‭Unit 1: Soil Investigation‬

S‭ oil Investigation:Types of foundation, Factors affecting the selection of type of foundations,‬

‭steps in choosing types of foundation based on soil condition, Objectives and planning of‬
‭exploration program, methods of exploration-wash boring and rotary drilling-depth of‬
‭boring, soil samples and soil samplers-representative and undisturbed sampling, field‬
‭penetration tests: SPT, SCPT, DCPT. Introduction to geophysical methods, Bore log and report‬
‭writing, data interpretation.‬
a‭ .‬ ‭ hat is soil investigation? What are the objectives of soil exploration?‬
W
‭b.‬ ‭Explain standard penetration test in detail with sketches.‬
‭c.‬ ‭Explain standard penetration test in detail with sketches‬
‭d.‬ ‭Explain seismic refraction method of soil exploration.‬
‭e.‬ ‭Explain different type of sample and sampler with diagram‬

‭Investigation of the site‬‭:‬

‭➔‬ ‭An investigation of the site is essential for judging its suitability for the proposed‬
‭engineering works and for preparing adequate and economic designs.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Site investigation is equally necessary for analysing the safety or causes of failure of‬
‭existing works, for selecting construction materials and for deciding upon the‬
‭construction methods to be applied.‬
‭➔‬ ‭In general, the purpose of a site investigation is to obtain necessary information‬
‭about the soil and hydrological conditions at the site and to know the engineering‬
‭properties of soil which will be affected.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A timely and intelligently planned site investigation should be considered a‬
‭prerequisite for efficient, safe, economical design and construction.‬

‭The object of site exploration‬

‭➔‬ ‭The object of site exploration is to provide reliable, specific and detailed information‬
‭about the soil and ground water conditions of the site which may be required for a‬
‭safe and economic design and execution of the engineering work.‬
‭➔‬ ‭For this purpose an exploration of the region likely to be affected by the proposed‬
‭works should yield precise information about the following:‬
‭1.‬ ‭the order of occurrence and extent of soil and rock strata,‬
‭2.‬ ‭the nature and engineering properties of the soil and rock formation, and‬
‭3.‬ ‭the location of ground water and its variation‬

‭ ata to be collected‬
D
‭Finding profile of soil (No. Of layers and thickness of Layers)‬
‭Position of Water table‬
‭Collection of soil sample‬
‭Finding the Engineering properties in Lab. Or field‬
‭Depth of exploration:‬
‭➔‬ ‭Exploration, in general, should be carried out to a depth upto which the increase in‬
‭pressure due to structural loading is likely to cause perceptible settlement or shear‬
‭failure.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Such a depth, known as the significant depth, depends upon the type of structure, its‬
‭weight, size, shape and disposition of the loaded areas, and the soil profile and its‬
‭properties.‬
‭➔‬ ‭It is generally safe to assume the significant depth upto a level at which the net‬
‭increase in vertical pressure becomes less than 10% of the initial overburden‬
‭pressure.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Alternatively, a pressure bulb bounded by an isobar of one-fifth or one-tenth of the‬
‭surface loading intensity is sometimes assumed to define the minimum depth of‬
‭exploration.‬
‭➔‬ ‭This depth may be assumed to be equal to one-and a half to two times the width‬
‭(smaller lateral dimension) of the loaded area.‬

T‭ ype of sample‬
‭Disturbed samples‬
‭➔‬ ‭can be obtained by direct excavations, augers and thick wall samplers.‬
‭➔‬ ‭For sampling saturated cohesionless soils, a trap valve or a spring sample retainer is‬
‭inserted in the drive shoe (cutting edge).‬
‭➔‬ ‭Sand pump and shell with a trap valve (flap) are also used.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The disturbed samples may be used for mechanical analysis, water content‬
‭determination, index properties tests, compaction and stabilization tests.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The split spoon samplers can be used for approximate determination of unconfined‬
‭compressive strength.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The samplers should be so transported and stored that the original composition is‬
‭preserved and the water content also does not change, if desired.‬

‭Undisturbed samples‬
‭➔‬ ‭may be required for tests on shear, consolidation, and permeability.‬
‭➔‬ ‭They can also be used for other tests like the disturbed samples.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Undisturbed samples are obtained by forcing a thin wall sampler into the soil at the‬
‭bottom of the bore hole or in a test pit.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The penetration of the sampler into the soil should be continuous and rapid.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The sampler should never be over driven so as to compress the sample. A piston‬
‭sampler may be used with advantage in soft soils, especially below the water table.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Undisturbed samples of cohesionless soils, especially from below the water table are‬
‭difficult to obtain.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A compressed air sampler may be used. It enables the sample to be removed from‬
‭the ground into an air chamber and then lifted to the ground surface without contact‬
‭with water of the drill hole.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A piston sampler with bore holes kept filled with drilling mud can also be used.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Alternative methods may be to impart cohesion to sand by asphaltic emulsions, or to‬
‭freeze the sand at the sampling depth or near the lower end of the sampler.‬

‭2‬
‭Type of sampler‬
‭1.‬ ‭Standard split spoon sampler‬
‭2.‬ ‭Scraper bucket sampler‬
‭3.‬ ‭Piston sampler‬

‭Open drive sampler or Standard split spoon sampler‬

‭➔‬ ‭It is a tube open at the lower end.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The sampler head is provided with vents (valve) to permit water and air to escape‬
‭during driving.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The check valve helps to retain samples when the sampler is lifted up.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The tube may be seamless or it may be split in two parts; in the latter case it is‬
‭known as a split tube or split spoon sampler.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The split tube may also contain an inside thin wall liner‬

‭Stationary piston sampler.‬

‭➔‬ ‭It contains a piston or plug attached to a long piston rod extending up to the ground‬
‭surface through the drill rod.‬
‭➔‬ ‭During lowering of the sampler through the hole, the lower end of the sampler is‬
‭kept closed with the piston.‬
‭➔‬ ‭When the desired sampling elevation is reached, the piston rod is clamped, thereby‬
‭keeping the piston stationary, and the sampler tube is advanced down into the soil.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The sampler is then lifted up, with a piston rod in the clamped position.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The piston prevents the entry of water and soil into the tube, when it is being‬
‭lowered, and then greatly helps to retain the sample during lifting operations.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Thus the sampler is more suitable for sampling soft soils and saturated sand.‬

‭Methods of soil exploration‬

‭1.‬ ‭Open excavation‬
‭2.‬ ‭Boring methods‬
‭3.‬ ‭Subsurface sounding‬
‭4.‬ ‭Geophysical Methods‬

‭1.Open excavations:‬
‭➔‬ ‭Test pits and trenches can be used for all types of soils.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Soils can be inspected in their natural condition and samples, disturbed or‬
‭undisturbed can be conveniently taken.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The cost of open excavations, however, increases rapidly with depth.‬
‭➔‬ ‭They are generally considered suitable for shallow depths (say upto 3 m).‬
‭➔‬ ‭For greater depths (over 6 m) and below ground water table, specially in previous‬
‭soils, measures for lateral support and groundwater lowering become necessary.‬

‭3‬
‭ oring Methods:‬
B
‭The methods of boring or drilling are: auger, auger and shell, wash boring, percussion‬
‭boring, and rotary boring.‬

‭Type boring‬
‭1.‬ ‭Auger Boring‬
‭2.‬ ‭Wash boring‬
‭3.‬ ‭Rotary boring‬

‭ uger boring.‬
A
‭Augers are used in cohesive and other soft soils above the water table.‬
‭Hand augers are used for depths upto about 6 m.‬
‭Mechanically operated augers are used for greater depths and they can also be used in‬
‭gravelly soils.‬
‭Figure 32.1 shows a post hole auger and a helical (spiral) auger.‬
‭Samples recovered from the soil brought up by augers are badly disturbed and are useful for‬
‭identification purposes only.‬
‭Auger boring is fairly satisfactory for highway explorations at shallow depths and for‬
‭exploring borrowing pits.‬

‭Wash boring.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Wash boring is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in all types of soils.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Boulders and rock cannot be penetrated by this method.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The method consists in first driving a casing through which a hollow drill rod with a‬
‭sharp chisel or chopping bit at the lower end is inserted.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod which is alternatively raised and‬
‭dropped, and also rotated.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The resulting chopping and jetting action of the bit and water disintegrates the soil.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The cuttings are forced up to the ground surface in the form of soil-water slurry‬
‭through the annular space between the drill rod and the casing.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The change of soil stratification could be guessed from the rate of progress and the‬
‭colour of the wash water.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The samples recovered from the wash water are almost valueless.‬
‭➔‬ ‭For interpreting the correct geotechnical properties of soil.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Figure 32.3 shows a set-up for wash boring.‬

‭4‬
‭5. Rotary Boring.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Rotary boring or rotary drilling is a very fast method of advancing holes in both rocks‬
‭and soils.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A drill bit, fixed to the lower end of drill rods, is rotated by a suitable chuck and is‬
‭always kept in firm contact with the bottom of the hole.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A drilling mud, usually a water solution of bentonite, with or without other‬
‭admixtures, is continuously forced down the hollow drillrods.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The mud returning upwards brings the cuttings to the surface.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The method is also known as mud rotary drilling and the hole usually requires no‬
‭casing.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Rotating core barrels, provided with commercial diamond-studded bits or a steel bit‬
‭with shots, are also used for rotary drilling and simultaneously obtaining the rock‬
‭cores or samples.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The method is then also known as core boring or core drilling.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Water is circulated down the drill rods during boring.‬

‭Sub surface sounding‬

‭1.‬ ‭Plate Load Test‬
‭2.‬ ‭Standard Penetration Test‬
‭3.‬ ‭Dynamic Cone Penetration Test‬
‭4.‬ ‭Static cone penetration test‬

‭ LATE LOAD TEST (IS 1888: 1982)‬

P
‭Plate load test is a field test to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, and the‬
‭probable settlement under a given loading.‬
‭The test essentially consists in loading a rigid plate at the foundation level, and determining‬
‭the settlements corresponding to each load increment.‬
‭The ultimate bearing capacity is then taken as the load at which the plate starts sinking at a‬
‭rapid rate.‬
‭The method assumes that down to the depth of influence of stresses, the soil strata is‬
‭reasonably uniform.‬

L‭ oading arrangement: The loading to the test plate may be applied with the help of a‬
‭hydraulic jack.‬
‭The reaction of the hydraulic jack may be borne by either of the following two methods:‬
‭Gravity loading platform method (Fig. 24.22)‬
‭In the case of gravity loading method, a platform is constructed over a vertical column‬
‭resting on the test plate, and the loading is done with the help of sand bags, stones or‬
‭concrete blocks.‬
‭The general arrangement of the test set-up for this method is shown in Fig. 24.22.‬
‭When load is applied to the plate, it sinks or settles.‬
‭The settlement of the plate is measured with the help of sensitive dial gauges.‬
‭For square plate, two dial gauges are used.‬
‭The dial gauges are mounted on independently supported datum bar: As the plate settles,‬
‭the ram of the dial gauge moves down and settlement is recorded.‬
‭The load is indicated on the load-gauge of the hydraulic jack.‬

‭5‬
‭ eaction truss method:‬
R
‭Figure 24.23 shows the arrangement when the reaction of the jack is borne by a reaction‬
‭truss.‬
‭The truss is held to the ground through soil anchors.‬
‭These anchors are firmly driven in the soil with the help of hammers.‬
‭The reaction truss is usually made of mild steel sections.‬
‭Guy ropes are used for the lateral stability of the truss.‬

I‭ndian Standard Code (IS: 1888-1982) recommends that the loading of the plate should‬
‭invariably be borne either by gravity loading platform (Fig. 24.22) or by the reaction truss‬
‭(Fig. 24.23).‬
‭The use of the reaction truss is more popular now-a-days since this is simple, quick and less‬
‭clumsy.‬
‭No support of the loading platform should be located within a distance of 3.5 times the size‬
‭of the test plate from its centre.‬

‭Limitations of Plate Load Test:‬

‭ .The test results reflect only the character of the soil located within a depth less than twice‬
1
‭the width of the bearing plate (corresponding to an isobar of one-tenth the loading intensity‬
‭at the test plate).‬
‭Since the foundations are generally larger, the settlement and resistance against shear‬
‭failure will depend on the properties of a much thicker stratum.‬

‭ .It is essentially a short duration test, and hence the test does not give the ultimate‬
2
‭settlement, particularly in the case of cohesive soil.‬

‭6‬
‭ .Another limitation is the effect of the size of foundation.‬
3
‭For clayey soils the ultimate pressure for a large foundation is the same as that for the test‬
‭plate.‬
‭But in dense sandy soils, the bearing capacity increases, with the size the foundation, and‬
‭the test on smaller size bearing plates tend to given conservative values.‬

‭PENETRATION TESTS‬
‭➔‬ ‭These tests involve the measurement of the resistance to penetration of a sampling‬
‭spoon, a cone or other shaped tools under dynamic or static loadings.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The resistance is empirically correlated with some of the engineering properties of‬
‭soil such as density index, consistency, bearing capacity, etc.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The values of these tests lie in the amount of experience behind them.‬
‭➔‬ ‭These tests are useful for general exploration of erratic soil profiles, for finding depth‬
‭to bed rock or hard stratum, and to have an approximate indication of the strength‬
‭and other properties of soils, particularly the cohesionless soils, from which it is‬
‭difficult to obtain undisturbed samples.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The two commonly used tests are the standard penetration test and the cone‬
‭penetration test.‬

‭Standard Penetration Test (IS 2131: 1981):‬

‭➔‬ ‭The test (IS: 2131-1981) is performed in a clean hole, 55 to 150 mm in diameter.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A casing or drilling mud is used to support the sides of the hole.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A thick- wall split-tube sampler, 50.8 mm OD and 35 mm ID, is driven into the‬
‭undisturbed soil at the bottom of the hole under the blows of a 63.5 kg drive weight‬
‭with 75 cm free fall. The minimum open length of the sample should be 60 cm.‬

‭7‬
 ‭Test procedure:‬
‭➔‬ ‭The split tube sampler, commonly known as split spoon sampler resting on‬
‭the bottom of the bore hole is allowed to sink under its own weight.‬
‭➔‬ ‭It is then seated 15 cm with the blows of the hammer falling through a height‬
‭of 75 cm.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Thereafter, the split spoon sampler is further driven by 30 cm or 50 blows‬
‭(except that driving shall cease before the split spoon sampler is full).‬
‭➔‬ ‭The number of blows required to affect each 15 cm penetration is recorded.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The first 15 cm of drive may be considered to be a seating drive.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The total blows required for the second and third 15 cm of penetration is‬
‭termed as the penetration resistance N.‬
‭➔‬ ‭If the split spoon sampler is driven less than 45 cm (total), then the‬
‭penetration resistance shall be for the last 30 cm of penetration.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The entire sampler may sometimes sink under its own weight when a very‬
‭soft subsoil stratum is encountered. Under such conditions, it may not be‬
‭necessary to give any blow to be a sampler and SPT value should be indicated‬
‭as zero.‬

‭GEOPHYSICAL METHODS‬
‭➔‬ ‭The geophysical methods of exploration were developed in connection with‬
‭prospecting for useful minerals and oils.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The major methods are gravitational, magnetic, seismic (refraction and reflection),‬
‭and electrical resistivity.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The seismic refraction and electrical resistivity methods are the most commonly used‬
‭for civil engineering purposes.‬

‭8‬
‭Seismic refraction method:‬
‭➔‬ ‭In this method, shock waves are created into the soil at their ground level or certain‬
‭depth below it by exploding small charges in the soil or by striking a plate on the soil‬
‭with a hammer.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The radiating shock waves are picked up by the vibration detector (also called‬
‭geophone, or seismometer), where the time of travel gets recorded.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Either a number of geophones are arranged along a line, or the shock producing‬
‭device is moved away from the geophone to produce shock waves at given intervals.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Some of the waves, known as direct or primary waves, travel directly from the shock‬
‭point along the ground surface and are picked up first by the geophone.‬
‭➔‬ ‭If the sub-soil comprises two or more distinct layers, some of the primary waves‬
‭travel downwards to the lower layer and get refracted at the interface.‬
‭➔‬ ‭If the underlying layer is denser, the refracted waves travel much faster.‬
‭➔‬ ‭They emerge again and reach the geophone.‬
‭➔‬ ‭As the distance between the shock point and the geophone increases, the refracted‬
‭waves are able to reach the geophone earlier than the direct waves.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Figure 32.6 shows the diagrammatical travel of the primary and refracted waves.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The results are plotted as a graph (Fig. 32.7) between distance versus time of travel‬
‭(ordinate).‬
‭➔‬ ‭The break in the curve represents the point of simultaneous arrival of the primary‬
‭and refracted waves, and its distance is known as the critical distance which is a‬
‭function of the seismic refraction method is fast and reliable in establishing profiles‬
‭of different strata provided the deeper layers have increasingly greater density and‬
‭thus higher velocities and also increasingly greater thickness.‬
‭➔‬ ‭If a blind zone i.e., a layer having a velocity lower than that of the upper layer, exists,‬
‭it cannot be detected by seisdmic refraction (Goodman and Karol, 1968).‬
‭➔‬ ‭Different kinds of materials, such as gravel, clay, hardpan, or rock have characteristic‬
‭seimic velocities and hence they may be identified by the distance-time graphs.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The exact type of material cannot, however, be recognised and explored. Should be‬
‭supplemented by boring soundings and sampling.‬

‭9‬
‭Electrical resistivity method:‬
‭➔‬ ‭The electrical resistivity method is based on the measurement and recording of‬
‭changes in the mean resistivity or apparent specific resistance of the various soils.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The resistivity (ohms-cm) is usually defined as the resistance (ohms) between‬
‭opposite faces of a unit cube (centimetre cube) of the material.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Each soil has its own resistivity depending upon water content, compaction and‬
‭composition; e.g. low for saturated silt and high for loose dry gravel or solid rock.‬
‭➔‬ ‭Battery milliameter the test is conducted by driving four metal spikes to serve as‬
‭electrodes (Fig. 32.8) into the ground along a straight line at equal distances.‬
‭➔‬ ‭A direct voltage is imposed between the two outer potentiometer electrodes and the‬
‭potential drop is measured between the inner electrodes.‬

‭The mean resistivity is given by the following formula:‬

‭10‬
 ‭➔‬ ‭To correctly interpret the resistivity data for knowing the nature and distribution of‬
‭soil formations, it is necessary to make preliminary trials or calibration tests on‬
‭known formations.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The depth of exploration is roughly proportional to the electrode spacing.‬
‭➔‬ ‭For knowing the horizontal changes in the sub-soil, the electrodes, kept at a constant‬
‭spacing, are moved as a group along the line of test.‬
‭➔‬ ‭This method is known as resistivity mapping.‬
‭➔‬ ‭For studying the vertical changes, the electrode system is expanded, about a fixed‬
‭central point, by increasing the spacing gradually from an initial small value to a‬
‭distance roughly equal to the depth of exploration desired.‬
‭➔‬ ‭The method is known as resistivity sounding.‬

‭11‬