4 Gender-based Violence

Meeting the Challenge to

End Gender-based Violence
Tina ]ohnson

Violence against women is an obstacle to the achievement of Gender-based

the objectives of equality, development and peace. Violence
violence is
against women both violates and impairs or nullifies the enjoy-
ment by women of their human rights and fundamental free- violence that is
doms. The long-standing failure to protect and promote those directed at
rights and freedoms i n the case of violence against women is a
matter of concern to all States and should be addressed.
individuals on
(United Nations, 1995: para. 112) the basis of their
gender, with
Conceptual Framework women and girls
making up the
Gender-based violence: an overview
vast majority of
Gender-based violence is violence that is directed at i n d i v i d u -
als o n the basis of their gender, w i t h w o m e n and girls m a k i n g
victims (though
up the vast majority of victims (though boys and m e n c a n also boys and men
be the target). It is indiscriminate, cutting across racial, ethnic, can also be the
class, age, economic, religious and cultural divides. G e n d e r -
target). It is
based violence takes place throughout society: i n the h o m e , i n
the c o m m u n i t y and i n state institutions (including prisons, indiscriminate,
police stations and hospitals). It can be grouped into five m a i n , cutting across
though not exclusive, categories: racial, ethnic,
1 Sexual violence - e.g. rape, incest, forced prostitution and class, age,
sexual harassment;
economic,
2 Physical violence - e.g. wife battering and assault, 'honour' religious and
killings, female infanticide, c h i l d assault by teachers and gay
cultural divides.
bashing;

3 E m o t i o n a l and psychological violence - e.g. threats of v i o l -

ence, insults and name calling, h u m i l i a t i o n i n front of
others, b l a c k m a i l and the threat of abandonment;

4 Harmful traditional practices - e.g. female genital mutilation,

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GENDER AND H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

denial of certain foods and forced and/or early marriage;

5 Socio-economic violence - e.g. discriminatory access to

basic h e a l t h care, low levels of literacy and educational
attainment, inadequate shelter and food, economic depriva-
t i o n , armed conflict and acts of terrorism.

V i o l e n c e against w o m e n "is a manifestation of historically

unequal power relations between m e n and w o m e n , w h i c h have
led to d o m i n a t i o n over and discrimination against w o m e n by
m e n and to the prevention of the full advancement of
w o m e n , " and is "one of the crucial social mechanisms by
w h i c h w o m e n are forced i n t o a subordinate position compared
w i t h m e n " ( U n i t e d N a t i o n s , 1993). Women's lack of social
and economic power, accepted gender roles and the low value
put o n women's work perpetuate and reinforce this subordinate
position. Early marriage, inheritance of widows and male c o n -
trol of property encourage female dependency, particularly i n
regions w i t h h i g h under- and unemployment of w o m e n and
poor access to social welfare services, and l i m i t women's ability
to escape violent situations.

Intimate partner violence

T h e most widespread form of gender-based violence is physical
abuse of a w o m a n by a present or former intimate male partner.
T h i r t y - f i v e studies from a wide variety of countries show that,
i n many of them, one-quarter to more than half of w o m e n
report such abuse (Heise et a l , 1994)- Forty per cent of a l l
female h o m i c i d e victims are k i l l e d by their intimate partners
i n the U K ; w h i l e every year thousands of w o m e n suffer dowry-
related deaths or are disfigured by acid t h r o w n i n their faces by
rejected suitors i n Bangladesh, India, N i g e r i a or Pakistan
( U N I F E M , 2003). There is also considerable overlap between
physical, emotional and sexual violence. Sexual abuse or rape
by a n intimate partner is experienced by between 12 and 25
per cent of w o m e n at some time i n their lives ( W H O , 2000).
T h i s is not considered a crime i n most countries, since it is
assumed that a marriage contract provides a husband w i t h the
right to sex w i t h his wife whenever he chooses ( U N I C E F ,
2000).

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Violence against girls A growing

A growing number of studies, particularly from sub-Saharan number of studies,
A f r i c a , indicate that girls' first sexual experience is often
particularly from
unwanted and frequently forced ( G a r c i a - M o r e n o and Watts,
2000). Research has shown that 3 6 - 6 2 per cent of a l l sexual sub-Saharan
assault victims are aged 15 or less ( W H O , 1997). I n addition, Africa, indicate
cross-cultural data from rape crisis centres reveal that 4 0 - 5 8
that girls' first
per cent of the sexual assault cases they deal w i t h i n v o l v e girls
aged 15 a n d under, i n c l u d i n g girls younger t h a n 10 or 11 sexual experience
(Heise et a l , 1994). In fact, the younger a girl is at first sexual is often
intercourse, the more likely that sex is forced. T h e abusers are unwanted and
frequently male relatives, family friends or other m e n i n influ-
frequently forced.
ential positions, such as teachers.

Harmful traditional practices

It is estimated that some 130 m i l l i o n w o m e n a n d girls, m a i n l y
i n A f r i c a , the M i d d l e East and A s i a , have undergone some
form o f F G M , w h i c h has b o t h immediate a n d long-term nega-
tive h e a l t h a n d psychological effects ( U N F P A , 1999). Early
marriage also exposes girls to physical v i o l a t i o n a n d trauma, as
well as greater h e a l t h risks during pregnancy a n d c h i l d b i r t h .

Sex work and trafficking in women and girls

W o m e n often take up sex work because they have n o other
way of supporting themselves or their c h i l d r e n , or their entry
into sex work may itself be as a result of violence. T h e y are
t h e n at risk of further physical violence a n d rape, especially
where this work is against the law, as the police may assault
instead of protecting them. I n a survey of prostitutes i n Bangla-
desh, for example, 83 per cent h a d been raped a n d 91 per cent
had been beaten by the police ( W H O , 1997). I n addition, traf-
f i c k i n g is n o w among the fastest growing c r i m i n a l activities
worldwide and w i t h i n countries (Sauerbrey, 2002). T h e Inter-
national Organisation for M i g r a t i o n estimates that 700,000
women are transported, mostly involuntarily, across inter-
national borders each year for the sex trade (Binder, 2002). Two
m i l l i o n girls between the ages of five a n d 15 are introduced
into the commercial sex market each year ( U N F P A , 2000).

Violence against women in armed conflict

In situations of armed conflict, currently experienced i n some
30 countries, w o m e n a n d girls are often systematically targeted

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Gender-based for abuse, and rape and sexual assault are widespread. Rape has
been used as a deliberate weapon of war i n many conflicts,
violence adversely
including i n C e n t r a l A f r i c a and the Balkans. W o m e n a n d girls
affects victims, make up 75 per cent of the world's 22 m i l l i o n refugees, asylum
family members, seekers or internally displaced persons, putting t h e m at partic-
ular risk of gender-based violence.
perpetrators,
communities Gender-based violence and HIV/AIDS
and nations Gender-based violence and H I V / A I D S are intersecting epi-
demics. Women's relative lack of control over their sexual lives
on profound
and methods of preventing H I V and other sexually transmit-
emotional, ted infections due to violence or fear of it is one of the m a i n
physical, factors b e h i n d the spread of A I D S (Johnson, 2002). T h i s lack
of control is experienced not only by w o m e n w h o are sexually
psychological and
assaulted, but also by those i n relationships where they are
economic levels. unable to negotiate c o n d o m use w i t h their partners. V i o l e n c e
b o t h exposes w o m e n to H I V infection and limits their ability
to participate i n and benefit from H I V / A I D S prevention
methods and treatment.

Consequences of gender-based violence

Gender-based violence adversely affects victims, family m e m -
bers, perpetrators, communities and nations o n profound emo-
tional, physical, psychological and economic levels. It
accounts for more death and i l l health among w o m e n aged
15-44 worldwide than cancer, obstructed labour, heart disease,
respiratory infections, traffic accidents or even war ( W o r l d
B a n k , 1993).
Some of the consequences of gender-based violence are
feelings of hopelessness and isolation, guilt and depression, or
suicide. T h e more severe or longer term the abuse and v i o -
lence, the greater the impact o n women's autonomy, sense of
w o r t h and ability to care for themselves and their c h i l d r e n . In
concrete terms, it may lead to bruises, cuts, broken bones or
limbs, unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections
(including H I V / A I D S ) , permanent disabilities or death. Rape
and domestic violence are major causes of disability and death
among w o m e n of reproductive age i n both developed and
developing countries. In the latter, it is estimated that gender-
based violence accounts for 5 per cent of the healthy years of

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life lost to w o m e n of reproductive age ( W o r l d Bank, 1993).

V i c t i m s may also suffer from a loss of h u m a n potential and
wages, resulting i n personal economic hardship and depressed
overall development. V i o l e n c e - and the threat of violence -
reduces women's and girl's opportunities for work, their m o b i l -
ity and their participation i n education and training, c o m m u -
nity activities and wider social networks. I n addition, there are
direct economic costs to the country as a w h o l e . For example,
the direct annual cost of violence against w o m e n i n C a n a d a
has been estimated at C a n a d i a n $684 m i l l i o n i n the c r i m i n a l
justice system and $187 m i l l i o n for police. C o u n s e l l i n g and
training i n response to violence is an additional $294 m i l l i o n ,
m a k i n g a total of over C a n a d i a n $1 b i l l i o n a year (Buvenic et
al, 1999). T h e G o v e r n o r of the Reserve B a n k of F i j i Islands
estimated the costs to that country to be $300 m i l l i o n , or 7 per
cent of the gross domestic product ( G D P ) .

Gender-based violence on the international agenda

T h e 1989 C o n v e n t i o n o n the E l i m i n a t i o n of A l l Forms of
D i s c r i m i n a t i o n against W o m e n does not refer specifically to
gender-based violence. However, lobbying and advocacy work
undertaken primarily by women's N G O s have led to increasing
international understanding of this as a h u m a n rights issue. I n
1992, the C E D A W C o m m i t t e e adopted G e n e r a l R e c o m m e n d -
a t i o n 19, w h i c h identifies gender-based violence as a form of
discrimination against women that seriously inhibits their ability
to enjoy rights and freedoms o n a basis of equality w i t h m e n .
A t the 1993 U N Conference o n H u m a n Rights i n V i e n n a ,
governments signalled their recognition that this was a n
urgent issue to be addressed by c a l l i n g for the drafting of the
UN Declaration o n the E l i m i n a t i o n of V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t
W o m e n , adopted unanimously by the G e n e r a l Assembly i n
December of the same year. V i o l e n c e against w o m e n was one
of the C r i t i c a l Areas of C o n c e r n of the B e i j i n g Platform for
A c t i o n , the document agreed to by governments at the U N
F o u r t h W o r l d Conference o n W o m e n i n 1995. T h i s outlines
three strategic objectives: to take integrated measures to pre-
vent and eliminate violence against w o m e n ; to study the
causes and consequences of violence against w o m e n and the
effectiveness of preventive measures; and to eliminate traffick-

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GENDER A N D H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

Commonwealth ing i n w o m e n and assist victims of violence due to prostitution

and trafficking.
governments...
C o m m o n w e a l t h governments further agreed i n the 1995
agreed in the C o m m o n w e a l t h P l a n of A c t i o n o n G e n d e r and Development
1995 Common- that women's h u m a n rights and the e l i m i n a t i o n of violence
against w o m e n , the protection of the girl c h i l d and the out-
wealth Plan of
lawing of a l l forms of trafficking i n w o m e n and girls would be
Action on Gender priority areas for action. E l i m i n a t i n g gender-based violence is
and Development also integral to the achievement of the M i l l e n n i u m D e v e l o p -

that women's ment G o a l s adopted by 189 governments across the world i n

September 2000, and formally endorsed by C o m m o n w e a l t h
human rights and
Heads of G o v e r n m e n t i n the C o o l u m Declaration of 5 M a r c h
the elimination of 2002.
violence against
women, the Overview of Achievements
protection of the
A s noted above, the international community, regional bodies
girl child and and n a t i o n a l governments have i n recent years affirmed their
the outlawing c o m m i t m e n t to e l i m i n a t i n g gender-based violence. It has been
recognised as a h u m a n rights issue and as essential for the
of all forms of
empowerment of w o m e n and for poverty eradication and equi-
trafficking in table, sustainable development. Significant efforts have been
women and girls made to update legal frameworks and initiate law reforms. A
number of countries have adopted integrated approaches to
would be priority
tackle gender-based violence, and there are numerous exam-
areas for action. ples of good practice i n areas such as regional co-operation,
public education and gender-awareness training for the police
and judiciary.

Legislative changes
Substantial progress has been made to develop and put i n place
laws that address family violence and abuse, rape, sexual
assault, F G M , trafficking and other gender-based violence.
U N I F E M (2003) reports that at least 46 nations n o w have laws
that explicitly prohibit domestic violence and 13 more are
drafting new laws to do so, w h i l e i n many others c r i m i n a l
assault laws have been amended to cover domestic violence.
M a r i t a l rape is n o w recognised as a crime i n 45 countries.
In the C a r i b b e a n , the C o m m o n w e a l t h Secretariat and the

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Caribbean C o m m u n i t y ( C A R I C O M ) Secretariat have collab-

orated o n the development of m o d e l legislation o n women's
h u m a n rights. T h e legislation covers eight areas: domestic v i o l -
ence, sexual offences, sexual harassment, equal pay, inheritance,
citizenship, equality for w o m e n i n employment and mainte-
nance. N a t i o n a l governments i n nine C a r i b b e a n countries
have used the model legislation to introduce new legislation
and/or revise existing laws. G u y a n a , Jamaica and St L u c i a , for
example, have enacted new domestic violence legislation. T h e
Domestic V i o l e n c e A c t (1999) of T r i n i d a d and Tobago widens
the d e f i n i t i o n of 'domestic abuse' found i n the 1991 A c t to
include psychological, emotional and f i n a n c i a l abuse, as w e l l
as physical and sexual abuse. It also recognises that many cou-
ples i n the country are part of V i s i t i n g ' or 'cohabitating' rela-
tionships rather t h a n being married, a n d gives the police
greater powers to take the perpetrators of violence into custody.
I n A s i a , under Malaysia's Domestic V i o l e n c e A c t (1994),
domestic violence is attached to the Penal C o d e under defini-
tions and procedures for hurt, c r i m i n a l force and assault. T h i s
enables it to be classified as ' c r i m i n a l behaviour' under federal
jurisdiction (rather t h a n c o m i n g under the Sharia jurisdiction
of the states) and ensures its applicability to a l l Malaysians. A
recently-added section i n the Indian Evidence A c t (section
1 1 4 A ) makes it an offence for persons i n a custodian role
(policemen, public servants, managers of p u b l i c hospitals and
remand homes and wardens of jails) to have sex w i t h people
for w h o m they are responsible.
I n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , Mauritius, N a m i b i a , Seychelles a n d
S o u t h A f r i c a have passed legislation to deal specifically w i t h
domestic violence. U n d e r the Protection from Domestic
V i o l e n c e A c t , passed i n M a u r i t i u s i n 1997, for example,
victims may report cases of domestic violence to enforcement
officers w h o provide a range of services f r o m transport to h e l p
w i t h preparing an affidavit for presentation to a magistrate.
T h e magistrate can issue a n i n t e r i m occupation or protection
order to protect the v i c t i m w h i l e the case is being heard.
Botswana, Seychelles and Tanzania have each amended their
laws to allow evidence to be g i v e n in camera, to w i d e n the def-
i n i t i o n of rape, to deny bail to persons charged w i t h rape and
to provide for stiffer sentences for convicted rapists. M a l a w i
and Tanzania have amended their penal codes to address the

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National plans of issue of people r u n n i n g businesses for prostitution and/or trans-

porting or trafficking w o m e n for the purposes of prostitution.
action to tackle
In a landmark judgement i n 1999, the H i g h C o u r t of M a l a w i
violence against ruled that arresting a w o m a n for prostitution but leaving her
women have male partner free was discriminatory and unconstitutional.
Mauritius has adopted provisions for severe penalties for traf-
been instituted in
ficking i n c h i l d r e n .
many countries. I n the Pacific, the c r i m i n a l code i n Papua N e w G u i n e a has
been amended to include domestic violence as a c r i m i n a l
offence, and the Enticement A c t and A d u l t e r y A c t have also
been amended. Legislation o n sexual violence has also been
passed and a n amendment made to the Evidence A c t to make
it easier for victims of sexual violence to testify and to w i n
justice.

Government policies

National plans and systems

N a t i o n a l plans of action to tackle violence against w o m e n
have been instituted i n many countries. In East and Southern
A f r i c a , these plans were developed at national workshops o n
gender-based violence h e l d i n ten countries. T h e p l a n of action
that emerged from the Mauritius workshop, for example, later
endorsed by C a b i n e t , committed government and non-gov-
ernmental stakeholders to undertake concrete legislation, serv-
ices and preventative programmes to assist victims i n a co-
ordinated and efficient manner, and to sensitise the public o n
the law and procedures for its use.
T h e N a t i o n a l Family V i o l e n c e N e t w o r k i n g System was
developed i n Singapore i n 1996 to integrate the management
of family violence. T h i s system links police, prisons, hospitals,
social service agencies, the courts, prisons and the M i n i s t r y of
C o m m u n i t y Development and Sports ( M C D S ) i n a web of
assistance for victims and perpetrators of family violence.
Programmes include mandatory counselling for victims and
perpetrators, training of social workers, and police, public edu-
cation and court, police and c o m m u n i t y programmes.

More victim-friendly courts

A number of different approaches have been taken to m a k i n g
the courts more accessible to the victims of gender-based v i o l -

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ence. For example, there is growing support i n the C a r i b b e a n

for family courts, w h i c h have been established i n Belize,
Grenada, Jamaica, St Lucia and St Vincent a n d the
Grenadines. T h i s is i n l i n e w i t h a suggestion i n the C A R I -
C O M m o d e l legislation that domestic violence cases should be
heard at the magisterial level and decentralised. T h e courts are
staffed by trained judiciary and supported by social services.
I n the Pacific, the C h i e f Magistrate o f V a n u a t u introduced
new rules i n the Magistrates Courts i n 2001 w h i c h provide for
the granting o f domestic violence protection orders and the
provision o f some security for survivors o f domestic violence,
as w e l l as penalties for breaches and faster tracking o f cases. I n
Papua N e w G u i n e a , good behaviour bonds, implemented by the
Magisterial Service, assisted the victims of domestic violence.

Sexual harassment policies

T h e F i j i Islands M i n i s t r y o f W o m e n a n d the F i j i Women's
Rights M o v e m e n t are developing a p o l i c y o n sexual harass-
ment i n the workplace. I n Botswana, the P u b l i c Service A c t
was amended to include sexual harassment as misconduct.

Examples of good practice

Integrated approaches
Several countries have developed integrated approaches. F o r
example, the Partnerships Against Domestic Violence
Programme is a collaborative effort between the A u s t r a l i a n
G o v e r n m e n t and the States and Territories, and the business
sector, N G O s and the community. K e y projects include: com-
munity education campaigns; national competency standards for
workers dealing w i t h domestic violence; prevention workshops
for young people; a clearing-house for information and best prac-
tices; and perpetrators' programmes. I n Bangladesh, the M u l t i -
Sectoral Programme o n V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n is a govern-
ment project led by the Ministry o f W o m e n a n d Children's
Affairs w i t h the participation of several related ministries.
N a r i p o k k h o , a women's N G O , provides t e c h n i c a l assistance i n
detailed project formulation, implementation and evaluation.
A l t h o u g h N G O s are the foremost providers o f shelter to
the victims o f violence, Project H a v e n i n the Philippines
shows h o w governments and N G O s c a n p o o l their resources to

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GENDER AND H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

respond to the needs of victims and survivors. T h e project is

hospital-based and offers medical services, crisis intervention
and healing, referrals, education and training, research and
documentation for w o m e n victims of violence. T h e Women's
Crisis C e n t e r ( W C C ) trains hospital staff o n gender-sensitive
h a n d l i n g of survivors and provides the psycho-social compo-
nent and referrals to other agencies and institutions.
Similarly, Malaysia's W A V e ( W o m e n A g a i n s t V i o l e n c e )
C a m p a i g n was launched at the federal and state levels i n July
2001. T h e M i n i s t r y of W o m e n and Family Development co-
ordinates the initiative and fosters co-operation between gov-
ernment agencies, N G O s and the private sector. T r a i n i n g of
volunteers is conducted i n collaboration w i t h N G O s and
includes management of domestic violence, rape and sexual
harassment cases by hospitals, police and the welfare depart-
ment. O n c e trained, the volunteers are placed i n the M i n i s t r y
where they handle telephone calls and make appointments i n
the Ministry's counselling u n i t .
In Papua N e w G u i n e a , the Family and Sexual V i o l e n c e
A c t i o n C o m m i t t e e meets o n a regular basis to review progress
and identify ways forward. Its members come from government
agencies, the private sector, N G O s , community groups and
donor agencies.

Regional cooperation and agreements

O n e example of regional co-operation is the model legislation
mentioned earlier that was developed by the CARICOM
Secretariat and the C o m m o n w e a l t h Secretariat. T h i s has been
used not o n l y by governments but also by N G O s and inter-
governmental agencies i n their research and advocacy work.
U N I F E M also brought together other U N agencies and N G O s
from L a t i n A m e r i c a and the Caribbean to develop an awareness-
raising campaign, launched i n 1998, around the theme * A Life
Free from V i o l e n c e : It's O u r R i g h t ' . T h e campaign was subse-
quently replicated i n other regions.
M o d e l legislation was also developed i n the A s i a - P a c i f i c
region, where the first R e g i o n a l M i n i s t e r i a l Conference on
People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related
Transnational C r i m e was h e l d i n B a l i i n February 2002. It was
intended to assist governments i n drafting domestic laws c r i m -
inalising people smuggling and trafficking i n persons.

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In 1998 M e m b e r States of the S o u t h e r n A f r i c a n Develop- A number of

ment C o m m u n i t y ( S A D C ) agreed to a n A d d e n d u m (to the
regional
S A D C Declaration o n G e n d e r and Development) o n the
P r e v e n t i o n and Eradication of V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n and workshops - in
C h i l d r e n . This commits them to take urgent measures to prevent Southern Africa,
and address violence against w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n through
Asia and the
legal, social, economic, cultural and p o l i t i c a l means and to
adopt legally-binding instruments to ensure that these c o m -
Pacific - have
mitments are translated into action. M o r e recently, the 2003 been held to
Protocol o n the Rights of W o m e n i n A f r i c a supplemented the strengthen
provisions of the A f r i c a n C h a r t e r o n H u m a n and Peoples'
partnerships
Rights by requiring State parties to take appropriate measures
to prohibit a l l forms of violence against w o m e n , identify the for eliminating
causes, punish the perpetrators and ensure effective rehabilita- gender-based
t i o n and reparation for victims.
violence, jointly
Governments i n the Pacific region adopted the Pacific
organised by the
Platform for A c t i o n i n 1995, w h i c h identified violence against
w o m e n as a critical area of concern a n d urged the Pacific to Commonwealth
work towards its e l i m i n a t i o n . A t the N G O level, the Pacific Secretariat and
Women's N e t w o r k A g a i n s t V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n , estab-
key national,
lished i n 1992, has played a key role i n developing the skills
and organisational capacity of N G O s w o r k i n g to end violence
regional and
against w o m e n across the region. W i t h 23 members i n ten international
countries, it provides an important m e c h a n i s m for sharing stakeholders.
successful approaches and strategising to overcome resistance
and constraints i n work to end violence against w o m e n .
A number of regional workshops - i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a , A s i a
and the Pacific - have been held to strengthen partnerships for
eliminating gender-based violence, j o i n t l y organised by the
C o m m o n w e a l t h Secretariat and key n a t i o n a l , regional and
international stakeholders.

Using international law at the national level

N a t i o n a l courts are increasingly l o o k i n g to international
norms for the purpose of deciding cases "where the domestic
law - whether constitutional, statute or c o m m o n law - is uncer-
tain or incomplete" (Bart, 1997:117). I n 1999, for example,
the Supreme C o u r t of India stated that international instru-
ments - C E D A W , the International C o n v e n t i o n o n E c o n -
o m i c , Social and C u l t u r a l Rights, the B e i j i n g P F A - "cast an
obligation o n the Indian State to gender sensitise its laws, and

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GENDER A N D H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

the Courts are under a n obligation to see that the message of

international instruments is not allowed to be d r o w n e d "
( C h i n k i n , 2000:60). In East A f r i c a , the International W o m e n
Judges Federation has been working w i t h universities a n d
judiciaries to promote the use of international h u m a n rights
instruments i n national settings.

Improving the police response

Several countries have set up special units i n the police force
w i t h a specific mandate o n violence against w o m e n . For
example, trained w o m e n police officers i n the V i c t i m Support
U n i t i n Barbados provide counselling to victims of rape a n d
c h i l d abuse, h e l p i n g them to cope w i t h their experience a n d
preparing t h e m to testify i n court. I n addition, a Regional
T r a i n i n g Programme for Police Officers and F r o n t l i n e Workers
dealing w i t h domestic violence is being co-ordinated by the
C a r i b b e a n A s s o c i a t i o n for Feminist Research and A c t i o n
(CAFRA).
I n the Philippines, W o m e n and C h i l d r e n Protection Desks
( W C P D ) have been created by the police to improve their
level of response to w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n w h o are victims of
gender-based abuse, exploitation and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . I n
Bangladesh, the C e n t r e for W o m e n and C h i l d r e n ' s Studies
( C W C S ) has brought together N G O s and police to design a
training manual for law-enforcement personnel o n gender-
based violence, and have trained more t h a n 400 police officers
i n 12 regions.
A n integrated C o m m u n i t y Safety Strategy for safer homes,
streets and schools has been developed by C o o k Islands.
Important aspects of this include working w i t h the police
" f r o m the inside out"; challenging police leadership and organ-
isational culture; and collecting, analysing and sharing infor-
m a t i o n w i t h key partners.

Gender-awareness training for the judiciary

G e n d e r Judges and Equality is a regional project i n A s i a that
was conceived and initiated by Sakshi, a n N G O i n N e w D e l h i .
Workshops are h e l d to sensitise senior members of the j u d i c i -
ary to women's issues and help them view matters from a
woman's perspective. T h e strategy is to allow judges to exchange
views and points of law as well as initiate debates w i t h their

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 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

peers o n issues related to violence against w o m e n . A s a result Several countries

of the workshops, the conveners have received requests for
have made an
materials from participants a n d there have been several posi-
tive rulings by the sensitised judges o n cases related to v i o l - effort to make
ence. the law
A t the national level, workshops were h e l d i n Jamaica i n
accessible to
1998 to sensitise justice system personnel - i n c l u d i n g judges,
police, clerks of the court, lawyers, p r o b a t i o n officers and
more people.
social workers - to a gender perspective. I n C a n a d a , the
Western J u d i c i a l Education C e n t r e ( W J E C ) organises c o n t i n -
uing education programmes for judges from the west and
northwest. W h i l e a key element is 'peer leadership' (i.e. judges
are trained by other judges), other interested people, including
w o m e n and members o f racial minorities, c a n participate i n
the sessions. A t a workshop o n gender equality, for example,
survivors of sexual assault and crisis centre workers gave judges
first-hand information about violence against w o m e n .

Advocacy and public education

T h e r e are numerous examples of advocacy a n d public educa-
t i o n initiatives from many different countries. A m o n g the
more innovative is the series of G r a d e 1-10 textbooks pro-
duced by the Simorgh Women's Resource and P u b l i c a t i o n
C e n t r e i n Pakistan to promote equality and equity i n gender
relations as well as to teach c h i l d r e n about violence i n the
context o f power relations. T h e N G O carried out teacher
training to familiarise teachers w i t h the w h o l e process a n d
methodology of participatory teaching. It started w i t h four
schools but is n o w supplying books to over 30.
O t h e r p u b l i c education activities from various regions
include a national ' O n e A c t Play' c o m p e t i t i o n by w o m e n at
the grassroots i n Mauritius; the development, p r o d u c t i o n and
distribution by f e m ' L I N K p a c i f i c i n F i j i Islands of media mate-
rials as c o m m u n i t y education tools to bring violence issues i n t o
the public sphere, particularly i n rural areas; and the use of
radio and television programmes, school a n d c o m m u n i t y dis-
cussions, information pamphlets a n d leaflets i n St V i n c e n t and
the Grenadines to promote public awareness.
Several countries have made a n effort to make the law
accessible to more people. I n Botswana, for example, after a
review of the C h i l d r e n ' s A c t to harmonise it w i t h the C o n v e n -

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GENDER AND H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

t i o n o n the Rights of the C h i l d , the A c t was translated into

Setswana, the local language. T h e G o v e r n m e n t of Bangladesh
has attempted to popularise and disseminate C E D A W by
translating it i n t o Bangla.

Men's initiatives
In M a l a w i , the N e t w o r k o n V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n and the
M a l a w i H u m a n Rights Resource C e n t r e ( M H R R C ) , w h i c h co-
ordinate non-governmental activities w i t h i n the country, h o l d
an annual M e n to M e n Symposium that gets more m e n
i n v o l v e d i n the issue. U N I F E M ' s E n d V i o l e n c e C a m p a i g n
encouraged m e n to demonstrate against violence i n K e n y a and
S o u t h A f r i c a , and helped to increase the involvement of m e n
worldwide i n the W h i t e R i b b o n C a m p a i g n w o r k i n g to end
men's violence against women. O t h e r initiatives led by m e n
include M e n A g a i n s t Abuse and V i o l e n c e i n M u m b a i , India,
focused o n ending domestic violence, and M e n A g a i n s t
V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n ( M A V A W ) i n T r i n i d a d and Tobago,
which runs community-based programmes and produces
leaflets o n anger management and bumper stickers against
battering.

Monitoring and indicators

T h e T h i r d M i n i s t e r i a l M e e t i n g o n W o m e n , convened by the
E c o n o m i c C o m m i s s i o n for L a t i n A m e r i c a and the C a r i b b e a n
( E C L A C ) and the C a r i b b e a n Development and C o - o p e r a t i o n
C o m m i t t e e ( C D C C ) Secretariat i n 1999, identified the need
for ongoing review, m o n i t o r i n g and implementation of legis-
l a t i o n to counteract and eradicate violence against w o m e n .
E C L A C subsequently conducted a study to evaluate the imple-
mentation of domestic violence legislation i n A n t i g u a and
Barbuda, St Kitts and N e v i s , St L u c i a and St V i n c e n t and the
Grenadines.
International Women's Rights A c t i o n W a t c h ( I W R A W )
A s i a Pacific has developed a framework to monitor govern-
ments' implementation of C E D A W . T h e A s i a Pacific Research
and Resource C e n t r e for W o m e n ( A R R O W ) has developed a
framework of indicators for m o n i t o r i n g violence against
women.
A t the national level, the N G O N a r i p o k k h o i n Bangladesh
monitors the incidence of violence against w o m e n i n the

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country through scanning n a t i o n a l newspapers, c o l l e c t i n g National policy

nationwide information o n reported cases from Police
and institutional
Headquarters, and from reports f r o m members of Naripokkho's
networks. I n addition, 22 police stations i n D h a k a M e t r o - and legal
p o l i t a n A r e a , two public hospitals and the Special C o u r t try- frameworks
ing cases under the Repression of W o m e n A c t are m o n i t o r e d are still often
regularly o n h a n d l i n g of cases of violence against w o m e n .
inadequate, and
Partner organisations i n 30 small towns are being trained a n d
provided w i t h technical assistance to carry out similar monitor- co-ordination
ing at district level. Findings are regularly shared i n workshops among different
w i t h police, health-care personnel, lawyers a n d public prose-
parts of
cutors.
government is
Providing accurate data lacking. Women's
I n order to collect data o n violence against w o m e n , the W o r l d
human rights
H e a l t h Organization ( W H O ) started a M u l t i - C o u n t r y Study
o n Women's H e a l t h and Domestic V i o l e n c e A g a i n s t W o m e n have not been
i n 1997. T h e aims include: o b t a i n i n g reliable estimates of the fully realised
prevalence of violence against w o m e n i n different countries i n
due to non-
a standardised manner that allows for inter-country c o m -
parisons; and using the findings nationally and internationally
harmonisation
to advocate for an increased response to gender-based v i o l - of laws, lack of
ence. T h e study teams co-ordinate w i t h research institutions, domestication of
ministries of health, other government entities and N G O s . A s
international
of 2003, data c o l l e c t i o n h a d been completed i n Bangladesh,
Brazil, Japan, N a m i b i a , Peru, Samoa, Tanzania and T h a i l a n d . treaties and the
T h e E c o n o m i c C o m m i s s i o n for L a t i n A m e r i c a and the absence of a
Caribbean ( E C L A C ) is also w o r k i n g o n a gender statistics and human rights
indicators m o d e l to measure the incidence of and trends i n
violence against w o m e n .
framework for
planning and
programming.
Gaps, Constraints and Opportunities
National policy and institutional and legal frameworks
N a t i o n a l policy and institutional and legal frameworks are still
often inadequate, and c o - o r d i n a t i o n among different parts of
government is lacking. Women's h u m a n rights have not been
fully realised due to n o n - h a r m o n i s a t i o n of laws, lack of domes-
t i c a t i o n of international treaties and the absence of a h u m a n
rights framework for p l a n n i n g a n d programming. Stakeholder

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GENDER A N D H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

interventions generally remain fragmented, poorly co-ordinated

and isolated.
A c c o r d i n g to U N I F E M (2003), only 17 nations have dis-
tinct legislation referring to sexual assault, w h i l e as few as three
have legislation that specifically addresses violence against
w o m e n as a category of c r i m i n a l activity i n itself. Laws tend to
focus o n domestic violence and rape and not deal w i t h other
violence such as sexual harassment and traditional practices
such as F G M (only 14 countries have adopted laws o n sexual
harassment and nine have specific legislation outlawing F G M ) .
Moreover, many countries do not recognise spousal rape i n
domestic violence laws, and those that do have laws against it
often provide exemptions.
C i v i l laws that may appear to have little to do w i t h v i o -
lence may also l i m i t women's ability to protect themselves and
to leave violent situations - for example, if they have n o legal
access to divorce. Discriminatory laws o n inheritance and the
ownership of property also m e a n that w o m e n lack the econ-
o m i c ability to leave abusive relationships. There is a tendency
i n some countries to require mediation or other forms of alter-
native dispute resolution for family law matters, leaving
w o m e n open to further abuse. Laws against trafficking may
punish w o m e n for being illegal immigrants rather t h a n prose-
cuting the traffickers.
M o d e l laws have been developed that can be replicated or
adapted to local situations. C o m m o n w e a l t h L a w Ministers
expressed their support i n M a y 1999 for C o m m o n w e a l t h co-
operation around the U N C o n v e n t i o n to combat transna-
tional organised crime ( i n c l u d i n g its Protocols o n preventing,
suppressing and punishing trafficking i n w o m e n and c h i l d r e n ,
and o n the illegal trafficking of migrants). A n opportunity was
also identified for co-ordinated, collective action to fight the
commercial sexual exploitation of c h i l d r e n using existing
C o m m o n w e a l t h schemes for mutual assistance and co-opera-
t i o n i n c r i m i n a l matters.

Law enforcement

C r i m i n a l law is not enforced effectively and is therefore l i m -

ited as a deterrent. W h e r e w o m e n are offered n o protection by
the State, they are frequently afraid to bring charges. T h e

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 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

majority o f cases of violence against w o m e n are thus not The dissemination

reported. Those cases that are reported often do not result i n
of judicial
successful prosecutions. L a w enforcement officers, medical
officers and judicial personnel c a n be insensitive to the needs decisions from
of threatened and abused w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n . Despite the other jurisdictions
prevalence of violence against w o m e n , research from many
and shared
countries - including A u s t r a l i a , Bangladesh, C a n a d a , India,
N e w Zealand and the U K - has s h o w n that it tends to be
understanding
treated less seriously by the police t h a n crimes against m e n or by judges can
property. T h e r e continues to be a perception of domestic v i o l - be important
ence as a private matter. V i c t i m s o f gender-based violence may
tools in
face further abuse i n the j u d i c i a l system due to a c o n t i n u i n g
tendency to t h i n k that w o m e n c a l l sexual abuse or harassment addressing
o n themselves by the way they dress or act. T h e issue of appro- gender-based
priate treatment as w e l l as adequate punishment for perpetra-
violence.
tors has not been a focus.
T h e dissemination of judicial decisions from other jurisdic-
tions and shared understanding by judges c a n be important
tools i n addressing gender-based violence. For example, j u d i -
cial colloquia h e l d i n the C o m m o n w e a l t h that focused specif-
ically o n the p r o m o t i o n o f the h u m a n rights o f w o m e n and the
girl c h i l d through the judiciary produced recommendations
that recognise the duty of a n independent judiciary to inter-
pret and apply national constitutions and laws i n conformity
w i t h women's h u m a n rights. G e n d e r sensitivity training for a l l
levels of the court system and for the police have had encour-
aging results. Reforms o f c r i m i n a l justice systems may require
evidence o n the woman's past history to be inadmissible (as,
for example, i n the Bahamas and Barbados) and aggressive
questioning and harassment i n court to be prohibited
( C h i n k i n , 1999).

Women's knowledge of and access to the law

Laws are of l i m i t e d use if w o m e n do not k n o w that they exist
or are unable to take advantage of t h e m . D u e to economic,
religious, social and cultural constraints, women's legal literacy
and consciousness about their rights is generally low i n devel-
o p i n g countries, particularly among rural w o m e n .
W i t h o u t access to legal information or legal aid, women may
stay i n abusive relationships or fail to apply for protection orders

129
GENDER AND H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

or maintenance for their children. A study i n the Eastern

Caribbean found that applicants and respondents i n domestic
violence matters were generally under-represented by lawyers,
w h o did not consider such cases financially viable. A lack of legal
assistance has a marked effect o n success i n court, and the per-
sonal and financial consequences for women can be far-reaching.
There is a need for legal aid and advisory services.
G o v e r n m e n t - f u n d e d specialist women's legal services could
play a n important role i n providing advice, information and
referrals o n legal matters that affect w o m e n . T h e y could also
h e l p i n overcoming the attitudinal barriers that w o m e n c o n -
front i n the legal system, and help courts dominated by male
judges and lawyers to understand female perspectives. N a t i o n a l
women's machineries ( N W M s ) could be instrumental i n the
systematic dissemination of information to w o m e n about their
rights.

Human and financial resources

Support (as measured i n budgetary allocations) for programmes
addressing gender-based violence is l i m i t e d . There are serious
gaps i n service provision, particularly for the victims of rape
a n d other sexual violence, and services are not widespread
enough to cover rural communities. Those services that do
exist are handicapped by a chronic shortage of h u m a n and
f i n a n c i a l resources.
Governments have largely depended o n women's groups
and other N G O s for the provision of services and programmes,
yet N G O s i n many countries do not receive financial support
f r o m governments. In addition, N G O s often depend on
donors, w h i c h threatens the viability and sustainability of their
programmes.
T h e r e is inadequate participation by w o m e n i n the formu-
l a t i o n of policies, strategies and activities designed to ensure
their economic empowerment. Capacity and information to
engage the p o l i t i c a l leadership, as well as to support structures
for w o m e n i n power, are inadequate. N W M s are often under-
resourced and have little clout w i t h i n government. I n the
absence of h i g h - l e v e l p o l i t i c a l commitment they face difficul-
ties developing policy frameworks and action plans, let alone
co-ordinating other key ministries.

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 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

It is important for gender-based v i o l e n c e to be seen as a It is important

national issue, not a 'women's issue'. T h e problem is not so
for gender-based
m u c h that resources are scarce but the manner i n w h i c h they
are allocated. Gender-responsive budgets provide an opportu-
violence to be
nity to examine the effects of government expenditure and seen as a
revenue policies o n w o m e n and m e n . T h e y c a n also reveal the national issue,
gaps between policy and budget.
not a 'women's
issue'. The
Traditional norms, beliefs, practices and attitudes
problem is not
In a statement to the 2001 session of the U N C o m m i s s i o n o n so much that
H u m a n Rights, the A s i a n Legal Resource C e n t r e noted that
progress to stop violence against w o m e n i n A s i a n countries
resources are
was seriously hampered by governments' failure to recognise scarce but the
that cultural values and traditional patterns h a d not changed manner in which
( U N I F E M , 2003). T h i s problem is not l i m i t e d to the A s i a n
they are
region but is widespread.
S u c h customs and traditions may lead to a h i g h level of allocated.
acceptance of and justification for gender-based violence, par-
ticularly that occurring i n the home. W o m e n as well as m e n
often perpetuate stereotypical gender roles and adhere to a
belief i n women's inferiority. Practices such as early marriage
and F G M that attempt to c o n t r o l women's sexuality may c o n -
tinue even if formally legislated against. Judges i n many coun-
tries i n sub-Saharan A f r i c a continue to apply discriminatory
customary laws w i t h regard to women's inheritance or owner-
ship of property despite law reforms that give w o m e n equal
rights. Traditional systems of conflict r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , such as
bulubulu i n F i j i Islands, may be used to protect the h o n o u r of
perpetrators of crimes rather t h a n to b r i n g justice for female
victims.
States parties to C E D A W are obliged to "modify the social
and cultural patterns of conduct of m e n and w o m e n , w i t h a
view to achieving the e l i m i n a t i o n of prejudices and customary
and a l l other practices" based o n ideas that one sex is superior
or inferior to the other or o n stereotyped gender roles (article
5). O n e important entry-point is education about gender
equality from a n early age. A n o t h e r is community-based work
and advocacy to influence attitudes and customs. A workshop
i n Southern A f r i c a , for example, identified elders - as tradi-
tional advisors or marriage counsellors - as a special target for

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GENDER A N D H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

A major obstacle community-based education programmes to prevent the per-

petuation of gender-based violence, N G O s i n K e n y a have suc-
in the search for
cessfully introduced alternative rituals to F G M to celebrate the
solutions to passage of girls into w o m a n h o o d . T h e y have also i n v o l v e d men
violence against and boys as advocates for change.

women has been

the lack of Inadequate data
reliable data on A major obstacle i n the search for solutions to violence against
the root causes, w o m e n has been the lack of reliable data o n the root causes,
magnitude a n d consequences o f the problem. C o u n t r i e s w i l l
magnitude and
not be able to eliminate gender-based violence u n t i l they iden-
consequences of tify the true incidence and causes o f types of violence that are
the problem. most prevalent i n their o w n society. It is currently difficult to
compare data between countries because statistics are not c o l -
lected i n a standardised way. Countries may have looked at dif-
ferent populations, and abusive acts are differently defined
and/or are considered crimes i n some countries but not others.
Police records may include gender-based violence under a gen-
eral heading such as assault, m a k i n g it difficult to extract the
number of incidents i n v o l v i n g w o m e n . I n addition, sexual
crimes tend to be under-reported, m a k i n g it difficult to come
up w i t h accurate figures. W h i l e women's groups may be able to
collect more data, U N I F E M (2003) points out that few o f
t h e m have the means to provide the level of statistical e v i -
dence that is needed to build a v a l i d record.

Conclusion
Despite legislative, administrative, j u d i c i a l , educational a n d
other efforts by governments, regional and inter-governmental
agencies, and non-governmental and c i v i l society organisa-
tions to address gender-based violence, it remains endemic
throughout the C o m m o n w e a l t h and other parts of the w o r l d .
Clearly, a different approach is needed to tackle this cross-
cutting and complex p h e n o m e n o n o n a l l fronts.
T h e C o m m o n w e a l t h Integrated A p p r o a c h to E l i m i n a t i n g
Gender-based V i o l e n c e was developed as a guide to govern-
ment p l a n n i n g and action at the national level, and also
involves collaboration w i t h N G O s and c i v i l society. It includes

132
 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE

enactment of laws, c o - o r d i n a t i o n o f key government ministries

and the setting up of government systems. A n integrated
approach is intended to respond to the needs of a l l , w h i l e
ensuring that those of the v i c t i m - whether to trained medical
attention, counselling or legal recourse - are paramount. It
enables different stakeholders to work i n a co-ordinated m a n -
ner to understand the problem, develop strategies to address it
and take joint action at the l o c a l and n a t i o n a l level. It pro-
motes efficiency and adequacy o f services a n d service delivery
so that women are facilitated at a l l levels through a variety of
organisational networks. T h e resource base is increased and
the expertise and experience of the organisations i n v o l v e d are
maximised.
Stakeholders include victims a n d their families, c o m m u n i -
ties, institutions such as the police, cultural and religious lead-
ers, employees, educational institutions and perpetrators.
W i t h i n each category there are those interested i n m a i n t a i n -
ing the status quo and those w h o wish to change it. O f t e n ,
agencies and support systems work i n isolation from each
other, resulting i n d u p l i c a t i o n a n d fewer achievements as well
as wasting l i m i t e d resources. T h e c r i m i n a l justice system is
generally punitive rather t h a n preventive, and while w o m e n
need the protection of the law, "the limitations of a predomi-
nant reliance o n the legal system to eradicate violence against
w o m e n has been pointed out repeatedly" (Clarke, 1998).
Gender-based violence is not a 'women's issue'. It is a h u m a n
rights v i o l a t i o n as well as " a n obstacle to the achievement of
the objectives of equality, development and peace" ( U n i t e d
N a t i o n s , 1993). Addressing it w i t h i n a holistic framework c a n
change the societal values, attitudes and behaviours that c o n -
done or encourage it, and eventually bring about its elimination.

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GENDER A N D H U M A N RIGHTS IN THE COMMONWEALTH

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