Please note that this notes are not my own, I have

compiled from different authors, and they can be

revised from time to time

I appreciate the authors and colleagues in the

profession who came up with the reference
materials that I used for coming up with this notes
especially Barbara kayondo Tuhame, Kenneth Isiko

AMINU JAMES
ICT TEACHER

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 ICT CLASS NOTES

Table of Contents COMPUTER SOFWARE ......................................................................... 46

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING ........................................................ 3 SYSTEM SOFTWARE ......................................................................... 47
UNDERSTANDING A COMPUTER..................................................... 4 APPLICATION SOFTWARE .............................................................. 51
ORIGIN OF COMPUTING..................................................................... 7 COMPUTER COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING .................... 53
COMPUTER GENERATIONS ............................................................... 9 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER COMMUNICATION ................ 53
S
WORLD OF ICT ...................................................................................... 12 NETWORKS ......................................................................................... 55
USES OF ICT (COMPUTERS) IN THE SOCIETY ................................. 12 TYPES OF NETWORKS...................................................................... 57
CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS ........................................................... 16 NETWORK MODELS.......................................................................... 57
COMPUTER SYSTEM ............................................................................. 19 COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK ..................................................... 59
ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN COMPUTER USE ................................. 20 NETWORK TOPOLOGY..................................................................... 61
COMPUTER MANAGEMENT ................................................................ 21 DATA COMMUNICATION (TRANSMISSION) ................................... 64
FILE MANAGEMENT ......................................................................... 23 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA ....................................................... 65
FILE EXTENSIONS ............................................................................. 24 DATA TRANSMISION MODES ......................................................... 70
WORKING WITH FILES AND FOLDERS ......................................... 25 PACKET SWITCHING ........................................................................ 71
COMMON UTILITIES ............................................................................. 28 CIRCUIT SWITCHING ........................................................................ 72
COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE AND MAINTENANCE .............. 31 DATA SIGNAL TRANSMISSION METHODS.................................. 73
SECURE LABORATORY ENVIRONMENT...................................... 32 DATA COMMUNICATION TOOLS .................................................. 73
AREAS OF LABORATORY SECURITY ........................................... 33 INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) .................................. 76
COMPUTER HARDWARE.................................................................. 37 INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)............................................ 79
INPUT DEVICES .................................................................................. 37 INTERNET SERVICES ........................................................................ 80
OUTPUT DEVICES .............................................................................. 40 WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) ............................................................ 81
STORAGE DEVICES ........................................................................... 43 TYPES OF WEBSITES ........................................................................ 81
PROCESSING HARDWARE DEVICES ............................................. 45 NETIQUETTE ...................................................................................... 83

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CYBER LAW ........................................................................................ 84 ERROR ALERTS................................................................................ 113

E-MAIL (ELECTRONIC MAIL) .............................................................. 84 PRESENTATION SOFTWARE ............................................................. 115
CLOUD COMPUTING ............................................................................. 88 PRINCIPLES OF A GOOD PRESENTATION ................................. 115
GREEN COMPUTING ............................................................................. 89 FEATURES OF ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION SOFTWARE .... 116
SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUES AND EMERGING DATABASES ......................................................................................... 118
TECHNOLOGIES ..................................................................................... 90
TYPES OF DATABASES .................................................................. 118
COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY .................................................... 90
FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ........ 118
COMPUTER SYSTEM PHYSICAL SECIRITY ................................. 92
DATABASE OBJECTS ...................................................................... 120
INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACKS .......................................... 93
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES ............................................... 120
COMPUTER NETWORK ATTACKS ................................................. 93
DATA TYPES, FIELD PROPERTIES, VALIDATION CHECKS AND
COMPUTER CRIME ............................................................................ 95 ERRORS ............................................................................................. 121
THE CONCEPT OF GREEN COMPUTING ........................................... 98 WEB DESIGN ........................................................................................ 125
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES ............................................................... 99 IMPORTANT TERMS ....................................................................... 125
CAREERS IN THE ICT INDUSTRY (COMPUTER PROFESSIONALS) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD WEB SITE ............................... 126
................................................................................................................. 102
USES OF A WEB PAGE OR WEB SITE .......................................... 126
WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE ..................................................... 103
RELEVANCE OF SCHOOL WEBSITES .......................................... 126
WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE FEATURES ............................ 103
ELEMENTARY COMPUTER PROGRAMMING ................................ 128
BASIC TERMINOLOGY ................................................................... 104
CATEGORIES OF PROGRAMING LANGUAGES ......................... 130
SPREADSHEETS ................................................................................... 109
CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES .............. 130
TYPES OF SPREADSHEETS ............................................................ 109
THE PROGRAMMING PROCESS.................................................... 131
FEATURES OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE ...... 110
DEVELOPMENT OF ALGORITHM ................................................ 132
CELL REFERENCES ......................................................................... 113
PICTURES OF DIFFERENT ICT DEVICES ........................................ 135
FORMULAS........................................................................................ 113
LOGICAL FUNCTIONS .................................................................... 113
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING electronic device because they use or need power or electricity for
Introduction to Computers (Computers Today) them to function.
Computers are necessary in today’s society. We live in a fast Reasons for studying about computers
moving world where almost everything must come to us instantly.
1. To promote creative knowledge for problem solving
Many times, we depend on the computers to help us complete tasks
2. To get jobs in future, computing offers a wide range of high
and solve problem.
rewarding jobs
The digital age has affected all of our lives and today’s society is no
3. To create awareness in a learner about developments and
longer able to function without computer technology and therefore
emerging issues concerning computing and society
computers are very vital in today’s society as they make life easier
4. To promote critical and analytical thinking, computing drives
for everyone.
innovations in the sciences e.g. vaccine research, environment
Defining a computer
protection, business, education
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts user
5. To acquire skills in the use of information technology to enhance
input (data) processes it according to the special instruction
productivity and development in response to modern days we are
(programs) and provides output as information and stores
today
information for future use
6. To empower a learner as a computer literate and a capable
Alternatively
citizen who can develop, communicate and handle ICT
A computer is a general purpose machine which can receive data,
challenges
processes it, output information and store information for future use
7. To facilitate communication in the society
Computers come in different shapes and sizes and are often built
Advantages of computers
into other devices.
1) Computers are fast in doing work as compared to humans
Computers are programmable devices because they do things and
2) Computers identify mistakes e.g. when using application
operate under instructions (programs). Computers are referred as an
software
3) Computers are accurate and reliable in doing things as instructed
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

4) Computers are efficient in performing work  Computers lead to loss of information due to breakdown of a
5) Computers also enhance scientific research in different fields e.g. system
health, entertainment, education  Software piracy (stealing of softwares)
6) Computers have improved communication e.g. through use of  Moral degeneration as a result of watching pornographic content
emails, Skype and social networks like Facebook, twitter like blue movies, necked pictures
7) Computers have promoted education through online learning  Computers to day have become a source of unemployment in a
8) Computers have created employment opportunities e.g. society i.e. use of the computers in banks, homes and offices
secretaries, technicians, software engineering have rendered some people jobless
9) Computers have promoted innovation in various fields e.g.  Computers are vulnerable to hackers who later access
education, health, military and sports unauthorized information
10) Computers have a large data storage space for keeping  Computers depend on power since they are electronic devices
information  Computers have led to isolation of people in the society as they
Disadvantages of computers spend more time on computers than real human beings.
 Health hazards caused as a result of over use of computers e.g. UNDERSTANDING A COMPUTER
back ache, neck ache, wrist pain, fatigue, eye strain It is important to note that a computer is made up of a collection of

 Promotes pornography which is an evil to society e.g. different components (parts) that are interconnected together to

pornographic materials like Blue movies, necked picture. function as a single entity.

 Requires skilled man power thus pausing a challenge to the To understand well the parts of a computer, we will look at the

illiterate people desktop computer as it distinctly shows each part more than any

 They are delicate machines and requires special attention and other smaller computers like laptop or palmtop which have parts

proper handling e.g. it must be kept from dust free environment integrated together.

 The computer’s information is always vulnerable and corrupted

by viruses
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices Computer and It’s Parts
connected to the system unit known as Peripheral devices. The Monitor

basic components of a computer among others include the

following. Screen
System Unit
1. System unit,
2. Monitor/ screen,
3. Keyboard,
4. Mouse.
Mouse
If you have the four components listed above then you can say you
have a computer. Other parts you connect them especially when
there is need, they are also parts of a computer system Speaker Keyboard
Examples include among others the following. CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
Printer, Scanner, Digital camera, Joystick, Graphics Tablet, Buzzer, Here we are looking at the features of computers and they include
Plotter, Modem , Touch pad, Web camera, Projector, Track ball, the following.
Barcode reader , Pressure sensor, Optical character reader (OCR), Speed Computers are quite faster in their processing speeds
Light pen compared to humans. The operation speed of a computer is
measured in millions of instructions per second (MIPS).
Accuracy Once given right instructions computers are very precise
and exact. Computers hardly make mistakes, the errors made by the
computers are as a result of human errors or inaccurate data entered.
It follows therefore that if wrong data is fed into a computer, wrong
results are expected of the computer hence the saying Garbage in
Garbage Out (GIGO)
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

Diligence Computers have ability to perform the same task over for Information
a long time without getting tired or bored. Information is defined as processed data that has a meaning to the
Storage Computers are capable of storing or holding large amounts end user. Information helps the users to make informed decisions.
of data for a long time without losing it through there storage media Qualities of good information
like Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Compact Disks (CDS), Flash disks,  Complete- information should be dug to the finest levels of
special backup systems, Digital Versatile Disk (DVDS) etc. details
Artificial intelligence (AI) Computers have artificial intelligence,  Accurate- information should be error free
this means that they can receive and respond to request and  Economical- information gathering process should be cheaper
commands and provide solutions.  Simple- information should be easy to understand
Automation Computers receive instructions and has ability to work  Reliable- information should be easy to access at a time of need
with minimal supervision.  Current- information should be up to date
Versatility Modern computers perform different kinds of tasks  Relevant information should be meaningful
simultaneously (same time) e.g. you can play music while typing a INFORMATION PROCCESSING CYCLE
document. Definition
Adaptability Modern computers can comply with different settings This refers to the sequence of events that take place in processing
e.g. can be used as personal computers for home use, banking, data to convert it into information. The information cycle illustrates
communicating, entertainment etc. the stages through which data is transformed into information and it
DATA AND INFORMATION includes the following.
Data 1. Input-This refers to entering (feeding) data into the computer.
Data is defined as raw facts and figures that have less meaning to the Some of the computer devices used for input include; Keyboard,
end user. These are basic facts of an event in life for instance date Mouse, Digital camera, Joystick, Trackball, Touchscreen,
and time, cost price (unorganized facts e.g. a list of patients in the Microphone, Pointing stick, Graphic tablet and scanner etc.
hospital irrespective of their age, sex, size and status).
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2. Processing-This refers to performing operation on the data. The NOTE: Information can be in form of text, sound, pictures, videos
parts of a computer for processing is Central Processing Unit or combination of all the above.
(C.P.U) also sometimes referred to as a brain of the computer EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS
.examples of C.P.U include-Intel Pentium ii, iii, iv, The evolution of computers comes from a Latin word “evolve”
intel®core™2 Duo processor. which means to “Unroll or Unfold”
3. Storage –This refers to keeping data, instructions and Definition
information in allocation for future use. Examples of computer Evolution of computers refers to the stages or historical
parts used for storage are Random Access Memory (RAM), developments through which computers and technology have passed
Hard Disk, Flash Disk, CDs, and DVDs etc. from the time they started to exist in the ancient form to their current
4. Output-This refers to presenting (displaying) results state.
(information) using output device like projector, monitor screen, It is important to track down the origin of computers to better
printer, plotter, speakers, headsets etc. understand and compare the stages especially in terms of changes
AN ILLUSTRATION SHOWING THE INFORMATION and advances
PROCESSING CYCLE ORIGIN OF COMPUTING
Origin of computing started with the early man who used fingers,
Input stage Processing stage Output stage sticks, marks on the walls, sand etc. Over time, people have
developed amazing variety of data processing tools and techniques.
(Data) (Information)
Examples of counting devices of the ancient time include
Storage stage  Abacus

NB After the computer is done with processing data to convert  Napier’s Bones

into information. Then it’s ready for distribution or communication  Slide rule

using different appropriate technologies depending on the target

audience.
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

Abacus Examples of machines in the mechanical era and their uses

This is the earliest device to be used for adding and subtracting. It Pascal’s adding machine
was first used in japan and china (Asia) This was designed by a French philosopher and a mathematician
Slide Rule called Blaise Pascal, it was the first mechanical adding machine that
This device was invented in 1920’s by William Oughtred. The used a system of gears and wheels.
device was used to carry out addition, division, subtraction and Leibnitz’s Stepped Reckoner
multiplication. it was used as a primary calculator of the engineers This device was invented by a German man called Colt fried
th th
through the 19 and 20 Centuries William Leibniz. The device was used to perform arithmetic
Napier’s bones functions like addition, multiplication, subtraction and division.
The device was designed by John Napier. The device uses a set of Jacquard Weaving Loom
rods that looked like bones. It was designed to solve mathematical This device was invented by a French man who was a weaver known
calculations like multiplication, addition, division and subtraction. as Joseph Marie Jacquard. It was the first machine to store programs
this is similar on principle to modern slide rule. using metal punched cards with the holes to determine the setting for
THE MECHANICAL ERA (1623-1944) a loom. The loom could be programmed to weave the entire rug in a
Mechanical era was a period between 1623-1944, the machines in complicated pattern.
this era had the following characteristic Difference Engine
 They had moving parts This machine was invented by Professor Charles Babbage, an
 They produce heat because of the friction between the parts English man. He proposed a new calculator that was in many ways
 They would break down easily the fore runner of today’s computers. He was the professor of
 They made noise because of the moving parts mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He proposed the
 They were huge in size construction of a difference Engine that could carry mathematical
 They use electro-mechanical relays, drawls and gears calculations.
 Some of them could use punched cards for data storage

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Analytical Engine 2. 2nd Generation Computers

This was the engine which combines the concept of mechanized 3. 3rd Generation Computers
calculations and stored programs. This was also invented by Charles 4. 4th Generation Computers
Babbage who was referred to as a father of computers. He proposed 5. 5th Generation Computers
a possibility of even a more capable device, the steam-powered Each of the computer generations above had a major characteristic
machine that could manipulate and store data (development) commonly referred to as a hall mark and other
Programmed Loop distinct characteristics in terms of physical setup, technology,
The machine was invented by Ada Augusta Byron who collaborated software and setbacks
with Charles Babbage on some of his scientific writings and came Definition
up with a programmed loop. This device could be programmed to Computer generation is defined as an advancement of technology
conditionally loop (repeat) in order to carry out the sequence of steps over a period of years. Computers in a generation have similar
that bare part of mathematical calculations. characteristics.
Census Tabulation Machine 1st Generation Computers (1946-1956): Vacuum tube
This was a machine which used punched cards to store data and The 1st Generation computers used vacuum tubes. The vacuum tubes
tabulate data. The machine was first proposed by Charles Babbage were extremely important step in advancement of computers. The
and Ada Augusta Byron, but finally designed by Dr. Herman purpose was to act like an amplifier and switch. Without any moving
Hollerith in 1890, the device was used by the U.S government in parts, vacuum tubes could take every weak signal and make it
1890’s census. stronger.
Examples
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
Application of mechanical gears in computers stopped in the electro-  ENIAC- Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

mechanical era. Computers since 1946 have been organized into five  EDVAC- Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

generations.  UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer

1. 1st Generation Computers  TRANSOFF-BERRY Computers (ABC)

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Characteristics of computers in the 1st Generation  Computers gave less heat

 Computers were huge in size  Processing speed increased
 Used a thousand of vacuum tubes for data processing  Computer became small
 Had so many wires 3rd Generation Computers (1964-1979): Integrated Circuits
 They had maintenance problem Here computers used integrated circuits (IC). An IC was just a
 They had limited primary memory combination of thousands of transistors and tinny wires onto a small
 They generated a lot of heat chip made of semi-conductor material such as silicon
 They consume a lot of power Examples
2nd Generation Computers (1957-1963): Transistors  PDP-8
The computers in this generation used transistors. A transistor is a  HP-2115
semi-conductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals.  First minicomputer e.g. IBM360 and ICL-19000 Series
The invention replaced vacuum tubes and paved way for smaller and Characteristics of computers in the 3rd Generation
cheaper computers  Computers used integrated circuits
Examples  Introduction of an operating system e.g. Multics
 IBM 305 RAMAC- Random Access Method of Accounting  There was use of parallel processing
and Control  Low cost computers were produced
 IBM 1401  Computers were more smaller
 CDC 6600- Control Data Corporation  Computers consumed less power
nd th
Characteristics of computers in the 2 Generation 4 Generation Computers (1979-1989): Micro Processors
 Computers used s for internal operations Microprocessors are VLSI device (Very Large Scale Integration
 Introduction of high level programming language e.g. Circuit) is a process of creating integrated circuit by combining a
BASIC and COBOL thousand of transistors into a single chip. Microprocessor sits in the
 Computers became less expensive heart of a computer and most workstation computers.
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

Examples  IPAD (2010)

 The Xerox alto Characteristics of computers in the 5th Generation
 IBM 5100  Computers use artificial intelligence
 Apple Macintosh (Mouse driven machine with Graphic User  Small sized computers are being used today
Interface)  They behave like humans because of AI
Characteristics of computers in the 4th Generation  Computers are so fast
 Use of large scale integration and very large scale integration  Computers generate less heat
circuit  Computers consume less power
 Computers became more powerful
 Computers were less expensive
 Laptop computers are produced
 Computers were relatively small
 Computers were speedy
 Computers consume less power
5th Generation Computers (1990-present): Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the ability of a computer to assume
human capabilities for example the five senses (to hear, see, feel,
taste, smell) plus understanding communication, reasoning, learning,
planning and problem solving
Examples
 TOPIO (2007) “Tosy Ping Pong Playing Robot” humanoid
robot designed to play tennis against human
 Hospital robots
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

WORLD OF ICTS both positive and negative impacts to our society. Computers in the
ICT -Stands for Information and Communication Technology. society can be applied and used in the following areas
It is defined as a diverse set of technological tools and resources  Education
used to create, store, manage and communicate information.  Research
It’s a comprehensive term that includes any communication device  Business
or application encompassing.  Health
 Radio  Communication
 Television  Military
 Cellular phones  Home
 Computer and Network hardware and software  Entertainment
 Satellite system etc.  Transport
Alternatively, ICT can be defined as the integration of computers  Astronomy
and telecommunication services for purpose of communication. However, every day the list is growing and others may soon surface.
USES OF ICT (COMPUTERS) IN THE SOCIETY Uses of computers in Education
In today’s daily activities and problems, computers are being used to
 In teaching we use computer assisted instructions (CAI) by use
preform different tasks and they have assisted to handle and solve
of interactive white boards and projectors in class.
daily challenges and problems in different fields.
 Computer aided learning(CAL) gives access to on screen
In this part of the world, the mostly used ICT tools in the society
learning materials
include Computers, mobile phones, internet, Radio, television,
 Computer aided assessments (CAA) Helps teachers to mark
satellite and the related software systems.
pupil’s books and answer scripts.
The advancement of science arouses the dilemma of development of
 Computers are used to generate timetables.
technology as it affects human individuals. They have come with
 Computers are used to store information.

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 Distance learning through computer based training has been  Computers are used for communication between business and
made possible i.e. people get awards such as degrees without customers.
going to class.  Computers are used for e-banking.
 Preparing students report cards. Uses of computers in health
 Analyzing students’ performance.  Computers are used for drawing duty rosters.
 Quick communication between students, teachers and parents.  Making appointments with patients.
 Accessing the internet.  Computers are used in the hospital for research purposes
 For research purposes.  Laboratory tests and making reports.
Uses of computers in research  Monitoring patients conditions such as cardiac arrest,
- Storage of research information hypertension.
- Research publishing-Research work can be converted to portable  Identifying drugs including labels, expiry dates and harmful side
document format (PDF) and published in the World Wide Web effects.
(WWW).  Performing surgery.
- A lot of statistical softwares are available for performing Uses of computers in communication
calculation and analyzing research. Sending and receiving of E-mails.
Uses of computers in business Chatting with friends, relatives and family members.
 Designing company logos, headed stationery and business cards. Computers are used for video conferencing i.e. they enable to
 Designing advertising and promotional material. conduct meetings in different locations as if they are in the same
 Banks use computers to manage transactions. location.
 Computers are used for electronic commerce i.e. sale of goods Computers enable people to send voice, image, and text through
and services over the internet. mobile phones.
 Computers are used for budgeting. Accessing the internet.
Text messaging.
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Uses of computers in military and security  Read a book, newspaper, magazine on line when connected to
 To keep databases of the fingerprints. the internet.
 Used in electronic intelligence gathering and military laser guide Uses of computers in transport
missile system.  Monitoring highway traffic.
 Used for base face recognition to analyze the traffic offenders  Used to tell schedules of water vessels trains, buses to their
and criminals. respective stations.
Uses of computers at home  Coordinate timing of street lights to traffic conditions.
Storing family photos.  Provide current traffic alerts or emergency calls.
Editing family videos.  Used to manage cargo at the airport.
Accessing the internet. Uses of computers in office
Conducting on line shopping.  For preparing and printing documents.
Communication with others.  Used for record keeping and storage of information.
Doing homework or school assignments.  Facilitates communication through use of internet services like
Playing video games. emails.
Paying utility bills.  Used for scheduling activities in the offices and managing
Playing and listening to music. routines.
Reading your computerized bible. Uses of computers in astronomy
Uses of computers in entertainment (leisure) Computers are responsible for rocket guiding.
 Playing video games. Computers are essential tools for studying the behavior of
 Listening to music using audio soft wares. computer systems in the space as regards to their movements and
 Watching videos or movies. interactions etc.
 Composing and editing videos using video editing software. NB: Astronomy is the study of the sun, moon, stars and the planets
 Used in ceremonies for playing music. plus other objects and phenomena in the space.
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Uses of computers in sports  Use of computers requires additional effort on learning how to
 Computers are used to analyze and design new plays make draft use computers and their programs.
picks and day today business operations in sports.  Electronic fraud-stealing money electronically through practices
 Special computers are used to record important plays of a match. like credit card cloning.
Uses of computers in government  Hacking refers to unauthorized access into a computer system
 Vehicle registration. information and compromising privacy.
 Public record keeping.  Impact on environment –computer manufacturing processes and
 Revenue collection. computer waste are depleting natural resources and polluting
 Civil and military research. environment.
 Electronic voting.  Presence of computer viruses causes loss of data or information.
 Financial modeling to predict expenditure requirements.  Moral decay due to access to internet website with pornographic
 Processing census information. content which have a bad impact on the users of computer
DISADVANTAGES, DEMERITS, IMPLICATIONS OF USING especially the young.
COMPUTERS IN THE SOCIETY  Computers are delicate and must be given great care.
 Addiction due to over use of computers for long hours  Software piracy- stealing of softwares not paying for license
 Health issues caused as a result of over use of computers like eye through cracking.
strain, back and neck ache.  Computers have come with unemployment as most of the jobs
 Risk of decrease in our creativity, reasoning and skills as we are are now done by the computers hence leaving out people with no
dependent to much in computers e.g. E-mail replacing hand jobs.
written letters
 Computers have destroyed the culture of certain group of people
especially the youth

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CATEGORIES OF COMPUTERS Digital computers are computers that represent data as discrete
(CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS) values of 0 and 1. The binary digits simply mean presence or
Computers can be categorized according to the process they
absence of an electric pulse.
represent data. People communicate through speech by combining
Digital computers are more accurate
words into sentences. Human speech is analog because it uses
Examples
continuous signals that vary in strength and quality.
 Laptop computers
Computer categories are basic three
 Digital watches
1. Analogue computers
 All PCs
2. Digital computers
Hybrid computers these computers combine the desirable features
3. Hybrid computers
of analog and digital computers. Hybrid computers accept analog
Analogue computers are computers in which numerical data are
signals and convert them to digital for processing.
represented by measured physical variables such as voltage,
It is mostly used for automatic operations of complicated physical
temperature
processes and machines. Now days analog to digital and digital to
It generally deals with physical variables such as temperature,
analog converters are being use for transforming data into a suitable
weight, voltage, pressure, speed. The given results by analog
form for either type of computation.
computers are approximate since they deal with quantities that vary.
Hybrid computers are mainly used in specialized tasks.
Almost all the measuring devices are analog computers
Examples
Examples
 Digital petrol pumps
 Thermometers
 Hybrid meters that measure analog quantities like electricity
 Ammeters, speedometers, barometers
usage and speed.
 Traditional automatic watches
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified in different ways and the three major
categories of computers i.e. analog, digital, and hybrid is computer

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 ICT CLASS NOTES

classification by process. Apart from computer classification by Characteristics

process there are other ways computers can be classified and they  They are large and have a high processing speed
include the following  They have high memory space
Classification by  They have extensive input/output capabilities
 Size  they accommodate many users at the same time (500-1000)
 Purpose  they support a wide range of peripheral devices
 Functions Each user uses a separate keyboard and monitor but one CPU and
 Processor power they can be found in large companies, central government and banks
Computer classification by size 3. Minicomputers
Under this classification, the computers are categorized depending  They are smaller than mainframe computers they can be used
on the physical size and the number of users the computer can by 50-500 users at the same time
accommodate at the same time and can be grouped in four classes  They have a high storage capacity but lower than a
1. Super computers mainframe computer
Characteristics of super computers  they have a high processing speed but lower than a
 They are the biggest in size mainframe computer
 They have high mathematical capacity and are used for They are found in medium size organizations, government
complex calculations department e.g. local government
 They can process millions of instructions in few seconds 4. Microcomputers
 They are expensive Micro computers are sometimes referred as Personal Computers
2. Mainframe computers (PCs) because they are designed to accommodate only one person at
These are large general purpose computers with a high processing a time.
speed. Examples
 Desktop computers
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 Laptops Classification by function

 Palmtop According to function, we base on what a computer can do and how
 Notebooks they do them. The following are the computers classified under this
 Personal Digital Assistant (PDAs) Networked computers these are computers connected by a channel
Characteristic of microcomputers to other computers so that they can communicate with each other
 They are the smallest computers in physical size and share resources like data, internet connection, printers
 They have a high processing speed Stand-alone computer this is a computer that operates and does
 They have low storage capacity compared to others everything independently i.e. fax machine, MODEM
 They consume less power Real time systems these are systems that respond to an event that
 They are portable because of their small size has occurred within a certain specified time frame i.e. banking
Classification by purpose systems
Here computers are classified according to the work they are Integrated systems are a group of interconnected units that form a
designed to do. They are categorized into functioning computer system. They have separate programs that
Special purpose machines there are computers that are designed to perform separate functions but contribute to the same output.
handle only specific tasks. Their form of operation is restricted in Classification by processor power
nature. Examples include digital watches, pocket calculators. They Here computers are classified according to the speed with which a
can be employed in devices like missiles computer responds to the user request.
General purpose machines these are computers that are designed to Processor power has been rapidly increasing due to the change and
solve a wide range of tasks and problems. They perform a variety of advancement in technology, computers are getting faster and faster
tasks by means of specially written programs. They can perform each year and new microprocessor chip is introduced.
calculation, keep date and time, process documents, store databases Examples
 Pentium I
 Pentium II
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

 Pentium III includes input devices, output devices, storage devices, and
 Pentium IV processing devices
 Pentium Duo 2. Computer Software
 Intel CORE i3 These are electronic instructions that tell a computer how to perform
 Intel CORE i5 a task. The computer software is intangible and is grouped into
 Intel CORE i7 etc. system software and application software
NB: the unit for measuring the processor power is the hertz 3. Computer Human Ware
COMPUTER SYSTEM This is the most important component of a computer system. It
A system is a collection of interrelated interacting components that refers to people who operate and initialize instructions to the
work together to achieve a common goal. computer system. They are the users of computers
A computer system is defined as a collection of required hardware They design and develop computers systems, operate hardware,
(input, output, storage, processing devices), software and human create softwares and establish procedures for carrying out tasks.
ware required for a computer to perform as expected. The kinds of computer users
Failure of one component in a system may imply failure for the Ordinary user- is someone without much technical knowledge of
whole system. computers but uses computers to produce information for
Elements/components of a computer system professional or personal tasks and enhance learning or have fun
The computer system basically consist of many components which Professional user - is a person in a profession involving computers
include the following who has had a formal education in the technical aspects of
1. Computer Hardware computers e.g. web master, programmers
Is a term used to describe all various physical devices of a computer, 4. Procedure
in other words they are tangible components of a computer, things These are policies, standards and methods to be followed in using,
that can be touched with bare hands and felt, computer hardware operating and maintaining an information system.

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Specification for use, operation and maintenance of information 6. Thou shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you
systems are collected in help facility, user manuals, and similar have not paid
documentation and are commonly delivered in electronic form 7. Thou shall not use other people’s computer resources without
5. Computer Data authorization
Refer to raw facts and figures that are processed into information, 8. Thou shall not appropriate other people’s intellectual output
data can be numbers, text, video, audio 9. Thou shall think about social consequences of the program you
6. Computer Communication are writing or a system you are designing
Communication refers to electronic sending and receiving of data 10. Thou shall always use a computer in ways that ensure
(information) over a channel between two or more computers. It consideration and respect for your fellow humans
allows the sharing of hardware, software and transfer of data and
information stored among computers in a network like internet.
ETHICS AND INTEGRITY IN COMPUTER USE
Computer ethics refer to human values and moral conduct for a
computer user. It can also be defined as right or wrong behavior
exercised when using computers
Computer integrity refers to the loyalty or faithfulness to
principled set of laws regarding computer use
Ten Commandments for computer ethics
1. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people
2. Thou shall not interfere with other people’s computer work
3. Thou shall not snoop around in other people’s computer files
4. Thou shall not use a computer to steal
5. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness

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COMPUTER MANAGEMENT Instances when booting of a computer may fail

BOOTING PROCESS OF A COMPUTER 1) When the bootable device like hard disk drive is unavailable
Definition of booting 2) When there is no operating system installed
Booting refers to the startup sequence of the operating system of a 3) In case of hard disk crush
computer when is turned on or restarted. The boot sequence/ steps a PC follows during the boot process
Types of booting 1. The CPU activates the Basic input/output system (BIOS)
There are two types of booting and they include the following.  BIO refers to a program that manages the data between the
1. Cold booting operating system and all the input and output devices
2. Warm booting attached to the system.
Cold booting refers to starting a computer when it was originally off  BIOS is also responsible for loading the operating system
(both the operating system and hard ware is started) from its permanent location on the hard drive into RAM.
Warm booting refers to restarting a computer without interrupting 2. BIOS conducts POST (Power-on-self test) to check all the
the power supply (only the operating system is started) attached devices are in place and in a working order.
The continued supply of power allows certain initialization tasks to 3. BIOS loads the operating system from the hard drive to RAM.
be skipped in reboot compared to the cold boot and re-initialization 4. The registry is checked for further configurations and
might complete faster. customization, if everything has been checked out and is loaded
Circumstances under which warm boot is carried out. properly,
1) When a computer has frozen or hanged - Important utilities like antivirus are started
2) After installing new program/software - The desktop appears on the monitor and the computer
3) When a computer slows down system is ready to accept your first command.
4) After installing a new hardware device Boot Devices
5) In case one wants to recover from errors Boot devices are devices from which the operating system is loaded.
Modern PC BIOS supports booting from various devices and these
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include Local hard disk drive, optical drive, floppy drive, a network The concept of a computer program
interface card and USB device. A computer program is a sequence (set) of instruction written to
Computer system start up and shut down perform a specific task with a computer. Computer programs tell a
This focuses on how to start and shut down a computer, in other computer how to do things.
words its putting on and off a computer. A computer is not complete without a program to instruct it on how
How to start up a computer to operate, therefore if you buy a computer, you will need to install
The process is as follows programs before it starts to work for example Operating system,
1) First make sure you have a stable power source micro office suite
2) Make sure all the plugs are well connected There are two major programs needed on a computer before you
3) Turn on the power from a wall socket, UPS, start using a computer and they include
4) Press a power button on the monitor, 1) System software (mainly operating system)
5) Press a power button of the system unit, 2) The application software
6) The computer should now start to boot and load windows Operating system is a program that is designed to control all other
7) If the welcome screen appears, select your username and small programs and hardware. Examples of operating systems
enter password include windows operating system, Macintosh operating system,
8) The desktop should now appear Linux, Unix, Ubuntu.
9) Give it time to load the elements and start up programs Ways of staring computer program on windows operating
How to shut down or turn off the computer system
The process is as follows To start an application program on windows operating system
1) Close all running applications/ programs 1) Using a mouse
2) Click on the start button on the desktop 1. Click on start button on the desktop
3) From the start menu displayed click turn-off or shutdown 2. Click all programs
3. Click on a program you want to use e.g. Microsoft office
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4. Select on either Microsoft word, Access, Publisher, 7) On the Run dialog box, type Publisher and press enter to
PowerPoint etc. open MS Publisher
2) Using a keyboard
FILE MANAGEMENT
1. Press the windows key on the keyboard File management is also referred as simply a file system, it refers to
2. Use arrow keys to move up and down the start menu a system that an operating system or program uses to organize and
3. Press enter key e.g. when Microsoft office is selected keep track of files.
4. Use arrow keys to move to MS word, excel, Power Point Most windows operating system use hierarchical file system and it is
etc. the one that uses directories to store files in a tree like structure
5. Press enter key when the program you want is selected inside of the folder or directories.
3) A computer program can also be opened by double clicking A file
on its icon on the desktop A file is a collection of data or information that has a unique name
4) Using command prompt called file name.
1) Click on the start button Almost all information that is stored in a computer must be in a file,
2) Click on Run… it can be anything from a word file to music files, video or photo
3) On the Run dialog box, type winword and press enter to files.
open MS word, Text file contain written text and are called word documents, other
4) On the Run dialog box, type excel and press enter to examples of text files are PDF (Portable Document Format), Web
open MS excel pages, picture files
5) On the Run dialog box, type PowrePoint and press enter All the above files have different formats for example.
to open MS PowerPoint  JPEG, GIF, BMP for images
6) On the Run dialog box, type MS Access and press enter  MP3, WAN, WMV, AIF for Audio
to open MS Access  MPEG, WMV, MOV for Video

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FILE EXTENSIONS NB: A number of file attributes exists including the read only file
File extension is a group of letters occurring after a period in a file attribute, system file attribute, hidden file attribute, compressed file
name. It indicates the type and purpose or content of a file. attribute and the achieve file attribute.
A file extension is the last part of a file name after a dot or period for TYPES OF FILES IN WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
example There are mainly two types of files in windows operating system and
 .ZIP for zipped files these include the following.
 .db. for database files System files
 .doc for Microsoft Word documents, Is an executable file (in machine language) that is part of the
 .ppt for power point operating system or other control programs that contains critical files
 .xls for Microsoft excel needed for smooth running of the OS for example Syste.ini,
 .pub for Microsoft publisher System.dii.
 .acc for MS access Application files
FILE FORMAT. Application files are also referred to as program files. These are files
Definition that hold application program data or directions e.g. Doc files are
File format refers to a standard way that information is encoded for application file for Microsoft word application.
storage in a computer file. It specifies how bits are used to encode A folder
information in a digital storage medium. File formats may either be A folder is a directory that can contain other folders or files within it
proprietary or free and may be either published or open. e.g. I have a picture called flower. JPG and I saved it on my
FILE ATTRIBUTE. computer somewhere. If I saved it at C:/Documents and
Definition settings/administrator/my pictures:
Files attribute also referred to as attribute in windows is specific My picture is in the folder that contains the file flower.JPG.
condition in which a file or directory can exists

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Sub-Folder WORKING WITH FILES AND FOLDERS

A sub –folder / sub directory is a folder or directory in another folder How to create a new file

/directory. You can create a new file in any program and give each of them a

STORAGE LOCATION unique and meaningful name that will help you organize your work.

Definition In most programs the file menu is where you open, save, and create

This is a location on the computer where you save your files or new files.

folders e.g. my documents, my computer, my network places etc. Steps

ICON 1) Click the file menu in the program you are using and then

An icon is a picture on a screen that represents specific file/ folder, click new.

hardware resource, program etc. 2) When you are finished working with the new file.

NB: You can open a program/ folder/ file by double clicking its 3) Click the file menu again.

icon. Icons are one of the fundamental features of the Graphical User 4) And then click save as.

Interface (GUI). 5) Select the location you want to save the file

WINDOWS DESKTOP 6) Type file name in the file name box

Definition 7) Click save to save it on your computer.

Desktop is a primary user interface of a computer. It’s the screen How to create a folder on windows desktop

which you see when the windows operating system is loading its Steps

program. 1. Get to the windows desktop

NB: In windows, the desktop includes a task bar which is located in 2. Right click on any blank portion of the desktop.

the bottom of the screen. 3. In the menu that appears.

4. Click new and then folder
5. A new folder will appear and type the name of the folder you
want and then press enter key.

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Alternatively 4. If you use right click and drag, you are offered the options of
1. Open my computer/windows explorer moving or copying the item when you place it via a smart tag
2. Open the drive/ folder you wish to create a folder on e.g. the ( little icon that appears )
C: drive. 5. And if you want to create a copy of the file/folder in another
3. If you do not wish to create a folder in the root directory, location on your computer, right-click the item and choose
browse to the location of your choice. copy.
4. Right click on blank portion of the folder then click new and 6. Use windows explorer to navigate to the location where you
click folder. want to place a copy; right- click it choose paste or press.
How to move a file or folder in windows Ctrl + V to paste.
There are several ways to do this; we will discuss one of them. Click the close button.
Steps 1. You can find the close button in the upper right corner of the
1) Choose start → all programs → accessories → windows XP. windows explorer window to close the window.
2) The start button is located at the bottom; left hand corner of NB You can create a file/ folder in another folder like said before.
your desktop screen. Steps
3) Locate the file that you want to move. 1. Open the folder.
4) Double -click folder or series of folders to locate the file. 2. Right-click on any empty space
Move the file/ folder (copying, dragging and pasting). 3. Select new folder/ file type.
You move the file one or two ways; 4. Type folder name and press enter.
1. Your first option is to click and drag the file to another folder 5. For file you will be prompted to enter file name to save.
in the folder pane on the left side of the window To delete a file/ folder
2. Second option is to right click the file and choose send to. Options
3. Then choose from the option shown in the submenu that 1) There are many ways to do that.
appears 2) Right-click on folder/ file.
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3) Select delete. To do all the above, right click on any free space on the desktop and
4) Or select or click on folder/file once and press the delete key select properties option and use the dialogue box that shows up to
on the keyboard. set all that you want to set.
THE RECYLE BIN MAJOR ICONS ON THE DESKTOP
Just like the name suggests it’s a bin like a dust bin. It holds all Mostly on most computers, on the desktop you will find icons of
temporary deleted items both folders and files. frequently visited locations and programs like web browsers.
From the recycle bin then you can choose to delete it permanently or So therefore most computers show.
restore it to the location you deleted it from. 1. My computer icon shortcut to access all files and directories
To restore a file or folder on the computer.
1. Open the recycle bin by double clicking on its icon. 2. Mozilla Firefox/internet explorer icon all these are shortcuts
2. Right click on the file/ folder to select delete/ restore. for opening the browser in order to access the way on
Customizing the desktop internet.
This refers to changing your desktop appearance to what you want it 3. Recycle-bin icon- This is where every temporary deleted
to look like. You can mainly change; files / folders are kept waiting for either to be restored or
1) The desktop background image/ theme. deleted permanently.
2) The color theme. 4. My document icon- this is a short cut to access all documents
3) Change which icons/ shortcuts to appear on desktop created on the computer.
4) Resize the taskbar TASKBAR
5) Change appearance position of the start menu It is the bar that spans the bottom of a screen and contains the start
6) Font size of desktop icon names. button on the left side and the system tray on the right. The task bar
7) Screen resolution. also includes the current time on the far right side and can hold
8) Desktop color quality shortcuts to programs directly to the right of the start button.
9) Select screen saver and screen saver wait time
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

COMMON UTILITIES 5. Disk cleaner finds files that are necessary to operating system to
Definition of utility program: take up considerable amounts of space. They help the user to
Utility programs commonly referred to as just “utilities” are decide on which files to delete when their hard disks are full.
software programs that add functionality to your computer or help 6. Disk compression utility transparently compress and
your computer to perform better. uncompressing the content in the disk hence increasing the
These include but not limited to antivirus, back up, disk repair, file capacity of the disk.
management, security and networking programs. 7. Disk defragmenter detects computer files whose content are

Utilities can also be application such as screen savers, font and icon broken across the several locations on the hard disk and move

tools and desktop documents. the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
8. Antivirus used to detect and remove viruses examples of
Some utility programs help keep your computer free from unwanted antivirus utilities include Kaspersky, Norton, Smadav, avast
software such as viruses or spyware while others add functionality antivirus.
that allows you to customize your desktop and user interface. 9. Data recovery utilities used to restore or recover files or
Examples of Utility programs information that has been deleted accidently example is the
1. File viewer is used to view files and manage files in a computer. recycle bin, Norton unerase wizard.
Example is windows explorer. 10. Merging utility involves combining data from more than one
2. File compressor is used to shrink or reduce the size of files file into a single file.
example is WinZip. 11. Sort utility used for taking in data and re-arranging it in any
3. Diagnostic utilities used to detect problems of hardware and prescribed order.
software. 12. Disk repair utility used to check your disk for defects and make
4. Disk scanner is used to detect physical and logical problems of repairs immediately for example Norton disk doctor.
disk. 13. Search utility used to search and find files in a computer e.g.
Ava find
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14. Backup utility they make duplicate copies of every file on either File compression
internal or external media as security file for reference in case File compression utility is a software program that is used to
the original file is lost or destroyed. compress and decompress files. This is the process of reducing the
15. Screen saver are designed to prevent phosphor burn on CRT size of a file by almost 40% of the original size. Examples of
and plasma computer monitors by blanking or filling the screen compression utilities include WinZip, 7Zip, PDF (Portable
with moving images or patterns when the computer is idle (not in Document Format) etc.
use). How to compress files and attach it using WinZip
Uses and functions of utility programs 1. Simply right-click on the file or folder you want to zip
i. They are used to detect and remove computer viruses e.g. 2. Choose zip and email from the submenu
Antivirus utility like Kaspersky, Smadav. 3. WinZip will compress a file items in the temporal zip file
ii. Used for merging this is combining data from more than one 4. Create new email message and attach the file to it.
file into a single file e.g. emerging utility. 5. You can then address and email the message as you normally
iii. Used for copying files e.g. copy utility would do.
iv. Used for backing up data this is moving the content of a file 6. WinZip will automatically delete the temporary zip file when it
into a backup storage device e.g. backup utility. is no longer needed.
v. Used for renaming files e.g. rename utility. How to search for the files in windows operation system
vi. Used for searching and finding files e.g. search utility. In windows you can search for the following
vii. Used for data recovery e.g. data recovery utility  Pictures: music and video (multimedia files)
viii. Used for repairing damaged files.  Documents: word processing files, spread sheet files, text
ix. Used for defragmenting the hard disk e.g. disk defragmenter. etc.
x. Used for sorting data e.g. sort utilities  All folders and files: everything on a removable media, your
hard drive etc.

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 Computer or people: computers that are part of the network 3) Click accessories
group or people in your outlook address box. 4) Click system tools then click defragmenter
 Information in help and support center: MS help 5) If you are prompted for an admin password or confirmation,
documentation for windows XP professional. type the password or provide confirmation
Steps: 6) Click defragment Now
1) Click on the start button
2) Click search
3) In a search companion click files or folder
4) Click the down arrow bellow to look in
5) Click on the dive, folder, or the disk you wish to search.
6) Click search button.
Disk defragmentation
Disk defragmenter is a utility in MS windows designed to increase
access speed by re-arranging files stored on a disk to occupy
contiguous storage locations, a technique called defragmentation.
NOTE: Defragmenting a disk minimizes head on travel which
reduces the time it takes to read files from and write files to the disk.
Example of disk defragmenter is Disk defrag
Disk defragmenter runs on schedule but you can also defragment
your hard disk manually
How to defragment a hard disk in Windows operating system
1) Open disk defragmenter by clicking start button
2) Click all programs
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COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE AND MAINTENANCE  Being able to use a mouse to interact with elements on the
screen
 Being able to use a computer keyboard
 Being able to use computer softwares to perform basic tasks
 Being able to shut down a computer properly after use
Advanced Computer Skills
1) Computer programming
2) Understanding the problem of data security
3) Use computer for scientific research

Computer Literacy 4) Fixing software conflicts

Computer literacy is defined as the knowledge and ability of a 5) Repairing computer hardware
person to use computers and other related technologies efficiently. It Advantages of being a computer literate in 21st Century
can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer i. Stay in touch with the world this is through email and
programs and other applications that are associated with computers. internet
It ranges from skills covering levels from elementary use to ii. Entertainment great games, music, movies, e-books to pass
programming and advanced problem solving. time and leisure
Computer Skills iii. Great for everyday things such as paying bills (electricity
Computer skills refer to the ability of a person to use software and bills, water bills), access your bank account, read newspapers
hardware of a computer. Computer skills are divided into two etc.
categories. iv. Online shopping of goods and services over the internet
Basic Computer Skills v. Multitude of information for example you can get a lot of
 Knowing how to switch on a computer information about an actor, an event, or even academic
research.
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vi. Greater earning opportunity this is through downloading free SECURE LABORATORY ENVIRONMENT
music, softwares and later sale them to make money Computer Laboratory

vii. Greater access to resources like softwares, movies, music, A computer laboratory refers to a room set aside for teaching and

academic research etc. learning of computers and other related technology. It can also be

Disadvantages defined as a place where computers and other related technological

1) Promotes pornography which is an evil to a society for equipments are kept.

examples watching pornographic materials like blue movies, Basic equipment that should be found in the computer

necked pictures etc. laboratory

2) Health hazards caused especially when you over use There are a number of equipments that can be found in a computer

computers for example eye strain, back ache, neck ache, laboratory and they include the following.

wrist pain. 1. Student stations (computers)

3) Moral degeneration as a result of watching pornographic 2. Server

material from the internet websites which contain damaging 3. Switch

information like blue movies, necked pictures. 4. Management station

4) Computers today have led to isolation of people in the Others include printers, loud speakers, cameras, scanners, and

society as they spend much of their time with computers than projector

real human beings. 1. Student station these are computers that the students use

5) Wasted time on useless chats on social media like Facebook, regularly during practical classes

twitter 2. Server this stores a copy of work stations operating system

6) Forgery for example use of computer equipment to forge 3. Switch is a network device to which all computers are

documents and other things connected

7) Virus attack which causes loss of information 4. Management station this is a computer that the teacher uses
to guide learners during practical classes

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AREAS OF LABORATORY SECURITY c) Working with an experienced electrician to avoid loses

1. Physical security caused as a result of blown up equipment
This deals with the safety of all the physical equipment and how 3. Security cameras
they are protected from both internal and external thieves. This deals with having CCTV cameras planted or installed in roof
You can ensure physical security by: corners at entrances to computer laboratory to look at the users
a) Use of proper locking equipment like metallic doors and remotely from the control room.
windows 4. First Aid Boxes
b) Use of burglar proofs in windows and doors These hold kits to give first help in case of an accident in the
c) Employ security personnel to guard during day and night computer laboratory.
d) Employ a computer lab attendant to monitor and guide users You can ensure this by:
the time  Having a first aid box with equipment that can give first help to
e) Putting physical identification marks on computer any victim of either a power shock, breakdown or fluid pouring
components in on a keyboard.
f) Making sure that the computer laboratory is well locked with  Having a technician tool box to handle minor computer repairs
modern windows and doors 5. Fire Extinguishers
2. Electric power supply These hold carbon dioxide which can be used to combat fire in case
This includes the safety of both the users and electric equipment of fire outbreak in the computer laboratory.
used in the computer laboratory like computers, printers, projectors, You can ensure this by:
switch etc. Always having a well serviced fire extinguishers to help in case of
You can ensure electric power security by: fire outbreak
a) Proper cabling using trunks 6. Air condition system
b) Avoid laying cables in the pathways This system provides cool environment for both users and computers
in the lab. A good air condition system is necessary to cool the
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processing computers and for comfort of the computers users in the 3) No hand bags or back bags are allowed in the computer lab
lab. 4) Students must strictly come with one book and a pen for
7. Backup System taking notes
Backup system for all softwares, information, data and setups, this 5) Student must be smart before coming to the computer lab
handles having copies of all the softwares, data and information. 6) Sit where an instructor or a teacher allocates you
General safety precautions when in the computer laboratory 7) Avoid unnecessary movements and noise in the computer lab
1. Avoid smocking and exposing computers to dust 8) Do not touch any of the computer device in-front of you
2. Avoid carrying food and beverages to the computer lab unless you are told to do so by an instructor
3. Avoid unnecessary movements in a computer lab 9) Stand up smartly and walk out of the computer lab at every
4. Follow the correct procedure for shutting down the computer end of the lesson
to avoid data loss 10) Avoid transfer of stools or seats unless you are told to do so
5. Do not open metallic covers of computers or peripheral by the instructor
devices when computers are on and without permission 11) Avoid touching or playing around with socket switches in the
6. All power cables, network cables must be properly insulated computer lab
and well laid away from busy pathways in the room to avoid 12) Avoid writing on cables and any other materials in the
danger of exposing the users to electric shock and computer lab
interrupting network communication. Servicing and maintenance of a computer system
7. Computer lab should have a well serviced fire extinguisher to Computer maintenance means the software and hardware is cleaned,
put off fire in case of out beak. fine-tuned and better prepared for the unexpected.
Computer Rules and Regulations Servicing and maintenance of the computer system involves the
1) Never enter to the computer lab unless you are told to do so following
by the teacher 1. Hardware servicing and maintenance
2) Do not bring any kinds of drinks or eats in the computer lab 2. Information system servicing and maintenance
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

3. Software servicing and maintenance 5. Use updated antivirus software

4. Disk or file maintenance 6. Use updated system software and hardware
a) Hardware servicing and maintenance 7. Keep your computer clean by blowing it regularly using a
This is the testing and cleaning of equipment using relevant tools blower to remove dust that has accumulated
like blower 8. Use PC cleaning softwares like c-cleaners
b) Information system servicing and maintenance 9. Where possible carry your computer on you
This is routine updating of master files such as adding and How to ensure safety of computers in the computer laboratory
deleting employees, customers and changing credit limits and 1. Use cable locks on computer as visual deterrents
product prices. 2. Do not leave your unsecured computer unattended to
c) Software servicing and maintenance 3. Backup your data on schedule
This is the updating of application programs in order to meet the 4. Keep your antivirus and firewall software updated
changing information requirements such as adding new functions 5. Make sure the computer lab is well locked with modern
and changing data formats, it also includes fixing bugs and windows and doors
adapting software to a new hardware device. 6. Put physical identification marks on computer components
d) Disk or file maintenance 7. Employ security personnel to guard the computer lab day and
This is the periodic re-organization of disk files that have night
become fragmented due to continuous updating. 8. Employ a computer lab attendant to monitor and guide users
Cautions when using a computer all the time
1. Keep your hands clean 9. Use proper locking equipment like metallic doors and
2. Backup your data windows
3. Ensure that the computer is used in a place that is safe, clean, 10. Use burglar proofs in windows and doors
and dry not too hot, not too cold
4. Use passwords to restrict access to computers
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

Maintenance of computer in a good working condition 6. It reduces operational cost of an enterprise in a long run
1) Regular servicing should be done for both hardware and 7. Encourages driver compatibility
software Terms used in computer preventive maintenance
2) Computer require special cleaning even on outside and Software update
hardware parts This provides bug fixes and minor software enhancements and is
3) Always use regularly updated antivirus softwares to protect made available by free download. Software update is sometime
computers from viruses and worms referred us software patch because it is applied over a software that
4) Carry out disk defragmentation where necessary you currently use already have installed in your computer.
5) Always use optimizer utilities to modify programs to make Hardware update
the computer to improve on the performance and increase on This is the act of bringing a computer hardware device up to date by
speed acquiring a new one or replacing a specific part of the component
Advantages of servicing and maintaining a computer system e.g. putting anew motherboard in a computer system unit.
1. It speeds up your computer Software upgrade
2. It is a preventive measure to protect your computer from Is the purchase of a newer version of the software you currently use
viruses and other malware for example keeping your of a more fully featured version that provides better performance.
antivirus updated will make it detect and remove viruses Hardware upgrade
from the computer before getting to your computer. This is to replace a hardware device with one that provides better
3. Prevents loss of information this is by hackers or intruders performance
who may get familiar with your computer system as they Software installation
monitor it over time and end up getting to unauthorized This refers to setting up for use a computer software program on the
information. computer
4. Increases productivity of both a hardware and software
5. Gives a computer a long life
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

Fine tuning (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and
This means making small adjustments to a computer in order to control signals to an information processing system such as
obtain optimum performance for example adjusting display computer or other information appliance.
appearances on a monitor Each input device inputs data in specialized way. This means each
input device is designed to enter specific type of data. So the device
COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a to be used depends on the type of data to be put.

computer, objects that you can actually touch. The data to be entered into a computer may take the following

Examples forms;

Monitor, key board, computer data storage, Hard Disk Drive, mouse,  Graphics

printers, CPU, graphic cards, sound cards, memory, mother board,  Images/photos/pictures

chips, etc.  Sound (audio)

In contrast software is untouchable. Software exists as ideas,  Videos(moving pictures)

application, concepts, and symbols, but it has no substance.  Text

NB a combination of hardware and software forms a usable Examples of input devices include

computing system. Keyboard, Mouse, Joy stick, Scanner, Digital camera, Touch

Computer hard ware is divided in to; screens, Touch pad, Game pad, Microphone, Electronic white board

1. Input devices CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER INPUT DEVICES.

 Keyboard(keying input devices)
2. Output devices
This is a primary input and control device of a computer. Data and
3. Processor devices
commands are entered through a keyboard. Keyboards are usually
4. Storage devices
modeled after typewriter, however, they now include thumb sized
INPUT DEVICES
A computer input device refers to any tool that feeds data into a keypad for cell phones and numeric keyboards similar to a

computer. In general computing, an input device is any peripheral calculator. It has the following parts.

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 ICT CLASS NOTES

a) Typewriter area this is a part that looks like a typewriter Function of keyboard buttons
keyboard 1) Space bar (longest button) it is used to create space within
b) Function Keys these are labeled F1-F12 that have different words and characters.
functions in different programs 2) Backspace it erases data on the left of the cursor and highlighted
c) Numeric keypad this is similar to a calculator and can be data
utilized as an adding machine once the Num lock is off. it is 3) Enter key pressing enter key takes you to a new line
usually located on the right side of the keyboard. 4) Delete Erases data on the right of the cursor and any highlighted
d) Special Keys on a computer keyboard, there are keys which are data
not found on a typewriter keyboard. These keys are the once 5) Shift is held down to turn on the capital letters and some
called special keys. they include Alt (Alternate), and Ctrl symbols like ?, !, >, <
(Control) 6) Caps Lock this turns on capital letters and vice versa (Upper
e) Cursor control Keys a cursor is a blinking bar on the screen case and lower case)
which indicates where a text should be. When the cursor fails to 7) Num Lock it makes the number pad active and vice versa
come, you cannot enter data in a computer. cursor control keys 8) Tab it can be used to create space in word document. it can also
include Home, End, Pagedown, Pageup, Insert, Arrow keys be used to navigate in group of icons, short cuts, menu items
The structure of a standard keyboard 9) End takes the cursor to the end of a line or when pressed it takes
the cursor to the end of the text
10) Home takes the cursor to the beginning of a line or when pressed
it takes the cursor at the beginning of a text
11) Escape (Esc) Terminates a process i.e. cancels commands in
most situations

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12) Alternate (Alt) used in a combination with other keys to Functions of a mouse
produce a certain results e.g. Alt+Ctrl+Delete restarts a Pointing this means positioning over an items
computer Clicking this means pressing and releasing a mouse button one time
13) Control (Ctrl) it is used in combination with other keys to Double-Clicking this means to press and release a mouse button
produce a result twice in a quick succession
14) Page up takes you up the page Dragging this is moving of items around the screen
15) Page down takes you down the page Steps for Dragging
16) Insert allows the insertion of characters or text between a word 1) Position the pointer over an item
or replacing of a text or word 2) Press and hold down the left mouse button
17) Print screen (PrtSc) allows you to print all content on the 3) While still holding down, move the mouse to the desired
screen place
18) Scroll Lock allows you to control the scroll bar 4) Release the button
19) Pause/Break allows you to stop recursive information being  Video input devices(scanning input devices)
displayed on the screen Video input devices send image data in to a computer. Video input
20) Function Keys this perform specific functions depending on the devices include digital cameras, scanners and barcode readers.
application package e.g. most applications use F1 for help  Audio input devices(voice input)
 Mice(mouse)/pointing input devices Audio input devices capture sound and send it to a computer. The
This is a device that controls the movement of a pointer on the most common input device is a microphone; but there is also MIDI
screen. It is an extension of your hand since you cannot touch inside keyboards and digitals instruments.
the computer. A mouse has three buttons i.e. Left button, right  Touch screens
button and a scroll wheel Touch screens are used by touching display areas by either fingers or
stylus. They can be found on PDAs, mobile phones video games and
tablet PCs
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

OUTPUT DEVICES Hardcopy is data from a computer printed out on paper.

A computer output devices. These are devices through which Softcopy output devices
computer processed or stored data is displayed or communicated to Loudspeakers, headphones, screen/monitors, projector, television,
the computer user. automotive navigation system, voice output communication aid
NB: output can be either in the form of hard copy or soft copy. Softcopy is electronic/digital document file held on a computer
Generally an output device is any piece of computer hardware memory.
equipment used to communicate the results of data processing PRINTER
carried out by an information processing system such as a computer This is an output device which processes hard copies of computer
which converts electrically generated information into human processed data. Printers are of different types and they include
readable form. 1. Impact printer
NB: The most common computer output devices are the monitor and 2. Non-impact printer
speakers. These two devices provide instant feedback to the user IMPACT PRINTER
input such as displaying characters as they are typed or playing a These are printers where the print element strikes the paper. Impact
song selected from the play list. printers include Dot Matrix printers, Daisy wheel printers, line
Other examples of output devices include printers, character printers.
 Headphones Characteristics of impact printers
 Printers  They print by force
 Projectors  Produce some noise while printing
 Lighting control systems  They are relatively slow
 Audio recording devices  They use ribbons at times
 Robotic machines  They are less expensive
Hardcopy output devices
Printers, plotters etc.

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Advantages of impact printers Advantages of non-impact printers

1) They are less expensive 1) They are fast in printing
2) They are easy to maintain 2) They produce better quality output
3) They are reliable 3) They hardly produce noise
4) They print on continuous papers 4) They do not overheat
Disadvantages of impact printers 5) They consume little power
1) They are slow in printing Disadvantages of non-impact printers
2) They produce noise when printing 1. They are expensive to buy
3) They have low print resolution 2. They are expensive to maintain
4) The head usually overheats during long hours of printing 3. They cannot print on continuous paper
5) They cannot print graphics Factors to consider when purchasing a new printer
1) Print quality
NON-IMPACT PRINTER
2) Initial costs/price
These are printers based on scanning technologies to produce hard
3) Running costs, the cost of maintaining an ink jet printer is
copies for example ink jet printers, laser jet printers, thermal printers
higher than that of laser jet
Characteristic of Non-Impact printers
4) Speed, the speed of a printer is measured in pages per minute
1. They hardly produce noise
(PPM)
2. Produce relatively better quality output
5) Colour printing
3. Produce coloured output
4. They are relatively faster when printing
5. They use toner
6. They are relatively expensive
7. They are available in a variety of sizes

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MONITOR Disadvantages
This is a TV like device which produces screen oriented soft copies  Emit higher electromagnetic radiation (EMR) than LCD
of processed or store data in a computer. There are two types of monitors
monitors  Consume a lot of energy than LCD monitors
 Bigger in size and not portable
 The occupy a lot of space
 They are heavy hence not easy to transport
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor
Uses a liquid crystal to create images on the screen, LCD monitors
Cathode Ray Tube Monitor Liquid Crystal Display Monitor produce colour using either passive or active matrix technology
Advantages of LCD monitors
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor  Consume less energy compared to CRT monitors
Works like a standard television because it also contains a cathode  They are smaller in size compared to CRT monitors
ray tube. The front of the CRT is the screen, which is coated with  They are light and portable
tiny dots of phosphor material  Radiations emitted by LCD monitor is negligible
Advantages of CRT Monitor Disadvantages of LCD monitors
 Can provide fast and rich colour output  They are more expensive than CRT monitors
 They have a very wide viewing angle  They have a very narrow viewing angle
 Cheaper than LCD monitors  They have a slow response time
 They initialize very quickly

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STORAGE DEVICES RAM takes the form of integrated circuits and it is used to
Storage devices are devices that are used in a computer to record and temporary store data and allows quick access to this stored data.
keep data or information and instructions. There are many types of
data storage devices some of them can be classified as removable or There are three major forms of modern RAM and they include the

non-removable data storage devices. following

There are two types of memory 1. SRAM - Static Random Access Memory

1. Primary memory 2. DRAM – Dynamic Random Access Memory

2. Secondary memory 3. PRAM- Phase-change memory Random Access Memory

Primary memory (main memory) Characteristic of RAM

The main memory consists of 1. RAM is writable and readable

 RAM and ROM 2. RAM is a volatile storage meaning the content of RAM are
lost when power is switched off
RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is a volatile memory, meaning the content of RAM can be lost 3. RAM is much faster than ROM due to the nature it stores

in case of sudden power loss or switch off. information

RAM holds data or programs that the CPU is currently processing 4. RAM is a temporary storage

(active programs) that is why RAM is sometimes referred as a ROM (Read Only Memory)

working memory. RAM is the only memory that is directly accessed ROM is a class of non-volatile storage device that is programmed in

by the CPU and allows data to be accessed directly in random order, creation, it cannot be reprogrammed at any later time. Data stored in

in contrast other data storage devices such as CDs, DVDs, and ROM cannot be modified therefore ROM is mainly used to store

magnetic tapes as well as early primary memory types such as drum firmware

memory read and write data only in a predetermined order A firmware is software that is closely tied to specific hardware and

consecutively because of mechanical design limitations. unlikely to need any frequent updates.

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Types of ROM 1) Technology used to store data

PROM- Programmable Read Only Memory 2) Capacity of data they can hold
EEPROM- Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory 3) Size of the storage device
Characteristics of ROM 4) Portability of the storage device
1) ROM is only readable but not writable 5) Access time to store data
2) ROM is a non-volatile storage meaning the content of ROM Currently the most common forms of secondary storage devices are
cannot be lost in case of power switch off  Floppy disks
3) ROM is a permanent storage  Hard Disks
Secondary memory (Auxiliary/Backup memory)  Optical disks
Secondary storage differs from primary storage in that it is not  Magnetic tapes
directly accessed by the CPU. Secondary storage devices are used to  Solid state devices
store data in a permanent manner, which means all data will remain 1) Magnetic tape is a sequential storage medium used for data
stored whether power is switched off, in other words power has no collection, backup and archiving like video tape, computer tape.
effect on the system. 2) Solid state devices these are storage device that is purely
Examples of secondary storage devices include electronic with no moving parts, solid state devices are generally
1) Hard Disk Drive faster, more reliable and less expensive. For example RAM
2) CDs, Transistors, Memory card, USB flash etc.
3) DVDs 3) Optical disk is a plastic coated disk that stores digital data such
4) Flash Disk as music or text. It is read with a laser scanning the surface, they
5) Memory Card/USB data card are also called laser disks examples include CDs, DVDs etc.
There exist different types of secondary storage devices each of Care for discs and diskettes
them suitable for different purpose. They mainly differ in the  Do not bend or pocket discs or floppies
following aspects  Do not touch exposed data parts
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

 Do not apply paraffin, petrol or acid They supplement RAM and facilitate backup
 Do not expose them to magnetic fields Provide more permanent data storage if compared to RAM
 Do not attach chip or rubber bands Dis advantages
 Do not write or label using hands or sharp objects Relatively expensive
 Do not scratch them Relatively heavy
 Store them bottom down They are virus prone
Advantages of floppies Can crash leading to information loss
Cheaper compared to other storage media Factors to consider when choosing the storage device to use
Protected in plastic coating i. The type of data to be stored
Facilitates data transfer ii. The price of the storage device
They are in standard sizes for example 31/2, 51/2, 81/2 iii. The amount of data to be stored
They can be easily edited iv. Portability of the storage device
Flexible and light making it portable v. The durability of the storage device
Disadvantages vi. The availability of the storage device
 They are virus transfer agents PROCESSING HARDWARE DEVICES
 They have a very limited storage These are devices that are used to compute or manipulate data. The

 They are relatively not very durable major example of processing device is the Central Processing Unit

 They have slow data access and storage (CPU).

Advantages of Hard Disk Drives CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The CPU is also called the processor and it is the main component of
They offer more data storage space
a computer. All processing activities of a computer are performed
Always available
and done inside the processor, the CPU sometimes is referred as the
They are faster in data access and storage when compared to
brain of the computer and it provides ability to a computer to
floppies
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

execute a given instruction and also tell the computer how to control 4. Directs the movements of electronic signals between CPU,
the flow of instructions. Input, memory, and output devices
The CPU is housed inside the system unit, it is mounted on a circuit Registers
board called a motherboard or system board. These are additional storage locations in the CPU which hold data
The CPU consists of three major parts or components namely and instructions temporary during processing
1) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
2) Control Unit (CU) COMPUTER SOFWARE
3) Registers The usefulness of the computer hardware depends a lot on available
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) software and ability of the users to use, monitor and control the
This unit of the CPU is capable of performing arithmetic and logical utilization of the software.
operations. It gets data from the computer memory and performs Computer software is defined as a set of instructions that govern the
arithmetic and logical operations like addition, multiplication, operations of a computer. It is a series of instructions that are
subtraction, division and comparison of two numbers to see which arranged in a logical way to run a computer. They tell a computer
number is greater than the other. what to do and how to do it.
Control Unit (CU) Softwares are classified into two categories which include
This unit of the processor controls all activities of the processor and 1. System software
also controls the input and output devices of the computer. 2. Application software
The control unit performs the following functions Each of the above categories of softwares perform different tasks
1. Fetches and sends commands to system devices and Characteristics of good software
peripherals 1) Security the software should make it possible to secure data and
2. Interprets commands i.e. it is the intermediary between the hardware from external threats
user and computer 2) Efficiency the software should make effective use of the storage
3. Controls and times all tasks by CPU space and execute commands as per desired time requirements
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3) Correctness software should meet all the specifications stated c) Programming languages
by the customer Operating system
4) User friendly the amount of time or effort required to learn how Is a generalized program that manages and coordinates all activities
to use a software should be minimal taking place with in a computer system, It serves as an interface
5) Reliability the software products should have no defects and between a user and the computer as well as between application
should not fail while in execution software programs and hardware devices.
6) Integrity a good software should not have side effects Application programs usually require an operating system in order
7) Safety a good software should not be hazardous to both for them to function, in other words, an operating system is the first
environment and human life software to be installed in a computer before other softwares like
8) Maintainability software should be easy to upgrade for more application software are installed.
functionality Examples of operating systems include the following
9) Portability the ability of a software to perform the same i. Windows operating system
functions across different platforms and environment e.g. same ii. Macintosh operating system
performance on Dell, Acer, and HP iii. Linux
10) Cost software should be affordable in terms of cost iv. UNIX
SYSTEM SOFTWARE v. Ubuntu
System software is a set of programs that control and maintain the vi. Symbian and Android for mobile phones
operations of the computer and its devices such as CPU Types of an Operating system
System software serves as an interface between the user, application a) Multi user operating system allows many users to access a
software and computer hardware. System software is categorized computer all at the same time
into three major categories which include b) Single user operating system allows only one user to run a single
a) Operating system application at a time
b) Utility programs

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c) Multitasking operating system allows more than one program to Disadvantages of GUI
run at the same time  They need significantly more memory and processing power to
d) Single tasking operating system allows only one program to run
execute at a time and the program must finish executing  It occupies more disk space to hold all files for different
completely before the next program can begin functions
User application (Human Computer Interaction)  It is difficult to automate functions for expert users
An operating system can interact with users mainly in two ways  They can be irritating to experienced users when simple tasks
1) Graphical User Interface (GUI) require a number of operations
2) Command Line Interface (CLI) Command Line Interface (CLI)
Graphical User Interface (GUI) This is an operating system where a user interacts with the hardware
This is an operating system that provides graphics and icons in form and software using commands that are entered in the command line
of pictures and text that guide the user when interacting with the screen displayed by the operating system to the user.
computer hardware and software. This operating system is not user friendly because it does not have
This operating system is user friendly and has WIMP (Windows WIMP features
Icon Menu Pointing device) features Advantages of CLI
Advantages of GUI  It uses fewest system resources in terms of memory and
1) User friendly because it is easy to learn and work with processor power
2) There is no need to type and memorize any command language  It is faster for expert users because they can quickly access
3) The interface is similar for any application commands
4) GUI has coloured screen with icons each representing a program  Many commands can be grouped together as batch files so that
which is appealing to the user respective tasks can be automated
5) It has help documents

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Disadvantages of CLI 11. Provides user interface for interaction

 It is not user friendly because it does not have WIMP features 12. Managing memory i.e. allocation of memory to programs
 It is difficult to use because the commands are hard to memorize 13. Managing processor
 Text editing can be strict and tiresome because commands have 14. Spooling of print jobs
to be typed 15. Manages computer hardware and software security
 It is time consuming because if you mistype an instruction, it Utility programs
often necessary to start from scratch Utility programs commonly referred to as just “utilities” are
 For efficient use, it requires the user to learn complex commands software programs that add functionality to your computer or help
Functions of an operating system your computer to perform better.
1. Resource management allocates computer resources such as These include but not limited to antivirus, back up, disk repair, file
CPU time, main memory and input/output devices for use management, security and networking programs.
2. Data management govern the input/output of data and their Programming languages and computer programming
location storage and retrieval Programming language is an artificial language used to write a
3. Job/task management prepares, schedules, controls and sequence of instructions called programs that can be run by a
monitors jobs submitted for execution to ensure the most computer.
efficient processing TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
4. Helps in booting of computer 1) 1st Generation Languages(Machine Language)
5. Error handling deals with errors during program execution These are languages that provide basic computer language
6. Provides file management representing memory location, instructions and data in 1 and 0
7. Executing application programs (binary numbers)
8. Interprets commands executed by the user Characteristics of 1st Generation Languages
9. Handles disk input/output settings i. They are used directly by a computer without interpretation
10. Formatting storage devices like flash disks ii. They are machine or computer dependent
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iii. They are less user friendly not very easy to learn, write and BASIC Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
correct FORTRAN Formula Translation
iv. They are typical of the 1st generation computers Characteristics of 3rd Generation Languages
v. They allow a programmer to pay more attention to other  They are less technical
problems  They are user friendly
vi. More technical if compared to others  They are a bit slow since they need to be interpreted to a
2) 2nd Generation languages( assembly languages) machine language first
th
These are languages that allow programmers to use abbreviations or 4) 4 Generation languages
easily remembered words instead of binary codes. Use mnemonic These are non-procedural or Rapid Application Development
code instead of binary codes for example tools where programs are written by telling the computer what to
Mult = multiply do as opposed to a step-by-step process. For example
Div = divide SQL( Structured Query Language)
STO =store NOMAN
nd
Characteristics of 2 Generation Languages FOCAS
 Less technical compared to machine language C++
 More flexible 5) 5th Generation languages (Natural Languages)
 User friendly compared to machine language These are programming languages which questions or commands to
 Faster compared to machine languages be performed in a more conversational manner or in alternative
rd
3) 3 Generation Languages ( High level languages) forms.
These are languages that use direct English words during Language translators
programming process. They are not machine dependent and can be These are programming tools which change programs written in 2nd,
used on more than one kind of computer for example 3rd, 4th, and 5th generation languages into a machine language or
COBOL Common Business Oriented Language
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

code (0 and 1) which the computer can understand. There are three 6. Object code refers to the statements of a particular computer
major types of language translators and they include program that can either be read by the computer directly or
1) Assemblers after further translation
2) Compilers
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
3) Interpreters Application softwares are softwares that are designed to accomplish
a) Assemblers is a program that translates the assembly language specific tasks for a user. Today, there are millions of commercial
program into a machine language software products that cover a variety of tasks such as
b) Compilers is a program that converts the entire program written  Making personal and business activities more efficient
in high level language into a machine language  Assisting with graphics and multimedia projects
c) An interpreter is a program that converts each high level  Supporting house hold activities
language statement into a machine language and executes it  Improving education
immediately line by line or statement by statement.  Facilitating communication
Terms used in programming Application softwares can be categorized into the following
1. Linkers combines compiled programs and determine where a) General purpose
will the program be located in the memory b) Special purpose
2. Bug this is an error in a machine program c) Customized/ tailor made softwares
3. Debugging is a process of finding and removing errors from d) Off the shelf software
a computer program a) General purpose
4. Machine code is a low level programming language that can These are softwares that can be used for a variety of tasks. Word
be understood directly by a computers CPU processor is the best example here because it can be used for a
5. Source code is human readable program statement written in variety of task like writing novels, memos, create restaurant menus
high level language or assembly language or even make posters

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b) Special purpose A demo version of the software may be available for free but does
These are softwares designed to execute specific tasks for example not include all key components of the original software
camera application on a phone, chess game can only allow a person Advantages of off the shelf software
to play chess  Relatively cheap
c) Customized (tailor made softwares) or bespoke softwares  They are easy to use and suitable for people with little computer
These are softwares that are designed for a specific user or an knowledge
industry or purpose for example military missile operations,  They are usually provided with extensive documentation to help
software for hospitals and medical equipment, software being used the user
in the bank etc.  They are readily available compared to tailor made softwares
Advantages of tailor made softwares  They can be customized to solve other problems
 Solves the specific needs of an organization  Have less errors
 Easy to use since the person has the knowledge of the software Disadvantages of Off the shelf software
he/she needs in an organization  It is quite easy to forget the commands to use in the package
 More functions can easily be added and modified  May not solve some of the needs of an organization
Disadvantages of tailor made softwares Examples of application softwares
 Takes a lot of time to get especially from the time of its 1. Spread sheet softwares for example MS excel
development 2. Database management software for example MS Access
 The function of tailor made software are limited 3. Presentation software for example MS PowerPoint, Lotus 1-
 They are expensive to buy 2-2
Off the shelf software 4. Communication software for example Chartrooms
This is software purchased from the vendor store. Installation in a 5. Web browsing software for example Mozilla fire fox, pale
number of computers is specified by the vendor or producer. A user moon, Netscape, Google chrome
only buys a license to use it, but not the software.
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6. Media players for example windows media player, VLC 4. Telecommunication – refers to the transmission of data and
player information over a long distance e.g. TV. It includes telephone
7. Desktop publishing software for example MS publisher, telegraphy and TV means communication at a distance.
Adobe page maker 5. Teleprocessing – this refers to the access and modification of
8. Word processors for example MS word, Word Pad, Note pad computer files located elsewhere.
6. Downloading – to download is to transfer a file to your
COMPUTER COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING computer from other computer on the network.
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER COMMUNICATION 7. Bandwidth – the amount of signals that can travel over
Definition of Terminologies communication channel in a given amount of time. The higher
1. Computer communication – is the transmission of data and the bandwidth the more data and information the channel can
information over a channel between two computers. transmit.
NB: communication is only complete when there is a feedback 8. Data encryption – this is the process of converting data into
(reply). coded form (cypher text) to prevent it from being read or
2. Computer network – is a collection of two or more computers understood by unauthorized people. Encrypted data is difficult to
and devices connected by a channel so that they can decode without a secret key
communicate with each other and share resources e.g. 9. Communication software – this is a set of instructions
 Data (software) needed by a computer before it starts sending and
 Software receiving data from other computers.
 Peripheral devices IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATION
 Processing power  It allows sharing of hard wares like printers.
3. Encoding – this is the process through which the information  It allows sharing of softwares between two or more
(data, text, voice or video) from the sending device is converted computers hence reducing on the cost.
into signals which the communication media can carry.

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 It allows sharing and transfer of data and information stored computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get illegal
on other computers on the network. access.
 Facilitate communication between people e.g. through  Rapid spread of computer viruses – if any computer system on a
electronic- mail, mobile phones etc. network gets infected by a computer virus, there is a possible
 It enables online learning and collaborative research. threat of other systems getting infected.
 Allows many users to access programs and data  Expensive to setup – the initial setup cost of a computer network
concurrently e.g. allow access to common databases in can be high depending on a number of computers to be
banks. connected.
 Has enabled improved travel service through e-bookings and  Dependency on the main file serve, in case the main server of a
reservation. computer network breaks down the system becomes useless.
 Provides for online employment e.g. telecommuting.  Exposure to external exploits, someone on a different computer
 Enable central management of resources like antivirus can send data into a computer in such a way as to attack it (make
softwares can easily be deployed and managed over a it lockup/crush, slow down or even take control over it)
network i.e. security updates are installed on only one  Automatic downloads if a computer is connected to a network it
machine (sever) and then the machines receive the update is easier to down load and install softwares from the network
and get protected. onto a computer without any human intervention. If new
 Cost saving e.g. expensive resources can be shared over the software has not been tested it could cause unpredictable
network hence reducing the costs. behavior.
 Easier backup especially in centralized database.  Computer networks can fail. Computer networks can be so
 Makes personal communication easier. powerful and useful that it is very vital for them to be used. All
LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER COMMUNICATION of the computers in an office building might become completely
 Data theft if the computer is a stand-alone; physical access useless if a single component network fails.
becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However if a

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NETWORKS 2. Protocol - this is a set of rules that govern communication of

A computer network – is a group of computers connected together computers in a network. Common protocol used in networking
by a channel with a purpose of sharing resources /information. include:
The following are some of the resources that one can share with a) TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol /Internet Protocol)
computers connected on the network  Governs the way data is transmitted across networks.
1) Devices like printers, hard disk drives etc.  It enables computers to communicate over network
2) Information e.g. files, pictures, folders etc. including internet
3) Softwares e.g. computer programs like antivirus etc.  It breaks data into small parts called packets transmitted
Alternatively (routed) over a network.
A computer network refers to a collection of computers linked b) FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
together using a transmission media for purposes of communication  It enables files to be transferred from one computer to
and resource sharing. another.
Transmission media- refers to any physical or non-physical link  It helps in uploading and downloading files
between two or more computers or devices through which a signal d) HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
can be made to flow from a source to a destination e.g. cables, hubs,  It governs (allows) the transfer of hypertext documents
bridges, routers, Ethernet etc. and hypermedia
NB: Networks can link micro- computers, terminals, mini- e) TELNET- is a protocol that enables one to remotely login or
computers, mainframes and other devices such as printers, programs establish a connection to another computer on a local network
fax machines, modems, storage devices, communication links etc. e.g. DLC (Data Link Control) used to connect IBM mainframes
TERMS USED IN NETWORKING and HP printers on a network.
1. Topology – this is a physical (real) and logical (virtual)
3. Bridge- is a device used to establish a connection or a
arrangement of computer systems and other devices on the
communication between different networks. A bridge connects
network e.g. star topology, ring topology, bus topology etc.
network segments together.
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 ICT CLASS NOTES

4. Gateway –is any device that can be configured to provide access 8. Repeater – a repeater receives signals from one segment of a
to wide area networks and host computers network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts it and sends it
5. NIC (Network interface card ) – is a device that creates a to another segment until it reaches a further destination.
physical link between the computer and a transmission media 9. Routers – is a device that inter- connects different networks and
like an Ethernet cable directs transfer of data packets from source to destination.
6. MODEM (modulator demodulator) - is a device that converts 10. Switches – this forward a packet to address mode without
signals from digital to analog and from analog to digital for a broadcasting and hence solves abroad casting stoma. It can be
purpose of transmission over analog or digital media. used as a bridge to connect several hubs in order to reduce
NB: Modulation is changing data from digital to analog collision problems caused by broadcast.
Demodulation is the changing of data from analog to digital 11. Intranet – is an internet network of an organization that uses
TCP/IP protocols supports media websites and accessible via a
FUNCTIONS OF A MODEM
web browser.
 Enables a computer to send and receive data over a telephone
12. Extranet – these are wide area networks (WANs) but their
line
accessibility is only limited to those authorized to do so.
 Provides continuous connection to the internet
Ugandan government connected to all embassies abroad on a
 It converts data into sound so that it can be sent through a phone
single network which is accessed by diplomatic staff around the
line
world.
 They can receive and send fax
7. Hub – its component that connects computers on a network. It
gathers all computers together at a central location. It connects
networks that have a common architecture ( same set of
softwares )

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TYPES OF NETWORKS WAN is larger than a MAN and it covers every large geographic
There are various computer networks. They can be relatively small area such as a country, a continent, or even the whole world. It
or extensively large. The most common types of computer networks consists of many LANs and MANs connected together to form one
include: larger network, the best example of WAN is internet because
1. Local area networks (LAN) internet is the world’s largest WAN.
2. Metropolitan area networks (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN) NETWORK MODELS
NB: our area of focus will be on the first major three types of
computer networks and they include the following Peer-to-peer network
It involves sharing of information or resources between two or more
1. Local Area Network (LAN) computers without the use of a server. In other words there is no
LAN is a network that connects computers in a small geographic computer which is dedicated to act as a server. All connected
area such as a building like computer lab or an office. computers can act both a server as well as a client
NB: a wireless LAN (WLAN) is a local area network that does not Characteristics of peer-to-peer networks
use physical wires but uses wireless media such as radio waves.  Each computer store files on its own storage devices.
 Each computer on a network contains both network (OS)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
and application software.
MAN is a large computer network that is usually designed for a city
NB: Peer to peer is ideal for home and small businesses
setting or a large campus. It usually connects two or more LANs
Illustration
using a high capacity backbone technology such as fiber optical
links or other digital media. MAN covers smaller geographic area
than a WAN.

3. Wide Area Networks (WAN) Computer Computer

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Advantages of peer-to-peer network Illustration

 It’s simple to set up i.e. does not require too much
configurations.
 It’s not expensive to set up.
 It does not require a dedicated server to control a network.
 It’s perfect for home and small business users.
Disadvantages of peer to peer networks Client computer
Sever
1) The system is not centralized making administration difficult. Advantages of a client / server network
2) Limited security i.e. files can be accessed by any one on a  All resources are centralized and easier to access
network  Easy management and administration of a network.
Client/server network  More data security since all network access is controlled through
Client /server network has one or more computers acting as a server a server.
while other computers as clients. Client computers request services  The network is flexible because changes and new technology can
from servers on a network be easily included into a system.
- Client computer – is a computer that can access the resources  It’s easy to back up all data stored centrally on server.
on a network from the servers.  It can support many computers compared to peer to peer
- A server – refers to a computer that receives requests from the networks
client computers and responds to those requests. A server Disadvantages of a client / server network
provides a centralized storage for data, programs and  It’s expensive to set up as compared to peer to peer networks.
information.  It requires an extra computer to serve as a dedicated server
NB: most clients/server networks have a network administrator who  Server can get over loaded since all the processing is controlled
is in-charge of a network at one point.

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 Dependence- when a server goes down, operations will stop 3. Shared peripherals e.g. network printers, scanners, fax
across the network. machines etc.
 Maintenance- large networks will require administrator to ensure 4. Client computer – these are computers sharing resources and
efficient operations. capable of sending requests and receiving data signals from a
server
COMPONENTS OF A NETWORK
This focuses on things that make up a network and they include 5. Sever- is a very fast processor computer dedicated to provide

1. Network operating system (NOS ) – master control program or specific services for other computers connected on the network

instructions that manage basic operations like data and file Functions of a server

transmission etc. examples of network operating system include  Administering client computers

 Windows 2000  Security of files and applications

 Novell Netware  Managing printer jobs

 Apple talk  Data bank

 IBMs LAN etc.  Software and application handling.

2. Hubs and repeaters – these are devices which accept 6. Transmission (communication media) this can also be referred

transmitted signals amplify them and put them back on the to as communication line, channel or link. They include

network rejuvenation. Hubs are typical of the LANS while  Coaxial cable

repeaters are typical of the WANS.  Twisted pair cable

NB: the most common network faults necessitating hubs and  Fiber optic cable

repeaters include  Blue tooth

a) Distortion – this is where information is confused at the source.  Radio waves

b) Attenuation – this is the loss of signal strength over a given  Satellite

distance as they move along the transmission media.  Micro waves

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7. Bridge- is a device used to establish a connection or a Factors to consider for a network choice
communication between different networks. A bridge connects  Size of an organization peer-to-peer network configuration is
network segments together. ideal for less than 10 computers
8. Gateway –is any device that can be configured to provide access  Need of a network for example network administrator, hardware
to wide area networks and host computers and software
9. NIC (Network Interface Card ) – is a device that creates a  Level of data security needed peer-to-peer network configuration
physical link between the computer and a transmission media is not secure
like an Ethernet cable  Amount of network traffic expected (bandwidth)
10. MODEM (modulator demodulator) - is a device that converts  Network budget or cost of setting up the network
signals from digital to analog and vice – versa for a purpose of  Maintenance requirement and costs
transmission over analog or digital media.  Nature or type of business or organization
11. Router – is a device that inter- connects different networks and Advantages of a computer network
directs transfer of data package from source to destination.  Enables electronic exchange of information and sharing of files
12. Switches – this forward a packet to address mode without  Allows the users to access the same application program at the
broadcasting and hence solves abroad casting stoma .it can be same time
used as a bridge to connect several hubs in order to reduce  Easy sharing of expensive hardware resources like printers, hard
collision problems caused by broadcast. disk hence reducing in the cost
13. Multiplexer is device which merges several low speed  Enables centralized administration, support and control
transmission into one high speed transmission  Security is centralized, improved and easy
A network device that allows several client computers to share a  Backup becomes easy
single line  Allows many users to work on the same document at the same
time

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 Facilitates easy communication for example through email and 1. Bus topology
other platforms such as social networks like Facebook, twitter 2. Ring topology
Disadvantages of a computer network 3. Star topology
It is more costly, running computer on a network than a stand- 4. Mesh topology
alone computer 5. Extended star topology
Networks are more vulnerable to virus attacks Bus topology
Require skilled knowledge and expertise because very many This is sometimes referred to as linear network topology. It consists
issues arise with network usage of a single central cable that connects all computers and devices
They are vulnerable to frequent crashes together. The physical cable that the computers and other devices are
High maintenance cost in terms of software cost and hardware connected for communication is known as a bus
replacement Illustration
Entire network fails if the server crashes or fails to work hence
causing a loss to an organization like banks
A break in a communication channel can stop the entire network
Information theft and Identity theft is possible on a network Back born (Bus) Work station Terminator
There is a greater risk and exposure to hackers which put private
Advantages of bus topology
data at risk
 Easy to implement and extend (quick to set up)
NETWORK TOPOLOGY  Cheaper than the other topologies
Topology is defined as the physical (real) and logical (virtual) layout  Computers and devices can be attached and detached at any
of computers and other network devices on a network. Topology point on the bus without disturbing the rest of the network
indicates how data is passed from one computer or device to another  Failure of one device usually does not affect the rest on the
There are various network topologies used when setting up a network
network in an organization and they include the following
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 Data, instruction and information in a bus network can be data is passed onto the next node in a ring until the destined node is
transmitted in both directions reached in the ring.
 Cable faults are easily identified Illustration
 Weight reduction due to less wires needed to set up
Node

Disadvantages
If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes
Advantages of Ring Topology
down
 It covers a larger distance as compared to a bus topology and is
There is no central host computer to control the network
commonly used in wide area networks
Only one device can transfer item at a time
 No collision occur because data takes one direction only
If many computers are attached, the amount of data flow
 Very order network where every device has access to the token
increases which makes the network to slow down and also data
and the opportunity to transmit data
collision
 The speed of data transmission is faster than bus topology
Limited cable length and a number of station
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
Performance degrades as additional computers are added
More difficult to establish
It is slower than the other topologies
If a cable fails the whole network goes down
Ring topology Data travel only in one direction to a device around the entire
It consist of a cable forming a closed ring with all the computers and ring
devices in a network If a node on the ring network fails, all nodes after the failed
A ring links all nodes together in a circular chain, the node nodes cannot function
examines any data that passes by to see if it is meant for it, if not the There is no central host computer to control network
Moves, additions and changes of devices can affect the network

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Star topology Disadvantages

On a star topology, all the computers and devices on a network If the hub or switch fails, the entire network fails
connect to a central hub (switch). All data that is transferred from Lots of cables required so, the installation costs are high
one computer to another passes through a hub (switch) Network size is limited by the number of connections that can be
made to either a hub or switch
Set up of a system can be complex
Illustration Mesh topology
Is a type of topology which each of the nodes are connected to each
other on a network. Fully connected mesh topology makes it
Hub
possible for the nodes to simultaneously transmit from any single

Node node to all other nodes

Illustration

Advantages of Star Topology

 Easy to install and maintain
 Better performance, the topology prevents the passing of data
packets through an excessive number of nodes
Advantages of mesh topology
 Computers and devices can be added to or removed from the
 Data will always be delivered
network with little or no disruption on a network.
 All the data transmitted between the nodes in a network takes the
 Reliable because each device connects directly to the hub or
shortest path between the nodes
switch
 In case of failure or break in one of the link, data takes an
 If one node fails, only that node is affected but not the whole
alternative path to the destination
network
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Disadvantages of mesh topology Usually have three layers, the core layer, the distribution layer and
Generally too costly and complex for practical network access layer
Very difficult to setup
Lots of cables required so the installation cost become too high
Network size is limited by the number of interconnections that
can be made between the nodes
DATA COMMUNICATION (TRANSMISSION)
It requires that the nodes on a network possess some type of Definition
logical algorithm to determine the correct path to use at any Refers to a process of transmitting data signals from one point to
particular time another through a network or channel
It is a process through which signals are sent out through a channel
Extended star topology
between communicating computer devices.
Tree network topology is also known as hierarchical network
Elements of data transmission system
topology; this is because it contains different levels of hierarchy.
The basic elements or components of a data transmission system
The type of topology in which a central root node (the top level of
include the following
the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one
1. Message
level lower in the hierarchy(second level of hierarchy)
2. Sender
Each of the second level nodes will also have one or more other
3. Receiver
nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (third level of
4. Medium or communication channel
hierarchy) connected to it.
5. Protocol
The hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical each node in the network
6. Encoder
having a specific fixed number of nodes connected to it at the next
7. Decoder
level in the hierarchy.

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Illustration wires, the cables like coaxial cables, fiber optic cables, micro wave
signals, satellite or any other medium used on a network.
Protocol
Sender medium Receiver These are set of rules that guide how communication is carried out
i.e. every device that wants to communicate with each other must
use the same protocol in order to exchange messages
Message
Encoder
The message is the actual information or data that is to be
Encoder is electronic device that receive data from a sender in a
communicated. It may consist of a text, number, picture, sound,
form of digital signals and converts them to a form that can be
video or even the combination of the above.
transmitted through a transmission medium
Sender
Decoder
This is a device that is used for sending data (message). It is
The decoder is an electronic device on a receiving end that receives
sometimes referred as a transmitter or a source. The sender can be a
data from a transmission medium and converts encoded signals i.e.
computer, a mobile phone, video camera, but usually computers are
analog signals into digital
being used as a sender in a communication system
DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Receiver
The means through which data is transmitted from one device to
A receiver is a device used for receiving data or a message. It
another.
sometime referred as a sink or destination. A receiver can be a
There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
computer, a mobile phone, video camera, but usually computers are
communication.
being used as a receiver in a communication system
BOUNDED /GUIDED/ WIRED MEDIA (PHYSICAL
Medium or communication channel TRANSMISSION MEDIA)
A medium is the path through which data or a message travels from
Bounded media is the physical media through which signals are
a sender to a receiver. In data communication system, it includes
transmitted from one device to another such as a cable.

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Examples of bounded/wired/guided media  More resistant to radio and electromagnetic because it is heavily
Coaxial cables – this cable has a central copper core which may be insulated
made of solid or stranded wires. These cables are commonly used in Disadvantages
TV antennae.  Thick coaxial is hard to work with
However, these cables are now obsolete in LAN’S. The twisted pair  It’s heavy and bulky
is now the default media. However, it may also not last for long due  Relatively expensive to buy and install as compared to twisted
to dynamic nature of networking. pair
Coaxial Cable Twisted pair cable
This is made up of four pairs of solid copper wire strands of
different colours twisted around each other. The twisting is meant to
reduce and protect against cross talk and to reduce the development
of an electromagnetic field around the two wires as they transmit
data. These cables are mostly used to transmit both voice and data.

Advantages
 Stable even in high loads
 Used for long distances e.g. (300-600 meters)
 Transmits faster than twisted pair
 It has a large bandwidth of up to 1GB P/S
 Cross talk- is a source of background Noise from one UTP to
 Can carry voice data and videos simultaneously
another twisted pair, normally running in parallel

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 Background Noise- is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic Disadvantages

energy that interferes and degrades the quality of signals and  Subject to interference
data.  Covers limited distance
There are two types of twisted pair cables;  Transmission speed reduces over long distances
a) UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) SHIELDED TWISTED PAIR
b) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) These cables combine both the features of twisting and shielding.
Each pair of wires is wrapped together in an overall metallic braid or
UNSHIELDED TWISTED PAIR foil.
These cables do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic The wrapping in STP greatly reduces the EMI and RFI effects, the
interference (electric Noise) from the environment whereas STP reason it is being preferred for longer distances to UTP
cables are shielded. Fiber optic cables
NB: they rely on the twisting of the wires to prevent signal They are long, thin strands of very pure glass which are capable of
degradation caused by EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference) and transmitting messages as light waves
RFI (Radio Frequency Interference). They are very thin fibers almost to the diameter of human hair.
UTP cables therefore are not suitable for environments which are The light travels through the glass strands and continuously reflects
electrically noisy and they are common in LAN’s off the mirrored plastic coatings through a process called total
Electric Noise; may come from lightning sparks, radio signals, internal reflection.
motor vehicles, and radiators, etc. They use light to transmit their signals instead of electronic signals.
Advantages The electrical signals from the source are connected to light signals
 It is of low cost to be transmitted through fiber optic cables
 Small in size The electric signals are converted to light signals by Light Emitting
 Easy to install Diode (LED) at the transmitter
 Most popular and the best for LAN’s There are two types of fiber optics and they include
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 Single mode fiber

 Multi-mode fiber
The single mode fiber- has a very narrow thin center core, the light
in the cable takes one path through it and because of this it has a low
attenuation rate and is therefore preferred for longer distances
It has a band width of 50GB P/S which is higher than of twisted
pairs 100MB P/S Advantages of fiber optic cable
Multi-mode fiber- has a thicker core than a single mode. It allows  It is resistant (immune) to electronic interference
several light rays to be fed into the cable. It has a high attenuation  Faster and supports high bandwidth
rate and is usually preferred for shorter distances.  Can cover long distances because it has low attenuation
The multi light rays navigating the cable at the same time usually  Can be used in hazardous environments like highly
distorts the quality of the signals. The light signals travels through flammable areas and water because they do not generate
the core by the process of Total Internal Reflection (TIR). Caused electronic signals
by refraction  Its smaller and lighter than copper cables hence ideal for
NB -Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses the media that space limited situations
have different densities.  Nonflammable because no electricity passes through them
-When the light signal is inserted into the cable, it tries to cross from  Much secure because it may not be easy to interpret light
the core to the cladding but fails. The light bends back into the core signals by un authorized people
hence propagates along the length of the cable Disadvantages
 Connectivity devices and media are expensive
 Installation is difficult because the cable must be handled
carefully
 They are difficult to install and modify
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 Broken sections are difficult and expensive to repair travel in straight lines, both a sender and receiver must be aligned to
NB: Attenuation- Refers to the loss of signal strength over a given be strictly in line of sight. Microwave stations are normally located
distance as it moves along a transmission media on the top of the buildings, towers or mountains to avoid possible
Bandwidth- Refers to the maximum amount of data a transmission obstructions. Mobile phone transmitters use microwaves.
medium can carry at a particular time. Infrared waves
UNGUIDED/UNBOUNDED/WIRELESS (NON-PHYSICAL This is a wireless transmission medium that sends signals using
TRANSMISSION MEDIA) infrared light waves. Infrared transmission requires a line of sight
Unguided media is the type of media that is used to transmit data transmission i.e. the sender and receiver must be aligned so that
from one device to another without using physical connection nothing obstructs the path of infrared light wave. Communicating
between communicating devices. devices should be closed to each other (about 5 metres)
It refers to data signals that flow through the air. Wireless Satellite
communication is more convenient than installing cables but it has a This is a space station that receives microwave signals from an
slower data transfer and it is subjected to interference. Examples earth-based station, amplifies (strengthens) the signals and
include broadcasts the signals back over a wide area to any number of earth-
Radio waves based stations. Transmission from the earth to a satellite is called
Radio waves are used to transmit television and radio signals. They uplink and transmission from a satellite to an earth station is called
can penetrate through the walls and structure. The power of radio downlink
waves decreases sharply as they cover long distances. Bluetooth Communication satellites are used in applications such as air
technology also uses radio waves. navigation, television and radio broadcast, Global positioning
Microwaves System (GPS)
Microwaves are extremely high frequency radio waves. Unlike radio
waves, microwave signals must transmit in a straight line with no
obstruction between microwaves antennas. Because microwaves
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DATA TRANSMISION MODES Example of Half duplex transmission is police radio call, credit card
The way data is transmitted from one place to another. It is also verification system, automatic teller machine.
sometimes referred to as data communication or transmission
directions. Transmission modes or directions include
 Simplex transmission
 Half duplex transmission
 Full duplex transmission Server
OR
 Multiplex Transmission

Simplex transmission
Simplex transmission is a transmission mode in which data flows in
only one direction. It is used only when the sending device does not
Server
require a feedback from the receiving device.
Full duplex transmission
Example of simplex transmission is a Television broad casting
In full duplex transmission data flows in all directions at the same
time. Regular telephone for example supports full duplex
transmission and allows both parties to talk at the same time

Both directions

at the same time

Severs

Server
Half duplex transmission
Half duplex transmission is a transmission mode which allows data
transmission in either directions, but only one way at a time.

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Multiplex Transmission Each packet travels along the fastest individual available path to the
In multiplex transmission, several different types of signals can be recipient computer via communication devices called routers
carried out at once through the same time for example during video Packet switching is the technique of splitting data into individual
calls, text, audio and video can be multiplex over the same time packets before sending the packets to the packets along the best
routes available to the receiving end, where packets are reunited into
the original data and delivered.
Advantages of packet switching
Different types of signals
 Packet switched network is more secure than of circuit switched
at the same time networks
 Bandwidth of a packet switched network is used to full potential
Server
 Packet switched network is not affected by line failure (it directs
Factors affecting data transmission
the signals)
 Band width
 With packet switching devices of different speeds can
 Device connection if poorly connected
communicate
 Type of transmission
 Availability, No waiting for a direct connection to become
 Direction of data flow
available
 Communication protocols used
 During disaster or crisis, when the public telephone networks
PACKET SWITCHING might stop working emails and text can still be sent through
When the computer sends data over the internet the data is divided
packet switching
into small pieces called packets, such packets contain the data as
 Packet switched networks are more robust than circuit switched
well as the recipient (destination), the origin (the sender) and a
networks and more suitable for transmitting binary data
sequence information used to reassemble the data at the destination.

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 With the current advancement of technology it is possible to A connection between two devices is dedicated made of one or more
encode voice and send it in packet format with minimal links
problems. Advantages of circuit switching
 Damaged packet can be resent, only damaged part can be resent  Circuit is dedicated to the connection .no interference no sharing
and no need to resend an entire file  Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the connection
Disadvantages of packet switching  Guaranteed quality of service
 If the packet switched network is under a heavy use there can be  Simple abstraction –reliable communication between host ,no
a delay worries about loss or out of order packet
 Data packet can get lost or corrupted  Low pre packet overhead, forwarding is based on time slot or
 Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer frequency, no IP and TCP/UDP header on each packet
 Not so good for some types of data streams (e.g. real time video  Simple forwarding-forwarding in circuit switching is based on
streams can lose frames due to the way packets arrive out of time slot or frequency and would not need to inspect a packet
sequence header.
Disadvantages
CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit switching is the data transmission technology which requires  Inefficient. The equipment may be unused for all of the

a dedicated connection between the sender and receiver before connection if no data is being sent, the dedicated time still

transmission can begin e.g. a traditional circuit switched telephone remains open

network (PSTN) use this method.  Blocked connection. When resources are not sufficient,

A circuit switched network consists of a set of switches connected connection will refuse to be connected, and this circuit switching

by physical links is unable to offer “ok” service to everybody

However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each  Connection set up delay. It takes a relatively long time to set up

link the circuit, no communication until the connection is set up

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 Network state. The network modes in circuit switching must complicated and expensive communication devices it provides much
store pre -connection information and it is un able to store to higher speeds and greater accuracy than asynchronous transmissions.
avoid per connection storage and state fail over
DATA COMMUNICATION TOOLS
 During crisis or disaster. The network may become un stable or There are a number of data communication tools and they include
un available the following;
 It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data 1) Phones the days when people used land lines as their primary
traffic communication tools are over. Back then cell phones were
 Wasted bandwidth. Since more traffic occurs in bursts in circuit thought of as a luxury. Now wireless phones are dominant form
switching this may lead to idle connection during silent period of communication in many countries. Text messaging is rampant

DATA SIGNAL TRANSMISSION METHODS and the advent of smart phones has enabled mobile phones to
When two devices exchange data, the data flows between two have PC functionality as well as functionality to send large
devices as continuous streams of bits. There are two basic data pictures and video files
transmission techniques for separating the groups of bits 2) E-mail is a function of internet and users can access it from
 Asynchronous transmission transmits one bit at a time over a line devices like cell phone, PDAs and computers. It is virtually
at random intervals. Each byte is framed by controls a start but for instant.
making the beginning of the byte a stop, but for making the end of 3) Social networks e.g. twitter, Facebook, these enable instant
the byte and a parity but for error checking. Asynchronous interaction between users who can communicate directly
transmission is relatively slow and used for low speed transmission. 4) Instant messaging and Skype instant messaging is done most
 Synchronous transmission transmits groups of bytes often on keyboard over the internet. Skype offers online
simultaneously at regular time intervals. The beginning and ending messaging and video calling all across the world via internet
of a block of byte is determined by the time of sending devices and Advantages of using a phone
receiving devices. Although synchronous transmission requires more  You can carry a phone with you so you don’t miss important
calls
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 If you are lost you can call for directions  Because of their small size, they can be lost easily
 If you are in the accident you can call for the police and if the Advantages of instant messaging
phone has a camera you can take the picture of the accident  Ability to keep in contact with a family and friends when not in
 You can listen to music, play games and text the same city or country
 Most mobile phones have a calculator and phone book  Ability to make new friends from around the world
 You can use a mobile phone to call your customer or boss if you  Sending messages to co-workers as short messages in the work
are running late for a meeting place
 You can surf internet and connect with the whole world by  Real time communication
mobile phone  Ability to speak to multiple people online at the same time
 You can chat or Facebook , twitter and video conference through inviting people to chat rooms
 You can keep in touch with friends and family  Files or pictures can be sent in the instant messaging
 You can check your emails conversation
 Customers can contact staff any time.  It is free to use and quick to set up
Disadvantages of Phones Disadvantages of instant messaging
 Mobile phones can be expensive  Instant messaging systems are often used for gossiping and
 They can damage your ears rumor spreading
 Sometimes the reception is poor in some areas, limiting your  Uncertainty that the person you are talking to is the person you
connectivity (you can’t talk underground or in the plane) are talking to
 People use phones when they are driving and this causes  Possibility of getting viruses from people you don’t know
accidents  Likelihood of miscommunication because the screen separates
 They can limit your face-to-face time with friends and family some individuals may not feel the need to use the appropriate
 Staff can abuse their phones if they have internet connection netiquette
 Can be hard for older people to use  Potential for misuse
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 Distraction as you work  Increases risk of people falling prey to online scams that seem
 Security for personal details is not guaranteed genuine, resulting to data or identity theft
 Children tend to spend more time chatting to friends on their  Potentially results in lost productivity especially if employees
mobile phones instead of bonding with their family who at a are busy updating their profiles instead of working
time will be sitting next to them  Time consuming as people take time looking for movies,
Advantages of social networking pictures, reading clever posts
 Opportunity to connect with family and friends Skype
 Create new friendships with people around the globe and learn Skype is an internet service that uses voice over the internet protocol
more about the life in other countries (VOIP) technology to allow people from all over the world to
 Facilitates open communication leading to enhanced information communicate.
discovery and delivery Advantages of Skype
 An alternative source of entertainment as well  Free communication tool
 Allows employees to discuss ideas, post news, ask questions and  Call across the world
share links  Cheap to use (if you are subscriber)
 Provides an opportunity to widen business contact  Brings societies together
 It is a recruitment tool as it target wider audience  Video chat with friends and family
 Low cost of advertising  Business can use it to save other costs like advertisement costs
 Eases communication with the customers Disadvantages of Skype
 Expands market research  Needs internet access for it to work
Disadvantages  No language translators
 Compromise to privacy  International calls are costly
 Opens up the possibility for hackers to commit fraud and launch  Requires WIFI or 3G service to run
spam and virus attacks  It can be another tool used for cyber bulling
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INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) of a text or image that takes you to another web page or
Internet is a global connection of computer networks. Internet somewhere else within the current page.
interlinks together millions of computers to exchange and share 3. Web page is defined as a document on the World Wide Web
information all over the world. that includes a text, picture, sound and video.
Internet is the best example of WAN. Internet sometimes is referred 4. Website is defined as a collection of related web pages.
as a network of network because it brings together different types of 5. Home page refers to a first page that is displayed on a website
networks. 6. Web browser is a software application used to access and
Internet is not a physical thing (wires, cables, and computers) but it display content from the World Wide Web. It enables a user to
is a set of standards that allow computers of any brand to connect view web pages. Examples of web browsers include Mozilla fire
with each other with any kind of connection. fox, internet explorer, Google chrome, safari, opera and
Internet is just a technology for getting all kinds of computers to Netscape
communicate with each other and exchange data. 7. Web address each computer on the internet has a unique
The standards or rules which control the transfer of data and address which identifies it on the network. This address is
information (communication) between computers are called Internet contained in the hyper link text of a document. A web browser
Protocols (IP) uses this address to connect to a server over a network
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the 8. Client is a computer that requests for information from a server
set of rules that govern computer communication on a network machine.
including the internet. 9. Server is a computer that receives requests from a client
TERMS USED IN INTERNET computer and responds to those requests
1. WWW (World Wide Web) refers to a system of interlinked
10. Connection is the actual process by which a browser contacts
hypertext documents that are accessed via the internet.
the server computer on the network
2. Link refers to a connection from one web page to another using
11. Directory a collection of files in a given storage medium or
a hypertext. A link is also called hyper link which means piece
drive
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12. Browsing refers to search for a particular item on the World  Send to and receive emails from other connected users
Wide Web.  Social networking online with friends, relatives and family
13. Surfing is defined as moving from point to point on the internet through the use of e-mails and social networks such as
searching for topics on the internet Facebook, twitter, instagram, viber etc.
14. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) refers to an address which is  Access to entertainment and leisure through online games,
typed in address box to get a web page or a web site. It contains magazines, listen to music and watch online movies
a protocol for accessing a server.  E-library (e-books) allows access to current reading material like
Advantages of getting connected to the internet e-books
 Access to wealth of information such as news, weather forecast  Online chat you can access many chat rooms that can be used to
reports, and airline schedules meet new people and make new friends
 Online services, internet has made life very easy and convenient Disadvantages of internet
with online services such as online shopping, booking tickets,  Computer viruses these can be downloaded and spread across
pay taxes, transfer of funds and pay utility bills right from your machines and have destructive effects.
home.  Internet provides access to unsuitable material like pornography
 Internet is important for online banking services and managing  Privacy violation internet can expose your personal information
investments such as name, address to wrong people like hackers who may
 Internet is good for online research and taking online courses use it to cause a problem to you
 Downloading resources like music, movies, e-books and  Spamming this is sending unwanted e-mail in bulk such as email
softwares adverts
 Internet is used for online advertisement for example through the  Online fraud there are many thieves on the internet who can use
use of e-mails and websites their skills to cheat people or access their credit card numbers
 Making cheap internet calls for example through Google talk and and make illegal electronic money transfers
Skype software
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 Some people are getting addicted to the internet causing  Internet software (protocols)
problems to their physical social interactions with friends Factors affecting internet connection speed
 Initial costs of connecting to the internet are high for example  Computer processor speed a person using a Computer with dual
purchasing computers and bundles Pentium iv processor is most likely to get faster connection to
 Many people are computer illiterate and so they cannot use the internet as compared to the one with Pentium ii and Pentium iii
internet hence being left out  Distance data travel actual internet speed may vary depending on
 Internet has led to moral degeneration among the youth as a the distance the data travels
result of watching pornographic materials like blue movies and  Heavy traffic on the internet may also affect the internet speed
necked pictures i.e. the greater the number of computers on a network, the more
 Theft of personal information, if you are using the internet for internet speed reduces
online banking, social networking and other online services, you  Malware, viruses and spyware hinders the operation of programs
may risk your personal information such as name, address, credit on the computer regardless of the processor strength hence
card numbers etc. slowing down the speed of connectivity
 There is a lot of wrong information on the internet i.e. any  MODEM speed if the MODEM is substandard with low rating
person can post anything on the internet or not compatible with the service provider, this will slow down
 Health problems due to continuous usage of computers on the the speed at which data is transmitted
internet for surfing like wrist pain, eye strain  Natural conditions such as rain, stormy weather and thunder may
Requirements for connecting to the internet interfere with transmission of data signals which may in turn
 Computer affect the speed of connection
 Network Interface card  Hardware problem may also affect the connection speed for
 Modem example a poor network card, video card or signal receiver may
 Physical connection like phone line seriously reduce the speed of data being processed by your
 Internet service provider to supply internet
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system hence slowing down on the speed at which your  Service

computer is taking information coming in 1. Telephone line includes the various ways you can connect to the
 Software problem especially if the softwares are not up dated ISP over the telephone system
such as a web browser it makes it display web pages inefficiently 2. Dial-Up connection through a telephone system
 Memory available on your computer may also affect the 3. Dedicated connection (Phone line)
connection speed 4. Plain old telephone system (Posts)
 Technological circumstances such as loose connections on the 5. Integrated Distance Service Network (ISDN)
cables or maintenance works being done by ISP Factors to consider when choosing Internet Service Provider
 Internet service provider may also affect the speed of connection  Availability you should check the services of your ISP because
 Satellite may be affected by weather conditions for example not all services are available in all locations e.g. wireless access
wind, rain, cloud cover etc. like WIFI
 Speed (performance) the speed depends on the type and amount
INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)
ISP refers to a company that sells internet (bandwidth). ISP can be of content you need to access and download plus a number of

local, regional or international. computers sharing a connection

Examples of internet service providers include  Security levels ISP should have a security system to ensure that

1. MTN your connection is safe enough to eliminate fears of hackers

2. Airtel accessing your information

3. Africel  Price cheap packages for home or personal use and expensive

4. UTL ones for fast and huge downloads for businesses

ISP takes care of technical aspects of connecting your computer to  Support services (customer care) clarify how support is offered

internet. ISP offer internet in three distinct ways for example is it 24 hours a day, 7 days a week?

 Telephone  Restriction of use, check whether there are restrictions on use

 Protocols
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 Length of contract many ISPs ask you to sign up for a specific 5. Internet relay chat (IRC) a live interactive discussions in
period of time like a year, eighteen month which parties on the network exchange ideas and observation
 Compatibility that is to say the speed of the MODEMs and their electronically
software should match the speed of yours 6. News groups worldwide discussion areas where notices can be
 Reliability consider how long the ISP has been in the business posted for anyone to view. They are equivalent of discussion
and how dependable and stable the services offered group or electronic bulletin boards
 Email address check whether the ISP has email and World Wide 7. WWW (World Wide Web) refer to the system of interlinked
Web services hypertext documents that can be accessed via the internet
8. Instant messaging a combination of real time mailing by which
INTERNET SERVICES
After connecting to the internet, the following are services that a short text messages are rapidly exchanged over the internet with

person can access online message appearing on recipients screen immediately up on

1. TELNET lets you use the resources of another computer in arrival

another part of the world. This is done by remotely logging to a 9. Users network a system of WWW discussion groups not an

distant computer which is called a host. actual physical network

2. Email services it allows the sending and receiving of messages 10. Internet telephone (voice over the internet or voice over IP)

and files over the internet real time voice conversation transmitted between computers on

3. Mailing list it is very convenient when someone wants to send a the internet

message or newsletters for example to many people at ago 11. Web directory a list of websites and their URLs categorizing by

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard method for topic

transferring files whether downloading or uploading to and from 12. Ecommerce conducting commercial activities on the internet

your computer with another computer on the network. 13. Social network Face book, twitter

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14. Cloud computing a service in which a computer software 3. Protocols refers to a set of rules that allow computers to
hardware and data are accessed from anywhere and used on a exchange information
local computer
TYPES OF WEBSITES
15. Search engines software programs that look through the web to 1) Web portal is an internet based website that can perform much
locate sites matching to a keyword entered by the user. electronic functions and provides the user with quick access to a

WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW) variety of information and services. A central website that offers
1. World Wide Web (WWW) refers to a system of interlinked a host of internet resources or link to other site for examples
hypertext documents that are accessed via the internet. yahoo
2. URL (Uniform Resource Locator) refers to an address which is 2) Content aggregators an organization that combines information
typed in address box to get a web page or a web site. It contains such as news and entertainment sports scores, weather forecasts,
a protocol for accessing a server. photo graphs and video from a variety of sources and makes the
Example of a URL combined content available to its customers
http://www.newvision.co.ug.new/sport.topstory.html 3) A wiki website that allows collaborative editing of its content
 http: (Hypertext Transfer protocol) protocol used for this and structure by its users for example Wikipedia
website 4) A blog is a discussion or informational site published on the
 www: (host domain name) mean that the resource is in the www and consisting of discrete entries (post) typically displayed
www category in a reverse chronological order (the recent posts appear first)
 co.ug (top level domain) gives the domain type company most are interactive allowing visitors to leave comments
 new: a folder 5) Media sharing web sites these are websites that allow users to
 sports: a subfolder upload photos, videos and audio to the website that can be
 topstory.html: name of the web page (document) on a server accessed from anywhere in the world. For examples you
and file extension tube.com, daily motion.com, blip.TV

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6) Online social networking platform for sites that focus on How to search for information from the web using a search
building and reflecting social relation among people who share engine
interests by posting information, comments, messages, images.  Most search engine work the same basic way you type into the
Examples of these social networks include Facebook, twitter, search box the information you are looking for and click search
Google+ or Go
Web Browser  Search engine list websites that contain the information, the
Web browser is a software application used to access and display results are known as “hits” the words you type into search box
content from the World Wide Web. It enables a user to view web are called “keywords”
pages.  The keywords you use will greatly affect your results
Examples of web browsers include  Other search engines like ask.jeave for kids lets you type in
Internet explorer, Mozilla Fire Fox, Opera, Safari, Google Chrome, questions without having to choose keywords
Netscape, Planet Web  Then you can follow the website that has given you exactly what
Search engine you want.
Search engine is a website that collect, organizes and displays Search engine syntax
content from all over the internet. Tips to help make the most searches
Examples of search engines include  Make your keyword as precise as possible
 Google (http://www.google.com  Use two or more keywords in your search but put the most
 Bing (http://wwww.bing.com important keyword first
 Yahoo (http://www.yahoo.com  Makes sure you spell the keyword correctly
 Ask (http://www.search.ask.com  Always try more than one search engine, each search engine
does not look through every site on the web

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 Use AND if you want to get results with all the keywords you  Be nice to others, no one wants to interact with people who are
type and to let the search engine know, make sure you use mean, being mean is anti-social and being nice is social
capital letters when typing “AND”  Respect other people’s privacy
 Use OR this will let the search engine know you want website  Share your expert knowledge by giving positive advice politely.
that contain any of the keywords you type in. For the best result When everybody shares, you also benefit and this will make the
you should always enclose OR searches in parentheses world a better place.
 Use “NOT” e.g. Program NOT programme  Be forgiving of other peoples mistakes like spelling errors,
stupid questions.

NETIQUETTE  Be ethical and aim acting within the laws of a society and cyber
Etiquette means the acceptable code of polite behavior in a society space
or among members of a particular profession or group.  Respect other people’s time and bandwidth. Ensure that the time
Netiquette refers to the correct or acceptable way of communicating and bandwidth people spend reading your post is not wasted,
on the internet. It is a short form of Network etiquette or Internet post well prepared message and ensure that it is sent to right
etiquette. recipients.
It spells out the proper manner on the internet especially during  Understand the group of people you are interacting with
chatting. It requires never forgetting that the other end of the especially when you join a new group understand peoples dislike
connection there is a person and that inconsiderate comments are and likes before fully contributing
offending via a computer screen as in a face-to-face encounter.  Do not send emails at night
It is important to note that without rules there is no order and  Do not spam
without order there is no organization. The following are the internet  Do not flame
etiquette  Tell the truth
 Treat others the way you want to be treated  Be your self

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CYBER LAW Ways in which data protection laws protect personal data stored
Cyber law is a term used to describe the legal issues related to use of in computer systems.
information and communication technology, particularly  Data should be processed fairly and lawfully
"cyberspace", that is the Internet.  Data should be used only for the purpose for which it was
In essence, cyber law is an attempt to integrate the challenges collected
presented by human activity on the Internet with legacy system of  Data should be kept for no longer than needed
laws applicable to the physical world.  Data must be kept secure
Advantages of Cyber Laws  Data must be relevant
 Cyber law allows email to be a valid and legal form of  Providing a right to view and change data
communication.  No transfer of data to other countries without protection
 Companies are able to carry out electronic commerce using the
legal ICT infrastructure. E-MAIL (ELECTRONIC MAIL)
 Cyber law gives digital signatures legal validity and permission. E-mail refers to electronic sending and receiving of letters,

 Corporate companies can engage in the business of being messages and documents over the internet. It is a service that enables

Certifying Authorities. the exchange of electronic messages over ICT devices like phones,

 Cyber law allows Government to issue notification on the web computers. It is also transmission of messages to one or more

thus. recipients over a network.

 The Act enables the companies to file any document with any Each individual connected to internet has a unique email address that

organisation in electronic form. acts as a post office box which handles physical mails. One can

 The IT Act also addresses the important issues of security, which receive and send mails to and from all over the world.

are so critical to the success of electronic transactions. How to use an email to communicate

 IT Act allows corporate companies to have a legal solution in Two main things you need to communicate using email include

case anyone breaks into their computer systems.

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1. To communicate using email, first you need internet Parts of an email address
connectivity Example of email is [email protected]
2. You also need email account on any email provider sites Username e.g. jamesaminu31 it defines the owner of the address, it
Examples of these sites include Gmail, Yahoo mail, Zoho mail, is created by the user during account creation (Sign Up)
Lycos mail @ is a symbol which is read as “at” it separates the user name from
How to create an email account the other part of the address
1. Open your browser Sever name for example Gmail indicates that the server computer
2. Type in the address spaces http://www..gmail.com that host the email address is Gmail others include Yahoo, Hotmail
3. Click Go Period (.) it is read as “dot” is used to separate different parts of an
4. Click on sign Up or create a new account to fill in the sign email address
Up form Domain name for example .com identifies the type of institution
5. Enter the details required and click create new account offering a particular service for example .com, .co, .uk, .ac, .ug
6. Go to the inbox of alternative email account you have used to Some common domain names include
verify your account  .educ for educational institutions
7. You are ready to go  .gov for government institutions
How to send an email  .org for non-governmental organizations
1. Open your Gmail account  .mil for military institution
2. On the main Gmail page click compose button  .com for commercial organization
3. Enter in the address you want to send to e.g.  .co for a company
[email protected]  .sc for school
4. You can enter more than one email address separating them  .ac for academic institution
with commas to send to many people at once.  .net for internet service provider

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In some instances another two letter extensions is added after the 3. Cc: stands for Carbon Copy.it enables copies of the same
domain name to show the country where the website is hosted, for mail to be sent to the third party while acknowledging other
example recipients
 .ug for Uganda 4. BCC: stands for the Blind Carbon Copy and enables copies
 .au Australia of the same mail to be sent to the third party without
 .br for Brazil acknowledging other recipients
 .ca for Canada 5. Send: is a button clicked for the mail to be sent forward
 .cn for China 6. Forward: enables one to send the received mail to another or
 .eg for Egypt other persons
 .de Germany 7. Delete: enables one to delete the email
 .fr for France 8. Subject: carries the reason for the mail
 .in for India 9. Compose allows one to create a new mail
 .it for Italy 10. Date and time received (on): the time message was
 .jp for Japan received
 .tz for Tanzania 11. Body: the body contains a text that is the actual content
 .ke for Kenya 12. Attachments: attachments are optional and includes any
 .mx for Mexico separate files that may be part of the message
 .za for South Africa 13. Signature: personalized information about the sender
 .uk for Britain Advantages of using emails
Parts of an e-mail message  Easy to use, e-mail applications have user friendly tools that help
An email address consist of the following parts during composing messages
1. To: this part carries the address of the recipient  E-mails supports sending of attachments like documents, zipped
2. From: carries the senders e-mail address files etc.
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 It is very fast in terms of speed .it is delivered instantly anywhere Disadvantages or limitations
across the globe  E-mails carry viruses, recipients need to scan the e-mail
 Easy to prioritize since the emails have subject lines, it is easy to  Spam and junk, e-mails when used to send unsolicited messages
priorities them and ignore unwanted mails and unwanted advertisements create nuisance
 Email messages can be sent to many recipients at the same time  E-mail spoofing involves deceiving the recipients by altering the
 Can also carry hyperlinks that connect to other web pages with addresses from which the email is sent
just a click  Hacking and email interception, act of unauthorized attempts to
 One can subscribe on the news and other online service through bypass the security mechanisms of an information system or
e-mail network
 E-mail softwares have management features that help users to  Misinterpretation, one has to be careful when posting any kind of
organize their messages in folders like inbox sent and draft content. If typed on a harry a matter could be misinterpreted
 Easier for reference when one wants to reply to email there is a  Crowded inbox , the email box may get over crowded with email
provision in the mailing system to attach the previous mails as which becomes difficult for the user to manage such huge chunk
reference of mail
 No transport and stamp cost.  Need to check inbox regularly, in order to be updated one has to
 Email softwares has a good degree of security features such as check the email regularly which may be expensive in a long run
user name and password  In case one loses his or her password, signing in may not be
 Has in built dictionary which safeguards the sender from in possible and this may lead to loss of information
correct spelling and grammar  E-mail may violate privacy in case one gets to know your user
 Messages remain permanent for future and frequent accesses password
from any where
 E-mail is an advertising tool. many individuals and companies
are using e-mails to advertise their products and services
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Email software What is Cloud Computing?

Email software refers to the programs that are used to manage email Cloud Computing refers to manipulating, configuring, and accessing
account messages .They are in two categories the applications online. It offers online data storage, infrastructure
 Application packages, locally installed in the computer (email and applications. Cloud Computing provides a means to access the
clients)and online email programs hosted by a website by www applications as utilities, over the Internet. It allows users to create,
(webmail) configure, and customize applications online.
Examples of email clients include; Benefits of Cloud computing
 MS outlook Cloud Computing has numerous advantages:
 Mozilla thunder bird 1. Users can access applications as utilities over the Internet.
Examples of webmail software include; 2. Manipulate and configure the applications online at any time.
 Gmail 3. It does not require to install a specific piece of software to
 Yahoo access cloud applications.
 Hotmail 4. Cloud Computing offers online programming and
 Mail .com deployment tools.
CLOUD COMPUTING 5. Cloud resources are platform independent for access by any
type of client computers.
What is a Cloud?
6. Cloud Computing resources can be used without interaction
The term Cloud refers to a Network or Internet. In other words,
with cloud service provider.
Cloud is something, which is present at a remote location. Cloud
7. Cloud Computing is highly cost effective because it operates
can provide services over public networks or private networks.
at higher efficiencies with greater utilization.
Applications such as e-mail, web conferencing, customer
8. Cloud Computing offers load balancing that makes it more
relationship management (CRM), all run in cloud.
reliable.

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Risks of Cloud Computing Cloud Computing-Technologies

Although Cloud Computing is a great innovation in the world of There are certain technologies that are working behind cloud

computing, there also exist disadvantages of cloud computing. computing platforms making cloud computing flexible, reliable, and

1. Security and privacy since data and infrastructure usable. These technologies include Virtualization, Service-Oriented

management is provided by the third-party. Architecture (SOA), Grid Computing, and Utility Computing.

2. It is very difficult for the customers to shift from one Cloud Virtualization is a technique, which allows to share single physical

Service Provider (CSP) to another. instance of an application or resource among multiple organizations

3. Failure of isolation mechanism that separates storage and or clients.

routing between the different clients. Grid Computing refers to distributed computing in which a group

4. In case of public cloud providers, the customer management of computers from multiple locations are connected with each other

interfaces are accessible through the Internet. to achieve common objective.

5. Insecure or incomplete data deletion Utility computing offers computational resources on demand as a

Factors to consider before deploying applications to the Cloud: metered service.

 Data Security and  Training requirements Service-Oriented Architecture helps to use applications as a

Privacy  Dashboard and reporting service for other applications regardless of the type of vendor,

Requirements requirements product or technology.

 Budget Requirements  Client access requirements GREEN COMPUTING

This is a practice of using a network of remote servers hosted on the
 Type of cloud -  Data export requirements
internet to store and manage resources. The resources can be
public, private or
softwares and files
hybrid cloud
Examples of cloud computing
 Data backup
 E-mail communication
requirements
 Online storage such as Google Drive, Drop box

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 Web hosting Services SYSTEM SECURITY, ICT ETHICAL ISSUES AND

 Virtual office for Document sharing and accessibility such as EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
As computers get involved in almost all aspects of our lives, there
Google Docs
are quite a number of issues emerging that need extra attention. Such
Advantages of Cloud computing
emerging issues range from computer system features,
 Cloud computing services are flexible
environmental concerns, legal and ethical issues, system security and
 Automatic software updates it is easy and convenient to update
users of computer applications. Therefore it is increasingly
softwares centrally since it is a service online
becoming important that, everyday computer systems uphold ethical
 Increased collaboration once people can access, edit and share
values while using ICT system as they explore emerging
documents any time, from anywhere, they are able to do more
technologies
together and do it better
 Convenience with cloud computing and availability of internet COMPUTER SYSTEM SECURITY
you can work from anywhere Computer system security is the protection of computing system and
 cloud computing cuts out the high cost of hardware purchase, the data they store or access
storage, and maintenance The computer system security also refers to techniques on ensuring

Disadvantages of Cloud computing that data stored in a computer cannot be read or compromised by an
 Service outage the fact that cloud services are internet based, no individual without authorization as well as protecting physical
one is free from service outage since access depends on the computer that stores data from physical theft.
internet connection The purpose of computer security is to protect an organization’s
 Security and privacy in cloud computing is difficult to monitor valuable resources such as information, hardware and software.
 customers have no control to the back end infrastructure of the Therefore computer system security is divided into;
cloud services  Physical security
 cloud applications may be expensive  Data security

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Data security Ways through which data can be protected within

Data security is the protection of data stored on a network or stand- administrative and logical controls
alone device from unauthorized (accidental or intentional) When handling the logical security for computer system [data and
modification, destruction or disclosure information] the major four aspects to be put into consideration are;
Data security concerns the protection of data from accidental or  System access controls. Ensuring that unauthorized users do not
intentional unauthorized modification, destruction or disclosure get into the system and by encouraging authorized users to be
through use of physical security, administrative controls, logical security conscious e.g. by changing their passwords regularly.
controls and other safe guards to limit accessibility.  Data access controls. Monitoring who can access what data and
The basic data security standards for what purpose .your system might support discretionary
1) Confidentiality access controls with those you determine whether other people
This means allowing individuals to see only the data they are can read or change your data.
supposed to see. Your system might also support mandatory access controls
2) Integrity within these, the system determines the access rules based on the
Data security means that data is protected from deletion and security levels of the people, the files and other objects in your
corruption both while it resides within the database and also while it system.
is being transmitted over the network.  System and security administration. Performing the offline
3) Availability procedures that make or break a secure system by clearly
A secure system makes data available to authorized users without delineating system administration responsibilities by training
delay. D.O.S attacks are examples of attempts to block authorized users appropriately and by monitoring users to make sure that
users ability to access and use the system when needed. security policies are observed .This category also involves more
global security management e.g. figuring out security threats
facing your system and what it will cost to protect against them.

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 System design Taking advantage of basic hardware and software  Protect your passwords. do not share passwords and change
security characteristics e.g. using system architecture that is able your passwords regularly
to design memory thus isolating privileged processes from the no  Preform regular maintenance- learn how to use utilities that
privileged processes. diagnose your system for problems
Some of these measures that fall in four aspects include
COMPUTER SYSTEM PHYSICAL SECIRITY
 Unauthorized users know your users and authenticate them Computer physical system security means keeping computers in a
before giving them access secure physical environment physically inaccessible to unauthorized
 Encrypt sensitive data. users.
 If there are too many accounts [users] centralize management Physical security describes security measures that are designed to
 Monitor user’s actions. deny unauthorized personnel (including attackers or accidental
 Limit number of passwords long in. intruders) from physically accessing a building facility resource or
 Protect the network using firewalls. stored information and guidance on how to design structures to resist
 Network encryption potentially hostile acts
 Privilege management
 Always save your work as you do and learn how to use the Physical data security can be handled by looking at these five

auto save features in your application perspectives

 Make a backup before you make changes to critical data  Deterrence

 Never open e-mail attachments any how; always run any  Access control

attachment and downloaded files through a virus scanner  Detection

first  Identification

 Never trust disks from other people- scan them first  Human response

 Update your data protection utilities e.g. antiviruses Physical measures to protect computers and data

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 Make sure the room in which computers and equipments are INTERNET AND NETWORK ATTACKS
stored is well aerated with modern doors and windows In computer and computer network, an attack is any attempt to

 Hire trusted personnel to physically keep data storage or destroy, alter, disable, or gain unauthorized access to or make

computer equipment location e.g. database administrator, unauthorized use of an asset

security personnel, network administration etc. COMPUTER NETWORK ATTACKS

 Protect computers from fire out breaks, rain water and other This refers to operations to disrupt, deny, degrade or destroy
natural calamities information resident in computers and computer network themselves
 Use case intrusion detection Hacking
 Activating drive locks Hacking is the practice of gaining unauthorized access into a
 Disabling USB ports and CD –ROM drives computer system or a network.
 Put physical identification marks on component of the computers Hacker
 Use cable locks on computers as visual deterrents A Hacker is a person who attempts to gain unauthorized access to a
 Don’t leave your unsecured laptop unattended to computer system or information system.
 Backup your data on a different data location A hacker may be motivated by a multitude of reasons such as protest
 Keep your antivirus and fire wall softwares updated or challenge
 Video monitoring of data and computer equipment location Examples of common attacks on data stored on networks and
using CCTV cameras and live transmitting on IP camera computers by hackers include
networks Denial of Service Attacks (DOS)
 Use of warning signs or window stickers, fences, vehicle barrier  They prevent access to resources by users authorized to use those
 Use of intrusion detection systems or alarm systems resources
 Often photo ID budges are used and are frequently coupled to  An attack may try to bring down an e-commerce web site to
electronic access control system prevent or to deny usage by legitimate customers
 DOS attacks are common on the internet
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 These attacks can deny access to information application system,  Before attacking a network, attacker would like to know IP
or communication address of machines on a network, the operating systems they
Snooping use and the services they offer.
 This is when someone looks through your files with the hopes of Social engineering
finding something interesting whether it is electronic or on Social engineering is the use of persuasion or deception to gain
paper access to information system. The medium is usually a telephone or
 In the case of physical snooping people may inspect your e-mail message. The attacker pretends to be a director or a manager
dumpster, recycling bin or even your files cabinet , they can hold of the company.
look under your keyboard for post it notes , or looks for scraps of Examples of social engineering
papers tracked to your bulletin board 1. Faked e-mail
 Computer snooping on the other hand involves searching 2. Fictitious competition-The social engineer manipulates a group
through your electronic file trying to find something interesting of users to participate in some fake competition for a jackpot
Sniffing prize, with the alternate purpose of eventually extracting
Packet sniffing is the interception of data packets traversing confidential information about the network and passwords.
network, the best counter measure against sniffing is end to end or 3. The helpful help desk-The help desk gets a call from a social
user to user encryption engineer impersonating a user reporting a forgotten password.
Eaves dropping (mapping) Viruses
 When an attacker is eaves dropping on your communication, this Viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread
is referred to as sniffing or snooping. the ability of an eaves from one computer to another and to interfere or disrupt with normal
dropper to monitor the network is generally the biggest security computer operation.
problem that administrators face in an enterprise  Virus is an umbrella term used to describe malicious programs
 Counter measures are strong encryption services that are based that unwantedly install themselves onto your computer. It causes
on cryptography only.
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a range of damage. The good way to describe viruses is to call COMPUTER CRIME
them “malware” a software program that has malicious intent. Computer Crime refers to any criminal activities which involve the

 viruses (malware) are commonly broken down into classic use of information technology to gain illegal or unauthorized access

viruses, worms ,adware and spyware to computer system with intent e.g. damaging, deleting or altering

 Worm is the type of viruses that can spread without human computer data

interaction. NB: computer crime often involves a computer and a network. It

 Trojan horse is a computer program that is hiding a virus or includes activities such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices,
other potentially damaging program identity theft and data as well as system interference.
 Adware and spyware are cousins to Trojan, worms and viruses.
These programs “lurk” on your machine, they are designed to DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTER CRIMES

observe your internet habit and then send you advertisements or  Hacking –act of breaking into a computer system to gain

report back to their owners via secret messages. unauthorized access

Ways through which viruses are spread  Phishing-is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive

 Email attachments information like user name, passwords and credit card details by

 Rogue websites-gambling websites disguising as a trustworthy source. It is carried out through or by

 Infected boot discs e.g. CDs, flash disks, DVDs leaving a user to enter personal information through website

 Infected software  Cyber stalking –the use of communication technology, mainly

 Instant messaging sites the internet to torture other individuals i.e. false accusations,

 Fake antivirus software transmission of threats and damage of data and equipment

 From mobile devices  Identity theft –it involves stealing money and obtaining other

 Friends and relatives often times we are sent viruses through benefits through the use of a false identity. identity cloning is the

our emails from people that we know and trust use of another users information to pose as a false user, illegal

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migration, terrorism and black mail are often made possible by Privacy what information about one’s self or ones associations must
means of identity theft a person reveal to others, under what conditions and with what
 Fraud –achieved by manipulating of computer records safeguards? , what things can people keep to themselves and cannot
 spamming sending unsolicited e-mails be forced to reveal to others?
 Deliberate circumvention of computer security system Accuracy who is responsible for the authenticity, fidelity and
 Industrial espionage by means of access to or theft of computer accuracy of information and who is to be held accountable for errors
materials in information and how is the injured party be made whole?
 Writing or spreading computer viruses or worms Property who owns information? , where are just and fair prices for
 Salami slicing stealing money repeatedly in extremely small its exchange? Who owns the channels especially all always through
quantities which information is transmitted? How should access to these scarce
 D.O.S attack resources to be allocated?
 Making and digitally distributing child pornography Accessibility What information does a person or an organization has
 Intellectual property theft , including software piracy a right or privilege to obtain under what conditions and with what
PRIVACY AND ICT ETHICAL ISSUES safeguards
Ethics in ICT focuses on ethical dilemmas that exists where human ETHICAL STANDARDS
beings, information objects and social computing technologies  Information privacy or data privacy is the relationship between
interact collection dissertation of data, technology, the public expectation
Definition of computer ethics of privacy and the illegal and political issues surrounding them
Refers to human value and moral conducts for a computer user or  Privacy concerns exist wherever personally identifiable
right or wrong behavior exercised when using a computer information is collected and stored in digital or otherwise.
Privacy and computer ethical issues involved are many and varied improper or non-existent disclosure control can be a root cause
however it is helpful to focus on just four. These may be for privacy issues
summarized by use acronym PAPA.

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Data privacy issues arise in response to information from a wide  Financial- information about a person’s financial
range of sources such as- transactions including the amount of assets, positions held in
 Health care records. stocks or funds, outstanding debts and purchases can be
 Criminal justice investigations and proceedings sensitive especially if criminal gains access to it
 Financial and transactions  Political- political privacy has been a concern since voting
 Biological traits such as genetic material system emerged in ancient times. the secret ballot is the
 Residence and geographic records simplest and the most wide spread measure to ensure that
 Ethnicity political views are not known to anyone other than voter
 Privacy breach themselves
So the challenge in data privacy is to share while protecting  Educational- people may not like to have their school life
personally identifiable information including exams results, attendance, teacher assessments and
Different aspects of information privacy and violation concerns even characteristics to be disclosed.
may be on INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
 Internet- ability to control the information one reveals about Refers to creations of the mind inventions literary and artistic works

one self over the internet and who can access that and symbols names, images and design used in commerce

information has become a growing concern. Intellectual property is divided onto two categories

 Cable TV- the ability to control what information one Industrial property which include inventions (patents) trademarks,

reveals about oneself over a cable television and who can industrial designs and geographic indications of the source

access the information Copy right which include literary and artistic works such as novel,

 Medical- a person may not wish for their medical records to poems and plays, films musical works artistic works such as

be revealed to others, it may be because they would not wish drawings, paintings photographs and sculptures and architectural

others to know about the medical or psychological conditions designs.

or treatments which would be embarrassing

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Rights related to copy right include those performing artists in their  Using flat panel monitors rather than cathode-ray-tube (CRT)
performances, producers of phonograms in their recordings and monitors.
those of broad casters in their radios or TVs programs.  Purchasing equipment with Energy Star logo.
Two principal approaches have emerged  Using notebook computers rather than desktop computers
a) Involving internet intermediaries in enforcement whenever possible.
b) Using internet technical measures to prevent access to  Turning off the power strip when nothing is in use.
unauthorized content  Employ alternative energy sources for computing workstations,
THE CONCEPT OF GREEN COMPUTING servers, networks and data centres.
Green computing is environmentally responsible use of computers  Blank screensavers reduce power consumption as compared to
and related resources such practices include the implementation of moving ones.
energy efficient central processing unit, servers and peripheral  Using peripheral devices that automatically turn on and off.
devices as well as reduced resource consumption and proper  Disposing e-waste according to regulations.
disposal of electronic waste (e-waste) BENEFITS OF GREEN COMPUTING
E-waste is any refuse created by discarded electronic devices and Being energy-conscious and buying energy-efficient computers and
components as well as substances involved in their manufacture or
peripherals will help:
use.
Ways and means to conserve energy, thereby reducing the ill-
• Saves natural resources • Improves air quality
effects of ICT on environment include:
• Saves and protects water • Reduces mercury
 Enabling energy management settings on the computer
resources emissions
 Turning off the monitor when the user is away from the
• Makes home/work space
computer.
more affordable
 Turn off a computer and peripherals when left unused for an
extended period of time
 Planning for all computer-related activities to be done at once.

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EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES  Robotics programming a computer to see, hear and react to other
These are technologies that are new and currently developing or will sensory stimuli
be developed over the next five or twenty years plus and which will  Natural language processing offers a greatest potential rewards
substantially alter the business and social environment. because it would allow people to interact with computers without
Examples include advanced robotics, artificial intelligence, digital need of any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to
forensic, a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming
Examples of emerging technologies computers to understand natural languages has proved to be
Digital forensic more difficult than originally thought
Digital forensic is also referred as computer forensics is a process of Advantages of artificial intelligence
uncovering and interpreting electronic data for use in courts of law.  Easier copying once artificial mind is trained in a task, that mind
It involves application of computer investigations and analysis can then be copied very easily compared to the training of
techniques to gather evidence suitable for presentation in the courts multiple people for the same task.
of law.  AI would not need any sleep this would be an advantage because
Artificial intelligence (AI) it would not be interrupted from its task for sleep, lunch
Is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers  Unemotional consideration of problems, while an artificial
behave like humans, the capability of machines to imitate intelligent minds could theatrically have emotion, it would be better for
human behavior, performance if it were programmed for unemotional reasoning,
Artificial intelligence includes when people make decisions sometimes those decisions are
 Game playing programming a computer to play games such as based on emotions rather than logic this is not always the best
chess and checkers way to make decisions
 Natural language programing a computer to understand natural Disadvantages
human language  Limited sensory input compared to biological mind, an artificial
mind is only capable of taking in small amount of information
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 The inability to heal, biological systems can heal with time and b) A serious long term project to create a machine capable of
treatment for minor conditions most biological systems can general intelligent actions or artificial general intelligence.
continue normally with only a small drop in performance. Most
Mobile collaboration
computer systems on the other hand often need to be shut down
Is a technology based process of communication using electronic
for maintenance
assets and accompanying software designed for use in remote
4G Cellular communication
locations, newest generation hand held electronic device feature
The fourth generation cellular communication system generally
video audio and on-screen drawing capabilities broad cast over
known as a 4G, it is the emerging technology of the current wireless
secure networks, enabling multiparty conferencing in real time
networks.
different from traditional video conferencing, mobile collaboration
In telecommunication, 4G is fourth generation of mobile phone
utilizes wires cellular and broad band technologies enabling
communication technology standards which is a successor of 3G
effective collaboration dependent of location.
standard.
Machine translation
Artificial Brain (Mind)
Is sometimes referred to as by abbreviation (MT) not confused with
This is the term commonly used in the media to describe research
human aided translation (MAHT) is a subfield of computational
that aims to develop software and hardware with cognitive abilities
linguistics that investigates the use of the software to translate text or
similar to those of an animal or human brain
speech from one natural language to another.
Research investigating artificial brains plays three important roles in
Machine Vision (MV) is the technology and method used to
science
provide imaging based automatic inspection and analysis for such
a) Ongoing attempt by neuron scientists to understand how human
applications as automatic inspection process control and robot
brain works known as cognitive neuron science. Although
guidance in an industry.
experiment in philosophy of artificial intelligence demonstrating
that it is possible in theory to create a machine that has all the
capabilities of human being.
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Question answering (QA)  Expertise employee will require training in programming and
QA Is a computer science within the field of information retrieval interacting with new robotic equipment this normally take time
and natural language processing (NLP) which is concerned with and financial implications.
building system that automatically answer questions posed by  Safety robots may protect workers from some hazards but in the
humans in natural language meantime their presence can create other safety problems
QA implementation usually a computer program may construct a
NB
database of knowledge or information usually a knowledge base
Digital divide and Digital migration
more commonly QA systems can pull answers from an unstructured
Digital divide is a term which refers to inequality between one or
collection of natural language documents.
more groups in terms of access to, use of, or knowledge about
Application areas of some of the emerging technologies
information and communication technologies.
Advantages of industrial robots
Digital migration refers to the transition or switch from analog data
 Quality robots have a capacity to drastically improve product
transmission to digital data transmission.
quality
 Production with robots, throughput speed increases which
impacts production because they have the ability to work at a
constant speed without pausing for breaks, sleep, vacations
 Safety robots increases safety in a work place, workers are
moved to supervisory roles so they no longer have to perform
dangerous applications in hazardous settings
 Saving greater worker safety leads to financial savings, there are
health care and insurance concerns for employees
Disadvantages of using robotics systems
 Expensive initial investments of robots are high
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CAREERS IN THE ICT INDUSTRY (COMPUTER IT Support Specialist provides help and advice to people and
PROFESSIONALS) organizations using computer software or equipment. They assist
Web developers design, and create website. They are responsible
computer users who are having computer problems.
for the look of the site, the site’s technical aspects like performance
and capacity Programmers write and test code that allows computer application
Software Developers are creative minds behind computer programs, and software programs to function properly
some develop the application that allow people to do specific tasks Network Architects design and build data communication
on the computer or another device networks, including Local Area Networks, WAN and the internet
Network Administrator is responsible for the day-to-day Computer and Information Research Scientist invent and design
operations of the organizations network new approaches to computing technology and find innovative uses
System Administrator is responsible for well management and for existing technology. They study and solve complex problems in
configuration of systems and making sure that they work properly computing for business, medicine, science and other fields.
Information Security Analyst plan and carry out security measures Computer Technician is a person who repairs and maintains
to protect an organization’s computer networks and systems. They computers and servers. Technician’s responsibility may extend to
are important in averting cyber attacks include building and configuring a new hardware, installing and
Database Administrator use specialized softwares to store and updating software packages
organize data. They make sure that data is available to users and is Data Analyst inspects, cleans, transforms and models data with aim
secure from unauthorized access of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions and
System Analyst study an organizations current computer system supporting decision making.
and procedures and design information system solution to help the
organization operate more efficiently and effectively. They bring
business and information technology together by understanding the
needs and limitations of both.

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WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE  Production of Payroll where tables can be used for simple
Word processing is the process of creating a word document and calculations.
involves typing, editing, formatting and printing of text document  Use of in built templates for creating curriculum vitae.
using a word processor. Limitations of using word processors
Word processor is a tool or program that can be used to create, edit,  Word processors can lead to unemployment of secretaries since
format, store and print a document that contains text and graphics work which could need many people using typewriters to do can
Examples of word processors include: Microsoft Word, Corel be quickly accomplished by only one person.
WordPerfect, Lotus WordPro, Apple Pages, OpenOffice.org Writer,  Word processors require computer literacy and IT skills which
etc. many secretaries don’t have.
Text editors are simple word processors that are generally used to  Word processors can lead to eye disorders caused by continuous
type without any special formatting. looking at a light emitting monitor screen.
Text editors are mainly used to create small notes, memos and  No work can be done with word processors when electricity is
programs. off.
Examples of common text editors are: Notepad, Notepad++, Gedit  Word processors operate in an environment full of viruses and
etc. meltdowns which can lead to deletions and loss of data.
Uses of word processors in business and other jobs  Word processors require purchase of expensive machines such as
 Production of reports and business proposals. computers, and printers.
 Making adverts and posters (a case for word and clip art WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE FEATURES
application).  Text formatting: A variety of quick text formatting options
 Production of business cards. such as bold, underline, italic, change case, font color and font
 Creating form letters and mailing labels size which gives documents a professional look.
 Creating Publications  Spelling and grammar checker: For checking and eliminating
errors in a document before printing. Spell checker checks and

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corrects the spelling of individual words while a grammar  Templates: Presence of preformatted elements such as designs
checker reports grammatical errors and suggests ways to correct and document templates e.g. cover pages which can be modified
them. and used.
 Save: This feature helps the user to copy a document from the  Printing: A variety of printing options are available for a user to
memory to a storage medium such as the hard disk in softcopy choose from e.g. single or multiple copies, full or part of the
for future use. document can be printed.
 Word wrap: Word wrap feature automatically moves text to the  Find and replace: For locating occurrences of a particular
new line at the end of page margin settings without pressing the character, word or phrase and replacing text.
Enter key.  Tables: Information can be organized into rows and columns.
 Mail merge: Mail merge feature creates multiple large numbers  Thesaurus and synonyms: This is a feature that suggests
of documents from a single template and a single data source. It alternative words with the same meaning.
is used when several documents like initiation letters have to be BASIC TERMINOLOGY
sent to several people.  Typeface is the shape of the characters. Some common
 Clip art: Allows a user to easily create good drawings, charts, typefaces are Times New Roman, Arial, and Tahoma.
insert pictures and art.  Line spacing refers to the amount of vertical white space
 Page numbering, Headers and footers Ability to work on between two lines of text, from baseline to baseline. Line
many pages at a time such as through inserting page numbers, spacing is measured in points.
watermarks, headers and footers. Footer is a text that appears at  Text alignment refers to the way lines of text are arranged
the bottom margin of each page of a document while header is a relative to the edges of a block of text. There are four types of
text that appears at the top margin of each page of a document. alignment: left, centre, right, and justify.
 Symbols: A wider range of symbols such as Greek, Arabic,  Justification is the process of aligning text in a document to
Latin, and Hebrew alphabet characters can be used when both the left and right margins at the same time.
creating a document.
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 Indent is the amount of white space set in between the margin  Footer - The footer refers to text that appears in the bottom
and the beginning of text. Examples of indents include the first margin of all pages in a document.
line indent, hanging indent and right indent.  Ruler - You can use the ruler to set the indent, margin and tab
 Formatting text is the process of changing the appearance of markers. Avoid using the space bar to align text!
text in a document. Formatting text involves using commands  Tabs Stops– tab stops are places where text can be made to line
like bold, italics, underlining, changing font colour, etc. up. You can set a tab stop by clicking on the ruler bar at the
 Editing text refers to the process of making changes to the desired position.
content of an existing document. Editing text involves  Hard Copy– A copy of a document printed out on physical
commands like cut, paste, overtype, undo, insert, and delete. paper.
 Copy – To place selected text on the clipboard, without  Soft Copy– A copy of a document that is stored on a disk or
removing it from its current location. other computer storage device.
 Cut – To remove selected text from its current position and  Overtype Mode– Also called overwrite mode, causes any
place it on the clipboard. Copy and paste duplicated text, while characters you type to replace ("overtype") the characters at the
Cut and paste moves text to a new location. cursor. You can switch between overtype mode and insert mode
 The clipboard is an area of memory in which you can store by pressing the insert key.
copied or cut text, graphics or any other items temporarily before  Paragraph – The text between one paragraph break and the
being pasted into other locations. next. A paragraph break is inserted by pressing Enter key.
 The paste special feature helps to avoid pasting text with all its  Save – To write the document's current state from RAM to a
formatting. The paste special feature provides more control over storage device.
what to paste.  Proofreading is the process of reviewing a document to ensure
 Header- The header refers to text that appears in the top margin the accuracy of its content. Proof reading tools include spelling
of all pages in a document. and grammar check (F7), thesaurus, etc.
 Bold: this feature makes text clear and thick in its appearance.
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 Bulleting: inserting symbols at the beginning of each line to  Page margin: white space between the edges of the document
create a bulleted list. from the top, bottom, left and right and where the text starts in
 Change case: change text to various capitalizations such as the document.
upper case, lower case and toggle case.  Page number: inserts numeric numbers, roman numbers and
 Clip art: predesigned images that are inserted into the document alphabet letters at the margins of the document to create
to illustrate a specific content. numbered pages.
 Drop cap: formats the first letter in the paragraph to be dropped  Page orientation: switches the pages between landscape and
across a number of lines. portrait layouts
 End note: endnotes are inserted under a separate heading, at the  Save As: this feature allows the user to resave the document
end of the page. using different filename, file format or storage location.
 Font color: this features changes the color of the text  Underline: a feature that inserts a line at the base of the text.
 Font size: this feature increases the size of the text that is to say Common editing features of a word processor
the height and width of the text Editing means removing mistakes and making a document error free,
 Font type/type face/font face: this is the style and shape of  Copy: Allows a user to duplicate a section of text.
characters  Cut: Allows a user to remove (cut) a section of text from one
 Footnote: footnotes are notes or citations at the bottom foot of place in a workspace of the word processor.
the page.  Paste: Allows a user to insert a section of text somewhere else.
 Italic: a feature makes text to slant at an angle to the right  Delete: Allows a user to erase characters, words, or pictures as
 Numbering: inserting numeric numbers, roman numerals and easily as they can cross them out on an ordinary paper.
alphabet letters at the beginning of each line to create a  Insert: Allows a user to insert text anywhere in the document.
numbered list  Find and replace.
 Page break: starting next page at the current position of the  Grammar and spelling.
cursor  Setting language options.
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 Auto complete. 3) Justified Alignment: text spreads evenly between

Formatting text for emphasis the margins, creating a clean professional look.
This involves changing the appearance and layout of a document so 4) Center Alignment: this is finest for titles and
that it looks professionally attractive. There are four different levels headings.
of formatting: ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONIC WORD PROCESSOR
i) Character formatting or text formatting: involves setting the OVER TYPE WRITERS
style of certain words or phrases to add emphasis to parts of a Advantages:
document. Standard formatting options include: font type, font  Word processors can save softcopies for future use while with a
size, Bold, Italic, and Underline. Features that make up a font type writer; a document has to be fully retyped if needed again.
include; Weight, Slope, Optical size, Metrics, Letter Case, and  During typing with a word processor, it is possible to undo a
Color. mistake, while any error made with a type writer is immediately
Word processors provide additional formatting effects to text, impacted on the printout.
such as strikethrough, superscript, subscript, change case, and  A type writer prints one character at a time while a word
outline. processor prints many pages at a time.
ii) Paragraph formatting: involves setting text alignment, line  There is a variety of quick text formatting features such as bold,
spacing, indentations, tab settings and boarders. Types of italic, underline, colour, etc. in a word processor whereas there
paragraph formatting include; are limited formatting options with a typewriter.
1) Left Alignment: text starts out positioned evenly  A word processor provides grammar and spell check options
along the left margin, and uneven or ragged at the whereas a typewriter cannot help in spell checking.
right margin.  It is easier to insert graphics and drawings in a word processor
2) Right Alignment: text is even along the right yet it is not easy to draw with a type writer.
margin and ragged at the left margin.  A word processor allows the user to type continuously without
pressing the enter key at the end of each line (word wrap)
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whereas the user needs to advance the lever of a typewriter  Computers have Viruses, which lead to loss of data in soft
manually, at the end of every line. copies.
 It is very simple to align text in a document to Left, Centre,  Using word processors on light emitting computer monitors for
Right or Justified whereas with a type writer, one has to long leads to eye disorders, which isn’t the case with type writers
manually align the text, which is very difficult.  Word processors require purchase of hard ware like printers in
 A word processor has edit features such as Copy and Paste in order to obtain hard copies yet with typewriters, whatever is
which repeatedly occurring text in a document can be copied to typed is permanent and instantly available as a hard copy: there
and pasted from the clipboard whereas a type writer has no is no delay for printing or risk of unintended file deletion.
clipboard.
 A word processor can work on many pages at a go by inserting
pages numbers, footers, headers, watermarks, etc. whereas a
type writer works on one page at a time.
 A type writer makes a lot of noise during its operation as
compared to a word processor which is relatively quiet.
DISADVANTAGES OF USING ELECTRONIC WORD
PROCESSORS

 Word processors cannot be used without Electricity.

 Word processors Use is Expensive due to the cost of computers.
 They have led to Unemployment of typists because one person
using a word processor can do a lot of work in a short time,
which would be done by many using type writers.
 Many people are Computer illiterate, and cannot use the
program.
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SPREADSHEETS  No skills are needed, hence, even a computer illiterate can use
A spreadsheet is a grid of rows and columns that accepts entry of manual spreadsheets
data, allows editing, formatting and manipulation of numeric data. Disadvantages of Manual Spreadsheets
Spreadsheets can also display data graphically with the help of  They require a lot of manual effort and time
charts and graphs.  Many errors are bound to be made
TYPES OF SPREADSHEETS  Rubbing out to correct errors makes the work untidy
1) Manual spreadsheets. The manual spreadsheet is the most  They do not have pre-existing tables as opposed to electronic
commonly used type by book keepers as a ledger book with spreadsheets
many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns on which  They are very small in size
various amounts of money are entered manually using a pen or a  They are not durable. They can easily wear and tear out
pencil and manipulated manually with the help of a calculator.  They do not have automatic formulas that would otherwise
2) Electronic spreadsheets. An electronic spreadsheet is a quicken the work
spreadsheet prepared using a computer program that enables the  You cannot easily insert or delete extra columns and rows
user to enter values in rows and columns and to manipulate them Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets
mathematically using formulae and functions automatically.  They have pre-existing tables, thus, no need to draw gridlines

Examples of electronic spreadsheet programs include;  They have in-built formulas and functions, enabling automation

ViscCalc, Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Office Excel, Quattro Pro, in calculations and work manipulations

Microsoft Works, Multiplan, View sheet, Lucid 3D, etc.  There are minimal errors and in case of any, they are easily

Advantages of Manual Spreadsheets corrected

 They are easy and cheap to acquire  They have very large worksheets that can store a lot of work

 They are easily portable easily and for long

 They are suitable for draft or rough work  Extra columns and rows can be inserted and deleted without any

 They are not electronic, thus, can be used without electric power bad effect
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 The work can be protected with passwords thus ensuring security however, these can be increased in the user’s interest and
 Work can be enhanced to look very attractive with various renamed
formats to suit the user’s needs 3) Columns. These are vertical lines which run through the
 The records can be sorted and filtered to get only those that you worksheet. Worksheet columns are labeled by letters; A, B, C,
want D, E… which are displayed in grey buttons across the top of the
 They allow printing of multiple copies without re-creation worksheet
4) Rows. Are horizontal lines across a worksheet. Worksheet rows
Disadvantages of Electronic Spreadsheets
are labeled by numbers; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5… which are displayed in
 They are expensive to buy and maintain
grey buttons across the left of the worksheet
 They are electronic, thus cannot be used without electricity
5) A cell. This is an intersection of a column and a row. Each cell
 They require computer skills and continuous training
on the spreadsheet has a cell address. A cell address is a unique
 There is data loss due to virus attacks and system failure
name of a cell. It is given by the column letter and row number,
 There are privacy problems like unauthorized access over
e.g. A1, B5, G6, D12, C1, A4, B3, etc. Cells can contain; text,
networks
numbers, formulas, etc.
 Health related hazards as they are associated with use of
6) Range. It is a group of adjacent cells defined as a single unit. A
computers
range address is a reference to a particular range. It has a format
FEATURES OF ELECTRONIC SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE
1) Workbook. This is a collection of multiple worksheets in a
of top left cell address: bottom right cell address. e.g. D5:G10

single file 7) Value. This is a numerical entry in a cell. All values are right

2) Worksheet. This is a single page of a workbook. It is an aligned in a cell by default.

equivalent of a work area in Microsoft Word. A worksheet is 8) Labels. This is a text entry in a cell. All labels are left aligned in

made up of rows and columns which intersect to form cells. a cell by default

Worksheets are labeled sheet1, sheet2, sheet3 by default, but 9) Name box. This displays the address of the selected cell or cells.

they can be renamed. A workbook by default has 3 worksheets, Also you can rename a selected cell or cells using the name box
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10) Formula bar. Is a bar at the top of the Excel window that you 16) What-if analysis. Is a process of changing the values in cells to
use to enter or edit values or formulas in cells or charts. see how those changes affect the outcome of formulas on the
11) Autofill. This is the feature that allows you to quickly fill cells worksheet. For example, varying the interest rate that is used in
with repetitive or sequential data such as chronological dates or the paying-back table to determine the amount of the payments.
numbers, and repeated text. To use this feature, you type one or 17) Freezing panes. This is where rows and columns are frozen
two initial values or text entries, and then Autofill does the such that they remain visible as you scroll through the data
restusing the fill handle, which is the small black square in the especially if the database is too big to fit on one screen.
lower-right corner of the selection. When you point to the fill Uses/Applications of Spreadsheets
handle, the pointer changes to a black cross. Autofill recognizes  Preparation of budgets
series of numbers, dates, months, times and certain labels.  Preparation of cash flow analysis
12) Sorting data is to arrange records in either ascending or  Preparations of financial statements
descending order.  Processing basic business information, like, job costing, payment
13) Filtering data is the displaying of records that satisfy the set schedules, stock control, tax records
condition from the parent list.  Analysis of data from questionnaires
14) Database. These are data values that can be entered in the cells  Presentation of information in tabular form, graphical or charts
of the spreadsheet and managed by special spreadsheet features forms
found on the data menu. The special spreadsheet features  Mathematical techniques and computation like trigonometry
include; cell referencing, data replication, automatic  Statistical computations like standard deviations.
recalculation, formulas and functions, data filtering, copy, cut
and paste, clip art.
15) Graphs. A graph is a pictorial representation of the base data on
a worksheet. Most spreadsheets refer to graphs as charts.A chart
is a graphical representation of data. A chart may be 2-D or 3-D
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OPERATORS Comparison operator Meaning Example

Operators specify the type of calculation that you want to perform = (equal sign) Equal to A1=B1
on the elements of a formula. There is a default order in which > (greater than sign) Greater than A1>B1
calculations occur, but you can change this order by using brackets. < (less than sign) Less than A1<B1
Types of Operators >= Greater than or equal to A1>=B1
There are four types of calculation operators: arithmetic, (greater than or equal to sign)
comparison, text concatenation, and reference. <= (less than or equal to sign) Less than or equal to A1<=B1
Arithmetic operators <> (not equal to sign) Not equal to A1<>B1
These are used to perform basic mathematical operations such as
Reference Operators combine ranges of cells for calculations.
addition, subtraction, division or multiplication; combine numbers;
Examples include;
and produce numeric results.
Reference operator Meaning and Example
Arithmetic operator Meaning Example
: (colon) Range operator, which produces one reference
+ (plus sign) Addition 3+3
to all the cells, between two references,
– (minus sign) Subtraction 3–1
including the two references e.g. B5:B15
Negation –1
, (comma) Union operator, which combines multiple
* (asterisk) Multiplication 3*3
references into one reference
/ (forward slash) Division 3/3
e.g. SUM(B5:B15,D5:D15)
% (percent sign) Percent 20%
(space) Intersection operator, which produces one
^ (caret) Exponentiation 3^2
reference to cells common to the two
Comparison Operators references e.g. B7:D7 C6:C8
These are used to compare two values, and the result is a logical & (ampersand) Connects two values to produce one
value either TRUE or FALSE.
continuous text value e.g. ("North"&"wind")
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CELL REFERENCES LOGICAL FUNCTIONS

A Cell reference is an address given to a particular cell or group of Function Description
cells on a worksheet. e.g. A2, B6, B3. AND Returns TRUE if all of its arguments are TRUE;
There are three types of cell references; Returns FALSE if any argument is FALSE
FALSE Returns the logical value FALSE
1) Relative cell reference. Here, the address of a cell is based on
IF Specifies a logical test to perform
the relative position of the cell that contains the formula and the
IFERROR Returns a value you specify if a formula evaluates to
cell referred to. If you copy the formula, the reference
an error; otherwise, returns the result of the formula
automatically adjusts. A relative cell reference takes the form:
NOT Reverses the logic of its argument
A1, B17, G20, C2.
OR Returns TRUE if any argument is TRUE
2) Absolute cell reference. Here, the exact address of a cell is used
TRUE Returns the logical value TRUE
in the formula, regardless of the position of the cell that contains
ERROR ALERTS
the formula. An absolute cell reference takes the form: $A$1, Microsoft Excel displays an error value in a cell when it cannot
$D$6, $B$3, $E$6. properly calculate the formula for that cell. Below are some common
3) Mixed cell reference. This is a type that uses both relative and error values and their meanings.
absolute cell references at once. It may use an absolute column
reference and a relative row reference or vice versa, e.g. $G17, Error message Meaning

B$14, D$2, $E2. 1) ##### Column is not wide enough, or a negative date
or time is used.
FORMULAS 2) #DIV/0! A number is divided by zero
Formulas are equations that perform calculations on values in your
3) #N/A! A value is not available to a function or formula
worksheet and return a value in a chosen cell, e.g. =A2+B2,
4) #NAME? Microsoft Office Excel does not recognize text in a
=(A3+B3+C3+D3)/4, =A6*B4, =C4-D4, =E10/G10
formula.

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5) #NULL! You specified an intersection of two areas that do not

intersect
6) #NUM! The numeric values used in a formula or function are
invalid
7) #REF! The cell reference is not valid, e.g. 6E instead of E6

#VALUE! An argument or operand used is of wrong type

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PRESENTATION SOFTWARE more effective and enjoyable and in the long run saves you time and
This is application software used to create presentations, which can effort.
communicate ideas and other information to a group of audience.
 Simplicity of the presentation. The best slide is usually simple,
The presentation can be viewed as a slide show, which usually
easy and to the point. The audience may need more time to
displays on a large monitor or projected screen. Some presentation
understand complicated slides while time is always limited
software can convert an existing slide show into a format that can be
during presentations.
accessed on the web.
 Know the audience and their expectations in order to give the
Examples of popular electronic presentation software include; right message to the right people. e.g. are they children, matures
Microsoft PowerPoint, Corel Presentations, Lotus Freelance or a mixture. Are they clients or seniors of the organisation
Graphics, Microsoft Producer, Open Office Presentation, etc.  Relevance of the content. Ensure that the content of your slides
is relevant to the topic of discussion in order to capture the
Applications of Presentation Software
attention of the audience
1. Presenting learning materials to students in schools (CAL)
 Use of images, graphics and diagrams. Slides are visual aid to
2. Presenting speeches and minutes in meeting
help you explain complex ideas in an easy way. Therefore, use
3. Used in training sessions
the right and relevant images, graphics and charts to represent
4. Used in presenting campaign manifestos
your ideas visually.
5. Used in conferences and seminars
 Make the right choice of colours, font styles, font sizes,
6. Used in sales promotions to market products
transitions, animations, links which suit the viewers
7. Used in business shows, mobile kiosks and clinics
Advantages of Presentation Software
PRINCIPLES OF A GOOD PRESENTATION
When preparing a presentation, you must consider the following  Presentation software usually provides a wide variety of
principles. This improves the quality of your presentation, makes it presentation formats and layouts for the slides

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 Multimedia components such as clip art images, video clips and 6) Placeholder. Placeholders are the containers in layouts that hold
audio clips can be incorporated into slides such content as text (including body text, bulleted lists, and
 The timing of the slides can be set so that the presentation titles), tables, charts, SmartArt graphics, movies, sounds,
automatically displays the next slide after a predetermined period pictures, and clip art.
of time. 7) Transition effects. This refers to different styles in which slides
 Special transition effects can be applied between each slide come and leave the screen during a presentation. Slide
 The presentation can normally be viewed and printed in different transition is a special effect for introducing an entire slide
formats during a slide show
8) Graphics. A general term used to mean pictures, images, charts,
FEATURES OF ELECTRONIC PRESENTATION
SOFTWARE photo, tables, etc., that you can add to a presentation
1) Presentation. This is a PowerPoint file made up of a series of 9) ClipArt. A general term for a library of pictures in the computer.
slides, audience hand-outs, speaker’s notes and outline among Presenter’s notes, these contain ideas you want to discuss for
others. each slide in your presentation.
2) Slide. Is an individual page of a presentation 10) Action buttons. Are ready-made buttons that can be inserted
3) A slide master. Is the top slide in a hierarchy of slides that into your presentation. These enable you to perform actions upon
stores information about the theme and slide layouts of a clicking or moving mouse over them
presentation, including the background colour, fonts, effects, 11) Auto content wizard. This is a presentation wizard that contains
placeholder sizes, and positioning. data from which one can select and edit to create a personalized
4) A PowerPoint template. This contains layouts, theme colours, or customized presentation.
theme fonts, theme effects, background styles, and even content. 12) Slide layout. Slide layouts contain formatting, positioning, and
5) Animation. Refers to special effects for introducing text in a placeholders for all the content that appears on a slide. Layout
slide during a slide show. contains the theme (colours, fonts, effects, and the background)

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of a slide. Master layout is a term applied to a presentation’s

overall design.
13) Timing. Is a technique by which slides or text appear on the
screen during a presentation, i.e. on mouse click or automatically
after a defined period.

PowerPoint Views
a) Normal view. Is a Tri-pane window that provides the text
outline of the entire presentation on the left, the current slide on
the upper-right, and speaker’s notes on the lower-right. This is
the default PowerPoint view
b) Outline view. This enables one to edit and display all
presentation text in one location instead of one slide at a time. It
appears without the objects or images in the slide.
c) Slide view. Shows a graphic view of the current slide for editing
and viewing
d) Slide sorter view. This displays the entire presentation so that
one can add, delete and move slide.
e) Notes page. Provides a large area to view or type speaker’s notes
on a slide

Slide show. Is a collection of slides moving in a defined sequence at

a present timing that one can control and change with special effects.

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DATABASES 6) Eliminates duplicate data say by editing, e.g. deleting and

Database is a collection of logically related data with descriptions retyping
designed to meet the information needs of an organization. 7) Used to create relationships between tables
Databank is an enormous/large collection of two or more databases 8) You can ask questions about your data and get answers using
for several users within and outside an organization. queries
Database management system (DBMS) is software system that 9) Used to create data entry forms
allows multiple users to define, create, store, maintain and control 10) Used to create professional good-looking reports
access to the database. Examples of DBMSs include; Microsoft 11) Used to change appearance of information, i.e. perform some
Access, Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, Dbase, Fox Pro, Sybase formatting, etc.
TYPES OF DATABASES ADVANTAGES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
1. Flat databases. These consist of one table 1. Sharing of data. Data is easily shared among different users and
2. Relational databases. These consist of two or more tables and applications
manipulate data by relating the tables. 2. Data persistence. Data exists beyond the scope of the process
FUNCTIONS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM that it was created for.
1) Takes care of storage, retrieval and management of large data
3. Data security. Data is protected from unauthorized access using
sets in a database
passwords. It also provides protection of databases through
2) Used to creates a database structure to accommodate data that
security, control and recovery facilities
may be text, numbers, objects, video, sound
4. Data validity, integrity & correctness. Data should be correct
3) It lets you easily add new records, delete out-dated records,
with respect to the real entity that they represent. Auditing or
update records
error check and correction are easily done
4) Allows one to organizes records in different ways, i.e. sorted and
5. Consistency of data. The system always produces consistent
indexed order
values with respect to the relationships
5) Helps to locate specific records, i.e. search, find and replace

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6. Data integrity. Refers to both correctness and consistency of 4. They are difficult to thoroughly test and audit errors
data. Correctness is being free from errors while consistence is 5. Initial expense. Because of their complexity and efficiency, they
having no conflicts among related data items include sophisticated database systems which can be expensive
7. Large data storage. It is capable of storing enormous data to setup
amounts for personal and organizational use 6. Requires special skills to handle. Being complex and
8. Non-redundancy. Eliminates or decreases duplication of data in enormous, databases require skilled personnel to develop,
the same container. No two data items in a database should establish and maintain
represent the same real-world entity. 7. Vulnerability. Data in the database may be exposed to software
9. Data independence. Both the data and the user program can be and hardware failures, sabotage, theft, destruction, virus attacks,
altered independently of each other. etc.
8. Routine back-up. Requires back-up systems, which are
DISADVANTAGES OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT
inconveniencing, complex, tedious and expensive
SYSTEMS
DISADVANTAGES OF PAPER/MANUAL/FILE-
1. Complexity. The systems are complex, costly, and take much
BASED/FLAT DATABASES
time to develop, e.g. they include sophisticated software
Before computerized databases management systems and even
programs that may require special hardware.
now data may be kept and managed manually on paper files and
2. Need for substantial conversion effort. Changing from a
filing cabinets. This system has the following drawbacks or
traditional file oriented system to a computerized database
deficiencies
system can involve large-scale reorganization of data and
programs. This can create user resistance 1. Data redundancy. Data are often repeated in more than one file.
3. Organization security may be compromised since a database is 2. Updating difficulties. Keeping all files up-to-date can be
used by many people, departments or personnel who may cause problematic
havoc by leaking out vital secrets

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3. Data dispersion. Scattered data are difficult for programs and 4. Field type. This refers to how particular data items are stored in
people to share a table
4. Under-utilization of data. Dispersed data cannot usually be used 5. Field properties. This refers to specific characteristics of
to full advantage particular fields
5. Not durable. Data on manual papers does not last for long 6. Record. This refers to particulars within a file, or a set of entire
6. Exposed to risks. Data can be easily lost due to fire, rot, termites, data items in a row
rats, etc. 7. Macro. This is an automated procedure of action in a computer
7. Data dependence. Programs may be dependent on the data 8. Attribute. This refers to a group of fields or columns in a table
formats and file organization. 9. Primary key. This is a unique record identifier in the table. It is
DATABASE OBJECTS used to ensure that there are no duplicate fields in the table. It is
1) Table. Is a collection of data arranged and stored in rows and also used to create relationships among tables.
columns. It is the basic/primary object where all other objects 10. A foreign key, is a copy of the primary key in another table
derive data from. 11. A view. Is a virtual table that does not necessarily exist in its
2) Query. Is used to ask questions on table data and find qualifying own right but may be dynamically derived from one or more
answers. base tables
3) Form. Is a tool for displaying data from data tables easily and 12. Relationships. This refers to how two or more entities/tables
for entering & editing data in the data tables. share information in the database structure. That is, how data in
4) Report. Is a summarized and good-looking display of data from one table are related to data in another table. Relationships are of
tables and queries. It is for output only. three types; one-to-one (1:1), one-to-many (1:M) and many-to-
DEFINITION OF TERMINOLOGIES many (M:M)
1. File. Refers to the entire collection of data in the database.
13. Datasheet view. This is a table view which allows you to
2. Field. This is the entire column that contains similar data items
update, edit, format and delete information from the table.
3. Field name. This is the name/title of a particular field

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14. Design view is a table view which provides tools for creating 3) Data manipulation language. This is used to manipulate data in
fields in a table, i.e. specify field names, data types, field the database. That is, it helps one to; add, change, select, and
properties and descriptions (a view for creating the table) delete data in the database and mine it for valuable information
CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASE APPLICATIONS DATA TYPES, FIELD PROPERTIES, VALIDATION
1) Data is organized in rows and columns CHECKS AND ERRORS
2) Each column has a distinct name and represents an attribute of
DATA TYPES
table entities
Data type specifies and determines the kind/category of values or
3) All values in a column must conform to the same data format or
information entered in the field containers. There are various data
data type.
types applied in Microsoft Access and these include;
4) Each row represents a single entity occurrence (entity instance)
1) Text. Are alphabetic letters or numbers that cannot be
5) It contains tools known as database objects such as; forms,
calculated. Examples of such fields are; names, addresses,
queries and reports
subject names, course names, telephone numbers, etc. it can
COMPONENTS OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
contain up to 255 characters.
1) Data dictionary. This is an automated or manual tool used to
2) Number. Refers to numerical data you can calculate but not
store and organize the data in the database and defines each data
relating to money, e.g. age, height, weight, course duration,
field that will be contained in the database file including
score, number of items in stock. It can be whole number or
characteristics of each item
fraction.
2) Data definition language (DDL). It helps one to create and
3) Currency. Are numerical monetary values that can be calculated
maintain the data dictionary and define the structure of files in a
and may have a currency symbol or not such as £56000.05,
database. It defines each term as it appears in a database, e.g.
59000.89, $5362, €4563, etc. It is suitable for field like; salary,
delete, create, browse, zap, index, sort, etc.
gross pay, net pay, PAYE, school fees, amount paid, etc.
4) Memo. It is for lengthy descriptive text and numbers usually
several sentences or paragraphs. It can contain a maximum of
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32,000 characters. It is suitable for fields like; remarks, open other pages or documents, e.g. e-mail address, website,
comments, particulars, descriptions. bookmarks, etc.
5) Date/Time. For months, date and time values that are in the 10) Lookup wizard. Refers to a list of items in form of a list-box
form; dd/mm/yy or dd-mm-yy, i.e. date/month/year for dates from which you can choose the desired item during data entry,
and Hr:Min:sec, i.e. Hour:Minutes:Seconds for time values. It is especially if that data exists in another table or form. It is
suitable for fields like; date of birth, date of joining, on/off set suitable for repetitive data such as marital status; single, married,
date/time, date/time of departure/arrival, etc. separated, divorced, widowed, etc
6) AutoNumber. A number that automatically increments for each 11) Calculated data type. This new data type lets you create a field
record you enter. It stores sequential numbers entered that is based on a calculation of other fields in the same table.
automatically by Microsoft Access starting with one. They are For example, you might create a Line Total field that contains
unique and can make a good primary key. It is suitable for fields the product of a Quantity field and a Unit Price field. Then, if
like; registration number, ID number, membership number, etc you update the Quantity or Unit Price field, the Line Total is
7) Yes/No. Here you can enter and store only one value or answer updated automatically
out of the available two options but not both. It is suitable for 12) Attachment. This is the preferred data type for storing digital
fields like; true/false, on/off, smoker/non-smoker, Ugandan/Non- images and any type of binary file, like; Pictures, Images, Office
Ugandan, in/out, etc. files
8) Object linking and embedding (OLE object). For object data FIELD PROPERTIES
and other binary information such as; sounds, symbols, These are traits or characteristics defining data entered in particular

graphics/pictures such as; signatures, thumbprints, company fields. Common properties include

logos, one’s photo, etc. 1) Field size. This specifies the maximum length of a field. That is,

9) Hyperlink. Stores data in form of hyperlinks, which are the the maximum number of characters to be stored in the field. e.g.

blue-coloured hotspots or connections that can be clicked to if you specify field size as 5, only 5 or less characters will be
allowed in the column.

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2) Format. Specifies the way that the field appears by default when unknown. To enter a null, leave the required property as no and
displayed or printed. leave the field blank, e.g. a company without a fax number
3) Decimal Places. It is used to specify the number of decimal 11) Indexed. It specifies whether or not duplicates in the field
places to use when displaying numbers should be allowed in order to speed up the data search, sort,
4) Input Mask. Specifies the pattern or format for data to be filter, etc.
entered in that field, e.g. (--/--/--) for date. 12) Text Align. Specifies the default alignment of text within a
5) Caption. Used to set the text displayed by default in labels for control.
forms, reports, and queries. 13) New Values. Specifies whether an AutoNumber field is
6) Default Value. A value that appears in the field automatically incremented or assigned a random value when a new record is
even before you enter there anything. added
7) Validation Rule. An expression that must be true whenever you 14) Unicode Compression. Compresses text stored in this field
add or change the value in a given field. e.g. >=10 for age, when a small amount of text is stored (< 4,096 characters).
“married” or “single” for marital status, etc. 15) IME Mode. Controls conversion of characters in an East Asian
8) Validation Text. A message displayed when a value violates the version of Windows.
expression in the Validation Rule property. e.g. “please, marital 16) IME Sentence Mode. Controls conversion of sentences in an
status is either single or married” East Asian version of Windows.
9) Required. Specifies whether or not an entry must be entered in 17) Smart Tags. Attaches a smart tag to this field.
that field. That is, if yes, you must type an entry, but if no, you 18) Append Only. Tracks the history of field values (by setting the
may proceed without entering anything. property's value to Yes).
10) Allow Zero Length. A provision for a field to be left blank in 19) Text Format. Choose the property's Rich Text value to store
case of unavailable data to be entered later even if the setting for text as HTML and allow rich formatting. Choose the property's
required is yes. Nulls indicate that data may exist but it is Plain Text value to store only unformatted text.

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DATA VALIDATION

Validation is the process of comparing the data entered with a set of

predefined rules or values to check if the data is acceptable.
Validation is the name for the checks that detect incorrect data,
display an error message and request another input or just reject the
data.
Data validation is the checking of input data for errors (e.g. of the
correct data type) before processing. Common data validation
checks include; presence/existence or completeness check, range
check, limit check, data type check or character check or
alphanumeric check, format check, consistency check, control total
check, and hash total check.
ERRORS
An error is a fault or an issue that arises unexpectedly causing the
program not to function properly and to close. Common types of
errors include; transcription errors and transposition errors.
Transpositions errors include; error of omission, error of addition,
random error, overflows error, rounding up error, and truncation
errors.

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WEB DESIGN Web hosts- are companies that provide space (web hosting) on a
WEBSITE PUBLISHING server they own for use by their clients. A web site can also be
Is the process involved in making information available on the hosted on a home or private server in a home or local area network.
World Wide Web. Which includes designing, organizing and Website - Collection of related hyperlinked web pages hosted on a
uploading of web pages onto web servers? particular webserver on the World Wide Web. Each Web site may
IMPORTANT TERMS contain one or more web pages. Each site has a home page,
Content management: The activity of acquiring, collecting,
Webpage - Is a document, typically written in HTML that is
editing, tracking, accessing digital content to include in a web site.
accessible via HTTP (hypertext transfer Protocol), a protocol that
A content management system (CMS) - System with predesigned
transfers information from the Web server to display in the user's
templates used to manage the content of a Web site. It allows the
Web browser.
content manager or author, who may not know Hypertext Markup
Hyperlink - is the reference or navigation element in a document to
Language (HTML), to manage the creation, modification or
another section of the same document or to another document that
removal of content from a Website without needing the expertise of
may be on a different website.
a Webmaster
HTML- (Hypertext Markup Language) HTML uses blocks of text
Examples of CMS include WordPress, Joomla, MS front page,
enclosed within angled brackets which are referred to as HTML
Macromedia Dreamweaver.
tags. These tags are codes which describe the structure and
Webmaster - is a person who Creates and manages the information
formatting of the document (how the web page is displayed by the
content (words and pictures) and organization of a Web site or
browser). The tags describe normal text paragraphs, headings, bullet
Manages the computer server and technical programming aspects of
lists, etc. A user's Web browser reads and displays the HTML
a Web site Or does both.
document, according to the tags that were used to design the web
Website Hosting - Service that allows individuals and organizations
page.
to have their own websites accommodated on a particular web server
Home page - A home page is the first or introductory page of a
from which they are accessed by others on the World Wide Web.
website; it contains the introductory information about the site. By
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default, it is names as the index page or index.htm to indicate to the  All pages in the web site should have a uniform layout.
browser that this is the first page to open in the site. Consistent colors, layouts and type enhance the image of the
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD WEB SITE owners.
 It should be easy to navigate with well arranged, easy to see USES OF A WEB PAGE OR WEB SITE
navigation buttons.  A web site is a Publicity tool or exposure to the public of
 It should have a Simple and clear layout of sections and content organizations such as a business or school.
which makes it user friendly, that is, the visitors should be able  It is a Communication tool for information exchange between an
to the find content easily. organization and the public or a group of people.
 It must be pleasing to the eye to encourage visitors to the site.  A website provides a convenient and cheap base of operation for
 It should load quickly to avoid disappointing potential visitors to individuals and businesses. For example, owners of websites can
the site. easily advertise on their websites.
 It should have readable font, web safe eye pleasing colours so  A website is Useful in Marketing of products.
that visitors can read the content easily.  Web sites can be a source of income to advertisers and web site
 It should be interactive with contact information, possibility of e- developers. Space can also be hired for advertisements.
mail, online communication forum and chats. Message boards
RELEVANCE OF SCHOOL WEBSITES
etc.  School academic work can be posted on a school website for
 It should have active links which enable visitors to access other students to access.
references. Dead link can frustrate visitors.  Homework assignments may be included along with web-based
 It should be frequently updated and must have a dated of last activities that students can complete after school.
update. The visitors to the site expect to find up to date useful  Web Quests and research activities may be posted on to a school
information. web site, with relevant links for the students to access. Then
 The web pages must have web page titles and brief summaries students can post the work they have completed based on their
about the page or site. research.
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 A Web Quest is an inquiry-based approach to learning involving  PTA meetings and fundraising activities-enabling parents find
students in a wide range of activities that make good use of the activities that fit their time and schedule constraints as well
Internet-based resources. During this activity, questions or as their interests.
problems are often researched, and learners work cooperatively  It helps to develop school spirit by allowing Students to submit
to find solutions. Each learner within a group can be given a articles, reports on class trips, and special school events in form
"role," or specific area to research. of newsletters.
 Teachers can share ideas with other teachers and make them  Involving students gives them a chance to share their thoughts in
available to everyone else on the Website. writing and build school spirit.
 It is possible to Communication to parents and the general
public.
 Parents can have private access to their child’s class work and
keep abreast of homework/prep assignments, field trips and other
events.
 The school website is used to show school information and
policy. Such information as school History, Mission, plans,
alumni, anthem and address. School policy information might
include use of the Internet in school, promotion requirements,
dress code, absences, and behavior expectations.
 The site can be used to encourage parent involvement in school
activities by keeping them informed of opportunities such as
volunteering,

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ELEMENTARY COMPUTER PROGRAMMING An algorithm is a list of instructions, procedures or formulas used

Introduction to solve a problem.
You may have already used software (computer programs) A programmer is a specialist or professional who prepares software
especially applications, e.g. maybe you have simply turned on a (programming/coding)
computer or a mobile phone and pointed at some little graphical Object code is a program code that has already been translated into
object on the display, click a button or swipe a finger or two, and the a machine readable form
computer does something. You may also already have used Pseudo code is a computer programming language that resembles
software, perhaps for word processing or spreadsheets, to solve plain English that cannot be compiled or executed, but explains a
problems. resolution to a problem. It is algorithm written in English like
How to interact with the computer program is all the average person structure.
needs to know. But then you will perhaps be curious to learn how Bug is an error in computer software
programmers write software. Debugging refer to a process of identifying and correcting the bugs
A program is a set of step-by-step instructions that directs the in a computer software.
computer to do tasks you want it to do and produce the results you Syntax is a set of rules or order followed when writing characters or
want statements in programming
Computer programming is the process of developing and Source code is the initial code that the programmer enters in the
implementing various sets of instructions to enable the computer to program editor window
do certain tasks. A flow chart is a formalized graphic representation of a logic
Basic terms used in programming sequence, work, or manufacturing process, organization chart or
Programming language is a set of characters and symbols used to similar formalized structure.
create a computer program. It is a set of rules that provides a way of Importance and limitations of programming
telling a computer what operations to perform There are at least three good reasons for learning programming

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 Programming helps you to understand computers. The computer Programming languages

is only a tool. If you learn how to write simple programs, you Computer can only accept direct instruction written in machine
will gain more knowledge about how a computer works. language i.e. electrical signals represented as 0’s and 1’s. So when
 Writing a few simple programs increases your confidence level. the user types a word in the computer it has to be translated to binary
many people find great personal satisfaction in creating a set of first and then the machine carries out execution after assemble
instructions that solve a problem process.
 Learning programming lets you find out quickly whether you Programming languages refers to a special notation in which
like programming and whether you have the analytical turn of instruction for controlling a computer are written. Programming
mind programmers need. Even if you decide that programing is languages are designed to be easy for people to write and read but
not for you, understanding the process certainly will increase must be capable of being mechanically translated ( by a compiler or
your appreciation of what programmers and computers can do. an interpreter) into a machine code that the computer can execute
 Knowledge of using and programming computer is essential for The program in the form originally written by the programmer is
scientists and engineers. The strength of the computer lies in its called source program (code).
ability to manipulate and store data. The speed at which The source code consists of the programing statements that are
computers can manipulate data and the amount of data they can created by a programmer with a text editor or a visual programing
store, has increased dramatically over years doubling about tool and then saved in a file for example a programmer using a C
every 18 months! language types in a desired sequence of C language statements using
 The concepts underlying programing will be valuable to you, a text editor and then saves as a named file. This file is said to
regardless of whether or not you go on to make a carrier out of it. contain a source code.
One thing that you will learn quickly is that a computer is very When instructions are translated into machine code they are called
dumb, but obedient. It does exactly what you tell it to do, which object code.
is not necessarily what you wanted. Programming will help you If a complete program is translated into machine code and stored is
learn the importance of clarity of expression. called object program.
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CATEGORIES OF PROGRAMING LANGUAGES A sample program Witten in assembler language

Low level of programing language Mov Ax, 15 (move 15 to register AX)
Is a programming language designed for a particular computer and SUB Ax, 10 (subtract 10 from the value Ax)
represents its internal machine code. In order for a program to run, it High level programming languages
must be represented to the computers as binary coded machine Refer to an artificial language used to write instructions that can be
instructions that are specific to the CPU model or family. Although translated into a machine language and then executed by a computer.
programmers are sometimes able to modify machine language in A programming statement may be translated into one or several
order to fix a running program, they do not create. Examples of low machine instructions by a compiler. Examples of high level
level languages include Machine and Assembly language programming languages include BASIC, Visual basic, C, C++, Java,
With machine language, instructions are in binary form, many lines Java script, Perl, etc.
of codes are written using binary logic. Given that data and
instructions are in binary from, many lines are needed to accomplish CLASSIFICATION OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

even a simple task like adding two numbers i.e. program written in Structured programming
this language look like this This is a programming in which the code is broken down into
11100011 00000011 10000001 specific purpose procedures or modules. Examples include COBOL,
0001111 10001101 FORTRAN, Pascal, dBase and C
10001111 11111111 1000011 Object oriented programming (OOP)
Assembler language is close to machine vocabulary rather than the This is a programming language model organized around “object”
human beings vocabulary. It was developed in order to overcome the rather than “actions” and data rather than logic. Examples include
difficulties of understanding and using machine language. This Python, C++, Java, VB.net and PHP
language helps the programmers to write programs as a set of Note that the designed program by OOP can be encapsulated i.e. its
symbolic operation codes called mnemonics. Mnemonics are program works can be hidden from the end user.
basically shortened two or three letter words.

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Web scripting languages  The compilation environment where your source program will
These are languages used to develop functionalities of the web page. be converted into a machine code
Examples include Java script, HTML (Hypertext Markup language),  The execution environment where your program will be run
VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) a specification for
THE PROGRAMMING PROCESS
displaying a 3D object on the WWW Developing a program involves steps similar to any problem solving
Factors to consider before choosing a programming language to task.
a computer program code There are five main stages in the programming process
 Popularity because you are most likely to find people to 1. Define the problem
work with 2. Planning a solution
 Language domain match choose the one that matches your 3. Coding the program
problem domain 4. Testing the program
 Availability of libraries 5. Documenting the program
 Efficiency 1) Define the problem it involves identifying a problem, breaking
 Expressiveness it in small pieces
 Project size 2) Planning a solution there are two common ways to plan for a
 Tool support solution to a problem i.e. you can draw a flow chart or a pseudo
code or both, to help you in a step-by-step process of problem
Developing a program solving.
To create, develop and execute a program you need to invoke three 3) Coding the program this is the actual stage of writing or
environments i.e. editing, compiling, and running (executing) express your solution in a programming language e.g. using java,
 The editor environment where you will create the program Pascal, C, C++ etc.
source code 4) Testing the program after writing your program, you must
prepare to test it, this involves desk checking, debugging.
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5) Documenting the program is ongoing, necessary process, START

although, as many programmers are, you may be eager to pursue Print “Enter two numbers”
more exciting computer-centered activities. Documentation is a Input x,y
written detailed description of the programming cycle and Sum = x+y
specific facts about a program. Average =sum/2
Print sum
DEVELOPMENT OF ALGORITHM
Algorithm refers to a limited number of logical steps that a program Print average

follows in order to solve a problem STOP

Pseudo code refers to a set of statements written in a readable Handling the planning of a solution in a diagrammatic form and

language (English like) but expressing the processing logic of a provides a plan which the computer program can be written. The

program. flow of algorithm can be seen by tracing through the flow chart

Guidelines for designing a good pseudo code Understanding the symbols used in the formation of flow charts are

 The statements must be short, clear and readable given below

 Pseudo code lines should be clearly outlined and indented clearly An oval is used to indicate the beginning or

 It should show clearly the start and stop of the executable the end of an algorithm

statements and control structures

 Statements must not have more than one meaning A parallelogram indicates the input or output

Example of pseudo code of information

Write a pseudo code that can be used to prompt a user to enter two A rectangle indicates a computation, with the

numbers, calculate the sum and average of the two numbers and then result of the computation assigned to a

display the output on the screen variable

A diamond indicates a point where a decision
is made
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A hexagon indicates the beginning of a Start

repetition structure
An arrow indicate the direction of flow of the
Input XY
algorithm
Circles with the arrows connect the flow
Sum =x+y
chart between pages
Average= x+y/2

Guidelines for drawing a flow chart

 There should be only one entry and one exit point of a program Print Sum
Average
algorithm
 Correct symbols should be used at each stage in the flowchart
 Avoid a crossed flow line Stop
 Be as neat and tidy in drawing as possible
 General direction of flow in any flow chart is from top to
bottom, left to right.
Advantages of a flowchart
Examples
 Gives a programmer good visual reference of what the program
Draw a flow chart for a program used to prompt the user to enter
will do
two numbers. The program should find a sum and average then
 Serves as a program or system documentation
display the output
 It is easy to trace through from a start to find the action resulting
from a set condition
 Allows a programmer to test alternative solutions to a problem
without over coding the program

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Disadvantages Selection/decision this structure is used to branch, depending on

 There are so many different ways to draw them whether the condition returns a value of false (yes/no)
 It is difficult to remain neat and uncluttered if the logic is Example
complex if <condition>
 Constructing a flow chart is time consuming then action 1
 They take up a considerable space else action 2
 They are difficult to amend without redrawing endif
Program control structure Iteration (looping) repetition this is designed to execute the same
These are blocks of statements that determine how statements are to block of a code again and again until a certain condition is fulfilled.
be executed Iteration is important in situations where the same operation has to
There are three control structures namely be carried set of data many times
Sequence Revision question in programming
This control structure, the computer reads instructions from a Write a computer program to add two numbers
program file starting from the top line and proceeding downwards Method 1
one by one to the end. Using program in C language
Example #include <stdio.h>
Begin {procedure name} int main()
action 1 { int a,b,c;
action 2 printf(“Enter two numbers to add\n”);
action 3 scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
End {procedure name} printf(“sum of entered numbers=%d\n”,c);
return 0;
}
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PICTURES OF DIFFERENT ICT DEVICES

Laser Printer
Plotter

Joy Stick Game Pad Microphone

CRT Monitor LCD Monitor

USB Flash Drive Memory Card

Sound Card Remote Control

External Speakers Head Phones

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135
 ICT CLASS NOTES

Central Processing Unit Digital Video Camera

Magnetic Strip Card Reader Motherboard

Track Ball Stylus pen

Barcode Reader Integrated Circuit

THANK YOU
I WISH YOU GOODLUCK
Touch Pad
Mouse

…………………………………………..

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