R E S E A R C H P R O J E C T II

Names Joaquin Vidal Camino Form: 5fC

(all):

Subject: Physics Topic: Thermal radiation Date: 1/7/24

Thermal Radiation of a Star

INTRODUCTION:

Introduction

Stars are fascinating celestial objects that have intrigued scientists for centuries. They emit vast amounts of
energy in the form of radiation, influencing the cosmos and life on Earth. To understand this emission, we
delve into concepts of thermal radiation, black body radiation, etc. This work aims to analyze how the
radiation emitted by stars can be represented from the perspective of thermal radiation. The objective is to
relate the theory behind the rate of transfer of thermal energy by radiation of a black body with the
emission and energy radiated by a star. This law helps us determine the color of a star based on its
temperature. Hotter stars emit more radiation at shorter wavelengths (blue or ultraviolet), while cooler
stars emit more at longer wavelengths (red or infrared).

Wien’s Law

Wien's Law describes the relationship between the temperature of a black body and the wavelength at
which it emits radiation most strongly. It’s mathematical equation is:

λλ𝑚𝑎𝑥​𝑇 = 𝑏​

where:

● λλ𝑚𝑎𝑥​ is the wavelength at which the emission is at its maximum.

● T is the absolute temperature of the black body in Kelvin.
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● b is Wien's displacement constant, approximately 2. 898×10 m K.

Emissivity

Emissivity is a measure of a material's ability to emit thermal radiation compared to an ideal black body,
which is a perfect emitter. It is defined as the ratio of the power radiated per unit area by a surface to the
power radiated by a black body at the same temperature. Mathematically, it is given by:
 𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝑒= 𝑟𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘

where:

● e is the emissivity, which ranges from 0 to 1.

● r object is the power radiated per unit area by the surface.
● R black​is the power radiated per unit area by a black body at the same temperature.

An emissivity of 1 means the surface is a perfect emitter (black body), while an emissivity of 0 means it
does not emit radiation at all.

Luminosity

Luminosity refers to the total amount of energy emitted by a star or other celestial object per unit time. It is
essentially the star's total power output. For stars, luminosity is often compared to that of the Sun, which
has a luminosity of approximately 3.828×1026 watts. Luminosity depends on both the surface area and the
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temperature of the star, and it can be calculated using the Stefan-Boltzmann Law: 𝐿 = σ𝐴𝑇 .

Where:

● L is luminosity of the star (W)

● A is surface area of the star
● σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
● T is surface temperature of the star (K)

Apparent Brightness

Apparent brightness is the perceived brightness of a star as observed from Earth. It differs from luminosity
because it takes into account the distance between the star and the observer. The apparent brightness
decreases with the square of the distance from the observer to the star. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

𝐿
𝑏= 2 ​
4π𝑑

Where:

● b is the apparent brightness.

● L is the luminosity of the star.
● d is the distance from the star to the observer.

While luminosity represents the actual energy output of the star, apparent brightness is what we measure
here on Earth, influenced by the star's distance from us.
Radiative Intensity

The amount of energy passing through a unit area per unit time is the intensity of the wave, Therefore, the
intensity is defined as power per unit area

𝑃
𝐼= 𝐴

Analysis:

Where does the energy emitted in the form of radiation from stars come from?

The energy emitted by stars comes from nuclear fusion reactions occurring in their cores. In these reactions,
hydrogen nuclei fuse to form helium, releasing tremendous amounts of energy in the form of gamma rays,
which eventually escape the star's surface as various forms of electromagnetic radiation, including visible
light.

Why are stars considered to be black bodies?

Stars are considered black bodies because they approximate ideal black bodies, which absorb all incident
radiation and emit energy across a continuous spectrum.. The spectrum of a star's emitted radiation closely
follows the black body radiation curve, allowing us to model stars as black bodies. The Stefan-Boltzmann
law and Wien's displacement law apply to stars, indicating that they emit energy proportional to the fourth
power of their temperature and that their peak emission wavelength is inversely proportional to their
temperature.

Why do stars not present conduction or convection phenomena in interaction with other objects in the
Universe?

Stars do not exhibit conduction or convection phenomena in interaction with other objects in the universe
because these processes require a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) to transfer heat. The vacuum of space lacks
such a medium, so stars primarily lose energy through radiation.

Why do stars “take on blue or red or yellow colors” when we observe them?

Stars exhibit different colors based on their surface temperatures, as described by Wien's Law:

λλ𝑚𝑎𝑥​𝑇 = 𝑏​

Where λλ𝑚𝑎𝑥​​ is the wavelength at which the emission is at its maximum, T is the absolute temperature, and
b is Wien's displacement constant. Hotter stars emit more energy at shorter wavelengths, appearing blue or
white, while cooler stars emit more energy at longer wavelengths, appearing red or orange. Intermediate
temperature stars appear yellow. Thus, the color of a star is an indicator of its surface temperature.

How can we measure the luminosity of a star?

The luminosity of a star, which is its total power output, can be measured using the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.
By measuring the star's temperature and radius, we can determine its luminosity.

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𝐿 = σ𝐴𝑇

What are space telescopes and what are some of those that allow measuring the radiation emitted by stars?

Space telescopes are instruments placed in orbit around Earth or other celestial bodies to observe the
universe without atmospheric interference. Examples include:

● Hubble Space Telescope: Observes in visible, ultraviolet, and near-infrared wavelengths, providing
high-resolution images and spectra of stars.
● James Webb Space Telescope: Designed to observe in the infrared range, allowing it to study the
thermal radiation emitted by stars
● Chandra X-ray Observatory: Observes in the X-ray range, providing insights into high-energy
processes in stars.

How can we measure the distance of a star from its apparent brightness?
The distance to a star can be estimated using its apparent brightness and luminosity through the inverse
square law:

𝐿
𝑑= 4π𝑏
​

where d is the distance, L is the luminosity, and b is the apparent brightness. By knowing the luminosity
and measuring the apparent brightness, the distance can be calculated.

What are light years, why does this concept exist and how is it calculated?

A light year is the distance that light travels in one year, approximately 9.46 trillion kilometers. This unit of
measurement is useful in astronomy due to the vast distances between celestial objects, providing a
comprehensible way to express and compare these distances. It is calculated by multiplying the speed of
light by the number of seconds in a year

Conclusion

Thermal radiation produced by stars is the emission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves,
resulting from the thermal motion of particles within the star. This radiation spans a wide spectrum of
wavelengths, with the peak wavelength determined by the star's surface temperature, as described by
Wien's Law. Stars are modeled as black bodies, absorbing all incident radiation and emitting energy across
a continuous spectrum, allowing us to apply black body radiation principles to understand their emission
characteristics. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law helps determine a star's luminosity based on its temperature
and radius.

Advancements in the study of stellar radiation have led to numerous breakthroughs in astrophysics,
enabling us to determine the composition, age, and evolution of stars, estimate distances to celestial objects,
and map the structure of our galaxy and beyond. Understanding stellar spectra provides insights into
fundamental physical processes such as nuclear fusion and the lifecycle of stars. This knowledge is crucial
for the search for exoplanets and the study of potential habitable zones around other stars. Overall, studying
stellar radiation is essential for unraveling the mysteries of the universe, advancing our comprehension of
nature, and enhancing our understanding of the cosmos.

References:
Wiens Law. Wiens Law - Energy Education. https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Wiens_Law

Bhuyan, S. (2023, February 1). Wien’s displacement law: Statement, Formula, and application.
Science Facts. https://www.sciencefacts.net/wiens-law.html

Encyclopædia Britannica, inc. (n.d.). Luminosity. Encyclopædia Britannica.

https://www.britannica.com/science/luminosity

M, K. (n.d.). 5.39 wien’s law: Edexcel international A level physics revision notes 2019. Save My
Exams.
https://www.savemyexams.com/international-a-level/physics/edexcel/19/revision-notes/5-thermody
namics-radiation-oscillations--cosmology/black-body-radiation/5-39-wiens-law/