BUILDING WALLS

Walls are the vertical elements of a building which enclose the space within it and which may
also divide that space. Walls to buildings can be constructed in a variety of ways using a
variety of methods.

Types of walls
Walls may broadly be
divided into two:

1. Load-bearing walls
– these support
loads from floors
and roofs in
addition to their
own weight and
resist side pressure
from wind and some
from stored
materials within the
building.
2. Non-load bearing
walls – these carry
no floor or roof
loads.
The external non –
load bearing wall,
related to a framed
structure is termed a
panel wall, if of
masonry
construction.
If the same is of
lighter construction
it is termed an infill
panel, or cladding when applied to the face of the frame.

The term partition is applied to walls, either load-bearing or non-load bearing, dividing the
space within a building into rooms.

Internal walls which separate different occupants within the same building are called
separating walls. A party wall means a wall separating adjoining buildings belonging to
different owners or occupied by different persons. It may be or may not be load bearing. Its
primary function is to prevent the spread of fire between adjoining buildings and to provide
an adequate degree of sound insulation.

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Retaining walls – the primary function is to support the thrust of soils and, perhaps
underground water on one side of the wall (to be dealt with in the next part).

Functional Requirements
The primary function of the wall is to enclose or divide space but in addition it may have to
provide support.

In order to satisfy these functions efficiently, it must satisfy certain requirements.

The functional requirements of a wall are:

1. Strength and stability

2. Thermal insulation
3. Sound insulation
4. Exclusion of wind and rain
5. Durability
6. Fire resistance
7. Damp penetration resistance.

It is not possible to rank these functional requirements in order of importance since this will
vary with the main function of the building.
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In studying the functional requirements of walls it is necessary to have regard to the forms of
construction which may be employed. These are briefed below.

1. Masonry walls – the wall is built of individual blocks or stone, usually in horizontal
courses, cemented together with some form of mortar. Masonry construction may be
in the form of either a single thickness of wall known as a solid wall construction, or
two thicknesses with a space between known as cavity wall construction.

2. Monolithic walls – the wall is built of a material requiring some form of support or
shuttering in the initial stages e.g. traditional earth wall and modern concrete walls.
3. Membrane walls – the wall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets
of reinforced plastic, metal, asbestos-cement or other suitable material bonded to a
core foamed plastic to produce a thin wall element of high strength and low weight.
4. Frame walls – the wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members, usually
of timber, at close intervals which together with facing or sheathing on each side form
a load-bearing system. It should be noted that this is wall construction and should not
be confused with a structural frame of a building.

These forms of construction can all be for load-bearing or non-load bearing walls or fro
panels to a structural frame.

1. Strength and Stability

 The strength of a wall is measured in terms of its resistance to stresses set
up in it by its own weight, superimposed loads and lateral pressure such as

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 wind. Its stability is measured in terms of its resistance to overturning by
lateral forces and buckling caused by excessive slenderness.
 Walls must be of sufficient thickness to keep the stresses within the limits
of the safe compressive stresses of the materials in the wall. Tensile
stresses may be induced by unequal loading and bonding and jointing must
be able to withstand them.
 The thickness-to-height ratio must be sufficient to prevent buckling and
there must be adequate lateral support to resist overturning.
 Strength and stability are ensured by limiting the width of openings,
providing lateral support up the height of the wall and by relating thickness
to the height and length of the wall between adequate lateral supports on
the form of cross or buttress walls or piers.

2. Resistance to Dampness
 Damp penetration can cause deterioration to the structure, damage to finishes and
contents and can in severe cases adversely affect the health of occupants.

Dampness may enter the building through a number of routes:

 Water introduced during construction

 Penetration through roofs, parapets and chimneys – if not properly
constructed.
 Penetration through walls – those exposed to wet winds
 Ground water moisture – at or near the base and creeping up by
capillary action.

3. Thermal Insulation

Thermal insulation serves a number of purposes

 To prevent excessive loss of heat from within a building.

 To prevent a large heat gain from the outside in hot weather.
 To prevent a large condensation.
 To reduce expansion and contraction of the structure.

The external walls of a building, together with the roof, must provide a barrier to the
passage of heat to the external air in order to maintain satisfactory internal conditions
without a wasteful use of a heating system.

Adequate thermal insulation is attained in a variety of ways incorporating cavities and

materials with high insulating value.

4. Sound insulation
 A function (more pronounced) of party walls and walls between habitable rooms
of a dwelling –to provide reasonable resistance to the transmission of airborne
sound.
 As with thermal insulation however, an adequate degree of sound insulation can
sometimes be attained only with an excessive thickness and weight of solid wall.
However accessoriness of wall is sometimes impractical and uneconomic in such
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 cases discontinuous construction, i.e. construction. Sound is anything that can be
heard, which can be made by a conversation, machinery or walking on a hard
surface.
 Sounds in buildings can either be considered as impact sounds caused by direct
contact with the structure such as footsteps or hammering on walls which will set
that part of the structure vibrating or they can be airborne such as from
conversation, radio.

5. Weather resistance
 The external walls of a building whatever their form, are required to provide
adequate resistance to rain and wind penetration. The actual degree of resistance
required in any particular wall will depend largely upon its height and upon the
locality and exposure.
 Wind force and rainfall very considerably throughout the county so that a form of
construction adequate for one locality may not be satisfactory in another.

Generally speaking the problem of wind penetration rarely presents difficulties in

masonry wall construction.

Rain penetration through walls can be resisted in three ways:

i. Ensuring a limited penetration only into the wall thickness. In this

instance water will be absorbed by a permeable walling material and held,
as in a sponge outer surface until dry weather conditions permit it to
evaporate.
ii. By preventing any penetration whatsoever through an impermeable facing
which will force water to run down the will face without entering the wall
thickness.
iii. By interrupting the capillary path through the wall.

6. Fire resistance
 A wall should offer resistance to fire in the building by inhibiting the spread of
flames and preventing the excessive transfer of heat from one side to the other.
 In case of fire, the wall should not disintegrate but must continue to bear its load
and to enclose space as long as is required in order to preserve the building, its
occupants and its neighbours.
 Walls are used to compartmentalise a building so that fire is confined to a given
area to separate specific fire risks within the building, to form safe escape routes
for the occupants and to prevent the spread of fire between buildings.
 The term fire resistance is a relative term applied to elements of structure and not
to a material. It is not to be confused with non-combustibility. An element may
incorporate a combustible material and still exhibit a degree of fire resistance
which will vary with the way in which the material is incorporated in the element.

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Cavity Walls
 A cavity wall consists of two separate walls, known as leaves or skins, of brickwork
having a space between them (known as a cavity) and connected together by metal
ties.
 The inner leaf, which supports roof or upper floor loads, can be of concrete blocks,
thus combining the insulation properties of concrete blocks with weather resistant
properties of brick.
 The double wall is generally about 280mm thick and the width of the cavity varies
from 50 to 75mm
 The outer life is usually a half brick thick (115mm) and the inner leaf the same, or
more commonly of lightweight concrete blocks 100mm thick.
 The two leaves are connected by metal wall ties. These must be strong enough to
develop mutual stiffness in the leaves and they must be so designed that water cannot
pass from the outer to inner leaf and, further, that mortar droppings cannot easily
lodge on them during the building of the wall and bridge the cavity.
 Each of these ties is formed with a drip at the centre which prevents water passing
across. The wire ties should be laid with the twisted ends or crimp hanging down.
 Ties should be spaced at distance not exceeding 900mm horizontally and 450mm
vertically and should be staggered to form a diamond pattern (diagram). At the sides
of all door and window openings the ties should be spaced at 300mm vertically, no
more than 150mm from the side of the opening.
 Wherever possible the roof load should be distributed to both leaves of a cavity wall
by suitable detailing, as shown in diagram. The detailing at the head of the wall also
provides the cavity barriers against flame and smoke movement.
 The base of the cavity is filled with fine concrete, the top of which must be kept at
least 150mm below the level of the damp proof course (dpc). This provides a space as
a precaution against moisture rising above the dpc.
 Every third vertical joint in the outer leaf at the base of the cavity is left open as a
means of discharge for any water which might collect at this point.
 The risk of mortar droppings forming a bridge at the base of the cavity is minimised
by this extension of the cavity below the horizontal dpc.

Prevention of Damp in Cavity Walls

 A cavity should be carried down at least 150mm below the lowest dpc and any
bridging of the cavity, other than wall ties or closing course protected by roof, is to
have a suitable dpc to prevent the passage of moisture across cavity.
 Where the cavity is closed at jambs of openings a vertical dpc should be inserted
unless some other suitable method is used to prevent passage of moisture from the
outer leaf to the inner leaf of the wall.

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Advantages of Cavity Wall Construction

i. Able to withstand driving rains in all situations from penetrating to the inner surface.
ii. Gives good thermal insulation, keeping the building warm in winter and cool in
summer.
iii. No need for external rendering
iv. Enables the use of cheaper and alternative materials for the inner construction.
v. A nominal 255mm cavity wall has a higher sound insulation value than a standard one
brick thick wall.

Disadvantages

i. Requires a high standard of design and workmanship to produce a soundly

constructed wall. This will require good supervision during construction
ii. The need to include a vertical dpc to all openings.
iii. Slightly dearer in cost than a standard one brick wall.

Panel Walls
 External non-load bearing walls related to framed structures.
 Constructed as infill panels between columns and beams.
 Can be of masonry or light weight materials.
 Openings are formed by traditional methods.
 Should be of sufficient strength to support self weight plus any attached finishes and
imposed loads such as wind.
 Should provide for movement due to moisture and thermal expansion and of the panel
and for the contraction of the frame.

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Curtain Walling
 A form of light weight non-load bearing external cladding which forms a complete
envelop or sheath around the structural frame.

Cross Wall Construction

 This is a form of construction where load bearing walls are placed at right angles to
the lateral axis of the building, the front and rear walls being essentially non-load
bearing cladding.
 Cross wall construction is suitable for buildings up to 5 storeys high where the floors
are similar and where internal separating or party walls are required such as in blocks
of flats or maisonettes.
 Cross walls should be spaced at regular or regularly repeating intervals along the
building in order that a limited number of floor spans can be standardised in terms of
thickness, reinforcement and formwork.
 The intermediate floors span longitudinally between the cross walls providing the
necessary lateral restraint and if both walls and floors are of cast in-situ reinforced
concrete the series of boxes so formed is sometimes termed box-frame construction.
 The junctions between the non-load bearing cladding and the cross walls should be
water tight.
 If a pitched roof is to be employed with the ridge parallel to the lateral axis an edge
beam will be required to provide a seating for the trusses or common rafters and to
transmit the roof loads to the cross walls.

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Cross wall on Plan

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 Advantages of Cross Wall Construction

i. Load bearing and non-load bearing components can be standardised and in some
cases prefabricated, giving shorter construction time.
ii. The external walls (or cladding), being free from load, may be designed with
greater freedom in choice of materials and finish.
iii. Simplicity of construction – the walls consist of unbroken runs of brick or block
work or in-situ concrete.
iv. Projecting beams and columns are eliminated.
v. Fenestration between cross walls unrestricted structurally.

Disadvantages

i. Limitations of possible plans or designing.

ii. Need for adequate lateral ties between cross walls.
iii. Cross walls, although load bearing, need to be weather resistant as is the case with
all other external walls.
iv. Restriction on size and positioning of openings on the cross wall.

Box frame

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Materials for Construction of Walls

1. Bricks
These include commons, facings, engineering, purpose made and any other types of
bricks that may be available in the market.
Local standard brick size is 230 (L) x 115 (W) x 75 (H) mm
Other countries its 215 (L) x 102,5 (W) x 65 (H) mm

Brick Bonding

Bonding in bricks refers to the systematic arrangement of bricks in a wall following a

pattern that will enable the load to be distributed evenly, ensuring stability and
appearance of the wall.

Common bond types include the following:

a) Stretcher bond – consist of alternate courses of stretchers. To avoid vertical

continuous joints, a half bat is used to commence or finish alternate courses. Used
for half brick walls.
Diagram

b) English bond – consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. Very

strong bond, though monotonous in appearance.
Diagram

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 c) English garden wall bond – consists of alternate courses of 3-5 stretchers and
one course of headers.
Diagram

d) Flemish bond – consist of alternate header and stretcher in every course. Offers
an attractive appearance and is reasonably strong.
Diagram

Advantages of bricks as a walling material

i. Brick is relatively cheap

ii. Very good fire resistance

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 iii. If well built it does not deteriorate structurally and requires very little maintenance
over a very long period of time.
iv. Bricks varying in size, weight, texture and colour can be produced at
comparatively low cost.

Disadvantages

i. Due to relatively small size of bricks, the wall takes more time to build than
blocks.
ii. Brick shapes and sizes are sometimes irregular.
iii. Delivery of bricks to work sites often posses problems (breakages, damaged
arrisis and chipped surfaces)

2. Blocks as a walling material

Advantages of block work over brickwork
i. Higher thermal insulation properties
ii. Low density
iii. Faster construction

Disadvantages

i. Lower strength
ii. Less resistant to rain penetration
iii. Low sound insulation properties
iv. Less load bearing properties.
3. Sheet Metal as a walling material
Used as a walling material particularly in temporary structures such as sheds, stores
and building site offices. It is very easy to erect but keeps the building relatively hot
and cold in summer and winter respectively.
4. Timber as a walling material
Timber in the form of plywood is widely used for partitioning buildings. It also serves
as infill panels to framed structures. Timber is fairly cheap but needs to be treated
properly with preservatives to prevent damage by insects, fungi and moisture.

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5. Stone
It is one of the oldest walling materials known to man. Today stone more often serves
as a decorative walling material because of its high cost and is used along with bricks,
concrete or blocks.
6. Concrete
 Common with modern structures.
 Very strong and durable but expensive.
 The wall erection needs formwork to form and maintain shape.

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Reference List

The list below is based on available stock in the university library and the departmental
reading room.

 Barry, R. 1999, The Construction of Buildings Volume, 5 vols, Blackwell, Oxford.

 Chudley, R. Greeno, R. 2008, Building Construction Handbook 7th edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
 Ezeji S.C.O.A. 1984, Building Construction, Longman.
 Cannon K, Hartley F G, 1982, Building Construction Technology, McGraw-Hill.
 Seeley I H. 1995, Building Technology, 5th edition.
 Innocent C F. 2010, The Development of English Building Construction, Cambridge
University Press.

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