET THEORY

AnUclimax Dampening Concept- the guilty subject will tune in the relevant ques4on and tune out
the control ques4on. The innocent will tune in the control and tune out the relevant ques4ons

Outside dampening concept- based if the examinee considers an outside issue to be greater or of
no threat to him and if he an4cipates the examiner will give him a surprise ques4on concerning

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 the outside issue he may tune out all relevant ques4ons and control ques4ons by focusing his
a9en4on to the outside issue.

§ The autonomic nervous system acts as a self-regula4ng autonomic response of the body.
§ The autonomic nervous system is composed of two complimentary branches: the sympathe>c
and the parasympathe>c nervous system, ac4ng opposite each other.
§ The fibers of both enervate all organs where self-regula4on is essen4al
§ When a person is under the influence of physical (exer4on) or emo4onal (anger, excitement, fear,
lie detec4on, etc.) s4muli, the sympathe4c will dominate and over-ride the parasympathe4c, thus
there will be a changes in the heart rate, pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory tracing, psycho
galvanic reflexes, 4me of response to ques4on, voice tracing, etc.
§ The parasympathe4c nervous system works to restore things to normal when the condi4ons of
stress have been removed. It is the dominant branch when the condi4on is normal and the subject
is calm, contented and relaxed.
§ The recording of some of the psycho-physiological reac4on of a subject when he is subjected to a
series of ques4ons, and the scien4fic interpreta4on by trained experts are the basis of the tests.

Word AssociaUon Test

A list of s4mulus and non-s4mulus words are read to the subject who is instructed to answer as
quickly as possible.
o The answer to the ques4ons may be a “yes” or a “no”.
o Unlike the lie detector, the 4me interval between the words u9ered by the examiner and the
answer of the subject is recorded.

Francis Galton
ü Word Associa4on Test using series of irrelevant ques4ons and relevant ques4on separated in
4me.
ü 1st scien4st on fric4on skin

PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATOR

§ When a person speaks, there are audible voice frequencies and superimposed on these are the
inaudible frequency modula4ons which are products of minute oscilla4on of the muscles of the
voice mechanism. Such oscilla4ons of the muscles micro tremor occur at the rate of 8 to 14 cycles
per second and controlled by the central nervous system.
§ When the person is under stress as when he is lying, the micro tremor in the voice u9erance in
moderately or completely suppressed.
§ The degree of suppression caries inversely to the degree of psychologic stress in the speaker.
§ The psychological stress evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice
modula4ons that we cannot hear.
§ When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the ques4ons, those inaudible frequencies
are registered clearly on the instrument. But when a person is under stress, as when he is lying,
these frequencies tend to disappear.

USE OF DRUGS THAT “INHIBIT THE INHIBITOR”

Administra4on of the Truth Serum
Narcoanalysis/Narcosysthesis
Intoxica4on with Alcohol
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 TRUTH SERUM
o The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure does not make someone tell the truth and
the thing administered is not serum but actually a drug.
o In the test, HYOSCINE HYDROBROMIDE is given hypodermically in repeated doses un4l a state of
delirium is induced.
o When the proper point is reached, the ques4oning begins and the subject fells a compulsion to
answer the ques4ons truthfully.

NARCOANALYSIS/NARCOSYNTHESIS
o This method of decep4on detec4on is prac4cally the same as that of administra4on of truth
serum. The only difference is the drug used. Psychiatric sodium amytal or sodium penthotal is
administered to the subject.
o When the effects appear, ques4oning starts.
o It is claimed that the drug causes depression of the inhibitory mechanism of the brain and the
subjects talk freely.

INTOXICATION
o The apparent s4mula4on effect of alcohol is really the result of the control mechanism of the
brain. The apparent s4mula4on effect of alcohol is really the result of the control mechanism of
the brain, so alcohol, like truth serum and narcoanalysis drugs “inhibit the inhibitor”.
o The ability of alcohol to reveal the real person behind the mask which all of us are said to wear
(“mask of sanity’) is reflected in the age-old maxim, IN VINO VERITAS (“in wine there is truth”).
o The person whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages to almost
intoxica4on.
o Confessions made by the subjects while under the influence of alcohol may be admissible if he is
physically capable to recollect the facts that he has u9ered aner the effects of alcohol have
disappeared.
o But in most instances, the subjects cannot recall everything that he had men4oned or he may
refuse to admit the truth of the statement given.

HYPNOSIS
o It is the altera4on of consciousness and concentra4on in which the subject manifests a heightened
of sugges4bility while awareness is maintained.
o Not all persons are suscep4ble to hypno4c induc4on. Subjects who are compulsive-depressive
type, strong-willed like lawyers, accountants, physicians and other professionals are usually non-
hypno4zable.

REASONS: (why it is not admissible in court)

ü It lacks the general scien4fic acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis per se in ascertaining the
truth from falsity.
ü The fear that the Trier of fact will give uncri4cal and absolute reliability to a scien4fic device
without considera4on of its flaw in ascertaining veracity.

PHYSIOLOGICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL SYMPTOMS OF GUILT

SWEATING- swea4ng accompanied with a flushed face indicate anger, embarrassment or extreme
nervousness. Swea4ng with a palled face may indicate shock of fear. Swea4ng hands indicate tension.
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COLOR CHANGE – if the face is flushed, it may indicate anger, embarrassment or shame. A pale face is a
more common sign of guilt.

DRYNESS OF THE MOUTH – nervous tension causes reflex inhibi4on of salivary secre4on and consequently
dryness of the mouth. This causes con4nuous swallowing and licking of the lips.

Excessive ac>vity of the Adam’s apple - on account of the dryness of the throat aside from the mouth,
the subject will swallow saliva from the mouth and this causes the frequent upward and downward
movement of the Adam’s apple.

Fidge>ng – subject is constantly moving about in the chair, pulling his ears, rubbing his face, picking and
tweaking the nose, crossing or uncrossing the legs, rubbing the hair, eyes, eyebrows, bi4ng or snapping of
fingernails. These are indicators of nervous tension.

Peculiar Feeling Inside – there is a sensa4on of lightness of the head and the subject is confused. This is
the result of his troubled conscience.

Swearing to the truthfulness of his asser>on – usually a guilty subject frequently u9ers such expression.
“I swear to God I am telling the truth” or “I hope my mother drops dead if I am lying”, “I swear to Go”
…etc. Such expressions are make to make forceful and convincing his asser4on of innocence.

Spotless past record - “Religious man” – the subject may assert that it is not possible for him to do
“anything like that” inasmuch as he is a religious man and that he has a spotless record.

Inability to look at the inves>gator “straight in the eye” – the subject does not like to look at the
inves4gator for fear that his guilt may seen in his eyes. He will rather look at the floor or ceiling.
“Not that I remember” expression – the subject will resort to the use of “Not that I Remember” expression
when answering to be evasive or to avoid commiing something prejudicial to him.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIES
Bald-Faced lie
- A bald-faced (or barefaced) lie is a lie that is told when it is obvious to all concerned that is it a lie.
Example: a child who has chocolate all over his face and denies that he has eaten the last piece of
chocolate cake, is a bald-face liar.

Lying by omission
- One lies by omission by omiing an important fact, deliberately leaving another person with a
misconcep4on. Lying by omission includes failures to correct pre-exis4ng misconcep4ons.

Lie-to-children
- A lie-to-children is a lie, onen a pla4tude that may use euphemism, that is told to make an adult
subject acceptable to children. A common example is “ The stork brought you”.

White lie

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 - A white lie would cause no discord if it were uncovered and offers some benefit to the liar, the
hearer, or both.
- White lies are onen used to avoid offense, such as telling someone that you think that their new
ouvit looks good when you actually think that it is a horrible excuse for an ouvit.
- The lie is told to avoid the harmful implica4ons and realis4c implica4ons of the truth.

Noble Lie
- A noble lie is one that would normally cause discord it if were uncovered, but that offers some
benefit to the liar and perhaps assist in an orderly society and thus poten4ally gives some benefit
to others also.
- It is onen told to maintain law, order and safety.
- A noble lie usually has the effect of helping an elite maintain power.

Emergency Lie
- An emergency lie is a strategic lie told when the truth may not be told because, for example, harm
to a third party would come of it.
Example: a neighbor might lie to an engaged husband about the whereabouts of his unfaithful
wife, because said husband might reasonably be expected to inflict physical injury to his husband.

PERJURY
It is the act of lying or making verifiably false statements on an material ma9er under oath or affirma4on
in a court of law or in any of various sworn statements in wri4ng.

Perjury is a crime because the witness has sworn to tell the truth and, for the credibility of the
court, witness tes4mony must be relied on an being truthful.

Bluffing
Pretending to have capability or inten4on one doesn’t. Bluffing is an act of decep4on that is not
usually seen as immoral because it takes place in the context of a game where this kind of
decep4on is consented to in advance by the players.

Misleading
A misleading statement is one where there isn’t an outright lie, but s4ll has the purpose of making
someone believe in an untruth.

Jocose Lie
- Are lies that are meant in jest and are usually understood as such by all present par4es.
Sarcasm can be an example.
Storytelling tradi4ons that are present in some places, where the humor comes form the storyteller’s
insistence that he or she is telling that absolute truth despite all evidence to the contrary.

POLYGRAPHY
The science of Lie Detec4on

The Polygraph Instrument

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The polygraph instrument usually measures four to six physiological reacAons recorded by three different
medical instruments that are combined in one machine. Older polygraph machines were equipped with
long strips of paper that moved slowly beneath pens that recorded the various physiological responses.
Newer equipment uses transducers to convert the informa4on to digital signals that can be stored on
computers and analyzed using sophis4cated mathema4cal algorithms.

CARDIO-SPHYGMOGRAPH
Blood pressure and heart rate are measured by the cardio-sphymograph component of the
polygraph, which consists of a blood pressure cuff that is wrapped around the subject's arm. During the
ques4oning the cuff remains inflated.

Cardiosphygmograph
ü Blood Pressure Cuff a9ached to the upper right arm of the subject, above the brachial artery.
ü Sphygmamonometer used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to the system. Usually
about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
ü Recording Pen Unit (5) inches length
ü Air Pump/Pump Bulb designed to supply air to the system
ü Cardio Module located inside the instrument that receives the reac4ons detected by the
cuff and moves the pen to record the reac4ons on the chart

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The movement of blood through the subject's veins generates a sound that is transmi9ed through the air
in the cuff to a bellows that amplifies the sound. The magnitude of the sound relates to the blood pressure
and the frequency of the changes in the sound relates to the heart rate.

PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT
The pneumograph component of the polygraph records the subject's respiratory rate. One tube is placed
around the subject's chest and a second is placed around his or her abdomen. These tubes are filled with
air. When the subject breaths, changes in the air pressure in the tubes are recorded on the polygraph.
ü Rubber Convoluted Tube - about 10 inches corrugated rubber a9ached to the body of the subject.
ü Beaded Chain used to lock the rubber convoluted tube.
ü Recording Pen Unit consis4ng of two 5 inches recording pen
ü Centering Knob used to center the pen
ü SensiUvity Knob used to adjust the desired size of tracings
ü Vent used to release excess pressure from the system

GALVANOGRAPH
The galvanograph sec4on records the amount of perspira4on produced.
§ It consists of electrical sensors called galvanometers that are a9ached to the subject's finger4ps.
The skin of the finger4ps contains a high density of sweat glands, making them a good loca4on to
measure perspira4on.
§ As the amount of sweat touching the galvanometers increases, the resistance of the electrical
current measured decreases and these changes are recorded by the polygraph.
§ Most forensic psychophysiologists (FPs) consider the cardiosphygomgraph and the pneumograph
components more informa4ve than the galvanograph.

KEYMOGRAPH
Keymograph component is a motor that pulls or drives the chart paper under the recording pen
simultaneously at the rate of 6 or 12 inches per minute.

THE EXAMINATION ROOM

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 § It must be private and free from all outside noise and detrac4ng influences.
§ Adequately lighted and well ven4lated
§ Devoid of pictures, pain4ngs, decors or other ornaments.
§ Preferably sound-proof
§ Without any furniture other than a polygraph desk.
§ Subjects chair with arm rest and an examiner’s stool.
§ With one-way mirror and remote sound system for monitoring the test proceedings to an
authorized audience.

PHASES of EXAMINATION
PRE-TEST INTERVIEW
- ACTUAL interroga4on and recording through the instrument.

POST-TEST INTERVIEW
- Ini4al Interview with the Inves4gator
- Test ques4on are formulated by the polygraph examiner based from informa4on obtained from
the inves4gator. General facts, theories and suspicions are not enough basis for a polygraph test.
Ques4on formula4on depends greatly upon detailed and accurate informa4on regarding all the
available facts.

PRE-TEST INTERVIEW
- Before the actual tes4ng is done, the examiner must first make an informal interview of the subject
which may last from 20 to 30 minutes.

ü To condi4on the subject psychologically for the test.

ü The subject is appraised of his cons4tu4onal rights.
ü A wri9en consent which must be freely and voluntary given is taken.

PURPOSE OF THE PRE-TEST INTERVIEW

§ To determine whether the subject has any medical or psychiatric condi4on or has used drugs that
will prevent the tes4ng.
§ To explain to the subject the purpose of the examina4on.
§ To develop the test ques4ons, par4cularly those of the types to be asked.

Pre-test Interview designed to prepare or condi4on the subject for the actual test. 20-30 mins
§ Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological suitability to undergo the test
ü should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before the test
ü subject should not be hungry
ü if female should not be pregnant
ü should not be physically or emo4onal abused
ü should not be suffering high blood or hypertension.
§ Informing the subject of his Cons4tu4onal Rights (if the examiner is a law enforcement officer)
§ Taking of the subject consent
§ Taking of the subject personal data
§ Discuss with the subject the crime/issue under inves4ga4on
§ Preparing the subject for the test – administra4on of s4mula4on test
To relieve the truthful subject of any apprehension as well as to sa4sfy the decep4ve subject as to the
efficiency of the technique.
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To know any an4-social ac4vity or criminal record of the subject.

QUESTION FORMULATION
Ques4ons formulated are short, simple and direct answerable by either ‘Yes” or “No” only, phrased in the
language easily understood by the subjects.
The ques4ons must be clear and must have reference to only one element of an offense of fact.

TYPES OF QUESTION
IRRELEVANT
RELEVANT
CONTROL

IRRELEVANT QUESTIONS
These are ques4ons which have no bearing to the case under inves4ga4on.
The ques4on may refer to the subject’s age, educa4onal a9ainment, marital status, ci4zenship,
occupa4on, etc.
The examiner asks these types of ques4ons to ascertain the subject’s normal pa9ern of response by
elimina4ng the feeling of apprehension.

RELEVANT QUESTIONS
These are ques4ons pertaining to the issue under inves4ga4on. They must be unambiguous,
unequivocal and understandable to the subject.
They must be related to one issue or one criminal act.
It is equally important to limit the number of relevant ques4ons to avoid discomfort to the subject.

CONTROL QUESTIONS
These are ques4ons which are unrelated to the ma9er under inves4ga4on but are of similar nature
although less serious as compared to those relevant ques4ons under inves4ga4on.

TEST CONSTRUCTION APPLIED ARE OF TWO MAIN TYPES.

General Peak Tension Test
Peak of Tension Test

General QuesUon Test

The general ques4on test consists of a series of relevant and irrelevant ques4oned asked in a planned
order.
Example:
1. Have you ever been called by the name Fred? (Irrelevant)
2. Is today Friday? (Irrelevant)
o Do you have anything to do with the robbery at Goodwill Grocery last night? (relevant)
o Did you rob the Goodwill Grocery last night? (relevant)
o Are you over twenty years of age? (irrelevant)
o Do you know is any of the fingerprints found at goodwill Grocery is yours? (relevant)
o Do you drink water? (Irrelevant)
o Do you know of anyone involved in the robbery of Goodwill Grocery last night? (Relevant)

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Peak of Tension Test
This valid test is only made when there is no widespread publicity about the crime.
Example:
1. Do you know whether the stolen watch from Fred is Boluva?
2. It is an Elgin?
3. Is it a Colorado?
4. Is it a Rolex?

POST-TEST INTERROGATION
§ To clarify the findings
§ To learn if there are any other reasons for the subject’s responding to a relevant ques4on, other
than the knowledge of the crime.
§ To obtain addi4onal informa4on and an admission for law enforcement purposes, if he results
suggest decep4on.

THERE ARE THREE BASIC APPROACHES TO THE POLYGRAPH TEST:

The Control QuesUon Test (CQT).
The Directed Lie Test (DLT).
The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT).

The Control QuesUon Test (CQT)

This test compares the physiological response to relevant ques4ons about the crime with the
response to ques4ons rela4ng to possible prior misdeeds. "This test is onen used to determine whether
certain criminal suspects should be prosecuted or classified as uninvolved in the crime" (American
Psychological Associa4on).

The Directed Lie Test (DLT)

This test tries to detect lying by comparing physiological responses when the subject is told to deliberately
lie to responses when they tell the truth.

The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT)

This test compares physiological responses to mul4ple-choice type ques4ons about the crime, one choice
of which contains informa4on only the crime inves4gators and the criminal would know about.

Guilt Complex Test – in cases where the subject is overly responsive, this test is given which consists of a
test pertaining to a purely fic44ous incident of a similar nature to the one under query. It is designed to
compare the responsiveness on it with those that appeared on the actual test record wherein ques4ons
are those which pertains to that which is under inves4ga4on. This test is designed for diagnos4c purpose
to aid in the post examina4on interroga4on of a lying subject.

ObjecUves
o Ascertain if a person is telling the truth by verifying statement and/or comparing conflic4ng
statements.
o Obtain addi4onal inves4ga4ve leads to the facts of an offense.
o Locate fruits or roots of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
o Iden4fy other persons involved.
o Obtain valuable informa4on from reluctant witnesses.
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 o Most important is the elimina4on of innocent suspects.

LimitaUons
It is an invaluable inves4ga4on aid, but never a subs4tute for inves4ga4on.
It is a lie detector, it is not a scien4fic diagnos4c instrument.
It does not determine facts, it records responses to that which the subject knows to be true.
It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.

The underlying theory of the polygraph is that when people lie they also get measurably nervous
about lying. The heartbeat increases, blood pressure goes up, breathing rhythms change, perspira4on
increases, etc. A baseline for these physiological characteris4cs is established by asking the subject
ques4ons whose answers the inves4gator knows. Devia4on from the baseline for truthfulness is taken as
sign of lying.

TEST PROCEDURE
o Not more than 12 ques4ons
o At least three (3) charts are taken, each las4ng not more than four (4) minutes,
o 5 to ten minutes between charts.

CHART MARKING
Beginning X
S4mulus “
Yes +
No -
Subject fail to answer No sign
Subject Talk T
Talking Instruc4on TI
Coughing C
Chart Marking
Mechanical Adjustment Arrow
Tearing of throat CT
Outside Noise OSN
Sigh S
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 Sniff SN
Sneeze SZ
BURP B
YAWN Y
Chart Marking
Deep breathing DB
Subject Laugh L
Breathing Instruc4on BI
Repeat Ques4on R
Paper Jump PJ
Ending XX

Rule in InterpretaUon
§ There must be specific response that deviates from the subjects’ normal tracing.
§ It must appear in at least two or more chart.

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