CCIT4085

Information
Technology
Fundamentals
1.3 - Hardware and Software
24-25s1
Hardware and Software
 History of Computers
 Hardware Components of Computers
 Different Types of Software

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Computers
 A computer is a general-purpose device which can be
programmed to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical
men
operations. (Wikipedia)
 We can simply consider a computer is an electronic device (or
a machine). It is the hardware of a computer system.
 A computer is controlled by instructions (or programs). Those
instructions define rules of how to process data and
information. Those instructions collectively is called the
software of a computer system.
 Computer System = Hardware + Software (+ User)

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Computers

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Early Computers and
Precomputers (extra)
 began before approximately 1945
 examples: abacus, slide rule, mechanical calculator, Hollerith’s
Punch Card Tabulating Machine and Sorter

slide rule
Abacus

Hollerith’s Punch Card

Mechanical calculator
Tabulating Machine and Sorter

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First Generation Computers
(1940-1956) (extra)
 powered by vacuum tubes
 huge size
 two well-known machines: ENIAC and UNIVAC

UNIVersal Automatic
Vacuum tubes Computer (UNIVAC)
Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Computer (ENIAC)

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Second Generation Computers
(1950-1963) (extra)
 used transistors
 larger size
 included mainframe computers

Mainframe computer

Transistors

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Third Generation Computers
(1964-1970) (extra)
 used integrated circuits (IC)
 intermediate size
 consumed very less electricity
 included mainframe and minicomputers

Integrated circuits
Minicomputers
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Four Generation Computers
(1971-1984) (extra)
 used microprocessor (VLSI design with tens of thousands of
transistors)
 range from supercomputers to personal devices
 smaller in size and greater reliability
 capacity was very much increased

http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRXgkVnleNgzJHO7GlMT5lxc0DULNQ2jOM5SQN81e428VD6ysJ-gg

Very Large Scale Supercomputer

Integration (VLSI)
IBM personal computer
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Fifth Generation Computers
(1983-1990) (extra)
 introduced ultra large-scale integration (ULSI) technology
 involved artificial intelligence (A.I.), parallel processing and
-

distributed system, robotics, voice recognition

Virtual reality
Powerful workstation/ Notebook/
Robotics handheld devices
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Sixth Generation Computers
(1990-till date) (extra)
 involve massive parallel architectures, vector processor,
networking technology

Cray T3D NEC’s Earth simulator

IBM special purpose
(parallel supercomputer (trillion operations per second)
supercomputer
architecture)

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Future computers (extra)
 optical computer, quantum computer, biological computer, nano-
computer
http://t1.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQ3LPa5UFg9rPFtNxFV0jNVkbYUieE1_7GcgFT41lQV4DCTBQxz

Quantum computer

http://t0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQEQ1L8zaA9qnbzpf-tZKnUmA5K9DsuzAYt1WecazaF_uGatfgdgQ

Optical computer

Biological computer

Nano-computer
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Hardware Components
 Hardware is the tangible, physical equipment that can be
seen and touched.
 Six major hardware components:
 the processor: to control actions and process data
 the memory: working place for the processor
 the input devices: to receive input from users
 the output devices: to produce output to users
 the storage devices: to store data or information
 the communication devices: to communicate with other
computers

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Hardware Components

Memory

communication
Storage

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Processor
 The processor is also known the central processing unit
(CPU).

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Processor
• interprets and executes the program instructions
• coordinates how all the other hardware devices work
together
• CPU Clock Speed
• Megahertz (MHz): millions of cycles per second
• Gigahertz (GHz): billions of cycles per second

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Processor (extra)

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Memory
Memory is the working place for the CPU. They can store
instructions and data temporarily or permanently.
The minimum unit that can be processed in a computer
system is a bit (0 or 1). Eight bits form a byte (8 bits).
The unit for the capacity of memory is byte.
Each byte of data is stored in a location with a unique
address.

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Memory
Unit conversions:
1 KB (kilobytes) = 210 = 1024 bytes

1 MB (megabytes) = 220 = 1024 × 1024 bytes

1 GB (gigabytes) = 230 = 1024 × 1024 × 1024 bytes

1 TB (terabytes) = 240 = 1024 × 1024 × 1024 × 1024

bytes
Different kinds of memory: RAM, ROM, cache, etc.

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Memory
RAM stands for Random Access Memory (also known as the
main memory)
any location in the RAM can be accessed within the same
amount of time, thus "random access”
is normally volatile, means that the data will be erased when
the power is off
all programs or instructions or data used must be loaded into
RAM by CPU (RAM is the main working place for the CPU)
RAM is very fast, when compared with other storage devices,
more RAM means more fast working place for the CPU,
therefore better performance of your computer.

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Memory

ROM stands for Read-Only Memory

ROM stores data permanently, and cannot be modified or
erased (RAM allows both read and write operations)
is normally non-volatile

ROMs are used to store data or instructions that do not need

to be changed often.
Example: the Basic Input and Output System (BIOS) that
handles the basic I/O operations (receive keypress from
keyboard, display a character on the display, etc.) of a computer

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 Memory
Type of What does it do? When is it used? When is the data
Memory removed?
Random- stores temporary when you start data will be lost
access information when and use software when power off or
memory you are working in reboot
(RAM) a file/ program
Read-only stores permanent when you turn a store data
memory information e.g. computer on or permanently
(ROM) BIOS to boot up off
the system

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Memory

CPU cache is another kind of memory used by the CPU. It is

even faster than RAM.

Cache is "closer" to the CPU than RAM, and the idea to

improve the computer performance by putting the most
frequently used data/instructions in a faster place.

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Memory

Storage (e.g. Harddisk)

Speed
Capacity

Memory (RAM)

Cache

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Input Devices

Input devices are used for receiving input from users.

Examples:

Mouse, Graphic tablet, Keyboard, Touchscreen

Scanner, Digital camera

Microphone

Magnetic card encoder and reader

Voice recognition system

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Output Devices

Output devices are used for producing output to users.

Examples:

Monitor

Speaker

Projector

Printer

Laser printers and inkjet printers are the two most common
types of printers.

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Storage
 Storage is used for storing data or information.
 Examples:
 Hard disks
 Optical discs
 Memory cards
 USB Flash drives
 Magnetic tapes

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Hard Drives: HDD vs SSD
(self-study)
HDD - Hard Disk Drive
it spins, with a mechanical arm writing and rewriting information on
the drive platter in different sectors
susceptible to sudden power loss, electric surges, and high levels
of magnetism

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Hard Drives: HDD vs SSD
(self-study)
SSD - Solid State Drive
no moving parts inside it
less likely to fail or experience damage due to movement, wear and tear
more reliable than HDD and have a longer life

functions at higher speed than HDD since it can randomly access

data at any time while the read/write arm of HDD must reach the
right sector of the rotating platter.
is entirely digital and saves information to microchips, like flash
drives

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Hard Drives: HDD vs SSD
(self-study)
SSD - Solid State Drive

a better choice for the user concerned with a fast boot up and quick
performance (for photo/video editing, rendering or other high-
processing tasks)

more expensive than HDD

If multiple hard drives are supported, users may consider

installing the operating system and applications on an SSD for
speed in startup and program operation, and utilize a second
HDD with greater storage capacity for the project files.
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Communication Devices
 Communication devices are used for communicating with other
computers.
 Examples:
 Routers

 Switches

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Other Components
 Besides the six components, we also need some other parts to
build a computer.
 The internal components and parts are usually integrated into
a piece called the system unit, which is protected by a metal or
plastic case.
 Different kinds of computers may have different sizes and
shapes of the system units.

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Other Components
 In the system unit, we have:
 motherboard to host and connect internal components such
as adapter cards
 ports to connect external devices (or peripherals)

 buses to transmit signals

 power supply to provide power

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Motherboard
 The motherboard is the main circuit board of the system unit.
 One main purpose of the motherboard is to provide the
electrical and logical connections by which the other
components of the system can communicate.
 Other components of the computer are either
attached/connected to the motherboard or built into it.

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Motherboard

Motherboard with connections

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Adapter Cards

 Adapter cards are used for PC to add functionalities.

 Special functional devices (mainly I/O devices), in the form of

circuit board called adapter cards or expansion cards, are
attached to the motherboard through expansion slots.
 Examples: display cards, sound cards, TV tuner/capture cards,
network cards
 In recently years, many functionalities are integrated into the
motherboard already, so adapter cards may not be needed.

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GPU (extra)

 A Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is a specialized processor

designed to accelerate graphics rendering and parallel
computing tasks.
 Key functions
 (Parallel Processing) Handles thousands of operations
simultaneously, ideal for rendering images and video
 (Graphics Rendering) Essential for gaming, video editing, and 3D
modeling

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GPU (extra)

 Applications
 gaming, machine learning, scientific simulations, cryptocurrency
mining
 Examples: NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4090, AMD Radeon RX 7900 XTX

source: www.nvidia.com

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NPU (extra)

 Neural Processing Unit (NPU)

 is a specialized microprocessor for accelerating AI and machine learning
tasks
 enhances performance and efficiency in AI applications

 Key Features
 high efficiency: optimized for parallel processing, faster and more
energy-efficient than CPUs and GPUs
 low latency: real-time processing for applications like voice
recognition and augmented reality

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NPU (extra)
 Applications
 smartphones: improves camera functions and voice assistants
 autonomous vehicles: processes sensor data for navigation
 healthcare: assists in medical imaging analysis

 Benefits
 improved performance: faster and more accurate AI workloads
 energy efficiency: reduces power consumption, extending battery
life
 enhanced user experience: enables advanced features in consumer
electronics

 Examples: Qualcomm Hexagon NPU, Google Edge TPU, Huawei

Ascend NPU, Khadas VIM3 NPU
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Copilot+ PC (extra)

 Typical specifications for a Copilot+ PC:

 Processor: Compatible processor or System on a Chip (SoC),
such as Snapdragon® X Plus or Snapdragon® X Elite.
 RAM: Minimum of 16 GB DDR5/LPDDR5.
 Storage: At least 256 GB SSD/UFS.
 Neural Processing Unit (NPU): Capable of performing 40+ trillion
operations per second (TOPS).
 Battery Life: Varies by model, but some can last up to 27 hours on
a single charge.
 Additional Features: Enhanced AI capabilities like automatic super
resolution, live captions, Paint Cocreator, and Windows Studio
Effects.
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Ports and Connectors

 In order to connect external devices (peripherals), the system

unit (motherboard) provides many kinds of ports and
connectors.

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Ports and Connectors (extra)

source: techgujarati.com
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Ports and Connectors (extra)

source: techgujarati.com
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Ports and Connectors (self-
study)
Universal Serial Bus (USB): a kind of interface between a
computer and other devices. USB 3.1 at max. rate 10Gbit/s

High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI): transfers digital

video and audio data. Max. rate 18Gbit/s

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Ports and Connectors (self-
study)
Infrared Data Association (IrDA): wireless data transfer through
infrared. Max rate 1Gbit/s.

Bluetooth: wireless data transfer with radio technology. Max.

rate 24Mbit/s.

WiFi: local area wireless computer network for electronic

devices. Popular application is wireless access point for Internet
connection. 802.11ad at max. rate 7Gbit/s.

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Software

Software are intangible sets of instructions prepared by users

that tell a computer what to do and how to do.

Mainly there are two kinds of software: system software and

application software.

System software handle tasks related to the system itself, e.g.,

resource allocation, maintain, and protect the system, etc.

Application software handle tasks related to users’ interests,

e.g., data processing tasks related to users’ work or school,
scientific computation, entertainment, communication, etc.
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Software

Based on how software is distributed, we have:

Packaged software, mass-produced, for retail.

Custom software, tailor-made for a business or industry.

Open source software and freeware usually describe freely available software.
Besides the program, open source software also come with source code and
may allow users to modify and redistribute them freely.

Shareware are mainly for trial purpose, so usually have time limits or function
limits.

Most of the software are copyrighted and have a certain license except public-
domain software, which means non-copyrighted software.

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BIOS (self-study)

BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System.

BIOS is a firmware

All motherboards need a firmware to operate.

Some aspects of BIOS can be configured by the user.

BIOS can provide information about the installed hardware (e.g.

CPU, RAM, hard drives and optical drives). This information can
be useful when troubleshooting.

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Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) is a set of programs containing

instructions that work together to coordinate all the activities
among computer hardware resources.

Functions of an operating system

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Operating Systems (extra)

DOS (Disk Operating System), developed in 1980s, for IBM compatible

PC, using CLI, not popular today.

MS Windows family, from 3.X, NT, 95, 98, Me, Server 2000, XP, Server
2003, Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10, Windows 11.

Apple’s macOS (e.g., Sonoma, Sequoia)

Unix/Linux, powerful, may not suitable for beginners. Linux is one of the
most famous open source (source code is freely available) software. Linux
is available for many different kinds of computer systems.

Network OS such as Netware and Solaris, and those for mobile devices
such as Android and iOS.

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Operating Systems (self-study)
Some major functions of an operating system are:

providing user interfaces

providing management functions

maintaining a device driver system

providing a set of utility programs

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Operating Systems - User
Interfaces (extra)
A user interface defines the ways how users can use their computers,
i.e., how to issue commands, input data, and receive output.
Two common kinds of interfaces are command line interface (CLI) and
graphical user interface (GUI).
In a command line interface a user types commands or presses special
keys on the keyboard to enter data and instructions.
In a graphical user interface a user mainly uses a pointing device such as
a mouse to interact with menus and visual images such as buttons and
other graphical objects to issue commands.
In recent years, the GUIs are more common and popular than CLIs.

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Operating Systems - Management
Functions (extra)
Modern computers usually allow multiple users to run multiple programs
at the same time. Such a feature is multitasking.
To support multitasking, the OS must provide program management such
that all programs in the memory can share the limited resources (CPU,
memory, and other hardware) nicely.
Memory management handles the use of the RAM so that each program
can have enough memory (working place) to hold the data and
instructions.
User management maintains user accounts and controls the activities a
user can perform in a computer.

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Operating Systems - Device driver
(self-study)
A device driver is a set of programs prepared by hardware manufacturers
that tells the OS how to operate the hardware.
Examples:
Maintain a buffer (memory) pool for the printer called spooling so that the print
job can queue up.
Maintain and establish the network connection, allow user to share resources
on the network, and provide protection at the same time.

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Operating Systems - Utilities
(self-study)
An OS also provides a set of utility programs to let users perform some
system related tasks.
Some utilities are:

File manager, let users to work with files and directories.

Disk utilities, let users to manage the hard disk and use the hard disk
more efficiently, also let users to detect and fix errors with the hard
disks

Uninstaller, diagnostic utility backup and restore utility, screen saver,

firewall, etc.

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Application Software

Application software can make users be more productive.

Common types of application software

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Reference

HDD vs SSD: https://www.storagereview.com/ssd_vs_hdd

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