Cohesion Overview

As part of linking ideas and techniques, students need to be aware

of and demonstrate a capacity to use various cohesive devices to
control and maintain relationships throughout the text. Cohesion in
texts includes the use of connectives and conjunctions and more
sophisticated texts effectively use a variety of referring words,
substitutions, word associations and text connectives to improve the
flow of the writing.

Although cohesion has many elements,for the purpose

of this document only connectives and conjunctions are
addressed in the activities.

Conjunctions and connectives are cohesive devices that operate

within and between sentences. Different types of conjunctions are used to
express different types of relationships between ideas.

For example:

Temporal Conjunctions (time – when)

As, after, as soon as, at first, at once, before, finally, just, meanwhile, next,
now, now that, since, then (this can be overused) until, when, whenever, while
Causal Conjunctions (reason – why)
Although, as a result, because, by, consequently, despite, due to, for that
reason, in case, in order, in this way, otherwise, since, so, so as to, so that,
therefore, though, thus, to that end, unless, until, yet
Connectives adding information (joining alike – more
of the same) and (can be overused), also, as well as, besides, in addition,
including, moreover, similarly
Connectives that contrast (separating – categorising
differences) Alternatively, but (can be overused), except, however, in
contrast, if not … then, instead of, on the other hand, or, whereas
Other connective devices
Prepositional phrases used at the beginning of sentences also connect
ideas in time and place.
From the top of the hill …, At the end of the day …, In the heart of the forest …

view and print

Connectives:
• Clarify – in other words
• Show cause and effect – so, therefore, as a result
• Indicate time – afterwards, later, soon, each morning, in the end
• Sequence ideas – firstly, to begin, at this point
• Add information – moreover
• Indicate condition and concession – in that case, however, despite this
Aspects of Grammar is a NSW DET publication which can give you more
information about connectives and conjunctions. It is available at:
http://www.schools.nsw.edu.
au/learning/7_12assessments/naplan/index.php under the ‘Related
Documents’ heading on the right-hand side of the screen.

1
Skill Focus: Using joining words to connect K–6
ideas STAGE 1 Outcomes
Strategies RS1.8: Identifies conjunctions and
understands they join clauses
Joint construction of sentences WS1.9: Combines ideas in
writing
Constructing sentences using a variety of joining words, sentences
and conjunctions enlarged on flashcards
Item & Stimulus
Activities to support the Writing task criterion 6 Cohesion

activity Guided
Exploring metalanguage and building deep knowledge
(QTF)

Revisit skills that have been practised in previous lessons by asking

students about the elements of a sentence. Language Conventions Year 3 Q:25

What types of words need to be in a simple sentence so that it makes

sense? What types of words can make sentences longer?
What type of words can we use to connect ideas in sentences?

Invite students to construct simple sentences and scribe them on the

board. Item Descriptor
Accurately using a range of cohesive devices including connectives, conjunctions and
Have students volunteer to underline the noun, the verb and where
appropriate the subject in the sample sentences.

Write a number of compound sentences. Show students Statements where two of Learning for Englis
Students have the opportunity to draw on their
independent ideas (clauses) are joined together. Highlight the conjunction knowledge of texts and language to us
that joins the ideas (clauses) together.

For example:

first main clause second main clause

Jill opened the map and studied it carefully.

first main clause second main clause

Ben went home and then he went out to play.

Explain that conjunctions are joining words that connect ideas

together. Sometimes the ideas can be separate (like the examples Other
above) while others need each other to make sense. links
http://
To revise the types of conjunctions as preparation for the lesson the
grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/
following website can be a helpful resource.
grammar/conjunctions.htm#
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm#ye yet
t

Write several sentences that use connectives or conjunctions. Cut the

sentences into separate words. The conjunctions and connectives
are either written in a different colour or written on a different
coloured piece of cardboard. For example:

Cameron is a brilliant dancer and Eliza is a great

singer. It was cold outside so I put on my jumper.
2
I am trying out for the soccer team but Jake decided not to.
I must eat all my dinner or I will not be able to go out to play.
I love running as fast as I can and then feeling how fast my heart is beating.
Frogs need to keep their skin moist so they can breathe.
Because it was so cold, I needed to put on my scarf and beanie.
Because it was raining, the boy opened the rainwater tank.

Exploring metalanguage (QTF)

Give a small group of students these conjunctions written on yellow card:

and so but because

As well as these give students two clauses on a current topic

written on blue cardboard.

Students
the boyread the clauses
opened the together. (blueitcardboard)
was Ask students to
take turns using
rainwater the conjunction cards toraining
tank join the two clauses. Allow
students to discuss alternatives, reading their attempts and conferring
with each other to determine whether the sentence makes sense. For
example:

it was raining so the boy opened the .

rainwater tank

becaus it was the boy opened the .

e raining rainwater tank

view and print

Ask students to tell you their reasons and help them to express what
they have done. In this example, the reason is:
The word so or because joins the two clauses by connecting the action
with the reason why the boy is opening the rainwater tank.

Independent
Exploring deep understanding (QTF)
In pre-determined groups (multi levelled, guided reading groups, specialist
groups) students construct a number of sentences from their guided
reading books or a class story using a variety of joining words.

3
Skill Focus: Using temporal connectives and The hunter was shooting at it wildly.
pronouns
STAGE 2 Supporting ESL Students
Strategy
Providing grids as scaffolds for students to identify types of
connectives and how ideas can be connected in reading and
writing

Using metalanguage support to assist students to draw on a

number of conjunctions and connectives

Temporal Conjunctions (time – when)

As, after, as soon as, at first, at once, before, finally, just, meanwhile, next,
now, now that, since, then (this can be overused), until, when, whenever,
while
Causal Conjunctions (reason – why)
Although, as a result, because, by, consequently, despite, due to, for that
reason, in case, in order, in this way, otherwise, since, so, so as to, so that,
therefore, though, thus, to that end, unless, until, yet
Connectives adding information (joining alike – more
of the same) and (can be overused), also, as well as, besides, in addition,
including, moreover, similarly
Connectives that contrast (separating – categorising
differences) Alternatively, but (can be overused), except, however, in
contrast, if not … then, instead of, on the other hand, or, whereas
Other connective devices
Prepositional phrases used at the beginning of sentences also connect
ideas in time and place.
From the top of the hill …, At the end of the day …, In the heart of the forest …

view and print

The scaffold (matrix) can be used for support as:

• an OHT
• an A3 sized proforma for small groups
• a white board resource
• an individual worksheet in the follow up component of the lesson.

Challenges for ESL students include:

• temporal connectives
• connectives
• noun/pronoun agreement
• varying noun and pronoun references in texts.

Activities to support the strategy

Modelled
Choose sentences that are relevant to the topic being

studied. For example:

The gorilla swung frantically from the trees.

4
 K–6 Outcomes
RS2.6: Identifies relationships in written sentences signalled by
conjunctions
RS2.8: Recognises cohesive links in a text
WS2.10: Combines clauses using a variety of conjunctions

ESL Scales
4:11:1: Writes a variety of texts demonstrating some cohesion and
coherence
5:11:3: Uses some cohesive phrases that link ideas expressed in preceding
sentences and paragraphs

Item & Stimulus

Writing task criterion 6 Cohesion

Language Conventions Year 3 Q: 30, 36, 43

Year 5 Q: 31
Reading Year 3 Q: 21
Year 5 Q: 9

Item Descriptor
Accurately using a range of cohesive devices including connectives, conjunctions and word associations

5
Teacher demonstrates possible ways of connecting the sentence.
Statements of Learning for English
Students have the opportunity to draw on their knowledge of texts an
Teacher thinks aloud as they use strategies to choose the
conjunction correct
devices connective.
to guide readers through a series of events
conjunctions to form
I want to connect these ideas in time order so I can use wordssentences
compound from the matrix like
when and while. I’ll try them and see which onepronouns
makes sense.
that agree with the words to which they are referring to for

Example one:

The gorilla swung frantically from the trees when the hunter was
shooting at it wildly.

The gorilla swung frantically from the trees while the hunter was
shooting at it wildly.

I like the connective while better as it best conveys the meaning I am trying to
get across to the reader.

How else can I use the connective while to join the ideas together?

While the gorilla was swinging frantically from the trees, the hunter was
shooting at it wildly.

Modelled (Controlled)
Exploring metalanguage (QTF)

Students brainstorm examples of connectives and place examples on

the grid into the categories:

Time, Place, Manner, Cause, Adding, Contrasting

Time Place Manne Cause Adding Contrasti

r ng
(when) (where) (how) (why) (joining (comparing)
alike)
after where as if although and alternatively
as soon wherever by as a result also but
as
at first like because as well as except for
at once likewise by besides however
before consequent in addition in contrast
ly
finally despite including if not … then
meanwhil in case moreover instead of
e
next in order that similarly on the
now in that case other
hand
now that in this way or
since otherwise whereas
then since
until so
when so as to
while so that
therefore
though
thus
view and print to that end
6
unless
yet

7
The teacher provides written examples of sentences that can be linked
by using a connective.

The teacher should practise one type of connective at a time, to

develop a deeper understanding of the connective before moving on
to another type.

As a class, students identify the connectives in the following text

from the 2008 NAPLAN reading assessment Year 3.

The story of Opo

Opononi, New Zealand, was a quiet little town by the
sea. Most of the men worked as fishermen. In the
summer of 1955, they noticed that a strange sea
animal was following their boats. At first the men
thought it must be a shark. But the animal came
closer and closer to the boats. Before long everyone
could see it was a dolphin. One of the fishermen
named her Opo – after the town.

At first Opo was shy, as many wild dolphins are. But

she was curious, too. Every day she swam closer to
the boats. Finally one of the fishermen reached out
as far as he could with his oar. He scratched Opo
with it.

She reared back in the water. But the oar must have felt
good, for soon Opo came closer than ever before. Then
she rolled over. The men had to laugh. Opo was plainly
saying, “Scratch my belly this time.”

A scientist came to look at Opo. He said Opo was a

young dolphin who had probably lost her mother. That
was why she was swimming alone. Opo might have
been an orphan, but she soon found a new family. The
whole town of Opononi adopted the friendly dolphin.

view and print

8
This example shows the temporal (time) connectives.

Opononi, New Zealand, was a quiet little town by the sea. Most of
the men worked as fishermen. In the summer of 1955, they noticed
that a strange sea animal was following their boats.At first the men
thought it must be a shark. But the animal came closer and closer
to the boats. Before long everyone could see it was a dolphin. One
of the fishermen named her Opo – after the town.

At first Opo was shy, as many wild dolphins are. But she was
curious too. Everyday she swam closer to the boats. Finally one of the
fishermen reached out as far as he could with his oar.

This activity could be repeated using other types of connectives.

Guided
Exploring deep knowledge (QTF)

Students are given word cards of connectives and must classify them
according to the categories on the grid.

Discuss the conjunctions before students classify them, asking questions such as:

What makes the conjunctions similar/different?

What conjunctions do we use more often? Why?
Which conjunctions do you know/not know?

Display the grid on sheets of A3 for each group of students.

In pairs or small groups, students complete a cloze activity which

requires them to add temporal connectives to a text. Students may refer
to the chart of possible temporal connectives.

, my best friend Barry was knocking on the

door. We had already discussed meeting at my house
before going surfing. I picked up my surfboard
we ran into the
water. We swam out we tried to catch a big wave. it
came, the one we were waiting for. I fell over

I tripped on a shell near the shore.

view and print

9
Independent
Exploring deep understanding (QTF)

Students are given a short narrative text with the connectives removed.
Students are required to rewrite the narrative adding effective
connectives.

The teacher chooses and copies the most effective student examples.
Students independently mark the connectives used and discuss their
effectiveness.

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Skill Focus: Using temporal connectives and K–6 Outcomes
conjunctions RS3.8: Recognises cohesive
STAGES 3–4 links in a text
WS3.10: Combines clauses
Strategies using a variety of
conjunctions
Providing grids as scaffolds to sort and identify

connectives Playing cooperative games to practise skills

and metalanguage
KLA Outcome
Science S4.4.16:
Accesses information
Activities to support the strategies from identified
secondary sources
Guided
Exploring metalanguage (QTF)
Item & Stimulus
Provide students with a short text containing a variety of conjunctions Writing task criterion 6 Cohesion
such as the sample below:

There are 4400 living species of amphibians. Frogs, toads, newts and salamanders
are all amphibians. Although many live mainly on land, most spend at least some of
their lives in water.

The largest amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander and it is 1.8metres long.

… Gradually the tail shortens until the young frog is able to begin to breathe with Language Conventions Year 5 Q: 31, 38
its head above the water.

There are 4400 living species of amphibians. Frogs, toads, newts and salamanders
are all amphibians. Although many live mainly on land, most spend at least some of
their lives in water. Item Descriptor
Accurately using a range of cohesive devices including connectives, con
The largest amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander and it is 1.8metres long.
Statements of Learning for Englis
… Gradually the tail shortens until the young Students
frog is ablehave
to begin
thetoopportunity
breathe with to draw on their knowledge of texts and l
its head above the water. use compound and complex
sentences to elaborate ideas
use time connectives and tense to locate characters or action in time.
view and print

Guide students as they deconstruct the text and

• identify and highlight the conjunctions and explain how the
conjunctions link ideas in the text
• identify and discuss where they appear in the sentences (such
as at the beginning, middle and end of sentences).

Activity one

Organise students into small groups and give them a series of single
sentences using different types of texts which use conjunctions
showing time order.

11
For example:
• group one – narrative
• group two – procedure
• group three – recount
• group four – instructions.
Provide each group with a set of picture cards showing a series of
events related to the type of text stimulus. Students sequence the events
using the picture card then write a caption saying what is happening or
match and sequence sentences that are provided for them.

Explain to students that ideas can be joined or connected using

joining words. Brainstorm a number of connectives as a whole

class.

Write the following categories on the board:

Time, Place, Manner, Cause, Adding and Contrasting

As students provide examples of joining words, record them under

the appropriate categories on the board.

Create sets of flashcards for different examples of connectives using the

following list:.
• Time: after, before, when, just as, while, as long as, since, until, every time
• Manner: as, by, through, with, as if, as though, like
• Cause: because, since, as, therefore, consequently, yet, as a result of, so as
• Condition: although, unless, if, otherwise, still, despite
• Concession: although, though, even though, even if
• Contrasting: as, as if, as though, so … that, on the other hand
• Sequential: firstly (secondly, thirdly etc), finally, then, when, next,
here, now, lastly, meanwhile.
After students’ suggestions have been exhausted provide further
examples of connectives to build the word bank. Give the words to
students and together decide what category they belong to.

Modelled
Model how to connect the sentences from one group into a cohesive
text (using some examples from the group work) such as using
temporal conjunctions when, before, while, after, since and until.

Independent
Activity one

Ask students to return to their groups and use the conjunction

word bank to join sentences together.
Activity two

Exploring deep knowledge (QTF)

Ask students to give examples of joining words and the types of

joining words that can be used to connect ideas in sentences.

The teacher asks the students to clarify the role of joining words in sentences.

12
Discuss joining words that are relative to other events (connectives)
by asking probing questions, for example:

What words can you see that connect ideas together in the
passage? How do they separate the clauses?
What effect does this have on reading and understanding the ideas in the text?

Ask students:

What problems would it cause if we didn’t use joining words to connect three or four
different ideas in one sentence?

Direct students to record clauses of their school day on cards and put
them in order.

Example cards:

we We
When after before s I
when until
have do
o play

scho the we go We will I lunch

ol bell to be have time
begin rings lunch. alert. eate ends
s . n

Activity three
Conjunction bingo gives students practise reading and saying
conjunctions. In small groups, each student is given a laminated bingo
card with five sentences on it. Each sentence is missing a conjunction.
The game leader for each group pulls conjunctions out of a bag one at a
time. If the conjunction that is called out fits into a gap in a sentence on
their card, students write it into the appropriate sentence.The first student
to have all five sentences complete calls out ‘Bingo’.

Modelled
Explain to students that when a sentence gives a reason for an event
or action a causal conjunction such as because is used. When a
sentence explains the result of an action or an event, a conjunction such
as so, therefore, as a result or consequently is used.

Guided
Exploring metalanguage (QTF)

Ask students to orally complete sentence beginnings, for example:

It was raining so …
I tripped over because …
Because it was nearly lunchtime we …
The dam was nearly empty so …

Students must decide if the relationship is cause or effect and combine

sentences with the appropriate conjunction. For example:

The sheep’s wool was very long so the farmer sheared the sheep.
Because the sheep’s wool was very long, the farmer sheared it.

13
The teacher writes a series of conjunction-related tasks/statements on
a series of cards.

Cards may include the following:

A conjunction indicating how whenev

view and print er

A conjunction indicating reason becaus

Students randomly pick a card from the series. They read thee card and
then write an appropriate conjunction linked to that category. They may
A conjunction
pass if they that
cannot think of expressesa student has five
a word.When before
words,
check their answers.The conjunctions are used as a resource to be
displayed in books or on the wall in the classroom.
A conjunction that you use to li
k
Independent
A conjunction indicating place where
Students deconstruct (analyse) a passage in a text identifying
connectives and conjunctions such as those shown in the following
example.

14
view and print

15
Skill Focus: Developing facility with different Y
o
types of clause relationships u

STAGE 4 a
r
Strategy e
Modelling strategies by thinking aloud the steps when deconstructing e
texts to assist students to understand the skill involved for tasks x
t
Some students with language learning difficulty may not
r
understand some clause relationships. Students benefit from a e
planned program that is explicit and systematic with numerous m
opportunities for practice.This means that there needs to be explicit e
modelling by thinking aloud the steps in the strategy and using the l
metalanguage to work through the strategy. y
Students are involved in deconstructing controlled passages to unpack
t
how the words work in the sentence. Beyond the introduction of
h
definitions, students need to be provided with problem solving
i
activities to identify these concepts in contextual learning
r
activities.
s
t
Activities to support the y
.
strategy Modelled
H
Exploring deep knowledge (QTF) a
v
Identifying students’ prior knowledge will allow the teacher to e
maximise the capacity of students to follow explicit
deconstructions. a

Identify some conjunctions and ask questions such as: d

r
Why are these words needed when we read and write i
n
texts? What types of texts have you read them in? k
.
Point out that the conjunction may be the first word in the sentence, or the
main clause may come first with the conjunction introducing the T
second clause. See sentence structure for more information on a
clauses. i
r
The teacher models the correct structure. n
e
Guided
p
Developing metalanguage (QTF) l
Activity one a
y
The students consolidate their understanding of conjunctions s

of time. The teacher writes sentences on the board such t

h
as: e

Bring the water to the boil. Pour boiling water into a cup. d
Go to sports training. Get dressed. r
16
ums. He sings the song.
You play soccer for two hours. Put on sunscreen. KLA Outcomes
English 4.2.2: Students
learn to create and ensure
coherence of medium, form
and content through
specific language
conventions and
vocabulary
appropriate to particular
subject matter or contexts
English 4.4.8: Students learn
about the ways in which
specific language forms and
features
and structures of texts are
used to shape meaning
including,
in written texts, medium,
organisation, sentence
structures, grammar,
punctuation, vocabulary and
spelling.

Item & Stimulus

Writing task criterion 6 Cohesion

Item Descriptor
Accurately using a range of cohesive devices including connectives, conjunctions and word associations

Statements of Learning for Englis

Students draw on their knowledge of texts and language to clarify meaning.They know that cohesive devices

17
The teacher asks students for alternative ways of combining these
sentences using a time conjunction. The teacher points out that some
words may need to be changed when the order of clauses is changed.
Give students the opportunity to try variations, read, say and write
them.

Download the following example onto an OHT and ask students to

identify the time conjunctions.

From Blackberry Picking, NAPLAN, reading 2008

view and print

Activity two

The students consolidate their understanding of conjunctions

using place. Examples: where, wherever

Students identify all conjunctions then highlight the conjunctions showing

‘place’. From The double life of a slippery axolotl, NAPLAN, reading, 2008

Excerpt: Well the lakes in Mexico where axolotls are found surrounded by barren,
dry country which is an unsuitable environment for amphibians like salamanders to
live in.

18
Activity three

The students consolidate their understanding of conjunctions using

manner. Examples: as, as though, as if, like.

The clauses of manner are likely to be a little more difficult for some students.

Excerpt: Well the lakes in Mexico where axolotls are found surrounded by barren,
dry country which is an unsuitable environment for amphibians like salamanders to
live in.

Condition conjunctions are likely to prove difficult for students with

language learning difficulty. Check whether the following examples
are understood.

Examples: if, unless, in case

Excerpt: If an axolotl is taken out of the water it will probably die. But if its lake or
pond slowly dries up it may metamorphose into a salamander.

From The double life of a slippery axolotl, NAPLAN, reading 2008

Modelled
Model the first one or two cause conjunctions on an interactive
whiteboard or overhead transparency, then ask students to complete
one or two examples in pairs and the rest of the examples
individually.

The teacher points out that some words may need to be changed
when the order of clauses is changed.

19
 Conjunctions
Task one: Join the two sentences using a different
causal conjunction for each example.

It was very hot. Jenny turned the air conditioning on.

She wanted to get her driver’s licence. She did the

driving test. He got out of the pool. He was getting cold.

The class was behaving very well.The teacher played a quiz

game. She wanted to see clearly. Her father sat her on his

shoulders.

Task two: Complete these sentences.

Water in a black container heats up fast,

because … She kept on running, in order to …

She drank water instead of buying a drink,

since … Mum kept making pancakes, so that

The mother put the baby to bed, as …

Task three: Add a main clause to these sentences.

In order for the cricketer to make 100 runs, his batting

partner … Since a tall person is easily seen, Bob …

As you have been so patient, I will …

Because cockroaches are attracted to food, we should …

So that everyone gets to eat their favourite food, we should …

I
view and print

Guided
Guide students through the first few examples in the worksheet
provided below before providing time for them to complete
independently.

Analyse students’ responses as a class and encourage them to

justify their decisions.

20
Task one: Underline the clause that starts with the
condition conjunction.

If seeds are not planted correctly, the plant will not be able to grow

properly. A reef is called a barrier reef if it parallels the coast.

Take a fleece in case it’s windy and cold on top of the

mountain. You cannot get into the performance unless you

have a ticket. We can leave at noon if we have the car all

packed.

The train leaves at 3.37 and arrives at 4.15, unless there is track work

that day. If it’s sunny and warm tomorrow, we’ll go to the beach.

If the sun is used to heat our water, we produce less

greenhouse gas. Some cities will run out of water unless

everyone uses less water.

In case we find fossils in the rocks, take a backpack to carry them home.

Task two: Combine the two sentences using the

connectives if, unless, in case. You will need to
change some words.

There may be a storm while we are out.We should close the

windows. Take your swimmers.The river may be deep enough

for swimming.

You can’t drive a car.You do not have a licence.

You add up the cost of the things you bought.You will know how much
you will have to pay.

The goal is not counted. One of the attacking team is

offside. I wouldn’t miss watching you in the race. I was

in hospital.

Task three: Complete these sentences.

Unless you clean your teeth

daily, … If dogs are well-trained,

As there are lots of people

waiting, … We will be late, unless

21
 Grab an umbrella, in case …

view and print

22
Independent
Exploring deep understanding (QTF)

In small groups of five students make up a list of conjunctions and

categorise them into:

Time, Place, Manner, Cause, Adding and Contrasting

Students then break up into specialist groups according to the

categories above with identified roles (for example, recorder, speaker
and leader). Specialised groups return to main groups to share the
other types of conjunctions listed and used in sentences. Students are
provided with a controlled text that does not have any conjunctions.
Students independently edit the text, adding at least one of each type
of conjunction.

Provide examples from studied texts where students can deconstruct

passages and unpack the words used to connect information.

It is important for students to identify:

• the purpose of the text
• the intent of the author
• the targeted audience.

23