Introduction

• Hydraulics is derived from a Greek word “Hydraulikos”

which means water.
• Hydraulics is branch of engineering mechanics, which
deals water at rest or in motion.
• Fluid Mechanics is a study of the behavior of a gas and
liquid that is either at rest or in motion.
• Hydraulics is often confused with the allied science of fluid
mechanics because of a considerable overlap occurs
between the two studies. However, fluid mechanics deals
with gases, as well as the common liquids, and to most
Civil engineers a study of gas behavior is irrelevant to their
professional needs.
 Introduction
• Hydraulics consists of : -
– Fluid Statics / Hydrostatics – it is the study of incompressible
fluid at rest or flow with constant velocity.
– Fluid kinematics – it deals with the velocities, accelerations
and the patterns of flow only. Forces or energy causing
velocity and acceleration are neglected.
– Fluid dynamics – it deals with the relations between
velocities, accelerations of fluid with the forces or energy
causing them.
• Matter is recognized to exist in everyday life in three
states: solid, liquid and gas.
• Fluid is a term that describes both gases and liquids; since
they are characterized by their ability to flow.
 Introduction
• The molecules in the solid state are spaced very closely or
closely packed so that solids have the property of
compactness and rigidity of form.
• Fluid is characterized by loosely spaced molecules so that
weaker intermolecular attractive forces
• Liquid can be easily deform and do not maintain a fixed
shape – it takes the shape of the container. It forms free
surface.
• The intermolecular forces are extremely weak in gases and
the molecules are so farther apart spaced so that gases
have greater freedom of movement. Gases do not have a
definite volume and shape like liquids and solids
 Introduction
• Solids resist shear stress by static deformation (up to elastic
limit of the material or yield point of that material). Yield
stress is the minimum stress required to deform the solid.
• When the fluid is subjected to a shear stress, it deforms
(move or changes shape) continuously as long as the force of
any magnitude is applied. Or a fluid is a substance that
deforms continuously under the application of a shear
(tangential) stress no matter how small the shear stress may
be.
• Shear Stress is a tangential force which acts parallel to a
surface
• Normal or Tensile stress – when the force is applied normal to
the surface. Normal stress in a static fluid is called pressure.
• Can a fluid resist normal stress?
 Properties of fluid
• .Every fluid has certain characteristics by means of
which its physical condition may be described.
• Best way to classify fluid is by its properties rather than
their composition
• The properties of fluids vary from fluid to fluid and have
a decisive influence on the motion of a fluid.
• It is not necessary to deal with each fluid separately
while studying fluid motion. One needs to study only
the variation of these properties and the manner in
which they influence the fluid motion.
• Fluid properties play principal roles both in Open
channel and pipe flow.
 A. Density
• It is also known as Mass Density of fluid.
• D e n s i t y of a fluid, designated by the symbol ƍ
(Rho), is probably the most important property.
• It is defined as the fluid mass per unit volume.
• The density of a substance is the quantity of matter
contained in unit volume of the substance.
• In the S.I. system, density is expressed in kg/m3.
• Generally the density of a fluid is dependent on
temperature and pressure. For water at 4 0c and
standard pressure (i.e. 760 mm of mercury ), ƍ = 1000
kg/m3. Density of water at 20 0c and 1 atm is 998
Kg/m3. Density of Mercury = 13600 kg/m3. Density of
air is 1.24 kg/m3
• For liquid density is constant and for gases density
increase with increase in pressure and decrease with
increase in temperature.
• Measurement of density:
Taking a fixed volume of container with known weight,
filling it with fluids; and weight it, we can determine
density of a fluid after subtracting the weight of the
container from the weight of container and the fluid.
 B. Specific Weight
• Specific Weight /Unit Weight/ or Weight Density is
defined as the weight of fluid per unit volume.
• It is designated by γ (Gama).
• The unit of specific weight in the SI system is N/m3 .
• It implies the weight of one cubic meter of water.
• Density and specific weight may be related as follows:

• The specific weight of water at 40c is 1000*9.81 = 9810

N/m3, for engineering application it round off 10000N/m3
= 10KN/m3 .
 C. Specific Volume, V
• Specific Volume V is the volume of the fluid per unit
mass.
• The volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid
• It is the reciprocal of mass density so that V = l/ƍ with
units of m3/kg.
• It is a property commonly used in gas flow problems.
 D. Specific Gravity, S
• Is also known as relative density.
• Is the ratio of the mass of a fluid to the mass of an equal
volume of pure water at standard temperature and
pressure.
• It may also be defined as the density of the fluid to the
density of pure water at standard conditions.
• As a ratio, specific gravity is dimensionless.
• For liquids, the standard fluid is taken as water ~ (we are
interested to know how water behave with respect to
other liquids) and for gases, standard fluid taken as air.
• The specific gravity of pure water is unity while that of
mercury is about 13.60.
 Examples
1.1 If a specific gravity of a liquid is 0.8, make
calculations for its density, specific weight and
specific volume.
1.2 A certain gas weighs 16 N/m3 at a certain
temperature and pressure. What are the values of its
density, specific volume, and specific gravity relative
to air weighing 12 N/m3 .
1.3 Calculate specific weight, density and specific gravity
of one liter of a liquid which weighs 7N.
 E. Bulk Modulus of elasticity and
compressibility, k (kappa)
• Compressibility or coefficient of compressibility of fluid is
a measure of how the volume of a given mass of a fluid
changes with respect to the application of external
pressure.
• For most practical purpose liquids may be regarded as
incompressible. However, there are certain cases, such as
water hammer, where the compressibility should be taken
into account. If water were not compressible, then closing
a value on a pipe line could be dangerous task. The force
involved will be immense. Fortunately, water is
compressible and compresses like a spring to absorb the
energy of the impact as the value is closed.
• Water hammer pressure are quite large. Therefore,
engineers must design piping systems to keep the pressure
within acceptable limits.
• The compressibility of a fluid is expressed by defining a
modulus of elasticity as in done for solids. But since fluids
do not possess rigidity of form, the modulus of elasticity
must be defined on the basis of volume; such a modulus
being termed Bulk Modulus of Elasticity , K which is defined
as the ratio of compressive stress to volumetric strain or
change in pressure to volumetric strain. Compressibility, β
is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.
• In order to define the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, consider a
compressible fluid in a cylinder of cross sectional area A,
which is being compressed by a piston as shown in Figure
2.1. The cylinder and the piston are considered rigid.
Let the original volume of the fluid be Vo. The application of a
force F results in the pressure P = F/A exerted on the fluid. This
pressure reduces the fluid volume to V. A plot of dV/Vo (which is a
measure of volumetric strain) against the pressure change dP
results in a curve of negative slope as shown in Figure 2.l(b) . The
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity K of the fluid corresponding to a
pressure change dP, is defined as:
• The negative sign indicates the decrease in dv/Vo with
increase in pressure. Since dv/V, is dimensionless, the
dimension of K is the same as that of the pressure P. Water
has an average value of Kwater = 2.1 Gpa, Ksteel = 210 Gpa
and Kair = 0.1013Mpa. This shows that water is about
100 times more compressible than steel, but it is
ordinarily considered incompressible.

Example 1.4
What pressure increase is required to reduce the volume of
100 c.c of water by 0.5%? K = 2.1 GPa