Title 210 – National Engineering Handbook

Part 634 Hydraulics

National Engineering Handbook

Chapter 3 Hydrokinetics

(210-634-H, 1st Edition, Feb 2022)

 Title 210 – National Engineering Handbook

Issued: Feb 2022_

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Chapter 3 Hydrokinetics

Table of Contents

634.0300 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1

634.0301 Flow Continuity .............................................................................................................. 1
634.0302 Conservation of Energy .................................................................................................. 6
634.0303 Open channel Flow ....................................................................................................... 15
634.0304 Uniform Open Channel Flow ....................................................................................... 16
634.0305 Geometric Characteristics of Prismatic Channels ........................................................ 17
634.0306 Manning’s Equation ..................................................................................................... 23
634.0307 Calculations in Uniform Flow ...................................................................................... 25
634.0308 Specific Energy in Open Channels ............................................................................... 28
634.0309 Critical Flow ................................................................................................................. 31
634.0310 Flow Types ................................................................................................................... 32
634.0311 Critical Flow in a Rectangular Channel ....................................................................... 33
634.0312 Obstacles in Open Channels ......................................................................................... 34
634.0313 Momentum Analysis in Open Channels ....................................................................... 37
634.0314 Hydraulic Jumps ........................................................................................................... 41
634.0315 Varying Open Channel Flow ........................................................................................ 45
634.0316 Gradually Varied Flow ................................................................................................. 46
634.0317 Classification of Gradually Varied Flow ...................................................................... 47
634.0318 Standard step method ................................................................................................... 48
634.0319 Sediment Transport ...................................................................................................... 50
634.0320 Sediment Properties ...................................................................................................... 51
634.0321 Threshold of Sediment Motion ..................................................................................... 55
634.0322 Suspended Sediment Load ........................................................................................... 57
634.0323 Bed Sediment Load ...................................................................................................... 60
634.0324 Scour and Deposition in Channels................................................................................ 62
634.0325 References .................................................................................................................... 67
634.0326 Appendix A .................................................................................................................. 68

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List of Figures
Figure 3-1: Flow continuity in a pipe expansion ........................................................................... 2
Figure 3-2: Schematic of flow in branching pipelines. ................................................................. 3
Figure 3-3: Non-symmetric trapezoidal cross-section in an open channel flow ........................... 4
Figure 3-4: Contraction in a rectangular open channel. ................................................................ 4
Figure 3-5: Rectangular open channel diversion ........................................................................... 5
Figure 3-6: Flow energies illustrated with a simple reservoir-sprinkler system ........................... 7
Figure 3-7: Energy heads in pipe flow. ......................................................................................... 7
Figure 3-8: Energy heads in open channel flow ............................................................................ 9
Figure 3-9: Sluice gate flow. ....................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3-10: Schematic of uniform flow in open channels ......................................................... 16
Figure 3-11: Non-symmetric trapezoidal channel ....................................................................... 18
Figure 3-12: Channel cross-sections that can be derived from a non-symmetric trapezoidal
cross- section. ................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 3-13: Circular cross-section in open channel flow........................................................... 21
Figure 3-14: Parabolic cross-section ........................................................................................... 22
Figure 3-15: Manning’s resistance coefficients for open channel flow ...................................... 25
Figure 3-16: Trapezoidal Section solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formulas ..26
Figure 3-17: Circular channel solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formulas ...... 27
Figure 3-18: Parabolic channel solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formulas .... 27
Figure 3-19: Specific energy curve for a trapezoidal open channel ............................................ 29
Figure 3-20: Estimating specific energy values .......................................................................... 30
Figure 3-21: Specific energy curve for a rectangular open channel ............................................ 30
Figure 3-22: Relationship of cross-sectional area dA, flow depth d(d), and top width T ............ 31
Figure 3-23: Types of uniform flow in open channels ................................................................ 33
Figure 3-24: Types of uniform flow in open channels ................................................................ 33
Figure 3-25: Hump at the bottom of a horizontal rectangular channel. ...................................... 35
Figure 3-26: Rating curve computation for a broad-crested weir ............................................... 37
Figure 3-27: Forces and flow of momentum for sluice gate flow ............................................... 38
Figure 3-28: Unit momentum function diagram ......................................................................... 39
Figure 3-29: Conjugate depths in the unit momentum function diagram for a rectangular open
channel........................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3-30: Hydraulic jump produced by a stilling basin at the base of a spillway. ................. 41
Figure 3-31: Hydraulic jump observed at the foot of a model spillway (Courtesy of the Utah
Water Research Laboratory).......................................................................................................... 41
Figure 3-32: Forces and flow of momentum for a hydraulic jump ............................................. 42
Figure 3-33: Hydraulic jump over a baffle block ........................................................................ 44
Figure 3-34: Varying flow from a reservoir leading to uniform flow in an open channel .......... 45
Figure 3-35: Gradually varied flow (GVF) near an overfall ...................................................... 46
Figure 3-36: Gradually varied flow (GVF) produced by a weir.................................................. 47
Figure 3-37: Classification of gradually varied flow (GVF) ....................................................... 47
Figure 3-38: Gradually varied flow (GVF) curves in a mild-slope open channel with a sluice
gate and overfall. ........................................................................................................................... 48
Figure 3-39: Standard step solution example – table 1 ............................................................... 50
Figure 3-40: Standard step solution example – table 2 ............................................................... 50
Figure 3-41: Sediment data from sieve analysis.......................................................................... 51
Figure 3-42: Determination of percent finer than given sieve size ............................................. 52
Figure 3-43: Grain size distribution ............................................................................................ 53
Figure 3-44: Shape factors for sediment settling velocity .......................................................... 54

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Figure 3-45: Shield’s diagram for determining the threshold of sediment motion in open
channel flow .................................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 3-46: Effects of suspended sediment on the von Karman universal constant after
Einstien and Chien (1955) ............................................................................................................. 58
Figure 3-47: Channel bed degradation downstream of a dam due to reduction in sediment
supply ............................................................................................................................................ 62
Figure 3-48: Expected bed elevation computations for bed degradation downstream of dam ... 66
Figure 3-49: Expected bed elevation along stream channel downstream for bed degradation
downstream of dam ....................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 3-50: Expected bed elevation with a constant downstream elevation.............................. 67
Figure 3-51: Expected bed elevation along stream channel with a constant downstream
elevation ........................................................................................................................................ 67
Figure 3-52: Solutions for equations 3-97 and 3-98 for various η and z values.......................... 69

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 Title 210 – National Engineering Handbook

Part 634 – Hydraulics

Chapter 3 Hydrokinetics

634.0300 Introduction

A. Hydrokinetics is the study of fluids in motion whereas hydrodynamics is motion of fluids

and the forces acting on solid bodies immersed in fluids. Motion in fluids is produced by the
action of forces. For example, in pressurized pipelines pressure forces act as the driving
forces in the flow, whereas, in open channel flow, it is the weight of water mass (gravity
forces) that produces the motion. In both cases, friction between the water and the walls of
the pipe or channel act as opposing forces. In steady flows, driving and opposing forces are in
equilibrium.
B. The analysis of fluids in motion typically requires the determination of flow quantities
such as discharge or velocity, or the determination of a linear quantity such as pipe diameter
or flow depth in open channel flow. The determination of energy or head losses is also an
important aspect of the analysis of fluids in motion. These analyses have practical
applications in the operation of devices or systems through which fluids (water) flow, for
example, irrigation pipes, outlet works from dams, and irrigation canals.
C. The principles of flow continuity and of conservation of energy are used to analyze fluids
in motion.
D. In units of the English System, the velocity V is given in ft/s (or fps), while the discharge
3
Q is given in ft /s or cfs. Using the International System, the velocity V is given in m/s and the
3
discharge Q is given in m /s. Other units of discharge in the English System include gal/min
(or gpm) and gal/day (or gpd), which are commonly used in water supply applications. In the
operation of large reservoirs, for example, the use of acre-foot/day as a unit of discharge is
3 3
not uncommon. In the International System one could also use m /min or m /day for large
discharge operations, while the units of liters/s or liters/min are used for small discharges.

634.0301 Flow Continuity

A. The equation of continuity represents a statement of conservation of mass in fluid flow.

(1) Consider, for example, a steady flow in a closed conduit of varying cross-section as
shown in figure 3-1 below. Let Q be the discharge through the conduit. The
continuity equation for steady flow (i.e., Q = constant) states that:
𝑄 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 (eq. 3-1)
where V1, V2, and V3 represent the flow velocities at sections 1, 2, and 3 in figure 3-1
respectively. The areas of the corresponding cross-sections are A1, A2, and A3.

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Figure 3-1: Flow continuity in a pipe expansion.

(2) The cross-sectional area of a circular pipe of diameter D is given by:

𝐴 𝜋𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 (eq. 3-2)
(3) The discharge can be written as:
𝑄 𝑉𝐴 𝑉 (eq. 3-3)
(3) Knowing the discharge Q, the velocity V in a circular conduit of diameter D can be
calculated as:
𝑉 (eq. 3-4)
B. Example – Equation of continuity in a non-branching pipe – discharge and velocity
calculation
(1) Suppose that in the pipeline of figure 3-1 the diameters are D1 = 0.25 ft (3 in), D2 =
0.50 ft (6 in), and D3 = 0.75 ft (9 in), and that the velocity at section 3 is measured to
be V3 =0.5 fps. Find the velocities in sections 1 and 2 and the discharge.
(2) Solution:
(i) The discharge is calculated as:

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄

𝜋𝐷 𝑓𝑡 3.1416 0.75𝑓𝑡
𝑄 𝑉 0.5 0.22 𝑐𝑓𝑠
4 𝑠 4

(ii) The velocities at sections 1 and 2 are, therefore, calculated as:

4𝑄 4 0.22 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑉 4.48 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝜋𝐷 3.1416 0.25 𝑓𝑡
and
4𝑄 4 0.22 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑉 1.12 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝜋𝐷 3.1416 0.5 𝑓𝑡

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C. A branching pipeline in which a pipe of diameter D1 splits into two pipelines with
diameters D2 and D3 is shown in figure 3-2. Continuity requires that the discharges through
sections 2 and 3 add to equal the discharge through section 1:
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 (eq. 3-5)
(1) In terms of areas and velocities, the continuity equation for the branching pipe case is
written as:
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴 (eq. 3-6)
(2) Replacing the areas in terms of the diameters:
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 (eq. 3-7)
(3) Simplifying:
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 (eq. 3-8)

Figure 3-2: Schematic of flow in branching pipelines.

D. Example – Equation of continuity – velocity and discharge calculation in branching

pipeline
(1) A 12-in diameter pipeline carrying water at a velocity of 3.5 fps branches into a 6-in
diameter pipeline and a 9-in diameter pipeline. If the velocity in the 6-in pipeline is
measured to be 4.0 fps, what is the velocity in the 9-in pipeline, and what is the total
discharge through the 12-in pipeline?
(2) Solution:
(i) Using D1 = 12 in = 1 ft, V1 = 3.5 fps, D2 = 6 in = 0.5 ft, V2 = 4.0 fps, and D3 = 9
2 2 2
in =0.75 ft, find V3 and Q1. From equation 3-8, i.e., V1D1 = V2D2 + V3D3 , it
follows that:
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 3.5 𝑓𝑝𝑠 1𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑝𝑠 0.5 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 4.44 𝑓𝑝𝑠
𝐷 0.75𝑓𝑡
(ii) The discharge through section 1 is:
𝜋𝐷 3.1416 1 𝑓𝑡
𝑄 𝑉 3.5 𝑓𝑝𝑠 2.75 𝑐𝑓𝑠
4 4
E. The equation of continuity can also be applied to flow in open channels. Consider the flow
in an open channel with a non-symmetric trapezoidal cross-section as illustrated in figure 3-3.

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Figure 3-3: Non-symmetric trapezoidal cross-section in an open channel flow.

F. This cross-section is characterized by the bottom width b, the side slopes z1 and z2, and the
flow depth d. The side slopes are interpreted as z1 H:1V, i.e., z1 units horizontal to 1 unit
vertical. The top width T is the length of the free surface at the cross-section. For the non-
symmetric trapezoidal cross-section shown above, the top width is given by:
𝑇 𝑏 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑 (eq. 3-9)
and the area is calculated as the average of trapezoid’s bases, b and T, multiplied by the
height of the trapezoid, d:

𝐴 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑 (eq. 3-10)

G. Example – Equation of continuity – velocity in a trapezoidal open-channel cross-section

(1) Determine the flow velocity in a non-symmetric trapezoidal cross section of figure 3-
3 has b = 3 ft, d =1.3 ft, z1 = 0.5, and z2 = 1, and carries a discharge Q = 15.2 cfs.

(2) Solution:
(i) The area is calculated as:
𝑧 𝑧 0.5 1
𝐴 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑 3𝑓𝑡 1.3𝑓𝑡 1.3 𝑓𝑡 5.17 𝑓𝑡
2 2

(ii) And the flow velocity is: V = Q/A = 15.2 cfs/5.17 ft2 = 2.94 fps
H. Example – Equation of continuity – channel width reduction
(1) Figure 3-4 below shows a rectangular open channel that reduces in channel width
from b1 to b2. In figure 3-4 suppose that b1 = 7.5 ft, and b2 = 5.0 ft. The depth of flow
and velocity in section (1) are d1 = 2.5 ft and V1 = 4.5 fps. What depth of flow is
required in section (2) to maintain the same flow velocity (i.e., V2 = V1 = 4.5 fps)?
What is the flow discharge through the channel?

Figure 3-4: Contraction in a rectangular open channel.

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(2) Solution:
(i) With the cross-sectional shape being rectangular in both sections (1) and (2), the
area of the cross-section is given by A = bd. Thus, the continuity equation
(equation 3-1) can be written as:
𝑄 𝑉𝑏 𝑑 𝑉𝑏 𝑑
(ii) The depth at section (2) is given by:
𝑉𝑏 𝑑 4.5𝑓𝑝𝑠 7.5 𝑓𝑡 2.5 𝑓𝑡
𝑑 3.75 𝑓𝑡
𝑉𝑏 4.5 𝑓𝑝𝑠 5.0 𝑓𝑡
(iii) The discharge is calculated as:
𝑄 𝑉𝑏 𝑑 4.5 𝑓𝑝𝑠 7.5 𝑓𝑡 2.5 𝑓𝑡 84.38 𝑐𝑓𝑠
I. Example – Equation of continuity – rectangular open channel diversion
(1) Figure 3-5 shows a rectangular channel of width b1 from which water is diverted
through a lateral rectangular channel of width b3. The section of the main channel
downstream from the diversion has a width b2 = b1. Using b1=b2=10 ft, d1=4.0 ft,
V1=1.2 fps, d2=3.5 ft, b3=5.0 ft, d3=2.5 ft, and V3=0.6 fps, determine the flow velocity
at section 2, V2, as well as the discharges through sections 1, 2, and 3.

Figure 3-5: Rectangular open channel diversion.

(2) Solution:
(i) For a branching channel as shown in figure 3-5, continuity requires that:
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 , 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑉 𝑏 𝑑 𝑉𝑏 𝑑 𝑉𝑏 𝑑
Thus, the velocity at section 2 is:
𝑉𝑏 𝑑 𝑉𝑏 𝑑
𝑉
𝑏 𝑑
1.2 𝑓𝑝𝑠 10 𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑡 0.6 𝑓𝑝𝑠 5 𝑓𝑡 2.5 𝑓𝑡
10 𝑓𝑡 3.5 𝑓𝑡
1.157 𝑓𝑝𝑠
(ii) The discharges through the three sections are calculated as follows:
𝑄 𝑉𝑏 𝑑 1.2 𝑓𝑝𝑠 10 𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑡 48 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑄 𝑉𝑏 𝑑 1.157 𝑓𝑝𝑠 10 𝑓𝑡 3.5 𝑓𝑡 40.5 𝑐𝑓𝑠

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𝑄 𝑉𝑏 𝑑 0.6 𝑓𝑝𝑠 5 𝑓𝑡 2.5 𝑓𝑡 7.5 𝑐𝑓𝑠

634.0302 Conservation of Energy

A. In the analysis of fluid flow, three types of energy are typically considered: potential or
elevation energy, pressure energy, and kinetic energy. Figure 3-6 illustrates these concepts
using a simple reservoir-sprinkler system.
B. Potential Energy – Potential energy is the ability of a water mass to perform work because
of the elevation of that mass of water with respect to an arbitrary datum line or reference
level. A mass of weight W, at an elevation of z feet, has a potential energy equal to Wz (ft-lb)
with respect to the datum. The elevation head, z, expresses not only a linear quantity (ft), but
also energy per unit weight, i.e., ft-lb/lb = ft.
C. Pressure Energy – Pressure energy at a point of a fluid flow is produced by the local
pressure at the point. This pressure could be the result of a pumping action in a pipeline or of
the weight of water above a certain point in open channel flow. The pressure head (pressure
energy per unit weight) in pipeline flow is calculated as p/, pressure divided by the specific
weight of water. In open channel flow applications, the pressure head is equal to the flow
depth, d, and the pressure distribution is assumed to be hydrostatic.
D. Kinetic Energy – The kinetic energy (K) of a mass (M) of fluid moving at a velocity (V)
2
is given by K =1/2 MV . Since its weight is W = Mg, the kinetic energy per unit weight is
calculated as:

ℎ (eq. 3-11)

2
where g is the acceleration of gravity (g = 32.2 ft/s ). The term hv in equation 3-11 is referred
to as the velocity head.
E. The total energy head, H, is the sum of the potential energy head (z), the pressure head
(p/or d), and the velocity head (V /2g). All three forms of energy head may be expressed as
2

a linear quantity (ft), or as energy per unit weight (ft-lb/lb).

F. For the system describe in figure 3.6 under the static (sprinkler closed), the elevation of
the water in the reservoir represents potential energy since it is this elevation that provides the
available energy for the system. Also, at the sprinkler, a measurable pressure exists that is
related to pressure energy at that point.
G. In a flowing fluid system as the one illustrated in figure 3-6, energy is conserved as it is
converted from one type of energy (potential) and pressure energy into pressure or kinetic. In
fluid flow these energies are typically converted to energy heads that can be easily visualized
as in the potential (Available) energy head of figure 3-6.

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Figure 3-6: Flow energies illustrated with a simple reservoir-sprinkler system.

H. Energy heads in pipe flow. Figure 3-7 illustrates the three different energy heads applied
to pipe flow. Notice that, typically, the potential energy head (elevation) in a pipe flow is
referenced at the centerline of the pipe. The pressure head is measured from the pipe
centerline, and the distance from the datum to the top of the pressure head represents the
piezometric head:
𝑝
ℎ 𝑧
𝜔
Figure 3-7: Energy heads in pipe flow.

I. The difference between the total energy head and the piezometric represents the kinetic
energy. The total energy in a pipe flow is given by:

𝐻 ℎ 𝑧 (eq. 3-12)

J. The line representing the values of the total head, H, as function of position x along the
pipeline is referred to as the Energy Line (E.L.), while that representing the values of the
piezometric head, h, is referred to as the Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL). Energy losses, hf, are
the losses due to friction between sections (1) and (2).

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K. Example – Calculation of pressure, velocity, piezometric and total head

(1) A manometer located at a point of a 6-in diameter pipe shows a pressure reading of 6
psi. The point of pressure measurement is located at an elevation of 1500 ft above
mean sea level and the pipe is carrying a discharge of 0.6 cfs. Calculate the pressure
head, the velocity head, the piezometric head, and the total head.
(2) Solution:
(i) The data given are D = 6 in = 0.5 ft, p = 6 psi = 6144 psf = 864 psf, z =
1500 ft, and Q = 0.6 cfs. Using = 62.4 lb/ft3 for the specific weight of water,
the pressure head is calculated as:
𝑝⁄𝜔 864 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 / 62.4 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 13.85 𝑓𝑡
(ii) The velocity can be calculated from the continuity principle using equation 3-4:
𝑓𝑡
4𝑄 4 0.6
𝑠
𝑉 3.06 𝑓𝑝𝑠
𝜋𝐷 3.1416 0.5 𝑓𝑡
(iii) The velocity head is:
𝑉 3.06 𝑓𝑝𝑠
ℎ 0.15 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 𝑓𝑡
2 32.2
𝑠
(iv) The piezometric head is:
ℎ 𝑧 𝑝⁄𝜔 1500 𝑓𝑡 13.85 𝑓𝑡 1513.85 𝑓𝑡
(v) The total head is
𝐻 ℎ ℎ 1513.85 𝑓𝑡 0.15 𝑓𝑡 1514.0 𝑓𝑡
(vi) Notice that in this example mean sea level is used as the datum line or reference
level. If the pressure measurement point were located at 10 ft above the floor and
the floor used as the datum line, then z = 10 ft, and the piezometric head and total
head would be calculated as
𝑝
ℎ 𝑧 𝜔 10 𝑓𝑡 13.85 𝑓𝑡 23.85 𝑓𝑡
and
𝐻 ℎ ℎ 23.85 𝑓𝑡 0.15 𝑓𝑡 24.0 𝑓𝑡
L. In the previous example, the discharge Q was used to calculate the velocity V in a circular
pipeline of diameter D. In terms of the discharge (see equations 3-4 and 11), the velocity head
can be calculated as:

ℎ (eq. 3-13)

M. Using this result the total energy head in a pipeline of diameter D carrying a discharge Q
is given by:

𝐻 𝑧 (eq. 3-14)

N. Example – Calculation of total head

(1) A 2-in diameter pipeline carries a flow discharge of 0.3 cfs. At a point of the flow,
located at an elevation of 2.5 ft above the floor, the pressure is measured to be 2 psi.
What is the total energy head at that point?

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(2) Solution – Given D = 2 in = 2 in/12 ft = 0.166 ft, Q = 0.3 cfs, z = 2.5 ft, p = 2 psi =
2144 psf = 288 psf, and, with = 62.4 lb/ft , the total head is:
3

𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
𝑝 8𝑄 288 8 0.3
𝑓𝑡 𝑠
𝐻 𝑧 2.5 𝑓𝑡 10.1 𝑓𝑡
𝜔 𝜋 𝑔𝐷 𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡
62.4 3.1416 32.2 0.166 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 𝑠
O. Energy heads in open channel flow.
(1) The energy heads for open channel flow are illustrated in figure 3-8. The elevation
head, z, refers to the location of the channel bed, while the pressure head is
represented by the flow depth d.
(2) The sum of the potential energy head (z) and the flow depth (d) in open channel flow
represents the water surface elevation or stage, WS = z + d. The difference between
the total energy and the water surface elevation is the velocity head. The total energy
in a channel flow is given by:
𝐻 𝑊𝑆 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 𝑧 𝑑 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 (eq. 3-15)
(3) Of the total energy, the quantity called the specific energy is:
𝐸 𝑑 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 (eq. 3-16)
(4) This quantity represents the flow energy measured with respect to the channel bed at
a given cross-section.
(5) In open channel flow, as illustrated in figure 3-8, the hydraulic grade line is
represented by the water surface. As in figure 3-7, the term hf represents the energy
losses due to friction between section (1) and section (2).

Figure 3-8: Energy heads in open channel flow.

(6) In both the pipe flow and the open channel flow illustrated in figure 3-7 and figure 3-
8, respectively, the horizontal distance between cross-sections 1 and 2 is referred to
as x. The slope length of pipeline measured along its centerline, or the slope length
of the channel between the two cross-sections, will be referred to as L.

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P. Example – Velocity head, specific energy, and total head in open-channel flow
(1) A symmetric trapezoidal channel with bottom width b = 8.5 ft and side slope z = 0.5,
carries a discharge of Q = 30 cfs at a depth d = 2.3 ft. Calculate the velocity head,
and specific energy for this channel. If the channel bed is located at an elevation of
1255.32 ft above mean sea level, calculate the water surface elevation at that point, as
well as the total energy head.

Solution:
(i) Equation 3-10, or methods in the following Section 634.0303, Open Channel
Flow, can be used to calculate the cross-sectional area for a symmetric
trapezoidal cross-section by taking z1= z2 = z, i.e., A = (b+zd)d. For this
example, the data given are b = 8.5 ft, z = 0.5, and d = 2.3 ft. Thus,
𝐴 8.5 𝑓𝑡 0.5 2.3 𝑓𝑡 2.3𝑓𝑡 22.20 𝑓𝑡
(ii) The flow velocity for this case is given by
30 𝑓𝑡 ⁄𝑠
𝑉 𝑄⁄𝐴 1.35 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠
22.20 𝑓𝑡
and the velocity head is
𝑉 1.35 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠
ℎ 0.028 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 2 32.2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠
Thus, the specific energy is:
𝐸 𝑑 ℎ 𝑑 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 2.3 𝑓𝑡 0.028 𝑓𝑡 2.328 𝑓𝑡
(iii) The elevation of the channel bed is z = 1255.32 ft (notice that this is a different z
than the side slope z for the cross-sectional geometry), and the water surface
elevation is
𝑊𝑆 𝑧 𝑑 1255.32 𝑓𝑡 2.3 𝑓𝑡 1257.62 𝑓𝑡
(iv) The total energy head is calculated as
𝐻 𝑧 𝐸 1255.32 𝑓𝑡 2.328 𝑓𝑡 1257.65 𝑓𝑡
Q. Equation of Energy and Bernoulli’s Principle
(1) In the diagrams shown in figure 3-7 and figure 3-8, water flows from section (1) to
section (2). The diagrams indicate that the total energy head at the upstream section
(1) is larger than the total energy head at the downstream section (2), i.e., H1 > H2.
The difference represents the energy losses (hf) due to friction as the water moves
from section (1) to section (2). The law of conservation of energy for both pipe flow
and open channel flow can be written as:
𝐻 𝐻 ℎ (eq. 3-17)
where hf represents the energy losses due to friction between sections (1) and (2).
Specifically, for the pipe flow case illustrated in figure 3-7:

ℎ ℎ ℎ (eq. 3-18)

𝑧 𝑧 ℎ (eq. 3-19)

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(2) The law of conservation of energy for open channel flow, as illustrated in figure 3-8,
is written as:
𝑊𝑆 𝑊𝑆 ℎ (eq. 3-20)
or
𝑧 𝑑 𝑧 𝑑 ℎ (eq. 3-21)

(3) In some instances of pipe flow (or other enclosed flow), the fluid can be assumed to be ideal,
and the friction losses (hf) are zero. This is an assumption of the Bernoulli’s principle, and the
equation of energy (Bernoulli’s equation) can be written as:

𝑧 𝑧 (eq. 3-22)
(4) In the most general case of pipe flow, however, friction losses, hf, and local losses,
hL, (due to the presence of appurtenances in the pipe) must be included. Examples of
appurtenances include elbows and valves. Considering both friction and local losses,
the energy equation for pipelines can be written as:
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ ℎ (eq. 3-23)

R. Example – Bernoulli’s principle applied to sluice gate flow

(1) Figure 3-9 shows a schematic of a sluice gate in a rectangular channel of width b.
The energy line (E.L.) and the hydraulic grade line (H.G.L.) are also depicted. The
horizontal energy line suggests no energy losses as the flow passes under the gate.
Determine the discharge Q if the upstream and downstream depths are measured as
d1 = 3.5 ft and d2 = 1.0 ft and the channel width, b, is 10 ft.

Figure 3-9: Sluice gate flow.

(2) Solution:
(i) Since there are no energy losses and a horizontal bed, Bernoulli’s equation
reduces to:
𝑉 𝑉
𝑑 𝑑
2𝑔 2𝑔

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2 2 2
(ii) Writing the velocity head in terms of the discharge, V1 /2g = Q /(2gA1 ) and
2 2 2
V2 /2g = Q /(2gA2 ), and using A1 = bd1, A2 = bd2, Bernoulli’s equation
becomes:
𝑄 𝑄
𝑑 𝑑
2𝑔𝑏 𝑑 2𝑔𝑏 𝑑
(iii) Solving for Q and simplifying the result produces:

𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 2 32.2
𝑠
𝑄 𝑏𝑑 𝑑 10𝑓𝑡 3.5𝑓𝑡 1.0𝑓𝑡 132.4 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑑 𝑑 3.5𝑓𝑡 1.0𝑓𝑡
S. Example – Energy equation in pipelines
(1) Let the diagram in figure 3-7 represent a pipeline of constant diameter D = 6 in
carrying a discharge Q = 0.5 cfs. Let the elevations of points 1 and 2 be given by z1=
7 ft and z2 = 12.5 ft with respect to an arbitrary horizontal reference level (datum
line). The pressure at point 2 is measured to be p2 = 15.2 psi. Calculate the velocity
head for this pipe flow. If the energy loss in the pipeline is estimated to be hf = 15 ft,
3
what is the pressure at point 1, p1 (psi)? Use = 62.4 lb/ft for the specific weight of
water.
(2) Solution:
(i) Since the pipeline has a constant diameter, D = 6 in = 6/12 ft = 0.5 ft, the
velocities at points 1 and 2 are the same (equation 3-4):
4𝑄 4 0.5 𝑓𝑡 ⁄𝑠
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 2.55 𝑓𝑝𝑠
𝜋𝐷 𝜋 0.5 𝑓𝑡
(ii) The velocity head throughout the pipeline is the same and equal to (equation 3-
11):
ℎ 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 2.55 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 ⁄ 2 32.2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 0.10 𝑓𝑡
(iii) Also, the velocity head can be calculated in terms of the discharge as (equation
3-13):
𝑓𝑡
8𝑄 8 0.5
𝑠
ℎ 0.10 𝑓𝑡
𝜋 𝑔𝐷 𝑓𝑡
3.1416 32.2 0.5𝑓𝑡
𝑠
(iv) The equation of energy for the case of figure 3-7 is given by (equation 3-19):
𝑝 𝑉 𝑝 𝑉
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ
𝜔 2𝑔 𝜔 2𝑔
(v) Since the velocities are the same (V1 = V2), the equation simplifies to:
𝑝 𝑝
𝑧 𝑧 ℎ
𝜔 𝜔
(vi) From which the pressure head at point 1 is solved for, as:
𝑝 ⁄𝜔 𝑧 𝑧 𝑝 ⁄𝜔 ℎ
12.5 𝑓𝑡 7 𝑓𝑡 15.2 𝑥 144 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 / 62.4 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 15 𝑓𝑡
55.58 𝑓𝑡

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(vii) Thus, the pressure at point 1 is:

𝑙𝑏 3,468.19
𝑝 55.58𝑓𝑡 62.4 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 3,468.19 𝑝𝑠𝑖 24.08𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑓𝑡 144
T. Example – Energy equation in open channel flow
(1) Suppose that figure 3-8 represents a reach in an open channel flow with a rectangular
cross-section of width b = 12.5 ft. The depth of flow at sections 1 and 2 are measured
to be d1 = 4.7 ft and d2 = 3.8 ft, respectively, and the velocity at section 1 is V1 = 4.2
fps. The channel bed elevations at sections 1 and 2 are given as z1 = 25 ft and z2 =
22.5 ft. Calculate the flow discharge Q and the energy loss, hf, between sections 1 and
2.
(2) Solution:
(i) The area at section 1 is:
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 12.5 𝑓𝑡 4.7 𝑓𝑡 58.75 𝑓𝑡
and the flow discharge is:
𝑄 𝑉𝐴 4.2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 58.75 𝑓𝑡 246.75 𝑐𝑓𝑠
and the area at section 2 is:
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 12.5 𝑓𝑡 3.8 𝑓𝑡 47.50 𝑓𝑡
and the flow velocity at that location is:
𝑉 𝑄 ⁄𝐴 246.75 𝑓𝑡 ⁄𝑠 ⁄ 47.50 𝑓𝑡 5.19 𝑓𝑝𝑠
(ii) The energy equation for the case of figure 3-8 is written as (equation 3-21):
𝑉 𝑉
𝑧 𝑑 𝑧 𝑑 ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔
(iii) From which:
𝑉 𝑉
ℎ 𝑧 𝑑 𝑧 𝑑
2𝑔 2𝑔
. / . /
= 25 𝑓𝑡 4.7 𝑓𝑡 22.5 𝑓𝑡 3.8 𝑓𝑡
. / . /
3.26 𝑓𝑡
U. Hydraulic and Energy Gradients
(1) Figure 3-7 and figure 3-8 represent the variation of the different energy heads in pipe
flow and open channel flow, respectively. In both types of flow the line joining the
total energy heads along the pipeline or open channel is the energy line (E.L.). In
pipe flow, the line joining the piezometric heads along the pipeline (h = z + p/) is
the hydraulic grade line (H.G.L.), whereas, in open channel flow the water surface
represents the hydraulic grade line.
(2) For both pipe flow and open channel flow the energy gradient, or slope of the energy
line, Sf, is defined as the rate of friction head loss, hf, per unit length, L, of the
pipeline or open channel:
𝑆 (eq. 3-24)

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(3) However, in open channel flow, the channel bed slope, So, is typically very small
such that the length of the channel, L, is approximately equal to the horizontal
distance x, i.e., L x. The energy gradient for open channels, therefore, can be
defined as:
𝑆 (eq. 3-25)
∆ ∆
(4) The hydraulic gradient is the slope of the hydraulic grade line. For pipe flow, such
gradient is defined as the change in piezometric head per unit length of pipe:
𝑆 (eq. 3-26)
(5) Whereas, for an open channel flow the hydraulic gradient is the water surface slope.
This slope is the change in water surface elevation, WS, per unit of horizontal
distance along the channel path:
𝑆 (eq. 3-27)
∆
V. Example – Hydraulic and energy gradients in pipe flow
(1) The diameter of a 10-ft-long pipeline tapers from 1-ft-diameter at section 1 to 0.5-ft-
diameter at section 2 of figure 3-7. Let the pressure at section 1 be p1 = 6.0 psi and
that at section 2 be p2 = 5.5 psi. The pipeline is laid so that point 1 is at elevation z1 =
12.5 ft and z2 = 6.2 ft. If the pipeline is carrying a flow Q = 1.5 cfs, determine the
friction loss, hf, the hydraulic gradient, Sh, and the energy gradient, Sf, for the flow.
(2) Solution:
(i) For L = 10 ft, D1 = 1 ft, D2 = 0.5 ft, p1 = 6.0 psi, p2 = 5.5 psi, z1 = 12.5 ft, and z2
= 6.2 ft, the velocities are:
2 3 2
V1 = 4Q/(D1 ) = (41.5 ft /s)/(3.1416(1ft) ) = 1.91 fps
and,
2 3 2
V2 = 4Q/(D2 ) = (41.5 ft /s)/(3.1416(0.5 ft) ) = 7.64 fps
(ii) The piezometric or pressure heads at sections 1 and 2 are:
𝑙𝑏
𝑝 6.0 144
𝑓𝑡
ℎ 𝑧 12.5𝑓𝑡 26.35𝑓𝑡
𝜔 𝑙𝑏
62.4
𝑓𝑡
and,
𝑙𝑏
2 5.5 144
𝑓𝑡
ℎ 𝑧 6.2𝑓𝑡 18.89𝑓𝑡
𝜔 𝑙𝑏
62.4
𝑓𝑡
(iii) The difference in piezometric heads is:
Δℎ ℎ ℎ 26.35 𝑓𝑡 18.89 𝑓𝑡 7.46 𝑓𝑡
(iv) The total energy heads at sections 1 and 2 are:
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 1.91
𝑠
𝐻 ℎ 26.35𝑓𝑡 26.41 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 𝑓𝑡
2 32.2
𝑠

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and,
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 7.64
𝑠
𝐻 ℎ 18.89𝑓𝑡 19.80 𝑓𝑡
2𝑔 𝑓𝑡
2 32.2
𝑠
(v) Thus, the energy loss is:
ℎ ℎ ℎ 26.41 𝑓𝑡 19.80 𝑓𝑡 6.61 𝑓𝑡
(vi) The hydraulic gradient is calculated as:
∆ℎ 7.46𝑓𝑡
𝑆 0.746
𝐿 10𝑓𝑡
(vii) The energy gradient is:
ℎ 6.61𝑓𝑡
𝑆 0.661
𝐿 10𝑓𝑡
W. Example – Hydraulic and energy gradients in open channel flow
(1) In the example, Energy equation in open channel flow, the following flow parameters
were given or calculated: rectangular cross-section of width b = 12.5 ft. Depths of
flow: d1 = 4.7 ft and d2 = 3.8 ft. Flow velocities: V1 = 4.2 fps and V2 = 5.19 fps. Bed
elevations: z1 = 25 ft and z2 = 22.5 ft. Energy head loss, hf = 3.26 ft. If the distance
between the two sections is x = 2500 ft, calculate the energy gradient and the
hydraulic gradient for this flow.
(2) Solution:
(i) The energy gradient:
ℎ 3.26 𝑓𝑡
𝑆 Δ𝑋 2,500 𝑓𝑡 0.0013
(ii) The water surface elevations at sections 1 and 2 are, respectively, WS1 = z1 + d1
= 25 ft + 4.7 ft = 29.7 ft, and WS2 = z2 + d2 = 22.5 ft + 3.8 ft = 26.3 ft. Thus, the
hydraulic gradient, or water surface slope, is:
𝑊𝑆 𝑊𝑆 29.7 𝑓𝑡 26.3 𝑓𝑡 3.4𝑓𝑡
𝑆 0.00136
Δ𝑋 2,500 𝑓𝑡 2,500 𝑓𝑡

634.0303 Open channel Flow

A. Open channel flow occurs when water is conveyed to a lower elevation through a conduit
or channel open to the atmosphere or when a pipe flows without being full. Open channel
flow is also referred to as free-surface flow. Flows in creeks, rivers, aqueducts, flumes,
irrigation canals, gutters, and culverts are examples of open channel flows.
B. Open channels occur on a slope. If the slope is in the direction of the flow it is referred to
as a favorable slope. If the slope is opposite to the direction of the flow, then the slope is
referred to as an adverse slope. An open channel could also have a horizontal bed, in which
case the slope is zero. A channel of constant slope and constant cross-section which does not
change its alignment is referred to as a prismatic channel. Such is often the case for
constructed channels. Natural channels, on the other hand, are often highly irregular showing
varying alignment, curves, and changing cross-sectional geometry.

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634.0304 Uniform Open Channel Flow

A. Uniform flow in a prismatic open channel occurs when the flow depth remains constant
for a constant discharge. Uniform flow typically develops in long prismatic channels, away
from head or tail sections. Natural channels rarely maintain uniform flow for long reaches.
B. Figure 3-10 shows the forces acting on a section of length L of uniform flow on a channel
laid on a slope So = tan(θo). The slope is sufficiently small so that the distribution of pressure
with depth in the flow is hydrostatic, and so that So = tan(o) sin(o) o (measured in
radians).
Figure 3-10: Schematic of uniform flow in open channels.

C. Because the flow depth and the cross-sectional shapes are the same at both ends of the
flow element shown, the pressure forces acting at the upstream and downstream cross-
sections of the flow element will cancel each other. The remaining driving force will be the
component of the weight of the flow element parallel to the channel bed. This force is given
by:
𝐹 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜔𝐴𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝜔𝐴𝐿𝑆
where A is the cross-sectional area of the flow.
D. Opposing this driving force is an opposite force due to friction on the channel walls, also
known as the shear force. In figure 3-10, o represents the bed shear stress (assumed uniform
through the channel), and the total shear force is given by:
𝐹 𝜏 𝐿𝑃
where P, the wetted perimeter, is the length of the channel cross-section in contact with the
water.
E. For a uniform flow to occur, the driving force (weight component) and the shear force
must be in equilibrium, i.e., FS = FD, or:
𝜏 𝐿𝑃 𝜔𝐴𝐿𝑆
F. The bed shear stress is, therefore, given by:
𝜏 𝜔 𝑆 𝜔𝑅𝑆 (eq. 3-28)
where R, the hydraulic radius, has been introduced:
𝑅 𝐴/𝑃 (eq. 3-29)

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G. Example – Shear stress in uniform open-channel flow

(1) Calculate the shear stress on the bed of an open channel with a hydraulic radius, R =
0.75 ft, laid on a slope, S0 = 0.001. Use = 62.4 lb/ft for the specific weight of
3

water.
(2) Solution:
(i) The shear stress is calculated as:
𝑙𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝜏 𝜔𝑅𝑆 62.4 0.75𝑓𝑡 0.001 0.0468
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑏
0.0468
𝑓𝑡
0.000325 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑖𝑛
144
𝑓𝑡
(ii) The shear stress o can be written in terms of the mean flow velocity V, the
density of water , and a dimensionless “drag” coefficient CD:
1
𝜏 𝐶 𝜌𝑉
2
(iii) Substituting this result into equation 3-28 for o, and using = g:
1
𝐶 𝜌𝑉 𝜌𝑔𝑅𝑆
2
(iv) From which it follows that the velocity can be calculated as:

𝑉 𝑅𝑆 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 (eq. 3-30)

(3) This result is known as Chezy’s equation, and the coefficient C is referred to as
Chezy’s coefficient. Typical values of the Chezy coefficient range between 80 and
140. For example, the value C = 120 is typically used for concrete.
H. Example – Velocity calculation in open-channel flow using Chezy’s equation
(1) Using the Chezy equation with C = 120, calculate the flow velocity in an open
channel with a hydraulic radius R = 0.75 ft, laid on a slope So = 0.001.
(2) Solution – The velocity in the open channel flow is calculated as:
𝑉 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 120 0.75 0.001 3.29𝑓𝑝𝑠
I. While Chezy’s equation is dimensionally sound, a different equation, Manning’s equation,
has been used for more than a century for solving practical problems of uniform flow in open
channels. Manning’s equation has become the most widely used uniform flow equation, with
many references available for the selection of a Manning’s coefficient. For historical notes on
the development of both the Chezy’s and Manning’s equations, refer to Chow (1959).
Manning’s equation is presented in section 634.0306.

634.0305 Geometric Characteristics of Prismatic Channels

A. In general, we are interested in calculating the following geometric characteristics of open

channel cross-sections:
2
(1) The cross-sectional area, A (ft )
(2) The wetted perimeter, P (ft)
(3) The top width of the section, T (ft)

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(4) The hydraulic radius, R = A/P (ft)

(5) The hydraulic depth, Dh = A/T (ft)
B. The cross-sectional area, wetted perimeter, and hydraulic radius have been defined in
section 634.0304. The top-width of the section (T) is the length of the water surface in the
cross-section, whereas the hydraulic depth (Dh) is the depth of an equivalent rectangular
cross-section of the same area and width equal to the top-width (T).
C. The calculation of geometric characteristics for open channels of regular-shaped cross-
sections is straightforward as indicated next.
D. Non-symmetric trapezoidal channel
(1) Figure 3-11 shows a non-symmetric trapezoidal channel cross-section.

Figure 3-11: Non-symmetric trapezoidal channel.

(2) Given the bottom width of the cross-section, b, side slopes z1 and z2, and the flow
depth, d, the geometric characteristics of the non-symmetric trapezoidal cross-section
are:
𝑧 𝑧
𝐴 𝑏∗𝑑 𝑑 ,
2

𝑃 𝑏 𝑑 1 𝑧 1 𝑧 ,

𝑇 𝑏 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑 (eq. 3-31)
(3) In this case, z1 and z2 represent the dimensionless side slope as horizontal
displacement per unit vertical rise. For example, on the left-hand side the channel
bank slopes z1 ft horizontal per each vertical foot. This is also represented as z1H:1V
(z1 ft horizontal to 1 ft vertical). The right-hand-side slope would be represented as
z2H:1V. If the angles 1 and 2 are given, the side slopes can be calculated as:
z1 = tan (1) z2 = tan (2) (eq. 3-32)
(4) Example – Geometric characteristics of a non-symmetric trapezoidal cross-section
(i) A non-symmetric trapezoidal channel flowing at a depth d = 1.5 ft, has a bottom
width b = 6.5 ft, and side slopes laid on angles, 1 = 30 and 2 = 60 , with
o o

respect to a vertical line. Calculate the side slopes and the geometric
characteristics for this cross-section.

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(ii) Solution:
 First, the side slopes, z1 and z2 are calculated as:
𝑧 tan 𝜃 tan 30° 0.5773
𝑧 tan 𝜃 tan 60° 1.7321
 The geometric characteristics of this cross-section are calculated as follows:
𝑧 𝑧
𝐴 𝑏 𝑑 𝑑
2
0.5773 1.7321
6.5𝑓𝑡 1.5𝑓𝑡 1.5𝑓𝑡 12.35𝑓𝑡
2

𝑃 𝑏 𝑑 1 𝑧 1 𝑧

6.5𝑓𝑡 1.5𝑓𝑡 1 0.5773 1 1.7320 11.23𝑓𝑡

𝑅 𝐴⁄𝑃 12.35 𝑓𝑡 ⁄ 11.23𝑓𝑡 1.10 𝑓𝑡
𝑇 𝑏 𝑧 𝑧 𝑑 6.5 𝑓𝑡 0.5773 1.7320 1.5𝑓𝑡 9.96 𝑓𝑡
12.35 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 𝐴⁄𝑇 1.24 𝑓𝑡
9.96 𝑓𝑡
(5) Figure 3-12 shows different cross-sections that can be derived from the non-
symmetric trapezoidal cross-section. The geometric elements of some of them are
presented in detail in figure 3-12.

Figure 3-12: Channel cross-sections that can be derived from a non-symmetric

trapezoidal cross- section.

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E. Wide channels
(1) Channels of approximately rectangular shape that are much wider than they are deep,
say, b/d > 10, are referred to as wide channels. For such channels, the hydraulic
radius is approximately equal to the channel depth and to the hydraulic depth:
R ≈ d ≈ Dh (eq. 3-33)
(2) Example – Hydraulic radius for wide rectangular channel
(i) For a rectangular channel with b = 20 ft and d = 1.5 ft, calculate the hydraulic
radius using the full formula and the approximation for a wide channel.
(ii) The hydraulic radius using the full definition for a rectangular channel is:
𝑏𝑑 20𝑓𝑡 1.5𝑓𝑡
𝑅 1.3 𝑓𝑡
𝑏 2𝑑 20𝑓𝑡 2 1.5𝑓𝑡
(iii) Using the wide-channel approximation, RW = d = 1.5 ft, results in about a 15%
difference.
F. Symmetric trapezoidal channel
(1) Many constructed trapezoidal channels are symmetric, thus, z1 = z2 = z, and the
geometric characteristics are calculated as:
𝐴 𝑏 𝑧𝑑 𝑑, 𝑃 𝑏 2𝑑 1 𝑧 , 𝑇 𝑏 2𝑥𝑑
(2) Example – Geometric characteristics of a symmetric trapezoidal cross-section in
open channels
(i) A symmetric trapezoidal open channel with a bottom width b = 2.5 ft and side
slope 1.5 H:1 V (z = 1.5) flows with a water depth d = 0.75 ft. Determine the
geometric characteristics for this open channel. Also, determine the angle that
the channel banks make with a vertical line.
(ii) The solution is given by:
𝐴 𝑏 𝑧𝑑 𝑑 2.5𝑓𝑡 1.5 0.75𝑓𝑡 0.75𝑓𝑡 2.72𝑓𝑡
𝑃 𝑏 2𝑑 1 𝑧 2.5𝑓𝑡 2 0.75 1 1.5 5.20𝑓𝑡
2.72 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 𝐴⁄𝑃 0.52𝑓𝑡
5.20 𝑓𝑡
𝑇 𝑏 2𝑧𝑑 2.5 𝑓𝑡 2 1.5 0.75 𝑓𝑡 4.75 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 ⁄
𝐴 𝑇 2.75𝑓𝑡 ⁄ 4.75 𝑓𝑡 0.57 𝑓𝑡
(iii) To calculate the angle that the channel banks make with a vertical line, use z
= tan (), or:
𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑧 𝑡𝑎𝑛 1.5 56.31°
G. Circular channel
(1) A circular open channel results when water flows in a pipe or circular conduit with a
free surface, as shown in figure 3-13.

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Figure 3-13: Circular cross-section in open channel flow.

(2) For such a cross-section, the diameter D and the flow depth d (with d < D) are
typically known. To calculate the geometric characteristics, the central angle (in
radians) is calculated as:
𝛽 cos 1 2 (eq. 3-34)
(3) The geometric characteristics are calculated as:
𝐴 𝛽 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 (eq. 3-35)
𝑃 𝛽𝐷 (eq. 3-36)
T D sin () (eq. 3-37)
o
Note: A full circle is composed of 360 or 2(= 6.2832) radians. The relationship
r o
between angles in radians ( ) and angles in degrees ( ) is the same as the ratio of
2:360 = :180, or:
0.01745 (eq. 3-38)

57.29 (eq. 3-39)

(4) Example – Geometric characteristics of a circular cross-section in open channels
(i) A pipeline 2.5-ft in diameter is flowing at a depth of 6 inches. Determine the
geometric characteristics of this cross-section.
(ii) Solution:
 For D = 2.5 ft and d = 6 in = 6/12 = 0.5 ft, the central angle is calculated
as follows:
𝑑 0.5
𝛽 cos 1 2 cos 1 2 cos 0.6 0.9273
𝐷 2.5
 The corresponding geometric characteristics are as follows:
𝐷
𝐴 𝛽 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽
4
2.5
0.9273 sin 0.9723 cos 0.9723 0.70 𝑓𝑡
4
𝑃 𝛽𝐷 0.9723 2.5 𝑓𝑡 2.32 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 𝐴⁄𝑃 0.70 𝑓𝑡 ⁄ 2.32 𝑓𝑡 0.30 𝑓𝑡
𝑇 𝐷 sin 𝛽 2.5 𝑓𝑡 sin 0.9273 2 𝑓𝑡

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H. Parabolic channel
(1) The parabolic cross-section is used to approximate some natural cross-sections. Some
waterways are also constructed of parabolic shape. A parabolic cross-section is
characterized by its top width T and its depth d, as shown in figure 3-14.

Figure 3-14: Parabolic cross-section.

(2) The geometric characteristics of this cross section are calculated as follows:
𝐴 𝑑𝑇 (eq. 3-40)

𝑃 1 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 1 (eq. 3-41)

(3) Example – Geometric characteristics of a parabolic cross-section

(i) A parabolic waterway has a depth d = 2 ft and a top width T = 50 ft. Determine
the geometric characteristics of the cross-section.
2 2
𝐴 𝑑𝑇 2𝑓𝑡 50𝑓𝑡 66.67𝑓𝑡
3 3
𝑇 4𝑑 𝑇 4𝑑 4𝑑
𝑃 1 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 1
2 𝑇 8𝑑 𝑇 𝑇

50𝑓𝑡 50𝑓𝑡
1.013 ∗ ln 0.16 1.013 50.21𝑓𝑡
2 8 2𝑓𝑡
𝐴 66.67𝑓𝑡
𝑅 1.33𝑓𝑡
𝑃 50.21𝑓𝑡
𝐴 66.67𝑓𝑡
𝐷 1.33𝑓𝑡
𝑇 50𝑓𝑡

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634.0306 Manning’s Equation

A. The widely used Manning’s equation was introduced earlier as an example of a non-
dimensionally homogeneous equation. The equation, named after the Irish engineer who
proposed it in the late 1800’s, is given by:

𝑉 𝑅 𝑆 (eq. 3-42)
where V is the flow velocity, Cu is a constant that depends on the system of units used (Cu =
1.0 in the SI, and Cu = 1.486 in the ES), R is the hydraulic radius, So is the channel bed
longitudinal slope, and n is the Manning’s resistance coefficient. Manning’s n-values are
available from a variety of sources; some values are provided in the next section, table 2.
Manning’s resistance coefficients for open channel flow.
B. Many times, it is preferable to write the Manning’s equation in terms of the water
discharge Q = VA:

𝑄 𝑉𝐴 𝐴𝑅 𝑆 (eq. 3-43)
C. Since the hydraulic radius is defined as R = A/P, the Manning’s equation can also be
written as:

𝑄 𝑆 (eq. 3-44)

D. The values of A and P depend on the cross-sectional geometry and the flow depth. If A
and P are known, calculation of the discharge Q (see above), Manning’s n, or the bed slope
So, is straightforward:

𝑛 𝑆 (eq. 3-45)

𝑆 (eq.3-46)

E. The USDA-NRCS Engineering Field Tools (EFT) Hydraulics Formulas program allows
for the calculation of the discharge Q for a variety of cross-sections. Examples are provided
below. (See section 634.0307.)
F. Calculations involving the geometric parameters (e.g., flow depth, channel width) are
more complicated because the geometric characteristics A and P are raised to fractional
powers (5/3, 2/3), and because the geometric characteristics are a function of the parameters.
Solving the nonlinear equations for any of the geometric parameters typically requires an
iterative procedure. The calculations are best done with a spreadsheet, which uses a numerical
analysis method to automate the iterative procedure.
G. Although the Darcy-Weisbach equation was originally developed for pipe flow (see
634.0403, Darcy-Weisbach Equation and Friction Factor), it has been adapted for open
channel flow. Refer to NEH 654.0609(d) for information on applying the Darcy- Weisbach
equation to open channel flow.

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H. Manning’s Resistance Coefficient

(1) Manning’s resistance coefficient, n (see equation 3-42), is assumed to be a
dimensionless number in modern-day practice so that the same n-value can be used in
both the English and International Systems of units. The n-value depends on many
factors including:
(i) Roughness of the channel lining
(ii) Changes in channel alignment
(iii) Changes in cross-section geometry
(iv) Presence of obstructions
(v) Presence of vegetation
(vi) Water depth
(2) The selection of Manning’s n depends heavily on the practitioner’s experience.
Photos and descriptions of channels and floodplains for which n-values have been
calculated, based on measured discharges and high-water marks, are useful (See
Barnes, 1967, or Fasken, 1963). Photo galleries of n-values have been established
online.
(3) When an n-value must be selected for a channel outside a practitioner’s experience, a
more regimented approach is sometimes helpful (see Cowan (1956); this method is
also presented in Chow (1959) and Fasken (1963)). In Cowan’s approach, n-values
are selected and summed for five channel conditions:
(i) Bed material
(ii) Degree of surface irregularity
(iii) Variation of channel cross section
(iv) Effect of obstructions
(v) Vegetation
(4) The summed n-value may be further adjusted based on the degree of channel
meandering.
(5) After selection, n-values should be calibrated with any available high-water marks
and gaged flow data. In the calibration process, Manning’s n-values should be
reasonably adjusted to match observed water surface profiles.
(6) The retardance potential of a grass-lined open channel, including vegetated earthen
spillways, can be better evaluated with a retardance curve index rather than
Manning’s n (see Temple et al. (1987)). The retardance curve index is based on the
grass stem length and stem density (see 210-NEH-650-07).
(7) Figure 3-15 shows typical values of Manning’s resistance coefficients for constructed
channels lined with different materials, as well as for natural streams, excavated earth
channels, and floodplains. The values were compiled from many of the following
references: Barnes (1967), Cowan (1956), Chaudhry (1993), Chow (1959), Fasken
(1963), French (1985), Mays (1999), Munson et al. (1998), Streeter et. al. (1998), and
Temple et al. (1987). There are many other references available, use engineering
judgement when selecting a Manning’s “n” value.
(8) Also see NEH654.0609C for additional discussion and examples of determining
Manning’s resistance coefficient in streams.

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Figure 3-15: Manning’s resistance coefficients for open channel flow.

Channel Lining Manning's Natural Channel Manning's
n-value n-value
Asphalt 0.016 Clean, straight, natural streams 0.030
Brickwork 0.015 Excavated earth channels
Clay tile 0.014 Clean 0.022
Concrete, finished 0.012 With gravel 0.025
Concrete, unfinished 0.014 With brush 0.030
Corrugated metal 0.022 With cobbles, stones 0.035
Earth 0.025 Floodplains
Gravel 0.029 Pasture, farmland 0.035
Masonry 0.025 Light brush 0.050
Smooth steel 0.012 Heavy brush 0.075
Wood 0.012 Trees 0.150

634.0307 Calculations in Uniform Flow

A. Calculation of discharge using Manning’s formula is straightforward for a variety of

cross-sections by using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formulas. Three examples are
illustrated below. An example of normal depth calculation is also shown.
B. Example – Trapezoidal channel solution using USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formulas
(1) A trapezoidal channel of width b = 6.5 ft and side slope z = 1.5, flows at a depth d =
3.2 ft on a slope So = 0.0005. Use a Manning’s n = 0.018 and calculate the discharge.
(2) Solution:
(i) The solution is presented below in figure 3-16 using the NRCS Hydraulics
Formula program for a trapezoidal cross-section:
(ii) The result is Q = 106.12 cfs, with a velocity V = 2.93 fps. The program also
shows the critical depth which is developed in Section 634.0309.
(iii) Note that a trapezoidal cross-section with side slope z = 0 represents a
rectangular cross section. Also, a trapezoidal cross-section with bottom width b =
0 represents a triangular cross section.

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Figure 3-16: Trapezoidal Section solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics
Formulas.

C. Example – Circular channel solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formulas
(1) A circular channel of diameter D = 3.5 ft = 3.5 ft 12 in = 42 in flows at a depth d =
1.1 ft= 13.2 in on a slope So = 0.0055. Using a Manning’s n = 0.025, calculate the
discharge.
(2) Solution:
(i) The solution is presented below (figure 3-17) using the USDA-NRCS EFT
Hydraulics Formulas program for a circular cross-section:

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Figure 3-17: Circular channel solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics
Formulas.

D. Example – Parabolic channel solution using the NRCS Hydraulics Formula program
(1) A parabolic channel flows at a depth d = 5 ft and top width T = 35 ft on a slope So =
0.021. Using a Manning’s n = 0.017, calculate the discharge.
(2) Solution:
(i) The solution is presented below (figure 3-18) using the USDA-NRCS EFT
Hydraulics Formulas for a parabolic cross-section:

Figure 3-18: Parabolic channel solution using the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics
Formulas.

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E. Example – Normal depth in a wide channel

(1) Consider a channel with a Manning’s n = 0.015 laid on a slope So = 0.00461.
Suppose that the channel has a width b = 30 ft and it carries a flow Q = 100 cfs.
Determine the normal depth, do.
(2) Solution:
(i) A wide channel is an approximately rectangular channel whose width b is at least
10 times larger than its depth, i.e., b/d>10. For wide channels, the hydraulic
radius can be approximated by the flow depth (equation 3-33). The Manning’s
equation for this case can be written as:
𝐶
𝑄 𝑏𝑑 𝑑 𝑆
𝑛
(ii) Solving for the normal depth:
𝑄 100 0.015
𝑑 0.66𝑓𝑡
𝐶 𝑏 𝑆 1.486 30 √0.00461

634.0308 Specific Energy in Open Channels

A. The specific energy in an open channel is the sum of energy heads referred to the channel
bed, i.e., the flow depth added to the velocity head:

𝐸 𝑑 (eq. 3-47)

B. In terms of the discharge Q, with V = Q/A, and A = cross-sectional area, the specific
energy is written as:

𝐸 𝑑 (eq. 3-48)

C. A specific energy diagram is a plot of the depth of flow, d, versus the specific energy, E.
Figure 3-19 shows the specific energy diagram corresponding to a symmetric trapezoidal
open channel of bottom b = 2 ft and side slopes z = 1.5 carrying a flow Q = 20 cfs.

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Figure 3-19: Specific energy curve for a trapezoidal open channel.

D. In figure 3-19, the vertical axis represents the depth of flow and the horizontal axis the
specific energy. Notice that the curve approaches the line d = E asymptotically as the depth
of flow increases. Also, the lower branch of the curve approaches the value d = 0 as the
specific energy E increases. The shape of the curve shown is typical of specific energy
diagrams in open channel flow. A vertical line corresponding to a specific energy E = 0.8 ft is
shown. Notice that this line intersects the specific energy curve at two points (1) and (2),
indicating that there are two possible flow depths that would produce the same specific
energy. These are referred to as alternate depths, d1 and d2. The specific energy diagram of
figure 3-19 also shows that there is a point, (c), where the specific energy is a minimum, E =
Emin, for a given cross-section and discharge. This condition is known as critical flow and the
corresponding flow depth is referred to as critical depth. The subject of critical flow is
discussed in the following section 634.0309.
E. Example – Specific energy diagram for a rectangular channel cross-section
(1) A diagram such as that of figure 3-19 or 3-21 can be used to determine, graphically,
the alternate depths of flow in a given channel. For a rectangular channel of width b
= 5 ft and carrying a flow of 35 cfs, a table of values of the specific energy may be
produced as shown in figure 3-20:

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Figure 3-20: Estimating specific energy values.

d(ft) A(ft2) V(fps) V2/2g (ft) E(ft)
0.50 2.50 14.00 3.04 3.54
0.75 3.75 9.33 1.35 2.10
1.00 5.00 7.00 0.76 1.76
1.10 5.50 6.36 0.63 1.73
1.25 6.25 5.60 0.49 1.74
1.50 7.50 4.67 0.34 1.84
1.75 8.75 4.00 0.25 2.00
2.00 10.00 3.50 0.19 2.19
2.25 11.25 3.11 0.15 2.40
2.50 12.50 2.80 0.12 2.62
2.75 13.75 2.55 0.10 2.85
3.00 15.00 2.33 0.08 3.08
3.25 16.25 2.15 0.07 3.32
3.50 17.50 2.00 0.06 3.56
3.75 18.75 1.87 0.05 3.80
4.00 20.00 1.75 0.05 4.05

(2) The resulting specific energy diagram is shown below.

Figure 3-21: Specific energy curve for a rectangular open channel.

(3) To find the alternate depths corresponding to a specific energy E = 3 ft for this case,
draw a vertical line at that value of E and find the values of d where the line E = 3 ft
intercepts the specific energy diagram. From the figure, the values for the alternate
depths are estimated as d1 = 2.9 ft and d2 = 0.6 ft. The specific energy diagram also
reveals that the critical depth is approximately dc = 1.1 ft corresponding to a specific
energy Emin = 1.7 ft.

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634.0309 Critical Flow

A. The specific energy diagrams shown in figure 3-19 and figure 3-21 indicate that there is a
point (c) where the specific energy is minimal (E = Emin) for a given cross-section and
discharge. This point represents a condition known as critical flow, and the corresponding
depth of flow is known as the critical depth. Critical flow is important in the analysis of open
channel flow because it represents conditions of minimal energy. Critical flow can be used
for the practical measurement of fluid flows, as in the case of broad-crested weirs or Parshall
flumes (see section 634.0502, Measurements in Open Channels).
B. To determine an equation that describes critical flow conditions, one can start from the
definition of the specific energy in terms of the discharge, equation 3-48, written as:
𝑄 𝑄
𝐸 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝐴 𝑑
2𝑔 𝐴 𝑑 2𝑔

C. Specific energy E, as well as, the area A of the channel’s cross-section, is a function of the
flow depth d. To find the conditions of minimum energy, take the derivative of E(d) with
respect to d and set it equal to zero:
𝑑𝐸 𝑄 𝑑𝐴 𝑄 𝑑𝐴
1 2 𝐴 𝑑 1 0
𝑑 𝑑 2𝑔 𝑑 𝑑 𝑔𝐴 𝑑 𝑑
D. The derivative dA/d(d) can be shown to be equal to the top width of the cross-section, as
illustrated in figure 3-22.

Figure 3-22: Relationship of cross-sectional area dA, flow depth d(d), and top width T.

E. In the figure above, the increment in area, dA, due to a small increment in depth d(d), is
dA = T d(d); thus, dA/d(d) = T, and a critical flow equation can be written as:
𝑄 𝑇
1
𝑔𝐴
(eq. 3-49)
where the subscript, c is added to emphasize critical flow conditions.
F. Re-writing to incorporate the critical velocity, Vc = Q/Ac:
𝑄
𝑄 𝑇 𝐴 𝑇 𝑉
1
𝑔𝐴 𝑔𝐴 𝐴
𝑔 𝑇

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G. The ratio A/T was defined earlier as the hydraulic depth (Dh = A/T), thus, an equation for
critical velocity can be written as:
𝑉
1
𝑔 𝐷
(eq. 3-50)
H. The left-hand side of the above equation is the square of the Froude number. This
dimensionless number is relevant in open channel flow, and is defined, in general, as:
𝑉
𝐹
𝑔 𝐷
(eq. 3-51)
I. Thus, the conditions of critical flow require that the Froude number be equal to 1. Another
result that can be derived from the critical conditions equation (equation 3-50) is that the
velocity head is half of the hydraulic depth:
𝑉 𝐷
2𝑔 2
(eq. 3-52)
J. Critical depth may be calculated with the USDA-NRCS EFT Hydraulics Formula(s)
program as shown in the provided in section 634.0307.
K. Calculations of critical depth for prismatic open channels often involve solving nonlinear
equations, which requires an iterative procedure. The calculations are best done with a
spreadsheet, which uses a numerical analysis method to automate the iterative procedure.

634.0310 Flow Types

A. For any energy larger than the minimum, E > Emin, there are two alternate depths of flow,
as indicated in the specific energy diagrams of figure 3-19 and figure 3-21. One of the depths,
d1 is larger than the critical depth (d1 > dc), corresponding to a subcritical flow, while the
second one, d2, is smaller than the critical depth, and corresponds to a supercritical flow.
B. It can be shown by calculation with the Froude number equation that for subcritical flow
the Froude number is less than 1 (Fr < 1), while for supercritical flow the Froude number is
greater than 1 (Fr > 1).
C. If an open channel is laid on a slope So such that the normal depth of flow do is equal to
the critical depth of flow dc (do = dc) for a given discharge Q, then the channel bed slope So is
said to be the critical slope for that flow, i.e., So = Sc. The critical slope for a channel can be
found by replacing do = dc in the Manning’s equation. If the channel bed slope is smaller than
the critical slope (So < Sc), the normal depth of flow is larger than the critical depth (do > dc),
and the channel is said to have a mild slope. On the other hand, if the channel bed slope is
larger than the critical slope (So > Sc), the normal depth of flow is smaller than the critical
depth (do < dc), and the channel is said to have a steep slope. The different types of uniform
flow possible in an open channel, and their corresponding slopes, are summarized in figure 3-
23 and figure 3-24.

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Figure 3-23: Types of uniform flow in open channels.

Type of flow Flow depth Slope Type of slope Froude Number
Subcritical do> dc So < Sc Mild Fr < 1
Critical do = d c So = Sc Critical Fr = 1
Supercritical do< dc So. > Sc Steep Fr > 1

Figure 3-24: Types of uniform flow in open channels.

D. It’s worth noting that the celerity, or wave speed, c, of a surface wave in a shallow open
channel of depth d is the same as the critical velocity Vc. If the flow is subcritical, c >V, and
wave fronts from a surface disturbance will travel downstream at a speed c + V > 0, while
travelling upstream at a speed c-V > 0. Here, V is the flow velocity. Thus, surface
disturbances in subcritical flow can travel both upstream and downstream from their point of
origin. On the other hand, if the flow in supercritical, V >c, the velocity of surface
disturbances travelling downstream is still positive c + V > 0, but that of disturbances
traveling upstream is negative c-V<0. This last result indicates that these disturbances cannot
travel upstream. Thus, surface disturbances in supercritical flow can only travel downstream
from points of origin.

634.0311 Critical Flow in a Rectangular Channel

A. In a rectangular channel, the area and the top width are A = bd and T=b. Thus, equation
3-49 produces the result:
𝑄 𝑇 𝑄 𝑏 𝑄
1
𝑔𝐴 𝑔𝑏 𝑑 𝑔𝑏 𝑑
B. Introducing the unit discharge (or discharge per unit width of channel):
𝑄
𝑞
𝑏
(eq. 3-53)
C. Substituting the unit discharge into the equation above, and solving for the critical depth:

𝑞
𝑑
𝑔
(eq. 3-54)

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D. Example – Critical flow depth in a rectangular channel

(1) Consider a rectangular channel of width, b = 30 ft and carrying a flow Q = 100 cfs.
Determine the critical depth.
2
q = Q/b = 100 cfs/30 ft = 3.33 ft /s
𝑞 3.33
𝑑 0.70𝑓𝑡
𝑔 𝑔
(2) Since for a rectangular channel the hydraulic depth is the same as the flow depth (Dh
= d), the critical specific energy (minimum energy) is found to be equal to 3/2 of the
critical depth (combining equations 3-47 and 3-52):
𝐸 𝐸 𝑑 (eq. 3-55)
(3) To find the critical slope, we can use the Manning’s equation (equation 3-44), with d
= dc, A = bdc, P = b + 2dc, and So = Sc:
𝐶 𝑏𝑑
𝑄 𝑆
𝑛 𝑏 2𝑑
(4) Solving for critical slope:

𝑆 (eq. 3-56)

E. Example – Critical slope in uniform open-channel flow with rectangular cross-section

(1) A rectangular channel of width b = 4 ft, and Manning’s n = 0.012, is laid on a slope
So = 0.00015 and carries a discharge Q = 20 cfs. (a) Determine the critical depth of
flow. (b) Determine the critical slope. (c) What type of uniform flow is to be
expected in this channel?
(2) First, determining the unit discharge:
Q 20 𝑐𝑓𝑠
q 5 𝑓𝑡 ⁄𝑠
b 4 𝑓𝑡
(3) The critical depth is calculated as:
𝑓𝑡
𝑞 5
𝑑 𝑠 0.92𝑓𝑡
𝑔 𝑓𝑡
32.2
𝑠
(4) The critical slope is:
𝑄𝑛 𝑏 2𝑑 20 0.012 4 2 0.91
𝑆 0.00368
𝐶 𝑏𝑑 1.486 4 0.92
(5) Since So<Sc, the channel slope is mild, and a subcritical uniform flow is to be
expected in this channel.

634.0312 Obstacles in Open Channels

A. Consider a horizontal rectangular open channel that includes a hump of height z at the
bottom as illustrated on the left-hand side of figure 3-25. The figure also shows the specific
energy diagram for a given discharge Q in reference to the original channel bed.

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Figure 3-25: Hump at the bottom of a horizontal rectangular channel.

B. Figure 3-25 shows the flow at a subcritical depth d1 upstream of the hump, and at a
subcritical depth d2 over the hump. The figure also shows the energy heads in sections (1) and
(2), assuming no energy losses over the hump. The energy equation written between sections
(1) and (2) can be written as:
𝑉 𝑉
𝑑 ∆𝑧 𝑑
2𝑔 2𝑔
(eq. 3-57)
C. Alternatively, this equation can be written as:
E1 z E2 (eq. 3-58)
D. The specific energy diagram shows the energy levels E = E1 and E = E2 separated by a
distance z, as indicated by equation 3-58, with E1>E2. The depth of flow corresponding to
energy level E = E2 is d2 < d1, thus, the water surface over the hump drops as illustrated in
figure 3-25.
E. If the flow depth is known at section (1), the specific energy E1 can be calculated as:
𝑉 𝑄
𝐸 𝑑 𝑑
2𝑔 2𝑔𝑏 𝑑
F. Combining equations 3-57 and 3-58 and making use of the continuity equation gives an
equation to determine the depth, d2:
𝑄
𝑑 𝑑 𝐸 ∆𝑧
2𝑔𝑏 𝑑
(eq. 3-59)
G. Example – Change in channel bed elevation in a rectangular channel
(1) Refer to figure 3-25. A hump of height z = 0.25 ft is placed on a rectangular open
channel of width b = 5 ft carrying a discharge Q = 20 cfs. If the flow depth upstream
of the hump is d1 = 2 ft, determine the flow depth atop the hump, d2.
(2) Solution:
(i) Applying equation 3-59 and using several trials, two values were found for d2,
1.73 ft and 0.42 ft. The iterative calculations may be facilitated by use of a
spreadsheet. Since the flow for d1 = 2 ft is subcritical, the correct value is d2 =
1.73 ft (subcritical flow).

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(ii) To confirm d2 = 1.73 ft, consider the specific energy diagram in figure 3-25. If
the flow conditions upstream of the hump correspond to point (1) in the diagram,
the flow conditions atop the hump would correspond to point (2). If the flow
conditions upstream of the hump correspond to point (1’) in the diagram, the
flow over the hump would correspond to point (2’). In summary, if the flow
upstream of the hump is subcritical, the flow above the hump should be
subcritical (or at most, critical), while if the flow upstream of the hump is
supercritical, the flow above the hump should be supercritical (or at most,
critical).
(iii) To check whether the flow at sections (1) and (2) are subcritical or supercritical,
one can calculate the Froude number for those sections:
𝑉 𝑉
𝐹𝑟 ; 𝐹𝑟
𝑔𝑑 𝑔𝑑
(3) The Froude numbers at sections (1) and (2) must both be either smaller than one
(Fr1 < 1 and Fr2 < 1) for sub-critical flow, or larger than one (Fr1 > 1 and Fr2 > 1)
for supercritical flow.
H. Example – Calculation of the Froude number in a rectangular channel
(1) For the previous example, change in channel bed elevation in a rectangular channel,
d1 = 2.00 ft, Q = 20 cfs, b = 5 ft, and V1 = Q/A = 2 ft/s. The Froude number at section
(1) is:
𝑓𝑡
𝑉 2.00 𝑠
𝐹𝑟 0.249 1
𝑔𝑑 𝑓𝑡
32.2 2.00𝑓𝑡
𝑠
(2) Thus, the flow upstream of the hump for this example is subcritical. Two possible
depths of flow atop the hump were found, d2 = 1.73 ft and d2 = 0.42 ft. The Froude
numbers corresponding to these depths are:
𝑉 20𝑐𝑓𝑠/ 5𝑓𝑡 1.73𝑓𝑡
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑 1.73𝑓𝑡, 𝐹𝑟 0.310 1
𝑔𝑑 𝑓𝑡
32.2 1.73𝑓𝑡
𝑠
𝑉 20𝑐𝑓𝑠/ 5𝑓𝑡 0.42𝑓𝑡
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑 0.42𝑓𝑡, 𝐹𝑟 2.590 1
𝑔𝑑 𝑓𝑡
32.2 0.42𝑓𝑡
𝑠
(3) Thus, d2 = 1.73 ft corresponds to a subcritical flow atop the hump, while d2 = 0.42 ft,
corresponds to supercritical flow atop the hump. Since the flow upstream was
subcritical, the correct answer is d2 = 1.73 ft.
(4) There is a possibility that the hump height z takes the value zmax so that the flow
conditions on top of the hump are critical. In the specific energy diagram of figure 3-
25, critical flow conditions correspond to point (c), by making z = zmax, E2 = Emin.
If the flow atop the hump is critical, the depth of flow d2 (above the hump) is the
critical depth dc, which, for a rectangular channel, can be calculated using equations
3-54 or 3-55.

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(5) If critical flow conditions are achieved atop the hump, it may be possible to measure
the depth of flow in that location (d2 = dc). The discharge can then be calculated from
equations 3-53 and 3-54, combined and rearranged:
𝑄 𝑏 𝑔𝑑
(eq. 3-60)
(6) This unique relationship between the flow discharge Q and the depth atop the hump
under critical conditions dc allows the use of relatively high humps as a discharge-
measuring device known as a broad-crested weir. See section 634.0511, Broad-
crested Weirs, and section 634.0513, Long-throated Flumes for additional examples
and applications.
I. Example – Rating curve for a broad-crested weir
(1) Draw the rating curve (i.e., Q vs. dc) for a broad-crested weir in a channel that is 3.5-
ft wide, for the range 0 < dc < 5.0 ft.
(2) The table below was developed by applying equation 3-60 to produce the rating
curve as shown below.

Figure 3-26: Rating curve computation for a broad-crested weir.

634.0313 Momentum Analysis in Open Channels

A. The energy loss represented by hf in the energy equation is not easily determined in the
analysis of a hydraulic jump (see section 634.0314 for hydraulic jump analyses). The
principle of impulse-momentum or conservation of momentum is more easily applied (than
the energy equation) to analyses involving high internal energy changes, such as hydraulic
jump or sluice gate flow analyses. Momentum may be thought of as “mass-in-motion” and an
impulse as change in momentum. The principle of conservation of momentum is used to
determine forces on moving fluids. Consider, for example, the case of the flow under a sluice
gate illustrated in figure 3-9. Figure 3-27 below shows a sluicegate control volume with the
forces acting on it, and the flow of momentum through the control surfaces.

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Figure 3-27: Forces and flow of momentum for sluice gate flow.

B. Figure 3-27(a) shows hydrostatic forces Fp1 and Fp2 acting in the upstream and
downstream sections of the control volume for the flow under a sluice gate. Included also in
figure 3-27(a) is the force FG that the gate exerts on the control volume. By Newton’s third
law (principle of action-reaction), the flow exerts a force -FG in the opposite direction on the
gate. Figure 3-27(b) shows the flow of momentum in (QV1) and out (QV2) of the control
volume through the control surfaces at sections (1) and (2), respectively.
C. The principle of impulse-momentum states that the sum of forces on the control volume is
equal to the net flow of momentum out of the control volume, i.e., momentum flow out minus
momentum flow in. This principle can be expressed as the following vector equation:
∑𝐹 Δ 𝑝𝑄𝑉 𝑝𝑄𝑉 𝑝𝑄𝑉 (eq. 3-61)
D. Specifically, for the case illustrated in figure 3-27:
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝑝𝑄𝑉 𝑝𝑄𝑉
from which it follows that:
𝐹 𝐹 𝑝𝑄𝑉 𝐹 𝑝𝑄𝑉
E. The hydrostatic forces Fp1 and Fp2 can be calculated by using equation 2-5 (210-NEH-
634-2, section 634.0203C):
𝐹 𝜔ℎ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 𝜔ℎ 𝐴
where hcA stands for the first moment of area with respect to the free surface of a given
cross-section (hc is the depth of the centroid of the cross-section, and A is the area). Also,
replacing V1 = Q/A1 and V2 = Q/A2, and using /g, the expression for FG becomes:
𝑄 𝑄
𝐹 𝜔 ℎ 𝐴 ℎ 𝐴
𝑔𝐴 𝑔𝐴
F. The quantities between parentheses in the equation above is defined as the momentum
function for open channel flow:
𝑄
𝑀 ℎ 𝐴
𝑔𝐴
(eq. 3-62)
G. The force on the gate can now be written as:
𝐹 𝜔 𝑀 𝑀
(eq. 3-63)

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2
H. For a rectangular channel, A = bd, and hc = d/2, thus, hcA = ½ bd . Also, using the
2 2
concept of the unit discharge (discharge per unit width), q = Q/b, the term Q /gA = q b/gd.
The momentum function (equation 3-62) becomes:
𝑄 1 𝑞 𝑏 𝑑 𝑞
𝑀 ℎ 𝐴 𝑏𝑑 𝑏
𝑔𝐴 2 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑔𝑑
I. Continuing, a unit momentum function (or momentum function per unit width) for a
rectangular open channel can be defined as:
𝑀 𝑑 𝑞
𝑚
𝑏 2 𝑔𝑑
(eq. 3-64)
J. A unit momentum function diagram for a rectangular cross-section is a plot of the channel
depth (d) against the unit momentum function (mF), as illustrated in the following example.
K. Example – Momentum function diagram for a rectangular channel
3
(1) A rectangular channel of width b = 10 ft carries a discharge Q = 132 ft /s; produce a
unit momentum function diagram for this channel.
(2) Solution:
(i) The unit discharge is:
𝑄 132 𝑓𝑡 ⁄𝑠
𝑞 13.2 𝑓𝑡 ⁄𝑠
𝐵 10 𝑓𝑡
(ii) The unit momentum function diagram, below, was developed by applying
equation 3-64:

Figure 3-28: Unit momentum function diagram.

L. Example – Calculation of force on sluice gate

(1) In the example Bernoulli’s principle applied to sluice gate flow, which used the
sluice gate of figure 3-9, the values b = 10 ft, d1 = 3.5 ft, and d2 = 1.0 ft were used to

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2
calculate Q = 132 ft3/s, i.e, q = Q/b = 13.2 ft /s. Calculate the force that the flowing
water exerts on the gate.
(2) Solution:
(i) The force can be calculated by using the unit momentum function as follows:
𝑓𝑡
d 𝑞 3.5𝑓𝑡 13.2
𝑠
𝑚 7.67𝑓𝑡
2 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑓𝑡
32.2 3.5𝑓𝑡
𝑠
𝑓𝑡
d 𝑞 1.0𝑓𝑡 13.2
𝑠
𝑚 5.91𝑓𝑡
2 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑓𝑡
32.2 1.0𝑓𝑡
𝑠
(ii) With = 62.4 lb/ft , the force on the gate, as given by equation 3-63, is:
3

𝐹 𝜔 𝑀 𝑀 𝜔𝑏 𝑚 𝑚
𝑙𝑏
𝐹 62.4 10𝑓𝑡 7.67𝑓𝑡 5.91𝑓𝑡 1098.24𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡
(iii) An analysis of the unit momentum function diagram used in the example
Momentum function diagram for a rectangular channel, above, indicates that
there are two possible depths associated with a given value of mF. This is
illustrated in the figure below. These two depths are referred to as conjugate
depths.

Figure 3-29: Conjugate depths in the unit momentum function diagram for a
rectangular open channel.

(iv) The unit momentum function diagram also shows that there is a point where the
unit momentum function becomes a minimum, mF = (mF)min. It can be shown
that this point of minimum momentum function corresponds to critical flow.
Thus, for a given value of the momentum function there is a subcritical and a
supercritical depth of flow, the conjugate depths.

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634.0314 Hydraulic Jumps

A. A hydraulic jump consists of a sudden increase of water depth in an open channel from a
supercritical depth (d1<dc) to a subcritical depth (d2>dc). A hydraulic jump could occur at the
foot of a spillway as illustrated in the following figure.

Figure 3-30: Hydraulic jump produced by a stilling basin at the base of a spillway.

B. The figure below, shows a photograph of a hydraulic jump at the base of a model of a
dam spillway.
Figure 3-31: Hydraulic jump observed at the foot of a model spillway (courtesy of the Utah
Water Research Laboratory).

C. The hydraulic jump is typically an abrupt raise in the water surface showing a rough
surface with strong turbulence and producing a large amount of air entrainment. This area of
strong turbulence and marked air entrainment is referred to as the roller of the hydraulic
jump. The sketch of the hydraulic jump shown in figure 3-30 indicates an energy loss hj
through the jump.
D. Since energy is not conserved through the jump, analysis of the hydraulic jump is better
performed using the impulse-momentum principle. Forces on a control volume enclosing the

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jump, as well as the momentum flow through the corresponding control surfaces, are shown
below.

Figure 3-32: Forces and flow of momentum for a hydraulic jump.

E. Besides the hydrostatic forces Fp1 and Fp2, the control volume is affected by a shear force
at the wetted perimeter Fs. Using the principle of impulse-momentum for the jump results in
an equation like that of the force on a sluice gate (equation 3-63):

𝐹 𝜔 𝑀 𝑀
F. Since the hydraulic jump occurs along a relatively small length of the channel, the shear
force Fs is negligible, and the impulse-momentum principle for the hydraulic jump results in:
𝑀 𝑀
G. If the hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel, the principle of impulse-momentum
produces the result:
𝑑 𝑞 𝑑 𝑞
2 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑔𝑑
H. The depths of flow upstream (d1) and downstream (d2) of the jump are known as
conjugate depths.
I. Algebraic manipulation of the above equation gives the following results for a horizontal
rectangular-channel hydraulic jump:
(1) Unit discharge (discharge per unit width):

𝑔𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑞
2
(eq. 3-65)
(2) Ratio of depths:

𝑑 1 8𝑞
1 1
𝑑 2 𝑔𝑑
(eq. 3-66)
or,

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𝑑 1 8𝑞
1 1
𝑑 2 𝑔𝑑
(eq. 3-67)
(3) The energy head loss is equal to the difference in specific energy before and after the
jump:
𝑑 𝑑
ℎ
4𝑑 𝑑
(eq. 3-68)

(4) The length of the jump, Lj, cannot be determined from energy or momentum
considerations. However, experimental results reveal that:
𝐿
4 6
𝑑
(eq. 3-69)
(5) Thus, the average value can be used as a first approximation to the jump length:
𝐿 5𝑑
(eq. 3-70)
J. Example – Discharge, head loss, and length of a hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel
(1) A hydraulic jump is observed in a rectangular channel and the upstream and
downstream depths are measured to be d1 = 0.50 ft and d2 = 3.5 ft, respectively.
Please refer to figure 3-30 as a schematic. Determine (a) the discharge per unit width,
(b) the energy head loss through the jump, and (d) an approximation to the jump
length.
(2) Solution:
(i) The unit discharge is (equation 3-65):
𝑓𝑡
𝑔𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 32.2 0.50𝑓𝑡 3.5𝑓𝑡 0.50𝑓𝑡 3.5𝑓𝑡
𝑞 𝑠
2 2
𝑓𝑡
10.62
𝑠
(ii) The energy head loss is (equation 3-68):
𝑑 𝑑 3.5𝑓𝑡 0.50𝑓𝑡
ℎ 3.86𝑓𝑡
4𝑑 𝑑 4 0.5𝑓𝑡 3.5𝑓𝑡
(iii) An approximation to the jump length is (equation 3-70):
𝐿 5𝑑 5 3.5 𝑓𝑡 17.5 𝑓𝑡
K. Example – Flow depth, head loss, and length of hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel
(1) A hydraulic jump takes place in a rectangular channel of width b = 5.5 ft that carries
a discharge Q = 25 cfs. Please refer to figure 3-30 as a schematic. If the depth
upstream of the jump is determined to be d1 = 0.75 ft, by means of water surface
profile calculations (see section 3.15), determine: (a) the depth downstream of the

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jump, (b) the energy head loss through the jump, and (c) an approximation to the
jump length.
(2) Solution:
(i) The unit discharge is:
𝑄 25 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑞 4.55 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝑏 5.5 𝑓𝑡
(ii) From equation 3-66, d2 is found:

𝑓𝑡
𝑑 8𝑞 0.75 ⎛ 8 4.55 ⎞
𝑠
𝑑 1 1 1 1
2 𝑔𝑑 2 ⎜ 𝑓𝑡 ⎟
32.2 0.75𝑓𝑡
𝑠
⎝ ⎠
0.987𝑓𝑡
(iii) The energy head loss is (equation 3-68):
𝑑 𝑑 0.987𝑓𝑡 0.75𝑓𝑡
ℎ 0.0045𝑓𝑡
4𝑑 𝑑 4 0.987𝑓𝑡 0.75𝑓𝑡
(iv) An approximation to the jump length is (equation 3-70):
𝐿 5𝑑 5 0.987 𝑓𝑡 4.94 𝑓𝑡
L. Figure 3-33 illustrates a hydraulic jump occurring over an obstacle or a baffle block.

Figure 3-33: Hydraulic jump over a baffle block.

M. For the case illustrated in figure 3-33, equations 3-65 through 3-68 no longer apply
because the force that the obstacle or block exerts on the flow is not negligible. However, the
principle of impulse-momentum may be applied in the same manner as it was for sluice- gate
flow:
𝐹 𝜔 𝑀 𝑀 (eq. 3-71)
N. Where (MF)1 and (MF)2 are the momentum functions (equation 3-63) for the sections
upstream and downstream of the hydraulic jump, respectively. For a rectangular cross-
section, the above equation can be written as:
𝐹 𝜔𝑏 𝑚 𝑚 (eq. 3-72)
O. Where ω is the specific weight of water, b is the channel width, and the unit momentum
function, mF, is calculated by equation 3-64.

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P. Example – Calculation of force on an obstacle producing a hydraulic jump in a rectangular

channel
(1) A hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel of width b = 10 ft is produced by an
obstacle at the channel bed. Please refer to figure 3-33 as a schematic. If the depths
upstream and downstream of the jump are determined to be d1 = 0.95 ft and d2 = 1.25
ft, respectively, and the discharge in the channel is Q = 80 ft3/s. Calculate the force
that the flowing water exerts on the obstacle.
(2) Solution:
(i) The unit discharge is:
𝑄 80 𝑐𝑓𝑠
𝑞 8 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝑏 10 𝑓𝑡
(ii) The force can be calculated by using the unit momentum function (equation 3-
64):
𝑓𝑡
𝑑 𝑞 0.95𝑓𝑡 8
𝑠
𝑚 2.543𝑓𝑡
2 𝑔𝑑 2 𝑓𝑡
32.2 0.95𝑓𝑡
𝑠
(iii) With = 62.4 lb/ft , the force on the obstacle, as given by equation 3-71, is:
3

𝐹 𝜔 𝑀 𝑀 𝜔𝑏 𝑚 𝑚
𝑙𝑏
𝐹 62.4 10𝑓𝑡 2.543𝑓𝑡 2.371𝑓𝑡 107.4𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡

634.0315 Varying Open Channel Flow

A. Uniform flow has a constant depth and is achieved when the driving force (gravity) is in
balance with the resisting force (shear forces) on the channel boundary. The entrance from a
reservoir into a long open channel, as illustrated in figure 3-34, below, may include a zone of
varying flow depth, before uniform flow is achieved.

Figure 3-34: Varying flow from a reservoir leading to uniform flow in an open channel.

B. A zone of varying flow depth, as the one illustrated in figure 3-34, is referred to as
gradually varied flow (GVF). Gradually varied flow zones may be very long. Hydraulic
jumps (figure 3-30) or flows over an obstacle (figure 3-33), on the other hand, are examples
of rapidly varied flow, with the flow depth changing quickly. Flow depths generally vary
over the entire length of natural channels.

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634.0316 Gradually Varied Flow

A. Figure 3-8 shows the energy heads in a gradually varied flow between two sections
separated by a horizontal distance x. The slopes shown in that figure include:
(1) Slope of the energy line, Sf = hf /L, where hf = energy head loss, and L = length
between sections (1) and (2) measured along channel.
(2) Slope of the water surface, Sw = (WS1-WS2)/x, where WS1 and WS2 are the water
surface elevations at sections (1) and (2)
(3) Slope of the channel bed, So = (z1-z2)/x, where z1 and z2 are the bed elevations at
sections (1) and (2)
B. Because typically the channel bed slope So is small, the length of channel L is
approximately equal to the horizontal length x between sections (1) and (2), i.e., L x, and
Sf hf / x.
C. Two equations useful in calculating GVF parameters include the energy equation (see
section 634.0302), written as:
𝑉 𝑉
𝑧 𝑑 𝑧 𝑑 ℎ
2𝑔 2𝑔
(eq. 3-73)
D. And Manning’s equation, used to estimate the energy slope, Sf:

𝑄𝑛 1
𝑆 ⎛ ⎞
𝐶
⎝ 𝐴 𝑅 ⎠
(eq. 3-74)
E. Figures 3-35 and 3-36 illustrate two common forms of GVF. In figure 3-35 a uniform
flow in a mild-slope channel approaches an overfall. The GVF curve approaches the line of
uniform flow (do) asymptotically at (a), while approaching the line of critical flow (dc) almost
perpendicularly at (b). The GVF curve in the figure below is referred to as a drawdown curve.

Figure 3-35: Gradually varied flow (GVF) near an overfall.

F. Another example of GVF is shown in figure 3-36. In this case, a weir across a channel
forces the water depth above the normal depth of flow. The figure shows a GVF curve that
approaches the normal depth line asymptotically at point (a). The curve in the figure below is
referred to as a backwater curve.

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Figure 3-36: Gradually varied flow (GVF) produced by a weir.

634.0317 Classification of Gradually Varied Flow

A. GVF curves cannot cross the lines of normal depth (do) or of critical depth (dc). Thus,
backwater curves or drawdown curves must be contained within the region limited by the
channel bed and the closest of the do or dc lines, the region between those lines, or the region
above the highest of the do and dc lines. These two or three regions are indicated in figure 3-
37. GVF curves are classified according to the type of slope of the channel and the region
where they occur. For example, a curve above the do line in a mild-slope channel would be
classified as M1, and so on. The different types of gradually varied flow curves are illustrated
in figure 3-37.

Figure 3-37: Classification of gradually varied flow (GVF).

B. The curves of figure 3-37 can be used to sketch the type of gradually varied flow expected
on a given channel.
C. The following figure illustrates the type of curves that can be generated by a sluice gate
placed across the channel, so that it produces a supercritical flow under the gate. The channel
ends with an overfall.
D. The sluice gate in figure 3-38 produces an M1 curve upstream, and an M3 curve
downstream of the gate. The M3 curve ends in a hydraulic jump (J) that raises the water level
to the normal depth of flow before reaching the overfall. The overfall produces an M2 curve
at the downstream end of the channel.

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Figure 3-38: Gradually varied flow (GVF) curves in a mild-slope open channel with a sluice
gate and overfall.

634.0318 Standard step method

A. Manning’s equation provides a good estimate of flow depth, when uniform flow
conditions exist. See section 634.0307, Calculations in Uniform Flow. Because uniform flow
conditions of constant depth and discharge do not normally exist in natural streams and in
many reaches of constructed channels, other methods, such as the standard step, are needed to
calculate flow profiles more accurately.
B. The standard step method calculates a gradually varied flow (GVF) profile by solving the
energy equation with an iterative procedure. One way of applying the method is by varying
the flow depths. The calculations start at a point where the depth is known, and the depth is
changed by small increments or decrements until reaching a specified depth value. For each
depth increment or decrement, the distance between sections, x, for the given depth change,
is calculated.
C. To develop an equation for the standard step method one may start from equation 3-73,
re- written as follows:
𝑧 𝐸 𝑧 𝐸 ℎ (eq. 3-75)

D. Using z1-z2 = Sox and hf = Sfx, we can solve for x, the horizontal distance between
sections (1) and (2):
∆𝑥 (eq. 3-76)

E. The value of the energy slope to use is based on the Manning’s equation by using the
average velocity and hydraulic radius for sections (1) and (2):
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 ,𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 (eq. 3-77)
F. The energy slope is calculated using Manning’s equation as:

𝑆 (eq. 3-78)

G. The calculation procedure starts by selecting a depth d1 and then postulating a depth d2 =
d1 d, e.g., you could have d1 = 2.5 ft and d2 = 2.6 ft (with d = 0.1 ft). Then, proceeding
to calculate the areas (A1, A2), wetted perimeters (P1, P2), hydraulic radii (Rh1, Rh2), velocities
(V1, V2), specific energies (E1, E2), average hydraulic radius (Rh), average velocity (V),
energy slope (Sf), and finally the increment ∆x from equation 3-76 is calculated. The
procedure is repeated then by taking d1 = d2 and postulating a new value of d2. Tables of the
calculation results are shown in the following example.

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H. Example – Gradually varied flow calculation in a rectangular channel

(1) A rectangular flume is 5-ft wide (b = 5ft) and carries a flow Q = 60 cfs. The bed
slope is So = 0.0006, and the Manning’s resistance coefficient is n = 0.012. At a
certain section the depth is d1 = 3 ft. Find the distance x to the section where the
depth is 2.5 ft.
(2) Solution:
(i) Using depth decrements of d = -0.1 ft, the depths d = 3.0 ft, 2.9 ft, 2.8 ft, 2.7 ft,
2.6 ft, and 2.5 ft are used in the calculation. Calculations are shown for the
depths, 3.0 ft and 2.9 ft. For a rectangular cross section, the area and wetted
perimeter are given by A = bd = 5d, P = b + 2d = 5+2d, respectively. Thus:
 For d1 = 3 ft:
𝐴 5 ft 3 ft 15𝑓𝑡
𝑃 5 2 3 11 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 ⁄
𝐴 𝑃 ⁄
15 11 1.36 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 ⁄
𝑄 𝐴 60 𝑐𝑓𝑠⁄15 𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐸 𝑑 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 3 𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 ⁄ 2 32.2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠
3.248 𝑓𝑡
 For d2 = 2.9 ft
𝐴 5 ft 2.9 ft 14.5𝑓𝑡
𝑃 5 2 2.9 10.8 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 ⁄
𝐴 𝑃 ⁄
14.5 10.8 1.34 𝑓𝑡
𝑉 ⁄
𝑄 𝐴 60 𝑐𝑓𝑠⁄14.5 𝑓𝑡 4.14 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝐸 𝑑 𝑉 ⁄2𝑔 2.9 𝑓𝑡 4.14 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 ⁄ 2 32.2 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠
3.166 𝑓𝑡
(ii) The average velocity and hydraulic radius are:
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 ⁄2 4.07 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 ⁄2 1.35 𝑓𝑡
(iii) The energy slope is calculated as follows:

𝑛𝑉 0.012 4.07
𝑆 0.000721
𝐶 𝑅 1.486 1.35
(iv) Finally, the distance between cross sections is calculated as:
𝐸 𝐸 3.2484𝑓𝑡 3.166𝑓𝑡
∆𝑥 680𝑓𝑡
𝑆 𝑆 0.000721 0.0006
(v) The standard step solution is presented in the following tables.

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Figure 3-39: Standard step solution example – table 1.

Average
Wetted Hydraulic Flow Specific Hydraulic Average
Depth Area Perimeter Radius Velocity Energy Radius Velocity
d A P R=A/P V E Ravg Vavg
3.000 15.000 11.000 1.364 4.000 3.248 - -
2.900 14.500 10.800 1.343 4.138 3.166 1.353 4.069
2.800 14.000 10.600 1.321 4.286 3.085 1.332 4.212
2.700 13.500 10.400 1.298 4.444 3.007 1.309 4.365
2.600 13.000 10.200 1.275 4.615 2.931 1.286 4.530
2.500 12.500 10.000 1.250 4.800 2.858 1.262 4.708

Figure 3-40: Standard step solution example – table 2.

Energy Spec. En. Distance Cumulative
Depth
Slope Increment Increment Distance
d
S ΔE Δx x
3.0 - - - 0
2.9 0.000721 0.0826 680.11 680.11
2.8 0.000790 0.0807 425.50 1105.61
2.7 0.000867 0.0785 293.53 1399.14
2.6 0.000957 0.0760 213.03 1612.15
2.5 0.001059 0.0730 158.91 1771.05

(vi) The cumulative distance to the section where the depth is 2.5 ft is shown to be
1771 ft.
I. The best results in the standard step method are achieved by using an increment or
decrement of depth as small as possible. Thus, implementation of the standard step solution
in spreadsheet software facilitates the calculation, especially for the trapezoidal, parabolic,
and circular shapes that occur in prismatic open channels.
J. To achieve best results in the standard step method, the step computations should be
carried upstream for subcritical flows and downstream for supercritical flows.
K. For analyses of gradually varied flow in prismatic or natural channels, one can use the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ Hydrologic Engineering Center’s HEC-RAS software, (RAS
stands for River Analysis System.). The latest version of HEC-RAS can be downloaded at
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers webpage. HEC-RAS utilizes an iterative standard step method
to solve for gradually varied flow. Details on the operation of HEC-RAS are available at the
website shown above.

634.0319 Sediment Transport

Earth-lined channels may carry sediments if the water velocities are large enough to produce
erosion of the channel linings. Rivers may carry significant sediment load when the water
discharge increases, especially at channel forming discharges. The ability of a river to erode
and carry sediments depends on the hydraulic characteristics of the stream as well as on the
sediment properties. Refer to NEH 654, Chapter 13, for additional sediment transport
information.

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634.0320 Sediment Properties

A. The size of sediments can be determined by performing a sieve test on a sample of

sediments. For very fine sediments a settling test performed in a settling tube may be
necessary to determine the size distribution of the particles. Typically, sediment size follows
a log-normal distribution of probabilities, with a median size D50, meaning the size for which
50% of the sample mass is retained. The diameters D84 and D16 represent the diameters for
which 15.9% and 84.1% of the sample mass is retained. The standard deviation of the
logarithms of the diameters is given by:

𝜎 (eq. 3-79)

B. If the diameters of the sediment sample do not follow a log-normal distribution, the
geometric mean can be used as a representative value of the sediment size:

𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 (eq. 3-80)
C. Example – Sediment size data analysis
(1) Sediment size data from a sieve analysis can be used to determine the characteristic
diameters for a sediment sample. This information is useful in the prediction of
sediment transport discharges in rivers and streams. The table below shows the
results from a sieve analysis of a sample of sandy sediment:

Figure 3-41: Sediment data from sieve analysis.

Sieve opening Amount
(mm) retained (g)
0.495 0.85
0.417 1.56
0.351 3.08
0.295 3.82
0.246 5.35
0.208 5.69
0.175 4.31
0.147 5.06
0.124 2.37
0.104 1.16
0.088 0.21
0.074 0.12
Pan 0.04

(2) Using a probability-logarithmic plot, determine the values of D16, D50, and D84,
calculate the standard deviation of the logarithms, and the geometric mean.
(3) From the table given above, we can produce the following table (figure 3-42) to
determine the percentage finer than the given sieve size.

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(4) The probability-logarithmic plot is shown below. The x axis denotes the sieve
opening, in mm, in the logarithmic scale, while the y axis displays the percentage
finer in the probability scale. The plot also shows the lines corresponding to 84.1%-,
50%-, and 15.9%-finer which are used to determine the values of D16, D50, and D84.
These values are:
D16 = 0.15 mm, D50 = 0.23 mm, D84 = 0.34 mm
(5) The standard deviation of the logarithms of the diameters is:

𝐷 0.34𝑚𝑚
𝜎 1.506
𝐷 0.15𝑚𝑚

Figure 3-42: Determination of percent finer than given sieve size.

Sieve Cumulative
Weight % weight Percent
opening % weight
retained (g) retained finer
(mm) retained
0.495 0.85 2.53 2.53 97.470
0.417 1.56 4.64 7.17 92.830
0.351 3.08 9.16 16.33 83.670
0.295 3.82 11.36 27.69 72.310
0.246 5.35 15.91 43.60 56.400
0.208 5.69 16.92 60.52 39.480
0.175 4.31 12.82 73.34 26.660
0.147 5.06 15.05 88.39 11.610
0.124 2.37 7.05 95.44 4.560
0.104 1.16 3.45 98.89 1.110
0.088 0.21 0.62 99.51 0.490
0.074 0.12 0.36 99.87 0.130
pan 0.04 0.12 100.00 0.000
sum 33.62 100.00 - -

(6) The geometric mean of the diameters is:

𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 0.34𝑚𝑚 0.15𝑚𝑚 0.226𝑚𝑚

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Figure 3-43: Grain size distribution.

D. In the analysis of suspended sediment, i.e., those sediment particles that are entrained in
the moving fluid, it’s important to consider the settling velocity of the sediments. Theoretical
analysis of settling velocities indicate that the terminal velocity w of a spherical particle of
diameter D is given by:

4𝑔𝐷 𝜌 𝜌 4𝑔𝐷
𝑤 𝑆 1
3𝐶 𝜌 3𝐶
(eq. 3-81)
Where CD is the drag coefficient, g is the acceleration of gravity, and and s are the
densities of the fluid and of the solid sediment particles, respectively. A typical value used for
the specific density (gravity) of the solid sediment particles (sand) is Ss =s /= 2.65. The
drag coefficient is related to the Reynolds number of the particle, namely:
𝑤𝐷
𝑅
𝑣
(eq. 3-82)
where  is the viscosity of water.
E. For laminar flow, i.e., Re < 2:
24 3 19 71
𝐶 1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 ⋯
𝑅 16 1280 20480
(eq. 3-83)

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F. The approximation CD = 24/Re, applies for Re < 0.5. For turbulent flow, with Re < 800,
the drag coefficient on a spherical particle is approximated by:
24 .
𝐶 1 0.105𝑅
𝑅
(eq. 3-84)
G. Example – Determining settling velocity of spherical sediments
(1) Determine the settling velocity of a spherical sediment particle with a diameter D =
0.23 mm = 7.5410 ft, in water at 60 F (= 1.21710 ft /s). Use Ss = 2.65 for the
-4 o -5 2

specific gravity of the solid particles. (This type of information is useful for
designing sediment settling basins).
(2) Solution:
(i) Determining the settling velocity, w, is a trial-and-error solution, since the settling
velocity is related to a drag coefficient, which is related to the Reynolds number,
which is, in turn, related to the settling velocity (the parameter to be calculated).
(ii) For efficient calculations, an iterative procedure involving the above equations 3-
81 thru 3-84 may be programmed in a spreadsheet to obtain the settling velocity,
w = 0.0929 ft/s, with Re = 5.76 (in the turbulent regime).
H. The results from the previous example apply to spherical particles only. Natural
sediments may have other shapes; therefore, the effect of that shape must be taken into
account when calculating the settling velocity. A simple approach consists in multiplying the
velocity calculated with equation 3-81 by a shape factor :

4𝑔𝐷 𝜌 𝜌 4𝑔𝐷
𝑤 𝑤   𝑆 1
3𝐶 𝜌 3𝐶
(eq. 3-85)
I. Some typical values of the shape factor are provided in the table below.
Figure 3-44: Shape factors for sediment settling velocity.
Particle shape Shape factor, ψ
sphere 1.000
cube-octahedron 0.906
octahedron 0.846
cube 0.806
tetrahedron 0.670

J. Example – Determination of settling velocity for non-spherical sediments

(1) In the previous example, a settling velocity wsphere = 0.0929 ft/s for a spherical
particle was found. If the particle shape is an octahedron, what is the settling
velocity?
(2) Solution – From the table, a shape factor = 0.846 for an octahedron. The settling
velocity for the particle is:
𝑤 Ψ ∙𝜔 0.846 0.0929 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 0.0786 𝑓𝑡/𝑠
K. For additional information on sediment properties and settling velocity calculations, refer
to: Raudkivi (1976); ASCE (2006); and 210-NEH-654, Chapter 7, Basic Principles of

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Channel Design; Chapter 8, Threshold Channel Design; Chapter 9, Alluvial Channel Design;
and Chapter 13, Sediment Impact Assessments.

634.0321 Threshold of Sediment Motion

A. Channels may be classified as threshold or alluvial. Sediment passes through a threshold

channel with little impact on the channel boundary. An alluvial or movable-bed channel is
more active, with an exchange of sediment between the channel boundary and the flow.
B. In a threshold channel, the applied forces of the flow are less than the threshold for
movement of the boundary material. Equation 3-28 (section 634.0304) provides an
expression for the average shear stress at the bed of an open channel in uniform conditions,
and is repeated here:
𝜏 𝜔∙𝑅 ∙𝑆
C. Define the shear velocity, v*, as:

𝜏
𝑣∗
𝜌
(eq. 3-86)
D. Although this is not a velocity that can be measured in the flow, the quantity defined
above has the units of a velocity, and, being related to the bed shear stress, is appropriately
named the shear velocity.
E. The bed shear stress, o, and the shear velocity, v*, (u* is used interchangeably with v*) can
be used to define a set of parameters to analyze the threshold of sediment motion in open
channels. The two parameters to consider are a Reynolds number based on the shear velocity:
𝑣∗ 𝐷
𝑣
(eq. 3-87)
and a dimensionless shear stress:
𝜏 𝜏
𝜔 𝜔 𝐷 𝑆 1 𝜔𝐷
(eq. 3-88)
where and (“γ” is used interchangeably with “”) are the kinematic viscosity and
specific weight of water, respectively, and D and s are the diameter and the specific weight
of the sediments. The specific gravity of the sediments is Ss = s /(Ss = 2.65 for sand).
F. 210-NEH-654, Chapter 8 (Threshold Channel Design), describes the origin and meaning
of the Shield’s diagram. This diagram, shown in figure 3-45, and based on the Reynolds
number and the dimensionless shear stress (equations 3-87 and 3-88), has been extensively
used for determining the threshold of sediment motion in open channel flow. For a given
flow, points above the Shields’s curve indicate sediment motion, whereas points below the
Shield’s curve would show no sediment motion.

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Figure 3-45: Shield’s diagram for determining the threshold of sediment motion in open
channel flow.

G. Example – Sediment motion threshold analysis using Shield’s diagram

(1) A rectangular channel of width b = 10 ft, with Manning’s n = 0.015, and laid on a
slope So = 0.005, flows at a normal depth do = 0.5 ft. Using Shield’s diagram,
-4
determine if the flow is able to move sediment of diameter D = 0.20 mm = 6.5610
ft. Use Ss = 2.65 as the specific gravity of the sediments, and = 1.21710 ft /s for
-5 2

the viscosity of water.

(2) Solution:
(i) The bed shear stress and the shear velocity are calculated as follows:
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 10 𝑓𝑡 0.5 𝑓𝑡 5 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 𝑏 2𝑑 10 𝑓𝑡 2 0.5 𝑓𝑡 11 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 𝐴⁄𝑃 5 𝑓𝑡 ⁄11 𝑓𝑡 0.4545 𝑓𝑡
𝜏 𝜔𝑅 𝑆 62.4 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 0.4545 𝑓𝑡 0.005 0.1418 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡

𝜏 𝑔𝜔𝑅 𝑆 𝑓𝑡
𝑣∗ 𝑔𝑅 𝑆 32.2 0.4545𝑓𝑡 0.005
𝜌 𝜔 𝑠
0.2705𝑓𝑡/𝑠
(ii) The parameters of the Shield’s diagram are calculated as follows:
𝑣∗ 𝐷 0.2705𝑓𝑡/𝑠 6.56𝑥10 𝑓𝑡
14.6
𝑣 1.217𝑥10 𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝑙𝑏
𝜏 0.1418
𝑓𝑡
2.1
𝑆 1 𝜔𝐷 62.4𝑙𝑏
2.65 1 6.56𝑥10 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡
(iii) The point (14.6, 2.1) in the Shield’s diagram is well above Shield’s curve;
therefore, sediment motion will occur for the flow specified above. Normally,
sediment motion is assured if the shear stress parameter is a factor of “2” above
the curve. And likewise, if the shear stress parameter is less than half of the curve
value, then sediment motion will not occur.

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H. More recent work indicates that Shield’s diagram does not account for the presence of
stream bed forms, the sporadic entrainment of sediment particles at low shear stress, or the
effects of non-uniform bed material. See 210-NEH-654.0804(b) to calculate a refined
allowable shear stress parameter.
I. Grass linings have been widely used to protect the erodible soil boundaries of waterways,
floodways, and reservoir auxiliary spillways. An effective stress design approach is provided
in the basic reference USDA Agriculture Handbook Number 667-Stability Design of Grass-
Lined Open Channels (AH667). Waterway Design Tool software has been developed to
design grassed waterways, following the procedures of AH 667. Refer to 210-NEH Part, 650,
Chapter 7, Grassed Waterways, for example designs of trapezoidal and parabolic-shaped
grassed waterways, using an extensive set of design tables. Also, refer to 210-NEH-654.0806
for more information and an example problem on the threshold design of a grass-lined
channel.

634.0322 Suspended Sediment Load

A. Once sediment particles are moving, the finest particles may be entrained in the flow and
kept in suspension by turbulent motions while being carried downstream by the bulk flow.
The sediment thus transported is known as the suspended sediment load.
B. The concentration C(y) of suspended sediment, in units of sediment mass per unit liquid
mass, can be calculated using the following equation:

𝐶 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 𝑎
𝐶 𝑑 𝑎 𝑦
(eq. 3-89)
where y is the distance from the channel bed, Ca is the concentration measured at a reference
level y = a close to the channel bed, d is the flow depth, and z is theoretical exponent of the
distribution equation given by:
𝑤
𝑧
𝛽𝑣∗
(eq. 3-90)

C. In this parameter, w is the settling velocity of the sediment particles, is the ratio of the
sediment transport coefficient to the turbulent kinematic viscosity in the flow, is von
Karman’s constant (related to the viscous stress model commonly used in open channel
flow), and v* is the shear velocity. The value of is close to 1.0 for fine sediments and
decreases as the particle size increases. Von Karman’s constant has been measured to be k =
0.40 in clear water, and lower for sediment-laden water (figure 3-46).

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Figure 3-46: Effects of suspended sediment on the von Karman universal constant after
Einstien and Chien (1955).

D. If we measure the concentration at the midpoint of the depth, i.e., Cmd = C(d/2), equation
3-89 can be written as follows (a = d/2):
𝐶 𝑦 𝑑 𝑦
𝐶 𝑦
(eq. 3-91)
E. The suspended sediment discharge Gss (mass per unit volume) in a rectangular channel of
width b, can be calculated by integrating the product C(y)v(y) over the depth of flow, with
v(y) being the flow velocity distribution in the vertical:

Gss  
A
C( y) v( y) dA  
A
C( y) v( y) b dy (eq. 3-92)

F. A typical velocity distribution in turbulent open channel flow is the logarithmic

distribution given by:
𝑣∗ 𝑦
𝑣 𝑦 𝑉 1 𝑙𝑛
 𝑑
(eq. 3-93)
where V is the mean flow velocity. The point near the channel bed where the velocity
becomes zero is located at a distance yo from the channel bed. The value of yo can be found
from the above equation by making v(yo) = 0, resulting in:

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𝑉
𝑦 𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝 1
𝑣∗
(eq. 3-94)
G. This value becomes the lower limit for the integral of equation 3-92, the upper limit being
the depth of flow d. The suspended sediment discharge per unit width can be calculated as:
𝐺 𝑑 𝑦 𝑣∗ 𝑦
𝑔 𝐶 𝑦 𝑣 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝐶 𝑉 1 𝑙𝑛 𝑑𝑦
𝑏 𝑦  𝑑
(eq. 3-95)
H. A dimensionless unit sediment discharge can be obtained by dividing gss by the product
qCmd, where q = Vd is the unit water discharge (or discharge per unit width). This
dimensionless unit sediment discharge can be written as:
𝑔 𝑣∗ 𝑣∗
𝑔∗ 1 𝐼 𝑧,  𝐼 𝑧, 
𝑞𝐶 𝑉 𝑉
(eq. 3-96)
where o = yo/d, and the integrals I1(z, o) and I2(z, o), are calculated as:
1 𝑧
1 
𝐼1 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑑
𝑜 
(eq. 3-97)
1 𝑧
1 
𝐼2 𝑧, 𝑜 ln  𝑑
𝑜 
(eq. 3-98)
Equation 3-97 and 3-98 can be approximated in Microsoft Excel or solutions for equations 3-
97 and 3-98 for various η and z values can be found in 634.0326 Exhibit A

I. Example – Suspended sediment discharge calculation

(1) Consider a rectangular stream of width b = 20 ft, laid on a slope So = 0.00025, with
Manning’s n = 0.025, flows at a normal depth do = d = 5.0 ft. The mid-depth
3
concentration is measured to be Cmd = 0.05 gm/lt =0.00312 lb/ft . The settling
velocity of the particles has been calculated to be w = 0.12 ft/s. Calculate the
suspended sediment discharge Gss, if the parameter = 0.88.
(2) Solution:
(i) Proceeding to calculate the mean velocity and shear velocity:
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 20 𝑓𝑡 5 𝑓𝑡 100 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 𝑏 2𝑑 20 𝑓𝑡 2 5 𝑓𝑡 30 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 𝐴⁄𝑃 100 𝑓𝑡 ⁄30 𝑓𝑡 3.33 𝑓𝑡
𝐶 1.486
𝑉 𝑅 𝑆 3.33 √0.00025 2.097𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑛 0.025
𝜏 𝑔𝜔𝑅 𝑆 𝑓𝑡
𝑣∗ 𝑔𝑅 𝑆 32.2 3.33𝑓𝑡 0.00025 0.1638 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠
𝜌 𝜔 𝑠

(ii) y0 of equation 3-94 is calculated with = 0.40 as:

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𝐾𝑉 0.40 2.097 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠

𝑦 𝑑 𝑒𝑥𝑝 1 5𝑓𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑝 1 0.01098 𝑓𝑡
𝑣∗ 0.1638 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠

while the lower limit of the integrals in equations 3-97 and 3-98 is:

0.01098𝑓𝑡
𝑛 𝑦 ⁄𝑑 0.0022
5𝑓𝑡
(iii) The parameter z from equation 3-90 is calculated with = 0.40 as follows:
𝑤 0.12𝑓𝑡/𝑠
𝑧 2.081
𝛽𝑣∗ 0.88 0.40 0.1638𝑓𝑡/𝑠
(iv) The integrals in equations 3-97 and 3-98 can be calculated by using numerical
integration in a spreadsheet, which calculates the integrals, I1 = 677.1623 and I2 =
-3553.72.
(v) The dimensionless unit suspended sediment discharge is calculated with equation
3-96:
0.1638 0.1638
𝑔∗ 1 677.1623 3553.72 115.45
0.40 2.097 0.4 2.097
(vi) The unit suspended sediment discharge is:
2.097 100 3.78𝑙𝑏
𝑔 𝑔∗ 𝑞𝐶 115.45 0.00312 /𝑓𝑡
20 𝑠
(vii) The suspended sediment discharge is:
𝐺 𝑔 20 75.58𝑙𝑏/𝑠

634.0323 Bed Sediment Load

A. Coarser sediment particles carried by a stream may move by rolling and saltation along
the bed of the channel constituting what is known as bed sediment load. Refer to 210-NEH
654, Chapter 9, for bed sediment load formulae and where to apply. Using the Meyer-Peter-
Muller formula due to its simplicity:

𝑆 𝑅 𝑆 𝑘
𝑔 8𝜔 𝑔𝐷 0.047 𝑆 1 
𝑆 1 𝐷 𝑘
  (eq. 3-99)
B. In this formula, gB is the bed sediment discharge (mass per unit time) per unit width of a
rectangular channel, is the specific weight of water, g is the acceleration of gravity, D =
D50 is the sediment particle diameter, Ss is the specific gravity of sediments (e.g., Ss = 2.65 for
sand), Rh is the hydraulic radius (which can be taken as Rh = d, the depth of flow, for a wide
channel), and So is the bed slope. The coefficients k and k’ are Stickler coefficients defined by
the following equations:
𝐶
𝑉 𝑘𝑅 𝑆 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
(eq. 3-100)

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𝐶
𝑉 𝑘𝑅 √𝑆 𝑅 √𝑆
𝑛
(eq. 3-101)
C. The first expression for V is Manning’s equation with the coefficient k accounting for the
overall channel resistance, namely, bed form resistance (e.g., dunes, bars) and grain friction
resistance. This velocity is defined in terms of the bed slope So. The second expression for V
is Manning’s equation with the coefficient k’ accounting only for the grain friction resistance.
This equation uses a slope S’ that corresponds to the grain friction resistance. Thus, S’ can be
defined as a grain-friction energy slope.
D. The ratio k/k’, that appears in the Meyer-Peter-Muller equation, can take values between
0.5 and 1.0, with k/k’ = 1.0 when no bed forms are present, and k/k’ = 0.5 when strong bed
forms are present. The coefficient k’ can be calculated, using metric units, as:
26𝑚 /𝑠
𝑘
𝐷
(eq. 3-102)
where D90 is the diameter of bed sediments for which 90% of the material is finer. In the
English system of units, the equation to use is:
38.63𝑓𝑡 /𝑠
𝑘
𝐷
(eq. 3-13)
E. Example – Bed sediment load rate calculation
(1) A rectangular stream of width b = 10 ft, laid on a slope So = 0.00025, with
Manning’s n = 0.025, flows at a normal depth do = d = 1.5 ft. The sediment particles
-3
specific gravity is Ss = 2.65, and the diameters D50 = D = 0.20 mm = 0.2010 m =
-4 -3
6.5610 ft, and D90 = 0.28 mm = 0.2810 m. Determine the bed sediment load
rate (lb/s) for this stream.
(2) Solution:
(i) The calculations proceed as follows:
𝐴 𝑏𝑑 10 𝑓𝑡 1.5 𝑓𝑡 1.5 𝑓𝑡
𝑃 𝑏 2𝑑 10 𝑓𝑡 2 1.5 𝑓𝑡 13 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 𝐴⁄𝑃 10 𝑓𝑡 ⁄13 𝑓𝑡 1.15 𝑓𝑡
26𝑚 /𝑠 26
𝑘 101.65
𝐷 0.28𝑥10
𝐶 1.486
𝑘 59.44
𝑛 0.025
𝑘
0.5847
𝑘

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𝑆 𝑅 𝑆 𝑘
𝑔 8𝜔 𝑔𝐷 0.047 𝑆 1 𝐾𝐾
𝑆 1 𝐷 𝑘

with K1 and K2 used only to aid computation

0.07644𝑙𝑏
𝑙𝑏 𝑓𝑡 2.65 𝑓𝑡
𝐾 8 62.4 32.2 6.56𝑥10 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 𝑠 1.65 𝑠

1.15𝑓𝑡
𝐾 0.5847 0.047 2.65 1 0.0407
6.56𝑥10
0.07644𝑙𝑏 0.0031𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
𝑔 𝐾𝐾 0.0407
𝑠 𝑠

(ii) For the width b = 10 ft, the bed sediment load rate is:
𝐺 𝑔 𝑏 0.0031 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠 10 𝑓𝑡 0.031 𝑙𝑏/𝑠

634.0324 Scour and Deposition in Channels

A. A channel in equilibrium, from the point of view of sediment transport, is one which is
not degrading (losing bed material) nor aggrading (gaining bed material). A decrease in the
sediment supply to the channel may cause degradation. For example, if a dam has been built
in a stream that typically carries sediment, the water downstream from the dam may contain
much less sediment than before and, most likely, would pick up local materials to make up
for the loss. On the other hand, an increase in the sediment supply to a channel may cause
aggradation as the channel may not be able to carry the additional supply. Refer to 210-NEH-
654-13, for additional information on local scour calculations.
B. Consider a degrading channel, of infinite length, as consequence of the building of a dam.
This situation is depicted in figure 3-47.

Figure 3-47: Channel bed degradation downstream of a dam due to reduction in sediment
supply.

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C. Let So be the slope of the original bed position and Sbe the slope of the final bed
position. The solution that describes the change in the bed elevation with respect to time t and
space x, measured from the dam foot, is given by (see Raudkivi (1976)):

𝐾𝑡 𝑥 𝑥
𝑧 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑆 𝑆 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑥 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝜋 4𝐾𝑡 2√𝐾𝑡
(eq. 3-104)
where K is a parameter defined in terms of an equation of flow (the Chezy equation) and the
sediment discharge expression (equation 3-107), and erfc is the complementary error function
defined as:


erfc 1 erf () 1  exp () d
0
 (eq. 3-105)
and erf is the error function (built in Microsoft Excel function).
D. The Chezy equation for the flow:

𝑉 𝐶 𝑑𝑆
(eq. 3-106)
where C is the Chezy coefficient, d is the flow depth (the equation is given for a wide
channel), and Sf is the energy slope (slope of the energy line).
E. The sediment discharge expression is given in terms of the flow velocity V as an empirical
equation:
𝑔 𝑎𝑉
(eq. 3-107)
where gs is the unit sediment discharge (sediment discharge per unit width), and a and b are
constant values. The parameter K in equation 3-104 is calculated as:

𝐶 𝑏𝑞𝑎 𝑔
𝐾
3 1 
(eq. 3-108)
where q = Vd is the water discharge per unit width, is the porosity of the bed sediments
(typical value, = 0.40), gs, a, and b are defined in equation 3-107, and C is the Chezy
coefficient (see equation 3-106). Porosity of soils or sediments is defined as the ratio of
the volume of voids in the material to the total volume (solids + voids).
F. Defining the amount of degradation about the dam as:

𝐾𝑡
𝑧 2 𝑆 𝑆
𝜋
(eq. 3-109)
G. With this definition, equation 3-104 can be written to give a dimensionless bed elevation:

𝑧 𝑥 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
exp 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
𝑧 4𝐾𝑡 2 𝐾𝑡 2√𝐾𝑡
(eq. 3-110)

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H. Defining the initial and final sediment supply as:

𝑔 𝐾 1  𝑆
(eq. 3-111)
and,
𝑔 𝐾 1  𝑆
(eq. 3-112)
I. The parameter zo can be written as:

2 𝑔 𝑔 𝑡
𝑧
1  𝜋𝐾
(eq. 3-113)
J. Notice that the solution provided by equation 3-104, applies equally to degradation
(gso>gs) or aggradation (gso<gs).
K. Example – Bed aggradation
(1) A laboratory flume is set at a slope So = 0.00356 and water flows at a uniform depth
do = 2 inches = 0.167 ft, and a velocity V = 1.31 ft/s. Sediment is supplied into the
flow at a rate gso = 1.59810 ft /s until the channel reaches equilibrium. The
-4 2
2
estimated value of the parameter K is K = 0.0748 ft /s, and the porosity of sediments
is = 0.40. Without changing any of the flow conditions, the sediment supply rate is
increased to gs= 7.9910 ft /s, so that the channel bed starts aggrading. (a)
-4 2

Compute the maximum amount of aggradation after t = 1 hr = 3600 s, and (b)

compute the amount of aggradation at a point x = 2.0 ft downstream of the point of
sediment injection, after t = 1 hr = 3600 s. Assume that the channel is of infinite
length.
(2) Solution;
(i) The maximum amount of aggradation at any given time occurs at position x = 0,
and is given by equation 3-113:

2 𝑔 𝑔 𝑡
𝑧
1  𝜋𝐾
𝑓𝑡 𝑓𝑡
2 7.99𝑥10 𝑠 1.598𝑥10 𝑠 3600𝑠
𝑧
1 0.4 𝑓𝑡
3.1416 0.0748 𝑠
0.2637𝑓𝑡 3.17 𝑖𝑛

(ii) To find the aggradation elevation for x = 2 ft and t = 3600 hr, use equation 3-
110:
𝑥 𝑥 𝜋 𝑥
𝑧 𝑧 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
4𝐾𝑡 2 𝐾𝑡 2√𝐾𝑡
(iii) The value of the function erfc may be found by using the built in ERFC
command in Excel. The argument of the function for this example is:

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𝑥 2.0𝑓𝑡
0.0609
2√𝐾𝑡 𝑓𝑡
2 0.0748 𝑠 3600𝑠
(iv) The spreadsheet gives erfc(0.0609) = 0.931367. The required aggradated
elevation is:

⎛ 2.0𝑓𝑡
𝑧 0.2637𝑓𝑡 ⎜𝑒𝑥𝑝
𝑓𝑡
4 0748 𝑠 3600𝑠
⎝

2𝑓𝑡 3.1416 ⎞
0.931367 ⎟
2 𝑓𝑡
0.0748 𝑠 3600𝑠
⎠
𝑧 0.2362𝑓𝑡 2.83𝑖𝑛
L. Example – Bed degradation downstream of dam
(1) The initial slope of a river channel is So = 0.0094. It is estimated that, after
construction of a dam, the resulting slope will be S= 0.0020. The parameter K is
2
estimated to be 10750 ft /day. The initial bed elevation at the dam site is zs = 1500 ft
above mean sea level. Compute the expected bed elevation at a number of points
along the stream channel after, (a) two months (60 days), and (b) 2 years (730 days)
of the construction of the dam.
(2) Solution:
(i) The elevation at the dam site for t = 60 days, is calculated as:

𝑓𝑡
10750 60𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑧 2 0.0020 0.0094 6.71𝑓𝑡
3.1416
(ii) And for t = 730 days, the elevation zo is calculated as:

𝑓𝑡
10750 730𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑧 2 0.0020 0.0094 23.39𝑓𝑡
3.1416
(iii) In the following table and plot, the degradation elevations z for t = 0, t = 60 day,
and t = 730 day, for a number of values of “x” are presented. The bed elevation
is calculated as follows:
𝐵𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝐵𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 0 𝑧 𝑥 𝑠 𝑥
(iv) The calculations and plot of the data were performed using a spreadsheet (figure
3-48 and 3-49).

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Figure 3-48: Expected bed elevation computations for bed degradation

downstream of dam.
t=0 Bed t=60 d Bed t= 730 d Bed
x/2(Kt)1/2 z/z0 x(ft) z(ft) elev (ft) z(ft) elev (ft) z(ft) elev (ft)
0.00 1.0000 0.00 0.00 1500.00 -6.71 1493.29 -23.39 1476.61
0.15 0.7565 240.94 0.00 1497.74 -5.08 1492.66 -17.69 1480.04
0.30 0.5569 481.87 0.00 1495.47 -3.74 1491.73 -13.03 1482.44
0.45 0.3983 722.81 0.00 1493.21 -2.67 1490.53 -9.32 1483.89
0.60 0.2764 963.74 0.00 1490.94 -1.85 1489.09 -6.46 1484.48
0.75 0.1858 1204.68 0.00 1488.68 -1.25 1487.43 -4.35 1484.33
0.90 0.1209 1445.61 0.00 1486.41 -0.81 1485.60 -2.83 1483.58
1.05 0.0760 1686.55 0.00 1484.15 -0.51 1483.64 -1.78 1482.37
1.20 0.0462 1927.48 0.00 1481.88 -0.31 1481.57 -1.08 1480.80
1.35 0.0271 2168.42 0.00 1479.62 -0.18 1479.44 -0.63 1478.98
1.50 0.0153 2409.35 0.00 1477.35 -0.10 1477.25 -0.36 1476.99
1.65 0.0083 2650.29 0.00 1475.09 -0.06 1475.03 -0.19 1474.89
1.80 0.0044 2891.22 0.00 1472.82 -0.03 1472.79 -0.10 1472.72

Figure 3-49: Expected bed elevation along stream channel downstream for bed
degradation downstream of dam.

M. In some instances, a control on the downstream end of a channel of length L may exist
such that the bed elevation at the downstream end remains constant even as the channel
aggrades or degrades. If the starting bed slope is So and the ending bed slope is S, the
elevation of the channel bed z(x,t) is given by the following equation (see Raudkivi (1976)):
8𝐿 𝑆 𝑆 1 j 𝜋 𝐾𝑡 j𝜋𝑥
𝑧 𝑥, 𝑡 S 𝐿 𝑥 exp cos
𝜋 j 4𝐿 2𝐿

(eq. 3-114)
The coefficient K is calculated as in equation 3-108.
N. Example – Bed degradation with constant downstream elevation
(1) This example uses the same data as in the previous example, i.e., So = 0.0094, S=
2
0.0020, and K = 10,750 ft /day; however, a control of constant elevation occurs at the
downstream end of a channel length L = 1.5 mi = 7920 ft. The initial bed elevation at
the dam site is zs = 1,500 ft. Compute the expected bed elevation at multiple points
along the river channel after, (a) two months (60 days), (b) 2 years (730 days), and
(c) 10 years (3650 days) of the construction of the dam. (Note: the value of S can be
estimated from the terrain geometry and selected to produce a channel with a mild
slope.)

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(2) Solution:
(i) The calculations and plot of the data, shown in figures 3-50 and 3-51, were
performed using a spreadsheet.
Figure 3-50: Expected bed elevation with a constant downstream elevation.
Time (d): 0 Bed 60 Bed 730 Bed 3650 Bed
x(ft) z(ft) elev (ft) z(ft) elev (ft) z(ft) elev (ft) z(ft) elev (ft)
0.0 74.45 1500 67.74 1493.29 51.06 1476.61 25.99 1451.54
500.0 69.75 1495.30 66.10 1491.66 49.87 1475.42 24.94 1450.49
1000.0 65.05 1490.60 63.30 1488.85 48.32 1473.87 23.79 1449.34
1500.0 60.35 1485.90 59.62 1485.17 46.40 1471.95 22.54 1448.10
2000.0 55.65 1481.20 55.38 1480.94 44.14 1469.69 21.20 1446.75
2500.0 50.95 1476.50 50.87 1476.42 41.55 1467.11 19.77 1445.32
3000.0 46.25 1471.80 46.23 1471.78 38.66 1464.22 18.25 1443.80
3500.0 41.55 1467.10 41.54 1467.10 35.49 1461.05 16.64 1442.19
4000.0 36.85 1462.40 36.85 1462.40 32.08 1457.63 14.96 1440.51
4500.0 32.15 1457.70 32.15 1457.70 28.44 1453.99 13.21 1438.76
5000.0 27.45 1453.00 27.45 1453.00 24.61 1450.16 11.39 1436.95
5500.0 22.75 1448.30 22.75 1448.30 20.63 1446.18 9.53 1435.08
6000.0 18.05 1443.60 18.05 1443.60 16.51 1442.06 7.61 1433.16
6500.0 13.35 1438.90 13.35 1438.90 12.29 1437.84 5.66 1431.21
7000.0 8.65 1434.20 8.65 1434.20 8.00 1433.55 3.68 1429.23
7500.0 3.95 1429.50 3.95 1429.50 3.66 1429.21 1.68 1427.24
7920.0 0.00 1425.55 0.00 1425.55 0.00 1425.55 0.00 1425.55

Figure 3-51: Expected bed elevation along stream channel with a constant
downstream elevation.
Bed elev. (ft)

634.0325 References

A. For references, see 210 NEH Part 634 Chapter 1, Section 634.0105, References.

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 Title 210 – National Engineering Handbook

634.0326 Exhibit A

Figure 3-52: Solutions for equations 3-97 and 3-98 for various η and z values.
1 1  𝑧 1 1  𝑧
Valves for the integrals 𝐼1 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑜
𝑑 and 𝐼2 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑜
ln  𝑑
 

z= 0.2 z= 0.4 z= 0.6 z= 0.8 z= 1.0 z= 1.2 z= 1.5 z= 2.0

η
I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2

1.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0.90 0.0477 0.0030 0.0275 0.0018 0.0159 0.0011 0.0092 0.0006 0.0054 0.0004 0.0031 0.0002 0.0014 0.0001 0.0004 0.0000

0.80 0.1182 0.0146 0.0773 0.0101 0.0511 0.0070 0.0342 0.0049 0.0231 0.0034 0.0158 0.0024 0.0091 0.0014 0.0037 0.0006

0.70 0.1984 0.0379 0.1417 0.0288 0.1029 0.0221 0.0759 0.0171 0.0567 0.0133 0.0428 0.0104 0.0287 0.0073 0.0152 0.0041

0.60 0.2868 0.0761 0.2198 0.0627 0.1720 0.0521 0.1370 0.0437 0.1108 0.0370 0.0908 0.0314 0.0687 0.0249 0.0450 0.0173

0.50 0.3829 0.1338 0.3121 0.1183 0.2608 0.1057 0.2225 0.0954 0.1932 0.0868 0.1701 0.0796 0.1438 0.0706 0.1137 0.0593

0.40 0.4870 0.2173 0.4206 0.2055 0.3739 0.1968 0.3405 0.1906 0.3163 0.1863 0.2987 0.1837 0.2812 0.1821 0.2675 0.1847

0.30 0.6003 0.3369 0.5490 0.3412 0.5195 0.3511 0.5058 0.3661 0.5040 0.3860 0.5120 0.4111 0.5399 0.4588 0.6257 0.5697

0.20 0.7251 0.5112 0.7049 0.5595 0.7144 0.6247 0.7497 0.7095 0.8096 0.8174 0.8952 0.9535 1.0791 1.2252 1.5831 1.9399

0.16 0.7793 0.6043 0.7783 0.6858 0.8140 0.7960 0.8847 0.9419 0.9927 1.1328 1.1437 1.3816 1.4719 1.9026 2.4269 3.3973

0.12 0.8368 0.7177 0.8612 0.8492 0.9333 1.0316 1.0566 1.2815 1.2404 1.6227 1.5008 2.0885 2.0905 3.1285 3.9754 6.4727

0.10 0.8672 0.7849 0.9074 0.9513 1.0035 1.1868 1.1633 1.5175 1.4027 1.9817 1.7476 2.6346 2.5535 4.1534 5.2975 9.4010

0.090 0.8829 0.8218 0.9320 1.0093 1.0422 1.2779 1.2241 1.6606 1.4981 2.2063 1.8974 2.9873 2.8481 4.8475 6.2079 11.5463

0.080 0.8990 0.8615 0.9579 1.0732 1.0838 1.3806 1.2910 1.8258 1.6059 2.4722 2.0708 3.4152 3.2022 5.7211 7.3712 14.4176

0.070 0.9155 0.9044 0.9852 1.1440 1.1290 1.4977 1.3658 2.0195 1.7294 2.7925 2.2751 3.9449 3.6366 6.8478 8.8999 18.3834

0.060 0.9326 0.9510 1.0143 1.2235 1.1786 1.6333 1.4503 2.2508 1.8735 3.1869 2.5210 4.6178 4.1844 8.3474 10.9826 24.0871

0.050 0.9502 1.0023 1.0455 1.3141 1.2338 1.7935 1.5478 2.5339 2.0459 3.6875 2.8256 5.5028 4.9006 10.4288 13.9615 32.7488

0.040 0.9687 1.0595 1.0795 1.4196 1.2964 1.9881 1.6633 2.8929 2.2590 4.3498 3.2188 6.7252 5.8864 13.4943 18.5257 46.9525

0.030 0.9881 1.1247 1.1173 1.5465 1.3698 2.2347 1.8061 3.3728 2.5367 5.2838 3.7592 8.5433 7.3539 18.4351 26.2960 73.1421

0.020 1.0089 1.2018 1.1607 1.7073 1.4605 2.5707 1.9954 4.0747 2.9323 6.7513 4.5860 11.6134 9.8557 27.7356 42.1801 132.3118

0.016 1.0179 1.2376 1.1806 1.7871 1.5047 2.7483 2.0938 4.4704 3.1514 7.6331 5.0744 13.5787 11.4804 34.2766 54.2390 180.8857

0.012 1.0272 1.2776 1.2025 1.8810 1.5562 2.9687 2.2147 4.9876 3.4351 8.8471 5.7402 16.4291 13.8761 44.5370 74.5069 267.7630

(210-634-H, 1st Edition, Feb 2022)

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 Title 210 – National Engineering Handbook

1 1  𝑧 1 1  𝑧
Valves for the integrals 𝐼1 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑜
𝑑 and 𝐼2 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑜
ln  𝑑
 

z= 0.2 z= 0.4 z= 0.6 z= 0.8 z= 1.0 z= 1.2 z= 1.5 z= 2.0

η
I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2

0.010 1.0321 1.2998 1.2146 1.9356 1.5860 3.1031 2.2880 5.3183 3.6154 9.6611 6.1840 18.4327 15.5902 52.2769 90.8117 341.4100

0.009 1.0347 1.3116 1.2210 1.9655 1.6023 3.1788 2.3292 5.5102 3.7198 10.1472 6.4485 19.6644 16.6567 57.2450 101.7131 392.1977

0.008 1.0373 1.3240 1.2278 1.9975 1.6196 3.2618 2.3742 5.7251 3.8366 10.7042 6.7511 21.1079 17.9193 63.2675 115.3676 457.3377

0.007 1.0399 1.3370 1.2348 2.0321 1.6384 3.3536 2.4241 5.9692 3.9691 11.3530 7.1034 22.8323 19.4459 70.7416 132.9589 543.4754

0.006 1.0427 1.3508 1.2423 2.0698 1.6589 3.4567 2.4801 6.2513 4.1223 12.1247 7.5224 24.9440 21.3427 80.3011 156.4616 661.9519

0.005 1.0455 1.3655 1.2503 2.1114 1.6815 3.5746 2.5441 6.5849 4.3036 13.0689 8.0356 27.6166 23.7869 93.0321 189.4329 833.7324

0.004 1.0484 1.3814 1.2590 2.1584 1.7071 3.7129 2.6195 6.9925 4.5257 14.2707 8.6905 31.1603 27.1032 110.9801 238.9927 1,102.0596

0.003 1.0515 1.3990 1.2686 2.2127 1.7369 3.8816 2.7119 7.5159 4.8124 15.8949 9.5803 36.2025 31.9705 138.5731 321.7753 1,571.6520

0.002 1.0549 1.4189 1.2796 2.2789 1.7735 4.1014 2.8336 8.2469 5.2170 18.3273 10.9265 44.3004 40.1514 187.8191 487.8170 2,572.3896

0.0016 1.0563 1.4278 1.2846 2.3106 1.7912 4.2137 2.8964 8.6447 5.4397 19.7364 11.7157 49.2937 45.4162 221.1363 612.3840 3,360.9573

0.0012 1.0578 1.4376 1.2902 2.3471 1.8119 4.3497 2.9735 9.1518 5.7270 21.6274 12.7871 56.3469 53.1362 271.9748 820.2014 4,730.2374

0.0010 1.0585 1.4429 1.2932 2.3679 1.8238 4.4310 3.0201 9.4694 5.9092 22.8688 13.4990 61.1996 58.6378 309.4848 986.5112 5,864.3757

0.0009 1.0589 1.4457 1.2948 2.3792 1.8303 4.4763 3.0463 9.6515 6.0144 23.6015 13.9224 64.1469 62.0541 333.2650 1,097.4123 6,636.3988

0.0008 1.0594 1.4487 1.2965 2.3911 1.8373 4.5255 3.0749 9.8539 6.1321 24.4337 14.4065 67.5704 66.0929 361.8304 1,236.0668 7,617.1267

0.0007 1.0598 1.4517 1.2983 2.4039 1.8448 4.5794 3.1065 10.0815 6.2655 25.3941 14.9693 71.6218 70.9697 396.9354 1,414.3737 8,900.7877

0.0006 1.0602 1.4549 1.3002 2.4177 1.8530 4.6395 3.1420 10.3421 6.4196 26.5251 15.6381 76.5321 77.0206 441.3646 1,652.1663 10,647.0220

0.0005 1.0607 1.4582 1.3022 2.4329 1.8620 4.7073 3.1826 10.6468 6.6018 27.8936 16.4563 82.6772 84.8075 499.8528 1,985.1504 13,148.5890

0.0004 1.0611 1.4618 1.3044 2.4497 1.8722 4.7860 3.2303 11.0147 6.8249 29.6138 17.4994 90.7225 95.3582 581.2478 2,484.7556 17,003.9207

0.0003 1.0616 1.4658 1.3068 2.4689 1.8841 4.8807 3.2887 11.4804 7.1125 31.9054 18.9149 102.0032 110.8224 704.5214 3,317.7499 23,647.1677

0.0002 1.0621 1.4701 1.3096 2.4919 1.8987 5.0019 3.3656 12.1195 7.5179 35.2767 21.0542 119.7975 136.7784 920.5318 4,985.4574 37,538.4129

0.00016 1.0624 1.4721 1.3108 2.5028 1.9058 5.0629 3.4054 12.4622 7.7410 37.2019 22.3074 130.6123 153.4673 1,064.5723 6,235.1397 48,326.9758

0.00012 1.0626 1.4742 1.3122 2.5152 1.9140 5.1361 3.4540 12.8946 8.0287 39.7575 24.0080 145.7235 177.9259 1,281.9569 8,318.4882 66,850.9219

0.00010 1.0627 1.4753 1.3130 2.5222 1.9187 5.1794 3.4835 13.1629 8.2110 41.4200 25.1375 156.0244 195.3493 1,440.8682 9,984.8668 82,051.6398

0.00009 1.0628 1.4759 1.3134 2.5260 1.9213 5.2034 3.5000 13.3160 8.3163 42.3959 25.8093 162.2471 206.1663 1,541.0714 11,095.7729 92,343.0209

0.00008 1.0629 1.4765 1.3138 2.5299 1.9241 5.2294 3.5180 13.4853 8.4341 43.4999 26.5772 169.4462 218.9530 1,660.9490 12,484.4373 105,362.8037

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 Title 210 – National Engineering Handbook

1 1  𝑧 1 1  𝑧
Valves for the integrals 𝐼1 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑜
𝑑 and 𝐼2 𝑧, 𝑜 𝑜
ln  𝑑
 

z= 0.2 z= 0.4 z= 0.6 z= 0.8 z= 1.0 z= 1.2 z= 1.5 z= 2.0

η
I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2 I1 I2

0.00007 1.0629 1.4771 1.3143 2.5342 1.9271 5.2578 3.5380 13.6750 8.5676 44.7684 27.4700 177.9280 234.3903 1,807.6188 14,269.9082 122,327.9054

0.00006 1.0630 1.4778 1.3148 2.5387 1.9304 5.2892 3.5604 13.8910 8.7218 46.2550 28.5307 188.1583 253.5418 1,992.3372 16,650.6082 145,292.3767

0.00005 1.0631 1.4785 1.3153 2.5437 1.9340 5.3245 3.5860 14.1424 8.9041 48.0439 29.8283 200.8911 278.1842 2,234.1710 19,983.7299 178,007.4815

0.00004 1.0631 1.4792 1.3158 2.5492 1.9380 5.3652 3.6161 14.4439 9.1272 50.2787 31.4821 217.4564 311.5687 2,568.5907 24,983.7980 228,104.8511

0.00003 1.0632 1.4800 1.3164 2.5554 1.9427 5.4138 3.6530 14.8227 9.4149 53.2334 33.7264 240.5094 360.4936 3,071.2520 33,318.9180 313,770.8998

0.00002 1.0633 1.4809 1.3171 2.5628 1.9486 5.4754 3.7016 15.3378 9.8205 57.5393 37.1179 276.5282 442.6008 3,943.6210 50,003.2921 491,161.2331

0.000016 1.0633 1.4813 1.3174 2.5663 1.9514 5.5062 3.7266 15.6118 10.0436 59.9786 39.1045 298.2461 495.3885 4,520.7751 62,504.1318 627,865.7651

0.000012 1.0634 1.4817 1.3178 2.5702 1.9547 5.5429 3.7573 15.9553 10.3313 63.1970 41.8002 328.4064 572.7479 5,386.4609 83,342.7949 861,134.0249

0.000010 1.0634 1.4819 1.3180 2.5724 1.9565 5.5645 3.7759 16.1674 10.5136 65.2794 43.5905 348.8567 627.8535 6,015.9424 100,009.8622 1,051,548.4705

(210-634-H, 1st Edition, Feb 2022)

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