Table of Contents

Unit 3:

Unit 1: • Electricity and Charging ……………………...120

• Electric Circuits ……………………………….…..128
• Physical Quantities ……………………..….…4 • Series VS Parallel connections …………….138
• Measurements…………………………….…......7 • Power and Energy……….…….………………...150
• Kinematics (Motion) ……………………...… 21 • Controlling Current……………………….……..152
• Distance-Time and Speed-Time .……..…25 • House (Mains) Electricity …………………...157
• Forces…………………………………………….…..32 • Magnetism (General ) ………………………..167
• Free Fall ……………………………………………..39 • Electromagnetic Forces and DC Motor ..180
• Centripetal Force………………………………..44 • Electromagnetic Induction and AC
• Springs and Deformation ………………....46 Generator ……………………………..…………….187
• Moment …………………………………………....51 • Transformers and Relay …………………..….294
• Center of Mass and Stability………..….…58
• Momentum …………………………………….….62 Unit 4:
• Energy and Power……………………………….66
• Waves Classifications and Behavior …..199
• Generating Electricity……………………….…75
• Light Waves ……………………..…………………218
• Work Done ………………………………………....79
• Lenses ……………………………….…………….….227
• Power ………………………………………………...80
• Sound Waves and Echo ……………………...233
• Efficiency…………………………………………..…83
• Pressure ………………………………………..…..84 Unit 5:
Unit 2: • Atomic Structure …………………………………240
• Radioactivity ………………….……………………242
• States of Matter …………………………………..90
• Half Life ……………………………..………………..252
• Heating and Cooling……………………………..92
• Applications of Radioactivity ……..……….253
• Thermal Expansion and Contraction ……95
• Nuclear Fusion VS Fission …………….……..256
• Evaporation …………………………………………97
• Brownian Motion ………………………………..100 Unit 6:
• Gas Laws (Temp., Pressure, Volume) ….101
• Earth and Solar System…..……………………257
• Thermometers …………………………..……..104
• Stars and Universe………….……………………266
• Heat Transfer ………………………………………106
• Heat Capacity ……………………….……………116

List of Rules: Page 276

Mr. Hussein Khaled

2
Everything started with the study of nature (Natural philosophy). Natural
Philosophy is the study of the unanswered questions about nature. As more and
more questions appeared, natural philosophy turned to be a science.

Living things
Science

Non-living things
The physical sciences deal with the Non-living things and is branched into
Geology, Astronomy, Chemistry and Physics.

Physics comes from the ancient Greek world “Phusike” which means “The
Knowledge of Nature”. It is the natural science that involves the study of matter
and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as
energy and force. Physics applies on all our daily life aspects.

The concept of physics appears nearly in any kind of activity that we do; for
example walking, eating, writing, swimming or driving any kind of exercising.

Moreover, any kind of equipment that we use relies on physics as the car, the
bicycle, the watch, the plane….etc.

Without studying physics, there wouldn’t have been new inventions, for example
exploring the outer space. Our lives would be boring without some inventions
like televisions or cell phones.

The main topics that we are going to study in our syllabus are:

1. General Mechanics and Physical Quantities

2. Thermal Physics and States of Matter (solid, liquid, and gas)
3. Electricity and Magnetism
4. Waves (sound and light waves)
5. Radioactivity
6. Space Physics

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 Unit 1
Physical Quantities

Any factor that can be measured is called Physical Quantity, Ex: Length, Area,
Volume, Mass, Density, Temperature, Time, Speed … etc.

To study any process, we have to make some measurements to be able to study

the effect of a certain parameter on another, for example: if we would like to
measure the change in temperature of water while being heated and how this
temperature changes by time, so we have two parameters to be measured which
are “Time” and “Temperature” so, these are called physical quantities. The unit of
time is seconds, while the units of temperature are oC.

• Sometimes the physical quantity is a factor of two or more other physical

quantities for example; speed is defined as the distance move per “time”

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Speed=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
• Units of Speed= m/ sec

Experimentation:
During any experiment, we have to be cautious of what Physical Quantities we
want to measure, and we have to control any external factors to be able to get
accurate results and draw a precise conclusion.

We can measure our target physical quantity more than once to take the average
for more accuracy.

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
Average =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

Then we can analyze the result by drawing a graph and plotting our points.

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 Example: Design an experiment to show how temperature changes with time
during heating water.

The experiment will be designed as shown:

1- The first step is to define your physical quantities that will be measured
during the experiment.
2- Then decide the apparatus (equipment) you will need.
3- Procedures/ Steps of the experiment:
- Bring a beaker with some water.
- Put a thermometer in it.
- Start the stop watch at the same time with starting the Bunsen burner.
- Record the time each 30 sec.
4- Results:
- Record the data in a table.
- Plot a graph.

Temp/°C

Time/sec

5- Finally we can draw a conclusion of our experiment or define a relationship

between our physical quantities (time, temperature) based on the graph.

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 We have two famous types of relationships:

• Direct Proportion • Inverse Proportion

Y Y

• As X increase, Y increase X • As X increase, Y decrease X

• When X=0, Y=0 (with the same rate)
• X/Y or Y/X = Constant at any • (X)*(Y) = Constant
point.
• Graph is straight line, passing
through origin.

Significant Figures:

Trailing Zeros (on the right) are only counted if there is a decimal point.
Leading Zeros (on the left) are not counted.
Captive Zeros (at the middle) are counted.
1534 ……. 4 sig. fig 1500.0 …….. 5 sig. fig
1530 ……..3 sig. fig 0.205 ………. 3 sig. fig
1500 ……..2 sig. fig 0.2050 ……. 4 sig. fig
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 Measurements
1. Length:
Length can be expressed in different terms as distance, height, width, thickness,
radius or diameter. Length can be measured using different instruments:

• Meter Rule
• Tape meter

Meter Rule: can measure to the nearest 1mm, can be used to measure lengths up
to 100cm (1m).

- Ruler has to be parallel and close to the object you are

measuring
- Start reading from the zero mark on the ruler.
- Precision = 1mm.

Tape meter/ Measuring Tape: used for large distance (ex:

playground length)

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Some measurement techniques:
a) To measure the thickness of a paper in a 1000 pages
book, we can measure the thickness of the 1000 pages at
one time, the divide by 1000 to get more accurate
results.
- You can repeat by measuring from different points, in case
the thickness is not constant.

b) Try to take any reading perpendicular by to avoid parallax error.

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 c) To measure circumference of a cylinder or a cup.
Get a string and wrap it around the cup several turns, then straighten it
on a ruler and divide its length by the number of turns.

𝑳
Circumference =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔

Important Hints:

❖ Don’t leave gaps between turns.

❖ The string should be inextensible
❖ As the number of turns increase → you can get more accuracy.

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 d) To measure the thickness or the diameter of a wire, wrap it around the
pen while leaving no gaps, then use a ruler

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Diameter of a wire =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

e) Diameter of a ball: use 2 wooden blocks and put the ball between them

• If it is a small ball, we can use many balls and divide the length by
their number to get more accurate results

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Units of Length:

S
2. Area:
Square: S
The area is the shaded part

Area of square= S x S= S2
L
Rectangle:
W
Area= L x W

Triangle:

Area= ½ x b x h h

To measure any area we need to measure the length of the sides of the area, and
this is done by one of the length instruments discussed in the previous part

Units of Area:

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 3. Volume:
It is the space occupied by the body.

a) Regular body: we can calculate its volume by using the following:

S
• Cube
S V=s x s x s= s3

L
• Cuboid W
h V= L x w x h

V=π r2 h
r
• Cylinder
= Area of cross-section X Height (h)
h

Regarding the measuring instruments of the Volume, we need a meter rule to

measure the dimensions of the sides then apply the equations above.

b) Irregular body:

Ex: Rock or a statue we use a measuring cylinder (Displacement

method).

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Displacement Method:

V1=30cm3 V2=40cm3 Or: using Overflow

Rock volume= V2-V1=40-30=10cm3 vessel to measure the
❖ Try to put the stone carefully volume of the rock.
❖ Avoid spillages
❖ Avoid parallax error

If we have 2 boxes, one is empty and the other contains books. As long as they
have the same dimensions, so they will have the same volume regardless what do
they contain inside.

Units of Volume:

Example: If we
have 10 sheets of straight cardboard and 10 sheets of corrugated cardboard,
which one of the two sets will have larger volume?

➔ The corrugated sheets.

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Measuring Cylinders:
❖ Unit Cm3
❖ Can’t measure volume of very large objects (as buildings).

Bottom of Top of
meniscus meniscus

In case of Water and most types of In case of Mercury Top of the

liquids Bottom meniscus meniscus

❖ Take care of the marks on the cylinder, each mark can represent 0.5 cm3 or
1 cm3 or 2 cm3 or more. This depends on the scale.

❖ The narrower the measuring cylinder the more accurate it is, as it gives
larger change in height of water, but choose its volume ≅ 3-4 times the
volume of the object.
❖ If the object is floating, we can use a metal sinker with a known volume.

Volume of target object = Final volume-[initial volume + volume of metal sinker]

Hint: You can get an object that sinks in fresh water, but it floats in salty water ……. As Salty
water is more dense.

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 4. Mass

Mass is defined as the amount of matter in the body

Units of Mass:

• Mass Also can be defined as

the property that resists the
change in motion.

❖ Mass (kg) ≠ Weight (N)

❖ Mass is measured by a balance.

a) Spring Balance (Newton meter):

❖ The object is hanged by a hook.

❖ To get the mass in Kg, divide the reading by 9.8, as it is
measured in Newton (N)

1 Kg =9.8 N (on Earth)

g: gravitational acceleration
❖ It measures weight
or gravitational field strength
❖ Weight = mass x gravitational acceleration
❖ W=mxg on Earth g= 9.8 (10)m/sec2 or 9.8 (10)N/Kg

Hint: Any object will have the same mass on any planet; however its weight will
change from one planet to another depending on the gravitational acceleration (g).
So a spring carrying the same object on different planet will give different extension.

b) Digital balance/ Top Pan balance:

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 ❖ For Solids:

❖ For Liquids: use a cylinder, but find its mass while being empty first.

Mass of liquid= 30g-20g =10g

c) Pivot balance (Beam Balance):

Relies on the concept of comparing masses.

5. Density
It is defined as the mass per unit volume of the object.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝑔 𝑔
Density= ( 𝑜𝑟 )
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑚3 𝑐𝑚3

❖ Density is directly proportional to mass and inversely proportional to

volume.
As Mass Density
As Volume Density

❖ The Density is comparing the mass of the body by its volume.

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 ❖ If we have 2 liquids mixed together, the liquid with higher density will move
downwards and the one with less density will move upwards, and the same
applies for gases.
❖ Density of water = 1000kg/m3, regardless of its container (in a cup or a
cylinder or a bottle). Density of Air = 1.2 kg/m3.

Hint: The Density of any material doesn’t change, unless it is heated, cooled or
pressurized. When a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of its molecules
increases, so the intermolecular spacing increases (Volume increases) so density
decreases.

Volume increases

Mass same

Density decreases

❖ Changing the state between solid, liquid and gases also affects the density.

Volume increases

Density decreases

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How to measure the Density (ρ)?
𝑀 Balance
a. Regular shape: Density (ρ) =
𝑉 Dimensions

𝑀 Balance
b. Irregular shapes: : Density (ρ) =
𝑉 Measuring cylinder

6. Time

❖ When we need to get the Rate of anything so, we need to measure Time.
Example: If we need to measure the rate of cooling of a cup of tea, we will need a
thermometer to record the temperature and stopwatch to record the time.

Another Example: If we need to measure the Speed,

(which is the rate of change in distance) → so we need
to record the Time and the Distance.

❖ Time is measured by stopwatch.

❖ There are analogue and digital time devices, as
shown in figure.
❖ Light gate connected to electronic timer is used for rapidly moving objects.
❖ Analogue stopwatch can measure with a precision to the nearest
second(1s), while digital stopwatch’s precision is at least to the nearest
hundredth of a second (0.01 s).

How to measure the time of a swing of pendulum [Periodic time (T)]:

Steps:

❖ Hang the Bob at a certain starting position, then let it start

swinging and Start stopwatch at the same time.
❖ Let the Pendulum swing for 50 times (50 complete oscillations).

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 ❖ Stop the Stopwatch when it returns back to the same original position…
(Make a Fiducial mark)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
❖T = 50

❖ Units of Time :

7. Temperature
The most common measuring device of temperature is the
Thermometer (Liquid in glass Thermometer):

- The Units of temperature: °C

- You have to look perpendicular to the reading of the Thermometer to avoid
Parallax error.
- Wait until the temperature stops changing. – Apply gentle stirring.

SI system of units:
❖ We can express any physical quantity in terms of its basic unit.

Base units:

Length Meters (m)

Mass Kilograms (Kg)
Time Seconds (s)
Electric Current Ampere (A)
Temperature Degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin

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Derived units:
Speed Distance/time m/s
Acceleration Speed/ time m/s2
Volume (length)3 m3
Density Mass/volume Kg/m3

Prefixes:
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo K 103
Centi c 10-2
Milli m 10-3
Micro µ 10-6
-9
Nano n 10
Giga Mega Kilo Centi Milli Micro Nano
Example: 4 milliseconds (ms) = 4x10-3 sec

Vectors and scalars

Any physical quantity can be a vector or a scalar.

Vectors: quantities with both magnitude and direction.

❖ Ex: Force, velocity, acceleration, moment, displacement,

acceleration, Momentum.

Scalars: quantities with magnitude only (no direction).

❖ Ex: Mass, volume, distance, speed, time, temperature, energy

o Weight is a Vector, while Mass is Scalar

o Velocity is a Vector while Speed is a Scalar

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 Kinematics (Motion)
❖ It is a study of a body in motion, which can be Linear motion or
Non-linear motion.
Linear motion: the motion along a straight line.

❖ Ex: Free ball, or a box sliding over an inclination

Non-linear motion: like Rotation or Circular motion as shown.

Rotation Direction: ACW

❖ The object can move Clockwise or counter-Clockwise

(Anti-clockwise).
❖ The object facing a continuous changing in direction
of motion.

Speed - Velocity:
❖ Speed= Distance/ time (Scalar, without direction)
❖ Velocity= Distance/time (Vector, with direction)

❖ Two cars can have the same speed but different velocities if they are
moving in different directions.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Average speed =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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 Example:
30 km

50 Km 10 km
Total time = 3 hours
50+20+30+40+10
❖ Average speed= = 50 Km/hr
3

How to change the units from (Km/hr) to (m/s) ?

Convert Km to m = 150 X 1000 = 150000m

Convert Hours to seconds = 3 x 60x 60 = 10800 sec
150000
= = 13.9 m/s
10800

Acceleration
❖ It is defined as the change in velocity per unit time.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣−𝑢)

Acceleration= (m/sec2)
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
❖ Change in velocity = final velocity (v) – initial velocity (u)

Example:
If a car increases its velocity from 10m/sec to 30m/sec in 10 sec

𝑣−𝑢 30−10
Acc. = = = 2 m/sec2
𝑡 10
❖ As acceleration is positive number, so the speed is increasing.

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Example:
If a car decreases its velocity from 30m/sec to 10m/sec in 10 sec

𝑣−𝑢 10−30
Acc. = = = -2 m/sec2
𝑡 10
❖ As acceleration is a negative number, so the speed is decreasing or it is
called “Deceleration”.

Hint: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity and NOT SPEED!!!

➢ If there is change in Magnitude or Direction of the velocity, so there is

acceleration.

The acceleration can be constant during the whole journey, or it can

change from time to another, as shown in the following example.
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Example:
Speed 0 20 50 60
Time 0 10 20 30

20−0 2
Acc. 1=
10−0 = 2 m/s

50−20 60−50
Acc. 2= = 3 m/s2 Acc. 3= = 1 m/s2
20−10 30−20
❖ We might have a decreasing acceleration, but still the velocity is
increasing (but at a lower rate) as shown between stages 2 and 3.

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Applying brakes to stop:

Once the driver sees a hazard it takes him some time to react and start pressing
the brakes, we call it reaction (thinking) time (T1). Then he will start pressing the
brakes and stop gradually during certain time we call it braking time (T2).

Total Stopping time = Thinking time (T1) + Braking time (T2)

Total Stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance

Hint: don’t drive too fast to reduce the thinking distance and braking distance (to
stop in shorter range without hitting the obstacle in front of you).

Analyzing Motion using Graphs

General Hints:
y B C
Slope is a measure of the steepness 30

or inclination of a line. 20

𝑦2−𝑦1 10
Slope = (Gradient)
𝑥2−𝑥1

A x
1 2 3 4
Slope AB ?
𝑦2−𝑦1 30−0 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑌
If A (0,0), B(2,30) → slope= = = 15 ( 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 )
𝑥2−𝑥1 2−0

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 ❖ Any straight line has
constant slope.

We have 5 Common shapes of slopes:

1- Any straight line parallel to x-axis → slope=0
y

x
2- Positive Constant slope

y Hint:

Any parallel lines have the

same slope!

3- Negative Constant slope

4- A curve becoming steeper to y-axis Slope is increasing

y

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 5- A curve becoming steeper to x-axis Slope is decreasing

Distance – Time graphs

There are two main types of graphs :
Speed (or Velocity) – Time graphs

Distance-time graphs:
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Slope = = Speed
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

Constant slope Slope= 0

Constant speed Speed=0

Slope decreasing Slope increasing

Speed decreasing Speed increasing

“Deceleration” “Acceleration”

o In distance-time graphs, the slope represents the speed of the

body.

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 Speed-time graph:
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
Slope = = Acceleration
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

speed

- Constant slope
- Constant acceleration
- Speed increasing at constant rate.

time

speed

- Slope constant but negative.

- Acceleration (-ve) constant
- Constant Deceleration
- Speed decreasing at constant rate.

time

speed
- Slope =0
- Acceleration =0
- Constant speed

time
speed

- Slope decreasing (steeper towards x-axis)

- Acceleration decreasing
- Speed increasing (with lower rate)
time Not a decreasing Speed !!

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speed
- Slope increasing (steeper toward y-axis)
- Acceleration increasing
- Speed increasing (with higher rate)

time

Out of Scope:

speed - Slope increasing (in negative

direction)
- Increasing deceleration

time

speed
- Slope decreasing (from negative
toward zero)
- Decreasing deceleration

time

There is a difference between speed-time graph and velocity-time

graph, as the speed is a scalar quantity that neglects direction, while
velocity is considering (speed + direction).

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 So if the object changes direction, the V-T graph will jump to the
opposite side of the graph.

Example:

The car starts moving towards the V

right
+ve

Then it reverses direction to move

to the left. T
-ve

Hint: If we have two speed time graphs, which one has the higher value of
acceleration?
speed speed

time time
(1) (2)

(1) Has higher acceleration than (2) as it is more steep (higher slope).

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Example: Analyze all the stages of the graph shown below
Motion:
speed
D This is a speed- time graph → Slope = Acceleration.
80

60
AB → constant positive acceleration, speed
B
C
40 BC → zero acceleration, speed constant
20 CD → constant positive acceleration, speed
A
0 𝑦2−𝑦1 40−20
0 10 20 30 40 Acceleration at AB= slope =
𝑥2−𝑥1
= = 2 m/𝑠 2
10−0
time
𝑦2−𝑦1 80−40
Acceleration at CD = slope =
𝑥2−𝑥1
= = 4 m/𝑠 2
40−30

Hint: Stage CD has higher acceleration than AB…

because CD is steeper !

How to calculate distance from speed-time graph?

Distance = Area under the graph

1
Distance from point A B= 20x10 + x 10 x 20 = 300 m
2

Rectangle Triangle

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 Forces
A force is any push or pull. It can cause changes in distance, speed, and shape of a
body.

❖ It cannot affect mass or density (of a solid object).

❖ It comes in different forms as: weight, friction, Tension, Air resistance or
Up-thrust.
❖ It’s a Vector quantity, measured in Newtons (N).

What if we have more than one force acting on the body?

➔ We have to calculate the Resultant Force: It is a single force that has the
effect of all the forces acting on the body together.
❖ If the forces are parallel, we can add them or subtract them:

F2 F1 F resultant = F1+ F2

F resultant = F1- F2
F2 F1

❖ What if the forces are not parallel and make an angle.

F2 We can get its value by

drawing F1 and F2 to Scale.
F1

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Example: Get the Resultant force of the two forces A and B.
Method 1: Parallelogram method (using Compass)

Close a Step 5: Measure the

Parallelogram
Resultant force, then
multiply it by the scale
and measure its angle.

Close a
Parallelogram

Method 2: Head to Tail method

Draw the first force to scale with its

corresponding angle, then draw each force
from the end of the previous force.

Then connect the starting point to the final

point of all forces… This line is the Resultant force.

Measure the Resultant force, then multiply it by the scale and measure
its angle.
Hint: Vector Diagrams can
- Head to Tail Method should be a closed diagram.
be used to get the
- The Resultant Force should be in opposite
Resultant Force r
direction to the main forces (A and B). Resultant Velocity

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 Special case: if the two vectors are at right angle (90⁰) we can calculate
the resultant vector without drawing.

➔ Using Pythagoras
Example: to get the resultant of these two Forces (FR).

FR = √𝟐𝟎𝟐 + 𝟒𝟎𝟐 = 44.7 N

Newton’s First Law:

A body stays in rest or uniform motion unless it is acted upon by Resultant Force.

Resultant Force (Fr) =0 in 2 cases

Body at rest/ Stationary Body moving in a

straight line with
N= 100N
constant speed

acc=0, Fr =0

W= 100N

These two cases are called Equilibrium as “F” resultant =zero

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 Second Law:

F= m x a

Resultant force (N) Mass (Kg) Acceleration (m/s2)

(Fr)

o if Fr (+ve) acc (+ve)

o if Fr (-ve) acc (-ve) Constant speed
o if Fr (zero) acc (zero) Equilibrium
Zero speed

Examples:
F: Resultant force
1)
D: Driving force
R= 200N D=1000N
R: Resisting force

F = D-R= 1000-200 = 800N

F (+ve), Acc (+ve), Speed increases

2) R=800 N D =800N

Direction of motion
F = D-R= 800-800 = 0 N

F=0, Acc = 0, constant Speed

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 3)

R=800 N D= 500 N

F= D-R= 500-800 = -300 N

F (-ve), Acc (-ve), Speed decreases →It will eventually stop !

❖ Equilibrium means zero Resultant Force and zero Turning Effect

(Moment).
❖ If a force is applied Perpendicular to the direction of motion, the
object will move in a curve.

Newton’s Third Law: For Every action there is a reaction equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction (forces should be acting on two
different bodies)

Types of Forces:
• Weight :
❖ Or so called gravitational force.
❖ It is different from the “mass”.
❖ It describes how the earth attracts the body.

Weight = Mass x gravitational acceleration

W = m x g

N Kg m/s2 (or N/Kg) (g =9.8 ≈ 10 on Earth)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 35

 ❖ g is different on other planets, but constant on Earth.
❖ g is always directed downwards vertically.
❖ Mass is measured in Kg. It is a Scalar quantity, has same value anywhere.
❖ While the weight of an object is a Vector that can have different values in
different places.

During Free-Fall (ignoring air resistance), the acceleration = g = 9.8 (10) m/s2
(Downwards), so if a part is thrown down its speed increases.

If it is thrown upwards its speed decreases until it reaches zero, then it accelerates
down and its velocity increases (as the acceleration due to gravity is downwards).

• Normal Contact Force:

❖ The object must be on a surface.
❖ This normal force is always perpendicular to the surface.

• Frictional Force:
This is the resistance force between two contacting surfaces moving against each
other.

Ex: pushing a box on the floor

Mr. Hussein Khaled 36

Friction force acting on the moving object is in opposite
direction to the motion and parallel to the floor.

As the roughness of the floor or the object increase, the Friction Force increases.

Friction force depends on the roughness of the surfaces and the weight of the
object.

• Up-thrust Force (u):

It is a vertically upwards force acts on a body when it is fully or partially
submerged in a liquid.
u
u

As the liquid becomes denser, it

creates larger up-thrust force (u)

• Air Resistance Force:

It is the force resisting the motion of body through fluids (can be Air or Liquids).

→It is also called Drag Force.

As speed , Drag force

As surface area , Drag force

Mr. Hussein Khaled 37

 • Tension Force:
It is the pulling force exerted by ropes or
strings.

Free fall:
When an object falls freely without any external constraints

o The weight remains constant and directed vertically downwards.

o The air resistance acting upwards and increases as speed increases.
o The object is exposed to gravitational acceleration (g) =10 m/sec2 on
Earth directed downwards.

We have 2 cases:

a) Ignoring Air Resistance:

g= 9.8 (10) m/sec2

❖ So if we through a steel ball, a piece of paper or a man from the same

height, they will reach the ground at the same
moment.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 38

 F= m x a ……….. (a = g = 9.8 (10) m/sec2)

❖ Acceleration is Constant through the entire journey.

❖ However, this is not realistic as we should have air resistance on Earth.

If there is No Air resistance

Acceleration = = 9.8 (10) m/sec2

b) With Air Resistance:

We have 6 stages:
If a person with mass 70 kg jumps from a plane:

❖ weight= mxg = 70 kg x 10 m/sec2 = 700 N → this is the driving Force

❖ The Air resistance increases as the speed increases → this is the resisting force.

1)
R= 0N ❖ At time = 0 , there is no air resistance as there is
no motion.
❖ Fr = W - R = 700N
❖ Fr = ma → 700 =70 x a → (a= 9.8 (10) m/ sec2)
❖ So the parachutist here is accelerating and his
speed is increasing.

W= 700N

Mr. Hussein Khaled 39

 2)
R= 200N ❖ As speed increases, air resistance increases, so
resultant force decreases.
❖ Fr =700-200= 500 N
❖ Fr = ma →500 = 70 x a → a = 7.1 m/sec2
So the Parachutist here is accelerating but with
❖
lower acceleration.
W= 700N

3) R= 600N ❖ As speed increases, air resistance increases, so

resultant force decreases.
❖ Fr = W-R = 700-600 =100 N
❖ Fr = mxa → 100= 70xa → a=1.4 m/sec2
❖ The parachutist still accelerating at lower rate.

W= 700N

4) R= 700N ❖ As speed increases, air resistance increases

until it’s equal to the weight.
❖ Fr = W-R = 0
❖ Fr = mxa → a = 0 m/sec2
❖ Constant speed (Terminal Velocity 1)

W= 700N
Now the Parachute opens.
R= 1000N
❖ Air resistance increases, so it becomes
5) larger than the weight.
❖ Fr =W-R= 700-1000= -300N
❖ Fr = mxa → a = - 4.2 m/sec2
❖ So, we have deceleration and the speed is
decreasing. “decreasing deceleration”
o As the resultant force is decreasing.
W= 700N

Mr. Hussein Khaled 40

 6) As speed decreased in step (5), the Air resistance
decreases to be equal to the Weight.
So the Resultant Force = Zero and Acceleration = Zero
This is called → Terminal Velocity 2 (Constant Speed).

To Sum up:

If Driving force > Resisting Speed increases

If Driving force < Resisting Speed decreases

If Driving force = Resisting Speed constant

Speed-Time graph for a skydiver

Speed

41
Mr. Hussein Khaled
 But anyways, I forgot the
Parachute that shall slow
me down.

Hint: if we throw two bodies with different masses and different materials from
the same height they will reach the ground at the same speed and at the same
time… in case there is no air resistance (in Vacuum).

But if there is air resistance, we have to consider the surface area of the object,
as the surface area increases, air resistance increases, so it will fall slower.

What if the object is falling in liquid?

Describe the motion of this metal ball released in liquid.

- At the beginning it has maximum acceleration.

- As its speed increases Drag force (water resistance)
increases.
- Resultant Force decreases.
- Acceleration decreases.
- Until it reaches terminal Velocity (Weight = Drag Force)

Mr. Hussein Khaled

42
Centripetal force:
Any object that is moving in a circular or curved path has a force directed towards
the center of this path. This force is called Centripetal Force.

❖ This force helps the body to keep moving in circular path. The body must have
a force directed towards the center of this path; which is the Centripetal
Force.

Ex: Satellites and Moon rotating around the Earth.

The direction of motion in case the object leaves the circular track is always
straight line tangent to the circle!!

The direction of the velocity at any instant is tangent to the circle, so if the object
leaves this circular track it will move in a straight line tangent to the circle.

Ex: Here the centripetal force is the gravity and directed toward the center (Earth)

Centripetal Force (this is also the direction of acceleration)

The Moon would

move in this
direction if it left
the track.

Direction of
Velocity

Mr. Hussein Khaled 43

Ex: A car or bike taking a round.

o The centripetal force here is the friction force

Ex: Swinging pendulum

o The centripetal force here is the tension in the string

o It is directed towards the center

Larger Centripetal force is needed in the following cases:

- Increasing speed (Faster car needs larger force)
- Increasing mass (Heavier car needs larger force)
- Decreasing radius of path (Smaller rounds needs larger force)

• Centripetal force causes change in direction (which

means changing in velocity) but not speed !!!!
• As the velocity changes, this means that there is acceleration
(Although the speed is constant).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 44

 Springs and Deformation
Deformation: it is the change in shape or length of an object due to applied
force. It can be stretched, compressed, bent, or twisted.

Deformation

“Plastic Deformation”
“Elastic Deformation”
It will not return to its original
The object will return to its original shape when the shape. It is permanently deformed.
force is removed.

Extension (x) = Final length(Lf) - Original length(Lo)

Directly Force
Proportional

Extension

Mr. Hussein Khaled 45

Elastic Deformation:
Example: Calculate the extension of the two loaded springs?

F=0

x=0

L0 = 10cm F=100N

Lf = 15cm

→x = Lf – Lo F=200N

=15-10= 5cm Lf = 20 cm, → x =10 cm

Find the Extension for load 300N ?

So we can make a table:

Force (N) Measured length (Lf) Extension (x) (cm)

(cm)
0 10 0
100 15 5
200 20 10
300 A? B?

❖ Now we can get the final length (Lf) and extension (x) due to 300N
❖ We can get (x) using cross-multiplication between F and x.
❖ But we can’t get (Lf) using cross-multiplication.
o This is because F and x are directly proportional while F and Lf are not.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 46

❖ Then we can get “B?” by adding the initial length (10cm) to the extension at
300N →15 cm … So Total Length= 10+15=25cm. F x
200 10
300 ? (y)

Important Hint: We make Cross-multiplication between Force and Extension,

But Not between Force and Length!!

Hooke’s Law:
Force and extension are directly proportional up to Elastic limit or Limit of
proportionality. After this limit, the object experience plastic deformation.

Hooke’s law is obeyed

from A to B only !

❖ From A to B: Limit of proportionality: It is the point beyond

▪ Elastic deformation which force and extension are no more directly
▪ Directly proportional proportional (doesn’t obey Hooke’s law)

▪ Straight line
▪ At F=0, x =0
❖ Form B to C:
▪ Plastic deformation
▪ Not Directly proportional relationship
▪ Curve
▪ The part doesn’t return to its original shape
▪ Doesn’t obey Hooke’s Law. (and the spring is easier to extend)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 47

Stiffness:

Spring (1) Spring (2)

F=100N F=100N
x= 10cm x= 20cm

▪ Spring (2) experiences more extension than spring (1), for the same load.
▪ So spring (1) is stronger (more stiff).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 48

Spring constant (k): it is property of the spring that defines its stiffness (strength)
of a spring. It is the slope of the Force- extension graph.

Spring (1)
Force (N)

Spring (2)

100N

10cm 20cm Extension (cm)

❖ Spring (1) has less extension than spring (2) at same force (F=100N).
so k1>k2 (also as the slope of spring (1) is higher).
❖ We can have the graph inverted (y-axis is the extension and x-axis is the force)
1
in this case → k=
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

So the spring with higher stiffness (K) is the one that is closer to the Force
axis.

Hint:
❖ To check that the spring is obeying Hooke’s law calculate the value of K for
different values.

❖ If the value of K is constant → Obeying Hooke’s Law.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 49

 Both It is a measure of the turning effect of the force around a point (pivot).
used as
definition Moment of the force = Force x perpendicular distance from the
force to the pivot
• The moment is a Vector quantity, its direction can be clockwise or
anticlockwise.
• Unit if Moment is N.m. or N.cm

Example:

2m 3m
2m 3m

4 N4 N
5N
5N Pivot
Pivot Pivot
Moment= 5x2= 10 N.m Moment= 4x3= 12 N.m

(Anti clockwise) (Clockwise)

Moments can be added or subtracted:

2m
3m

4N
5N
Pivot
• Anticlockwise moment = 5x2=10 N.m
• Clockwise moment= 3x4= 12 N.m
• Resultant moment = 12-10= 2 N.m (clockwise)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 50

 Example:
4m

2m
3m

3N
5N 6N

• Clockwise moment= 6x2= 12 N.m

• Anticlockwise moment= 3x3 + 5x4= 29 N.m
• Resultant moment= 29-12 = 17 N.m (Anti-clockwise)

Hints:

• Moment is dependent on both force and perpendicular distance.

• If the force is passing through the pivot, this means that perpendicular
distance = 0, so Moment = 0.

Example:

1)
10 N
- This force will not make a
turning effect (moment) as the
perpendicular distance =zero

2)
10 N
- Same here, perpendicular
distance equals to zero.
Because if we extend the
force line, it will pass through
the pivot.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 51

 3)

- M = 0, For same reason

10 N

What is meant by perpendicular distance ?

Here we have two forces acting
on the rod shown. One is 5N
and the other is 7N. What is the
Resultant Moment on the rod?
5m
F1=5 N
Rod 3m

F2=7 N
2m

6m

• The Perpendicular distance to the 5N is 2m and the perpendicular

distance to the 7N is the 3m.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 52

Example:
F= 5 N F= 2 N
3m

F= 10 N

10 m
10 m

• Moment due to F=10 N M=0

• Moment due to F= 5 N M= 5x3= 15 N.m ACW
• Moment due to F= 2N M= 2x10= 20 N.m CW
• Resultant= 0 + 15 ACW + 20 CW = 5 N.m CW

Example: Can we get larger moment by the same weight (force)?

Yes, by increasing the perpendicular distance from the pivot.

1 Moment 1< Moment 2 2

Example: The principle of moments can be experimented using weights, meter

rule and pivot, as shown. d1 d2

W1 W2

To achieve equilibrium (moment = zero)

Moment 1 = Moment 2

W1 x d1 = W2 x d2

Mr. Hussein Khaled 53

 Equilibrium
Equilibrium has two conditions:

o Resultant Moment = Zero

Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment

o Resultant Force = Zero

Upwards = Downwards and Right = Left
8 cm

2 cm 2 cm 5 cm

2N
5N 5N

10 N
F
(Force exerted by the pivot or the rod)

Is this rod stable (in equilibrium) ?? Then find the Upwards force (F).

Moments:

• Anticlockwise moment= (5x2) + (10x4) = 50 N.cm

• Clockwise moment = (2x5) + (5x8) = 50 N.cm
• Resultant moment = 0, (So this rod is in Equilibrium)

Forces:

• Downwards force = 10+5+2+5= 22 N

• Upwards force has to be the same as downwards force as we are in
equilibrium F = 22 N (at the pivot )

Mr. Hussein Khaled 54

Example: A 70 Kg man standing on the floor, what is the value of the force
exerted by the floor on him? 700 N This man is in equilibrium.

Force (F) = Weight = mg

= 70 x 10= 700 N

This force is called the Normal

Contact Force.

Equilibrium

Example: If this rod is in equilibrium, Find (W) and (F pivot).

60 cm

20 cm 20 cm

4N

15 N W

F pivot = ?
Calculate moment about pivot:

o Clockwise moment = ( 4x 60) + (W x 20)

o Anticlockwise moment = 15x20 = 300 N.cm
• As we are in equilibrium → (4 x 60) + (W x 20) = 300 N.cm
W= 3 N

F pivot = 15 N + W + 4 N (as upwards forces = downwards forces) “Equilibrium”

F pivot =15 +3 +4 = 22 N upwards

Mr. Hussein Khaled 55

Example:

• Find (F) and (F pivot)

F
2 cm

4N
10 N
5 cm

8 cm

o Clockwise moment= (10 x 5)+ (4x8)= 82 N.cm

o Anticlockwise moment= Fx2 → F = 41 N
o Resultant of forces= 41- (10+4) = 27 N up ∴ F pivot =27 N down

Example: If this rod is in Equilibrium, Find d? and F pivot?

2 cm d

4N
10 N

o Clockwise moment = (4xd)

o Anticlockwise moment= (10x2)= 20 N.cm
∴ 4xd = 20 → d = 5 cm
o Force on the pivot = 10+4 = 14 N upwards

Mr. Hussein Khaled 56

Applications on Moments:

1- See-saw

We can achieve equilibrium using different weights by considering Moments.

2- Scissors, 3- Wrench 4- Opening Doors

Centre of Mass or Gravity:

It is the point where the whole body weight may be considered to act.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 57

Centre of mass/gravity of lamina (piece of paper or card) with regular shape.

Intersection of Intersection of Centre of circle

diagonals medians

If it is irregular card (Lamina), we can make an experiment using a pendulum and

pin.

• The center of mass always aligns itself below the hanging point (the pin)
• Intersection of the 2 lines is the center of gravity (center of mass).
• You can repeat it more than two times; all the lines will intersect in one
point.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 58

Stability:

The center goes outside the

The center is still inside the base, so the box will topple.
base, so the box is stable
(the box will not topple)

How to increase stability?

1) Make the center of mass near to the base

2) Wider base

Mr. Hussein Khaled 59

Examples:

• Passengers are not allowed to stand up in the bus while moving, as this
action reduces the stability of the bus.

• If we have two lorries as shown:

*Why does the object fall over if the center of mass comes outside the base?
As the weight acting at the center of mass will make a moment, that will rotate the object to
topple it.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 60

It is defined as the product of mass and velocity of an object. It is an indicator of
the effort you will need to change the speed of an object.

Example: A truck with large mass moving at high speed has large momentum.

o This means that it needs large force to bring it to that speed and it will
need large force to stop it afterwards. But, if the truck was of less mass
or moving at lower speed, it would have less momentum.

• Momentum is a Vector quantity with both magnitude and direction.

𝑲𝒈 𝒎 𝑲𝒈.𝒎
• Momentum units can be or N.s { as we know N = }
𝒔 𝒔𝟐

Example: a plane of mass 1x 106 Kg moving south at speed 5 x 105 m/s

𝑲𝒈 𝒎
o Momentum = m x v= 1x106 x 5x105 = 5x1011 “South”
𝒔

What if we have more than one body:

o If we have 2 objects m1 & m2 with velocity v1 & v2 respectively
→ Total momentum = p1+ p2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Mr. Hussein Khaled 61

Relation between momentum and force:
If a force is applied to an object it will cause change in its velocity from initial
velocity (u) to final velocity (v) and this will cause change in its momentum (∆p) or
so called “Impulse” (J), there are two equations that can be applied:

Equation 1: ∆p = mv – mu

𝑲𝒈.𝒎
∆p: change in momentum or N.s
𝒔
v: Final velocity (m/s)
u: Initial velocity (m/s) Proof:

1) ∆p = F x T
Equation 2: ∆p = F x T 𝑣−𝑢
2) F = m x a = m x 𝑡

𝑲𝒈.𝒎 Substitute 2) in 1):

∆p: change in momentum or N.s
𝒔 𝑣−𝑢
F: Force (N) ∆p = F x T = (m x ) x T = m(v-u)
𝑡

T: Time (s) = mv-mu

Example: A force of 10 N is applied on an object of mass 2 Kg for 5 sec, if initial

velocity of the object is 5 m/s. what is the final velocity?

∆p = mv – mu= F x T
= (2 x v) – (2 x 5) = 10 x 5 → v= 30 m/s

Hint: If the force is in the opposite direction put it with a –ve sign

Important Note: Before starting any Momentum question we have to

consider the direction → +ve -ve 

Mr. Hussein Khaled 62

 Conservation of Momentum:
Momentum is a conserved quantity (like energy).

• In a closed system the total momentum is constant as long as no external

forces are applied.

Example: If we have 2 objects m1& m2 with velocity u1&u2 → after some

collisions their velocities become v1& v2

P1 = P2
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Initial Momentum Final Momentum

• Hint: Direction of motion is very important to consider

• Assume  -ve and → +ve.

u1 u2 Collision v1 v2

Implse (J): is the change in momentum of an object.

J = ∆p = p2- p1 = F x t
P2: mv (final momentum)
P1: mu (initial momentum)
F: Force (N)
T: Time (s)
• Impulse has the same units as Momentum.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 63

 Example: Find the Final Speed of vehicle B after collision, its Impulse and the
force applied on it if the collision lasts for 0.5 sec.

P1 = P2

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

v2 = 4.5 m/s
𝑲𝒈 𝒎
Impulse J = ∆p = m2v2- m2u2 = 1000 or 1000 N.s
𝒔

Impulse J= F x T = F x 0.5 → F = 2000 N

Hint: we can draw vector diagram for

Momentum.
Example: The yellow ball shown in figure is moving to
the right with Momentum (P1). Then it is being kicked at
angle 60⁰ to the horizontal to gain momentum (∆P).

Solution: To get the resultant Momentum (P2) we have

to draw a vector Diagram as shown.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 64

Example: The boy and the girl are initially at rest. Then they push each other
apart with the same force in opposite directions. Find the Final Velocity (v2) of the
girl, if the velocity of the boy would become 5 m/s.

Solution: before starting set directions → +ve -ve 

Energy is a measure of the ability of a body, a machine or a system to do any

activity. No activity is possible without energy.

o The Unit of Energy is Joules.

The Common forms of energy:

1) Gravitational Potential Energy: If a body is raised through a vertical distance in
a gravitational field, it will gain gravitational potential energy.
G.P.E= m x g x h

Mr. Hussein Khaled 65

G.P.E: Gravitational Potential Energy in Joules (J) m: mass (Kg)

g: gravitational acc. (g=10 m/s2) h: vertical height (m)

• G.P.E. can be defined as the energy stored due to the position of the body
in gravitational field.
• As object goes up, G.P.E. increases.
• As object goes down, G.P.E. decreases.
• If object moves horizontally, no change in G.P.E.
• G.P.E. is dependent on height (h) and mass (m)
• G.P.E. can be defined as Weight x Height … (Weight = m x g)
• The lowest position where h=0, is called “Reference level”

2) Chemical Energy: It is the energy stored inside the body due to a chemical
reaction.
o Chemical energy in fossil fuels is
converted to heat and light when fuel is
burned.
o Chemical energy in battery is converted
to electrical energy.
o Chemical energy inside the muscles of a
person is converted to gravitational
potential energy or kinetic energy.
o Chemical Energy is also found in food, in candles, or box of matches.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 66

 Hint:

❖ Energy released from the Sun by Nuclear Fusion (we call it Nuclear Energy).
o Two energetic hydrogen atoms collide and Fuse together to form
Helium and release energy.
❖ Energy released from Radioactive materials (like Uranium) in Power
stations by Nuclear Fission (we call it Nuclear Energy too).
o A large nucleus absorbs a neutron to split to smaller nuclei and
releases energy.

3) Elastic potential (strain) Energy: It is the energy gained by a body when it

experiences Stretching, Compression, Bending or Twisting.

o Ex: Rubber band or spring.

4) Electric Energy: It is the energy gained by charges when they flow through an
electric supply (Ex: Battery).

o A battery converts chemical energy to electrical energy.

o A lamp converts electrical energy into light and heat.

68

Mr. Hussein Khaled 67

5) Heat Energy (Thermal Energy): It is the energy that flows from one body to
another due to difference in temperatures…. Or the energy produced due to
contact between two objects.
o As temperature increases, heat energy increases

Examples:

o When you push a box against the floor the chemical energy in your
muscles is converted to Kinetic and Heat energy due to friction.
o Rubbing your hands convert kinetic energy to heat energy.
o Any moving body is losing heat energy due to friction with the ground
and Air resistance.
6) Nuclear energy: Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and we can release it
using Nuclear Fission or Nuclear Fusion.
Ex: The energy stored inside Uranium used in nuclear power stations.

7) Internal Energy: It is the sum of kinetic energies and the potential energy
(energy stored) of molecules.
o Heat energy or Chemical Energy can be expressed in terms of Internal
energy.
o When the object is heated → its internal energy increases.

8) Light Energy:

9) Sound Energy:

Microphones: Sound Energy to Electric Energy.

Speakers: Electric Energy to Sound Energy

Mr. Hussein Khaled
68
10) Kinetic Energy: It is the energy stored in the body due to its motion.

𝟏
K.E. = x m x v2
𝟐

K.E.: Kinetic energy (Joules)

m: Maas (Kg)
v: Velocity (m/s)
o K.E. depends on the velocity and mass of the body.
o K.E. increases if the body accelerates (velocity increases).
o K.E. decreases if the body decelerates (velocity decreases).
o K.E. is constant if acceleration = 0 (no change in velocity).

Conservation of Energy
Law of conservation of Energy:
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form
to another.

• The Total amount of energy is always constant.

• This means that a decrease in one form of energy is
converted to an equal increase in another form and vice
versa.

Example: When a ball is dropped, it loses some

gravitational potential energy as G.P.E. = m x g x h and “h” is
decreasing.
• But where does this G.P.E go?
o If we neglected the air resistance, all
this G.P.E. is converted to K.E. (kinetic
energy). Because the speed is
increasing as the ball moves down.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 69

 o But what if we consider air resistance?
1) If weight > air resistance → the object will accelerate → so part
of the lost G.P.E. is converted to K.E. and the rest will be
converted to heat due to air resistance.

2) If weight = air resistance → All G.P.E. will be converted to heat

due to air resistance and no gain in K.E. as acceleration = zero.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 70

3)If weight < air resistance → as in the case of
opening a parachute → the speed will decrease,
so K.E. decreases, also G.P.E. decreases as height
decreases → All this lost energy will be
converted to heat due to air resistance.

Example: If we throw a ball with mass 3 Kg from 5 m height, ignoring air

resistance.
G.P.E=150J
K.E= 0 P.E=mgh=
K.E=0
P.E= mgh= 3x10x3= 90 J
5m
3x10x5=150 J 3m K.E=150-90
G.P.E=0
=60 J
K.E=150 J

The total energy is always constant (Conservation of Energy):

• If the ball doesn’t rebound once it hits the ground, this means that all the
G.P.E. and K.E. are converted to heat and sound energy.
• To get the Velocity at any height (ex: at height = 3m), use the following:
GPE lost= KE gained
𝟏
mgh = m v2 Here: h = 2m (decrease in height)
𝟐

• If the ball rebounds, it will go up again but not to the initial position, as
some energy is lost in the form of heat and sound as it hits the ground. It
will continue rebounding until it stops.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 71

 Example:

o if a car is accelerating up a hill

K.E. increasing

G.P.E. increasing

Chemical Energy in Fuel is decreasing

o If a Ball is kicked up a hill.

K.E. decreasing

G.P.E. increasing

Heat energy increasing

o If a sky diver is falling with constant speed

K.E. constant This means that the lost

G.P.E. is converted to heat
G.P.E. decreasing
due to air resistance

o If a bike is accelerating on a straight (Level)(Horizontal) road

K.E. increasing

G.P.E. constant

Chemical Energy is decreasing (in the

biker’s muscles)

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Motor:
• It is a device that converts electric energy to kinetic energy.
• Car Engine: converts from Chemical energy → K.E.

Generator:
• It is a device that converts kinetic energy to electric energy (electricity)
using a turbine.
• Some Generators work with fuel:
Chemical Energy (Fuel) → Electric Energy

Example: A boy falling from a cliff as shown.

a- Complete the missing numbers. (Ignore Air

Resistance).

b- If the mass of the boy is 60kg, find his speed just

before reaching the sea level?
Solution: G.P.E at the top = K.E. at the sea level

1
m. g. h = m v2
2
Substitute and get v.

c- If we need to double this final speed, by how many

times should the height of the cliff increase?

Solution: 4 times (Very important)

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 Generating electricity
• Non-renewable sources
• Renewable sources

1) Non-renewable:

This is the kind of energy that has a limit.

- Fossil fuels (ex: coal or oil)

- Nuclear fuels (Nuclear Fission) ex: Uranium.

Advantages:

• Produces large amounts of energy. – Reliable (Always available).

• High efficiency.
• Low initial cost relative to renewable sources, but high running cost
(Although the nuclear power stations can be considered relatively expensive).
• Scale: Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Fuels Power stations can be compact and
supply a large population (Concentrated sources of Energy).

Disadvantages:

• Polluting to the environment (Fossil fuels produce greenhouse gases as CO2,

while nuclear materials produces radioactive emissions that causes cancer).
• Has a limit, and may vanish one day.

How does it work?

The fuel is burned to heat water → producing steam to rotate turbines
→ Generate electricity

Internal energy (or chemical energy) → Heat

energy → K.E → Electric Energy.

Mr. Hussein Khaled

74
 2) Renewable sources:

These are the sources of energy that doesn’t vanish (end). Like Biomass
fuel (like Wood, animal dung and Biogas), Solar energy, Wind or Water.

Advantages:

• Non-polluting to the environment (Environmental Friendly)

• Has no limits (Doesn’t end).

Disadvantages:

• Produces less amounts of energy. – Not reliable (Not always available).

• Low efficiency.
• High initial cost relative to non-renewable sources, but low running costs.
• Scale: Solar Cells and Wind turbines need large space to supply a large
population (Dilute sources of Energy).

a) Using water
i. Tidal Energy (Dam):

The flowing water is stored behind the Dam, then the Lock Door opens and the
water flows and rotates the turbine that drives the Generator.

(G.P.E → K.E → E.E)

The Tidal uses the same idea but depending
on the flow of water due to the Tide
76
because of the Moon (mainly) and the Sun.

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 ii. Hydroelectric power station:
Disadvantages of
Hydoelectric and Dams:

→Creating reservoirs can

flood useful lands

→Destroys ecosystems

- Water is falling down to rotate the turbine

(G.P.E → K.E → E.E.)

iii. Waves:

Waves moving have Kinetic energy that is used to rotate the turbines and
generate Electricity.

b) Using Air /Wind energy:

• The Winds are used in rotating the blades of the
turbine to generate electricity

As velocity of blade increases → K.E increases→ E.E increases

As surface area of the blades increases→E.E increases

• However, it’s noisy, needs large space and it has high

initial cost.

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 c) Geothermal :

Using the energy stored in Hot Rocks underground, that changes water to steam
to be used to rotate turbines then generate electricity through the Generator.

Heat Energy → Kinetic Energy → Electric Energy.

d) Solar energy:
• Solar cells are used to convert light energy from the sun into
electric energy.
• This amount of the energy is dependent on the surface area of
Solar cells. Ex: if the rate of absorption = 10 J/m2 and we
60
need 60J → so we need = 6 m2 Solar Cells (Solar Panels).
10

Hint: The sun is the source for most of the electric energy resources,
either renewable or non-renewable, as it is the source of Wind, Solar,
Water sources, Fossil Fuels and Biomass Fuels. (Except Nuclear, Geothermal and
Tidal)

Q: How the Sun is the reason for hydro-electric power generation?

• The answer is in describing the Water Cycle.

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 Work Done
When a force (N) is exerted on a body to move it a distance (d), so the value of
work done on this body is calculated using:

WD= Force x Distance (parallel)

WD: work done (joules)

Force: (N) Distance: (m)

• Work done can be added to or subtracted from any type of energy have
same unit (Joules).
Work Done can be represented as the change in energy
(gained or lost) from the body.

Example 1:

Calculate the work done in this case.

Solution:

WD= Force x Distance

= 10 X 2 = 20 J
Here Work done by man is converted to KE of the box

Example 2:

Calculate the work done by this athlete in lifting 50 kg weight at

a height of 2 m.

Solution:

W= Force x Distance , Force = Weight = mxg = 50X10 = 500N

W= 500 X 2 = 1000 J

Here Work done by man is converted to GPE of the weight

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Example 3:

A man needs to push s box with mass 4kg up a ramp to a height of 10 m. Force
F =200N. Calculate a) Work done against gravity, b) Work done by Force (F) and
c)Energy Lost.

a) Work done in raising the box (against gravity) = Force X Distance

Force = 4kgX10 = 40 N The force is multiplied by
its Parallel distance !!
Work Done = 40 X 10 = 400J

b) Work done by force (F) → Work Done = F x D = 200 x 8 = 1600 J

c) Lost energy = 1600 – 400 = 1200 J

Hint: Not all the forces can do work. Some forces are doing no
work if there is no distance moved.

Power
It is the rate at which energy is transferred. [As we say “rate” this means that it is
divided by Time].

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = (J/s=Watt)
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
OR Power = Force X Velocity (Watt) (out of scope)

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 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐞
• Watt = , so if we have kJ, multiply it by 1000 to convert it to
𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝
joules and the same for seconds. If we have the time in minutes,
multiply by 60 to convert to seconds.

Example: If a man holds a 10 Kg box up vertical distance of 5 m in 10sec. Calculate

the Work Done and the Power used.

• Force= weight = mg= 10Kg x 10 m/s = 100 N

• WD= F x d= 100 x 5= 500J
𝑊𝐷 500
• Power = = = 50 watt
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 10

OR:

• G. Potential Energy= mgh= 10x10x5= 500J

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 500
• Power= = = 50 watt
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 10

Example: A car exerts a force 5000 N, moves a track of length 100 m in 20 sec.
calculate the Power exerted by the car in the track.

o WD=F x d= 5000 x 100= 5 x 105 joules

𝑊𝐷 5 𝑥 105
o Power= = = 25000 watt
𝑇 20

Power, Energy & Time relations:

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = 𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞
• Power and energy are directly proportional
• Power and time are inversely proportional

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Example: Two persons A and B with the same weights
climbed to the same height. Person A reached in shorter
time than B. Which one of them exerted larger work and
which one exerted higher power than the other?

Solution:

• Both of them did the same work as they have the same force (Weight)
and same distance.
• Person A exerted larger power as he took shorter time. Because Power
and Time are inversely proportional.

Hint: when the energy increases, the power does not necessarily have to increase
as it is also affected by time.

Example:

Calculate the Power in the following cases:

Work (J) Time (s) Power (Watt)

a- 500 10 P = 500/10 = 50
b- 800 10 P = 800/10 = 80
c- 500 20 P = 500/20 = 25

From case a and b it is clear that as the work increase the power increase

From case a and c it is clear that as the time increase the power decrease

Mr. Hussein Khaled 81

 Efficiency
It is a measure of how much of the total energy input
is converted to useful energy output.

The useful output and the

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 total input should be both
Efficiency = x100 with the same Units !!
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
• The output and input can be both in terms of Power or both in terms of
Energy.

Example: If we have two machines (A&B)

input output input output

A B
5000 W 2000 W 5000 W 3000 W
2000
• (A) efficiency = x100 = 40%
5000
3000
• (B) efficiency = x100 = 60%
5000
➔ Machine (B) is better than machine (A) as it has higher efficiency and it
can give 60% useful output from thr total input.
Hint: If we have two machines in sequence, the total efficiency of the
system will be the final Output of the second machine divided by the
initial input of the first machine.

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 Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area.
𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
Pressure = (N/m2) (Pascal)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

• Pressure is directly proportional to the force (as F P )

• Pressure is inversely proportional to the area (as A P )

Example: You can push a pin against a wooden piece, such

that it will penetrate the wooden piece, but if you
pushyour finger with the same force against the wooden
piece, your finger will not penetrate.

• This is because your finger has larger area, so

less pressure.

Relation Between Area and Pressure: As A P

F= 100 N F= 100 N

Contact Area = 1 m2 Contact Area= 5 m2

100 100
P= = 100 pa P= = 20 pa
1 5

More pressure Less pressure

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Example: Why do we use the sharp edge of the knife in cutting?

o Less area → higher pressure, so it is easy to cut.

Relation Between Force and Pressure: As F P

Hint: Pressure is exerted using Matter (Molecules) either solid, liquid,

or gas. But in vacuum there is no pressure as there are no molecules.

Examples on pressure:
• If you are standing on thin ice, you have to lie down to spread your
weight over large area to reduce the pressure on the ice, so reduce the
risk of breaking the ice and falling down.

• Crawler boards used for glass or wooden roofs to

increase surface area, thus reducing pressure.

• Desert trucks have wide tyres to spread the weight

over large surface area to avoid sinking in the sand.

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 Pressure in liquids and gases
Liquids and Gases exert pressure on the sides and base of the container and on
any object that is submerged or fully immersed in the liquid, as their molecules
are moving around causing pressure on every surface they collide with.

P = ρ . g. h
P: pressure (Pa) ρ: density (Kg/m3) g: gravitational acc. (10 m/s2)

h: depth from the surface of the liquid (m)

Example: If you immerse a box in water, what is the

pressure exerted by water on the box in case of 1 m
depth, 3m & 5m depth.

P = ρ . g. h

o ρ water = 1000 kg/m3

o P1 = 1000 x 10 x 1 = 1 x 104 Pa
o P2 = 1000 x 10 x 3 = 3 x 104 Pa
o P3 = 1000 x 10 x 5 = 5 x 104 Pa
(It is clear that as the Depth increase, the Pressure increase)

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The previous example is the pressure due to water only.

What is the total pressure? (if we know that atmospheric pressure = 100000 pa)

Total pressure = liquid pressure (P1 or P2 or P3) + atmospheric pressure

Hint: if you have another gas above the surface of the liquid other than the
Atmosphere:

Ptotal = ρ . g. h + Pgas

❖ The size or the shape of the container does not affect the pressure exerted by
the liquid. Only Depth and Density of liquid affect the Pressure !!

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Example:

Pressure at point A is higher than B as mercury has higher density than water,
although they have the same depth.

Example:
If we have a box with base Area = 4 m2 and height= 5 m that is filled with water.
(a) What is the value of the pressure due to water at the base of the box?
(b)what is the value of force exerted by the water on the base of the box?
(c) what is the total pressure on the base if the P atm. = 100,000Pa.?

F
5

A= 4 m2

(a) P = ρ. g. h = 1000 x 10 x 5 = 50,000 Pa

𝐹 𝐹
(b) P = = 50000 = → F = 50000 x 4= 200,000 N = 2x105 N
𝐴 4
(c) Total Pressure = 100,000+50,000 = 150,000 Pa.

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Why object experiences up-thrust force in a liquid?

• Pressure increases as we go down so the

pressure at the bottom of the object is higher
than the top.

Example: Justify the phenomenon shown in the following figure:

As we move down the pressure

increases, so the water has larger
force exerted on it, so it travels
larger distance than the upside
holes.

Example:
If we have two window Panes in the same room
as shown in the figure, Window A has 4 times
the area of Window B. Which window has larger
Pressure, and which window has larger force?

Solution:

• Both windows have same pressure, as they are in the same atmosphere.
• Window A has Four times the force of Window B

Hint: As the altitude increases the atmospheric pressure decreases. Because:

- Gas at high elevations is less dense (less molecules) so less collisions occur.
- Also as gas temperature at high levels is less so lower K.E. of molecules so less
collisions too.
Mr.OR:
Hussein Khaled
at high altitude there is less height 89
of air column (h) so less pressure.

88
 Unit 2
Kinetic Theory of Matter
States of Matter:
There are three states of matter: Solid, Liquid and Gas

The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that each state has its own type of motion
that differs from the solids to the liquids to the gases.

Point of Comparison Solid Liquid Gas

Spacing Between Closely Packed, Loosely Packed, Far Apart, No
Molecules orderly arranged disordered arrangement
arrangement

Compressibility Incompressible Incompressible Compressible

Motion of Particles Vibrate about fixed Slide over each other Move rapidly and
positions and exchange places, randomly, colliding
and also vibrating. with each other and
(move in clusters) the walls of the
container
Shape Fixed Variable (takes the Variable (takes the
shape of the shape of the container,
container, like the like the glass or the
glass or the cup that cup or the box that
holds the liquid) holds the gas)
Forces of Attraction Strong Weaker than Solid, Very weak (almost
between Molecules but strong enough to zero)
keep molecules
bonded together
Volume Fixed Fixed Variable (Takes the
volume of the
container)

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Explanation of the table:

➢ Gases are compressible while Solids and Liquids are incompressible

because:
o There are large spaces between molecules in the Gas state, while in
Solids and Liquids there are limited spaces.
o The repulsive forces between molecules in Solids and Liquids prevent
compression.

➢ Solids and Liquids are constant in Volumes, while Gases are not because:
• As Solids and Liquids have stronger attraction forces between
their molecules, while in gases don’t have attraction forces so
they move freely filling the container.

Hint: intermolecular forces of solids and liquids are strong as their

intermolecular spaces are small.

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 ➢ Solids have fixed shapes while Liquids and Gases have Variable shapes
because:
• As the molecules of the Solids can’t exchange places, while in
Liquids and Gases they can.

Heating and Cooling:

→ Heating →

 Cooling 

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 Heating experiment

Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Temp.(°C) -10 -5 0 0 0 0 20 60 80 100 100 100 100 120 150

Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the particles of the object. As

we start heating, the Kinetic energy of the molecules increases so the
temperature increases until it reaches the Melting temperature (Zero degrees in
case of pure ice). At this point the energy is being used to break the bonds
between the molecules (to change state, we can say the potential energy of
molecules increases) while the kinetic energy stays the same, so the temperature
doesn’t change, and the state changes from Solid to Liquid. After all the Solid is
changed into Liquid the temperature starts rising again as the Kinetic energy of
the molecules is increasing, until boiling point is reached, where the Liquid is
being changed to Gas and the temperature is constant until all the Liquid is
changed into Gas.

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Summary: Heat is either used in either:

➢ Work done in increasing the Kinetic Energy of the molecules (so increasing
the Temperature).
➢ Work done in Breaking down the bonds (so changing state & increasing the
potential energy of molecule), but keeping the Temperature constant.

We have two states during the Melting Stage (Solid and Liquid).

We have two states during the Boiling Stage (Liquid and Gas).

The Boiling stage takes longer time (and

more heat) than the Melting stage, as
more bonds are being broken during the
Boiling stage to reach the Gas state that
has almost zero bonds. As shown in the
following graph:

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 Heating VS Cooling Curves
During Heating energy is absorbed by the material, while during Cooling energy is
coming out of the material.

Thermal Expansion and Contraction:

Heating leads to expansion of the material, as it increases the kinetic energy of
the molecules, so they tend to move further apart leading to increase in volume
of the object.

➢ All the dimensions increase during heating (Length, Width, Height, and
Diameter)
➢ Cooling leads to Contraction (Decreasing Volume)
➢ Solids have the least expansion rates, then Liquids then Gases (Gases are
the most due to weaker bonds & less energy is needed to separate the
molecules)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 94

 ➢ In comparing the expansion of solids, liquids and gases, the gases should be
at constant pressure as any change in pressure will affect the volume of the
gas.
➢ In Solids: molecules become more energetic so they tend to vibrate faster
and larger distance so the volume increases.

Advantages of Expansion or contraction:

o Bi-Metallic Strip

Brass expands
more and
contracts
more.

o Liquid in Glass Thermometer

o Fitting Bolt and Ring together

Problems of Thermal Expansion and how to solve:

Problem: Bending of railway tracks (and bridges) in summer due to expansion.

Solution: Leave Gaps between Railway Tracks to compensate for Expansion when
it’s hot.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 95

Problems of Thermal Contraction and how to solve:

Problem: Telephones and Electricity cables might get cut in winter due to
contraction if they are tight.

Solution: Make cables sag between telephone and transmission wires to allow for
Contraction without cutting the wire

Hint: In case of attaching two materials together, they should have the same
expansion rate (ex: Teeth Filling or Concrete and Steel)

Evaporation:
Evaporation happens when the most energetic molecules at the surface of the
liquid have enough energy to break down the bonds (Work done against
attraction forces) and escape to the environment (changing to gas) causing
Cooling Effect.

We have two conditions for the particles to be able to evaporate:

➢ Should be Near the Surface

➢ Have enough energy (High energy)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 96

Cooling:

Evaporation causes cooling because the most energetic molecules escape, leaving
behind less energetic molecules. So the total energy of the liquid will decrease so
the temperature of the liquid will decrease.

Example: why we feel cold after sweating or coming out of the pool?

➢ As said before, the most energetic molecules escape, leaving behind

molecules with less energy, so lower temperature
➢ Also, As the water molecules take heat energy from our skin to be able to
escape

Factors affecting the rate of Evaporation:

1- Temperature:

As the Temperature increases the Kinetic Energy of the molecules increase, so

more molecules will have enough energy to break down the bonds and escape.

Temperature Increase → Energetic Molecules Increase → Evaporation Increase

Heat

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 2- Surface Area:

Increasing the surface area of the liquid will not increase the energy of the liquid
molecules, but it will increase the number of exposed energetic molecules, so
Evaporation will increase.

Larger Surface
area, so more
Evaporation

Surface Area Increase → Exposed Energetic Molecules Increase → Evaporation

Increase

3- Air Current:

Air current increases the rate of evaporation for two reasons:

➢ Air current takes away the evaporated molecules from the space above the
liquid, encouraging other molecules to escape (Removes Humidity)
➢ Air current also prevents water molecules in the air from returning back to
the liquid.

Air Current Increase → Evaporation Increase

Fan

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Boiling Vs Evaporation:

Boiling Evaporation
Happens at specific Temperature Happens at any Temperature
Happens to all molecules (Throughout Happens to the molecules at the
all the liquid) surface only
Bubbles and Steam produced No Bubbles or Steam
Doesn’t cause cooling effect Causes cooling effect

Brownian Motion:

Any Gas consists of molecules with kinetic energy so they are moving
randomly all the time. To prove this theory we can use dust or smoke
particles as the air particles are very small and can’t be tracked.

➢ The random motion of the air molecules is called Brownian Motion.

➢ Tools: Microscope, Smoke cell and light source to be able to see
the motion clearly.

Observations: We can see Bright Specks or Dust particles moving randomly

changing directions (Zigzag motion), haphazard, in straight lines and coming in
focus and out of focus.

Conclusion:

➢ Dust or smoke particles are being hit by air molecules.

➢ Air particles are much smaller than Dust or Smoke.
➢ Air particles are moving fast and Random in all directions.

- Dust particles doesn’t fall as dust has low density and as

they are being hit by air molecules in All directions!!

Hint: This experiment can be done for pollen grains suspended

in water to show the motion of the water molecules.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 99

 Gas Laws (Temperature ,Volume &Pressure)
Definition of Temperature (T): It is a measure of the average Kinetic Energy of the
molecules.

As Temperature Increases → Kinetic energy of Molecules Increases → Speed of

Molecules Increases.

As Temperature Decreases → Kinetic energy of Molecules Decreases → Speed

of Molecules Decreases.

Definition of Volume (V): It indicates the spacing between the molecules and not
the size of the molecules.

Size of the molecules

can’t be changed, but
the spacing can be
minimized to decrease
the Volume.

Large Volume Small Volume

Pressure (P): Molecules of the Gas have Kinetic Energy, Therefore they exert
forces on the walls of the container (or the room) due to collisions with it. So
these forces over the area of the container cause pressure.

Hint: Pressure can be defined also as the change of Momentum of particles

striking the walls of the container.
➢ As a gas molecule hits the walls of the container it change its direction,
this means that there is change in momentum ∆P, which causes a force
(∆P= FxT), that leads to pressure.

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 Relation between Temperature, Volume and Pressure
1- Relation between Temperature and pressure ( Volume is constant):

As the Temperature increases the Kinetic energy of the molecules increases, so

they start moving faster and collide harder with larger force and more
frequent with the walls of the container, so the Pressure increase.

As Temperature Increases → Pressure Increases

Low Temp. High Temp.

2- Relation between Volume and Pressure (Temperature is constant) Boyle’s

Law”:

Here the Temperature is constant so the Kinetic energy of the molecules is

constant. However, as the Volume is decreasing so the molecules are now moving
in a smaller space so more collisions with the walls of the container occur
(Frequency of collisions increases but NOT harder collisions). Therefore the
pressure increases.

As Volume Decreases → Pressure Increases

Equation relating Pressure and Volume:

P1 V1 = P2 V2

➢ P1 and V1 are the initial values

➢ P2 and V2 are the final values
➢ Use same units on both sides (any units!)

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Pressure and Volume are inversely proportional as long as the Temperature is
Constant. (This means that doubling the volume will reduce the pressure to half)

Hint: the mass of the gas is always

constant in all experiments.

3- Relation between Temperature and Volume (Pressure is constant) :

Increasing Temperature at constant Pressure will lead to increasing the Kinetic

energy of the molecules so they tend to move farther apart and the spacing
increases, so the Volume increases.

As Temperature Increases → Volume Increases

The effect of heating is clearer in Gases than Liquids as the

molecules of the Gas are far apart and have almost Zero bonding.

How do we know that the pressure is constant??

• As the gas is heated the force of collisions

increases, but it is acting on larger area as
the piston moves upwards, so the pressure
is kept constant.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 102

 Thermometers
We know that temperature is an indication of the average Kinetic Energy of the
molecules of the substance. If the object has any property that can be changed by
changing the temperature, so this is called a Thermometric Property and this
object can be used as a thermometer.

Examples of Thermometric Properties:

➢ Volume of liquid (like that used in “Liquid in glass thermometers”)

➢ Volume of gas (it gives clearer readings as gases have higher expansion
rates than liquids)
➢ Color of some solids
➢ Resistance of electrical conductors

Liquid in Glass Thermometer Digital Thermometer

Liquid in Glass Thermometer:

The bulb contains a liquid that expands with the increase in temperature and
contracts when the temperature decreases. When the liquid expands it moves up
the capillary tube than has a scale to show the temperature. Liquids used can be
Mercury or Alcohol.

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We have two fixed points which are:

➢ Lower Fixed Point → The Melting Point of Pure Ice = The Freezing point of
Pure water (Zero °C)
➢ Upper Fixed Point → The Boiling Point of Pure water = The Condensation
point of water steam (100 °C)

How to scale the Thermometer?

➢ Put the thermometer in Pure Melting Ice (0°C), and mark it on

thermometer.
➢ Put the thermometer in Pure Boiling Water (100°C), and mark it on
thermometer.

These are the two fixed points, after that

we can divide the scale on the
thermometer between these two points
equally (Considering that the liquid
expands linearly, otherwise we have to
use more fixed points).

The Kelvin scale:

T(K) = Ɵ (⁰C) + 273

Ex: 10 ⁰C = 283 K
➢ Absolute Zero: This is the lowest possible temperature (The point at
which molecules have no kinetic energy) (zero Kelvin)
➢ Change in temperature 1 ⁰C = change in temperature 1 K

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 Heat Transfer
Heat energy will always move from the point of high temperature to the point of
low temperature.

This can happen in three ways:

➢ Conduction
➢ Convection
➢ Radiation

Points at the same temperature are said to be in “Thermal Equilibrium”.

1- Conduction: Conduction happens due to contact of molecules. (Whenever

there is touching)
a- Metals:

As a metal is heated, Kinetic energy of free moving

(delocalised) electrons increases, so their speed
increases and they start to drift between molecules
to transfer heat energy from hot parts to cold parts of
the metal by hitting the atoms to make them Vibrate
faster about their fixed positions.

b- Non-Metals (ex: glass, plastic or wood)

As a piece of non-metal is heated, the Kinetic energy of molecules increase, so

they start vibrating faster and start hitting the neighboring molecules harder, so
part of this kinetic energy is transferred to these molecules until the kinetic
energy of all molecules increase… This is called “Lattice Vibration”

The rate of conduction in non-metals is lower than metals (as metals transfer
energy using both free moving electrons + Lattice vibration)

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Experiment: Which metal is the best heat conductor?

Four rods of different metals have several wax rings around

each of them. One flame is used to heat one end of each
rod at the same time. The rings melt and drop off the
copper rod first, then from the aluminum rod, then from
the nickel rod, and last from the iron rod. This example
shows that among the four metals used, copper is the best
conductor of heat and iron is the poorest (If we have any
non-metal as plastic or wood, it would be much poorer).

➢ If we have two spoons, one is metal and the other is platic. Why you feel the
metal spoon is colder than the plastic one when you touch them, athough
they are both at the same temperature?

Solution: This is because metals are

better conductor of heat so the heat
coming out of your hand moves along the
spoon and spreads rapidly so it takes
more heat out of your hand, so it feels
cold.

➢ Which part will be the hottest and which one will be the coolest?

Solution: The Hottest point is B

The coldest point is A

Mr. Hussein Khaled 106

 c- Conduction in Liquids and Gases:

➢ Conduction is poor in liquids except Mercury (Metal), as liquids don’t have

free moving electrons and the spacing between molecules in not as
compacted as metals.
➢ Conduction is much poorer in gases (due to the wide spaces between
molecules, so no contact).
➢ There is No Conduction in Vacuum as there are no molecules.

Example:

Although the water at the top

is very hot, the ice at the
bottom takes long time to
melt… this is because Water is
poor conductor of heat.

2- Convection:
When a mass of liquid (or gas) is heated, the
molecules start moving faster and the spacing
between the molecules increase so liquid expands
and become less dense than the surrounding colder
liquid (or gas). So hot liquid rises upwards and
carries the heat with it. Then it will be replaced by
colder liquid (or gas) to be heated and so on.

Heating → Kinetic energy of molecules increases → Forces between molecules

become weaker → Liquid Expands and Volume increases → Less Density →
Moves up.

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 ➢ The opposite happens in cooling:
Cooling → Slower motion and Less spacing → Contracts → More Density →
Moves Down

➢ It can be said that convection depends on the change in density of the fluid
( Liquid or Gas)
➢ The Direction of Convection Heating is Upwards only (it can be done by
cooling from the top of the liquid, the cold water that is cooled moves
down and the hot water moves upwards).
➢ Convection can’t occur in solids as molecules are fixed and can’t move up
or down as in fluids.
➢ No convection in Vacuum ( as there are no molecules)

Example:

In (A) we heat from downside, so heat will move upwards by convection to melt
the ice.

In (B) we heat from the upper part, so the heat moves down by conduction
which is poor in liquids, so it takes long time for the ice to melt. That we can
have boiling water upside and at the same time we have ice downside.

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 Ex: Heater

Air downside near the heater

becomes hotter, so it becomes
less dense and moves up. Then
it is replaced by colder air.
Example: Air Conditioner

It’s hotter upside as hot air

has less density.

Ex: Air conditioner:

Air upside near the conditioner

cools, so it becomes denser
and moves down. Then it is
replaced by hotter air.

Ex: Sea Breeze and Land Breeze.

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Example: Which letter will be most heated and which letter will be most cooled?

Hottest: A Coolest: F
3- Radiation:

➢ We have to think about the way that the heat reaches the Earth from the
sun after passing through Vacuum.
➢ As Conduction and Convection cannot occur in Vacuum, so the only way to
transfer energy through Vacuum is by Radiation.
➢ Radiation is the transfer of heat energy by a kind of electromagnetic waves
that are called infra-red waves.

➢ Radiation is the fastest way of heat transfer.

➢ Radiation occurs in all directions.

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 ➢ Radiation is affected by :
o Temperature of the body
o Color of the body and Texture (Dull or Shiny)
o Surface area of the body

➢ Any hot surface regardless its color will emit infra-red radiation and any
cold surface will absorb infra-red radiation to reach the temperature of the
surrounding. However the color of the surface affects the rate of radiation
emission or absorption.

Experiment: Which color is the best Emitter?

- Put hot water inside the box. The box

has each side painted with a different
color.
- Then put thermometers equidistant
from each side of the cube.
- Record the initial and final
temperature of each thermometer

Conclusion: Dull (Matt) Black makes the highest temperature change so it is the
best emitter, while shiny silver is the poorest.

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Experiment: Which color is the best Absorber?
- Put 4 cups equidistant from
the heater, each can contains
same amount of water and
thermometer.
- Make sure all have the same
initial temperature.
- Turn on the Heater.
- Record the initial and final
temperature of each
thermometer.

Conclusion: Dull (Matt) Black makes the highest temperature rise so it is the
best absorber, while shiny silver is the poorest.

General Examples:

1)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 112

 2)

3) How will this hot pot of water be cooled?

- Conduction from the water to the

walls of the container.
- Conduction from the water to the
spoon.
- Conduction from the base of the
container to the ground.
- Radiation from the top and sides.
- Convection of the air above the Pot
liquid upwards.
- Evaporation of the energetic
molecules at the surface. Ground
How to eliminate Heat Loss:

- Put a lid or cover to reduce convection and evaporation

- Put Insulation (Mineral wool, fiber glass, polystyrene, Foam) at the sides and
the base to reduce conduction and radiation.
- Elastic bands are used to wrap insulation around the pot.
- Paint the pot Silver (Worst heat radiation emitter).

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 4- Which Wall will reduce the heat coming from outside to inside?

Solution: Wall “a” has air gap which is poor conductor of heat but it allows
convection. Wall “b” has cork between the walls which is poor conductor of heat
and also prevents convection as it is solid. Wall “b” is better insulator.

Example: Why the temperature of the room can’t be lowered below a certain
temperature in summer although the air conditioner is still working?

Answer: as the room reached a point where the amount of heat energy absorbed
out by the air conditioner is equal to the amount of heat energy entering the
room from the surroundings (like windows and doors).

Effect of Heat transfer on Earth’s atmosphere:

Infra-red radiation from the Sun heats up the Earth. When the Earth becomes
warm it emits back the radiations. Gases in the Earth’s atmosphere (as carbon
dioxide) absorb some of these radiations (Greenhouse effect), so some of the
heat is trapped.

➢ This causes the temperature of the Earth to increase as Heat in > Heat out.

Also convection currents are the main reason behind winds, as hot air rises in
warm regions and cooler air sinks causing winds.

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When an object is heated and its temperature rises, the amount of heat energy
(Q) that should be given to the object depends on:

1- The mass of the object (m)

2- The Rise in Temperature (ΔT)
3- Specific Heat Capacity (c)

Specific Heat Capacity (c):

➢ It is the amount of heat energy (Q) needed to raise the temperature of 1Kg
(or 1g) of a substance by 1°C.
𝑗 𝑗
➢ Its units or
𝑘𝑔.°𝐶 𝑔.°𝐶
𝑗
➢ Specific Heat Capacity of water = 4200
𝑘𝑔.°𝐶
➢ Specific Heat capacity is the same as Specific Thermal capacity
➢ Object with high “c” will need more heat energy or time to rise in
temperature.
➢ Example: 1kg of water and 1 kg of steel, if you heat both of them for the
same amount of time, the steel will get hot much quicker (and will absorb
less heat energy) as it has less value of specific heat capacity (c)

How to calculate the total amount of heat energy (Q) required ??

➢ As the change in temperature (ΔT) increase, the amount of heat energy

needed to make this change will increase.

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Example: If we have two pieces of metals, each one is 1 kg. Metal A has
higher Specific Heat Capacity than B. each of them is inserted inside a
furnace for 1 hour. Which one will get hotter?

➢ Both are supplied with the same amount of heat energy (Q).
Metal B has smaller heat capacity, so it will make larger change in
temperature (ΔT). So Metal B will be hotter.

Example: if you have two types of plastic cups of different materials (A

and B). Cup A has higher specific heat capacity than B. The coffee is
poured into the cup and it gets heated to reach the temperature of the
coffee. Which one of them you should use to keep your coffee hot for
the longest time??

- Both cups need to reach the temperature of the coffee, cup B will
take less heat energy from the coffee to reach this temperature than
A, So we should use B to save the heat of the coffee.

Heat Capacity/Thermal Capacity (C): it is the amount of heat energy (Q)

required to raise the temperature of the whole body by 1 °C.

➢ When we say “Specific” this means we are considering 1 kg only.

C = c x m

Hint: Q = m. c. ΔT can also be written as → Q = C. ΔT

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Experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance:

We need to calculate the specific heat capacity (c), using the rule:

Q=m. c. ΔT

We need to get the Q, m and ΔT, so we can get the c easily.

Energy (Q) = Power X Time → Q = P X T

➢ Determine the power of the heater (P)
➢ We use immersion heater rather than Bunsen burner (flame) to avoid loss
of heat to the surroundings, to be able to calculate the energy absorbed by
the object accurately.
➢ Use a stop watch to record the time of the experiment
➢ Measure the mass of the substance to be heated
➢ Measure the initial and final temperature to get ΔT = Tf-Ti
𝑄
➢ Now we can calculate c =
𝑚 . ΔT

Improvements: - use insulator wrapped around the object to reduce heat loss
to the surrounding.

- Also try to work at temperatures near the room temperature, to reduce heat
loss, thus reducing the error.
- Use heater with high power to carry out the experiment in short time.

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Hint:
➢ If you are working with the object at high temperatures, the
object will lose heat to the surrounding, so the energy (Q)
calculated is higher than the actual value, so the value of specific
heat capacity (c) will be higher than the actual value.
➢ If you are working with the object at low temperature (below
room temperature), the object will gain heat from the
surrounding, so the opposite will happen.

❖ As the object is heated → Internal energy increases.

➢ Kinetic energy of molecules increases → Stages 1,3,5
➢ Potential energy (Separation) of molecules increases → Stages 2,4

Mr. Hussein Khaled 118

 Unit 3
Electricity and Magnetism

Electricity is the flow of charged particles (electrons or ions)

through a body.

Electric Conductor VS Electric Insulator:

Electric Conductor is a substance that allows the flow of
charges through it.
Electric Insulator Does not allow the flow of charges through it.

Electric Conductivity in Solids, Liquids and Gases:

1- In Solids:
a- Metals:
➢ Metals have free moving charges (electrons).
These are the outermost electrons that are not
tightly bound to the atoms due to Metallic
bonding.
➢ These electrons can move from one atom
to another carrying electric energy.

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 b- Non-Metals
Most non-metals are non-conductors as they do not have free electrons
(ex: Plastic, Glass and Wood), but others (as graphite) can conduct
electricity as they have free moving electrons.

2- Liquids:
o If a liquid has free ions (ex: Salt Solution) or free moving electrons
(ex: Mercury as a liquid metal), then it is
electrical conductor.

Salt Solution (or any

liquid with ions) →

Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity, as it does not have ions.
Because the electricity is transported by the ions in solution, the conductivity
increases as the concentration of ions increases.

3- Gases:
- Gases do not conduct electricity if the atoms are neutral. But if there are ions,
electricity can be conducted.

Hint: Normally, the atoms are neutral because the

number of protons inside the nucleus equals to the
number of electrons in the outer shells. But if the
atom loses electrons it becomes a positive ion. If it
gains electrons it becomes negative ion.

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Electric Charging:
The main concept that applies is that unlike charges attract
while like charges repel. These are called non-touch forces.

1- Electrostatic Charging by Friction:

When rubbing two different types of solid
insulators against each other, one of them
loses electrons and become positive
charged. While the other gains electrons
and become negative charged.

➢ Now they are Electrostatically Charged

➢ This doesn’t mean that they can conduct electricity, they are just
Charged.
➢ Protons never move!!
➢ It is applicable for metals also (but they shouldn’t be earthed)
➢ Plastics are the best in Electrostatic Charging, while wood is poor.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 121

Example: Rubber has a much greater attraction for electrons than a piece of
animal fur. As a result, if they are rubbed together, the atoms of rubber pull
electrons from the atoms of animal fur, leaving both objects with equal but
opposite charges.

How to test if the rod is charged?

- By bringing the rod near small pieces of paper or stream of water from the tap.
The rod will attract them.
Example: why do we feel electric shock while opening car door handle?
- Because your body is charged, so it discharges this extra charge through the
door handle.

Example: We can also feel this charge as the fuel flows through the hose to the
car in the gas station. The charge accumulates in the car so it should be earthed.

2- Induction Charging:
When you bring a positively charged rod
close to a neutral metal sphere (Without
Touching), the metal sphere will be
attracted towards the positive rod.
Because the free electrons in the sphere
will be attracted by the rod, so the near
part of the sphere to the rod will be
negatively charged, so it will be attracted.

This is what happens to the charges when a positive charged rod approaches a
neutral sphere, that’s why they attract.

As you can see the protons don’t move in reality, just the electrons
move. However we can draw the protons repelled by the positive rod.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 122

 ➢ The opposite is also true. If we approach a negatively charged rod
near the sphere, it will also attract the sphere, as the rod will
repel the electrons away from it, so the near part of the sphere
will be positive and it will be attracted to the negative rod.

Hint: Both sides of the ball has equal charges, but in opposite signs.

➢ When we remove the rod, the sphere will become neutral again
→ So this is called temporary charging.

How to make the sphere permanently charged, even after

removing the charged rod?
As explained above, when the charged rod (+ve or –ve) is near the sphere, the rod
becomes temporarily charged (Polarization). Now connect the sphere to the Earth
by a wire or by touching it with your finger. The part of the sphere that you will
touch will try to become neutral (as any charged object has a tendency to
become neutral) by gaining or losing electrons from your finger or the wire. So it
will become permanently charged.

In reality protons never move, but it’s accepted to draw it this

way for simplicity.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 123

 Or by using your finger instead of the wire:

Another Example:

Hint: You must remove your finger (Or the wire) before getting the rod
away from the sphere. If you remove the rod first, the sphere will
return neutral again!! (Back flow of electrons)

Hint: Charging by induction is applicable with electrical conductors

only, as it relies on the motion of free electrons.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 124

Example:

We know that oppositely charged spheres will attract and like charges
will repel, but what about a charged and uncharged spheres if
approached together?? … They will attract.

Electric Fields:
Any charged body produces an electric field in the region around it. It is
defined as the region where any charge experiences a force (Attractive
or repulsive).

➢ This electric field is represented by lines.

➢ The positively charged object will have arrows coming out of it,
while the negatively charged object will have the arrows coming
towards it.

➢ The Direction of the arrows show the direction of the force on

any positive (+ve) charged object if it enters this region.

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 ➢ The spacing between the lines shows the strength of the electric
field. The smaller the spacing between the lines, the stronger the
field, so larger force is exerted on any charge in this field.

Interaction of two electric fields:

Electric field of two charged

spheres Electric field of two charged parallel
plates or Rods

Hint: Electric field strength is a vector (it has direction).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 126

Electric Circuits
Each electric component has its own
symbol that is used in drawing the
circuit. This symbol is different from the
real shape of the component.

The main source of electricity in a circuit is the battery:

In the shown circuit, the bulb lights up because the battery drives
charges (electrons) through it. How does this happen???

➢ Electrons gain electric energy

from the battery and then
move from the negative pole
of the battery to the positive
pole. This energy is used when
electrons pass through the
bulb and are transformed to
light and heat energy waste.

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Electric Current (I): It is produced due to the motion of charges
(electrons)
When a battery is connected to a circuit, the electrons move
from the negative pole to the positive pole, while the current
moves in the opposite direction → This is called “Conventional
Current Direction” from the positive to the negative pole.

➢ Current cannot flow in a circuit if it is opened!!

Electric Quantities:
1- Electric Current Intensity (I):
It is the rate of flow of charge or the amount of charge (Q) that flows
through a conductor (Ex: Lamp or resistor or any component) in one
Second. Its unit is Ampere (A).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 128

 2- Electromotive Force (e.m.f.):
It is the amount of electrical energy gained by one Coulomb of charge
in a battery to flow around the whole circuit.

Or: It is the work done by the source in moving a charge around the
whole circuit.

➢ It is measured in Volts (V)

𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
➢ 1 Volt =
𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
➢ e.m.f. of the battery is constant, whatever the components of the
circuit, then it starts running out by time while the circuit is
working.

3- Potential Difference (V):

It is the amount of electrical energy lost by one Coulomb of charge to
flow across a conductor (any element in the circuit).

Or: It is the work done by the charge passing through an electrical

component
Energy or WD
➢ Sometimes it is called Voltage drop Emf/pd= Charge
➢ It is measured in Volts (V)

Electrons

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 4- Resistance:
The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the
difficulty to pass the electric current through that conductor.

➢ It is measured in ohms (Ω)

➢ Symbol of a resistor:

Definition of Resistance:
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑉) 𝑽
Resistance (ohms Ω) = or R =
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴) 𝑰

Resistance (R) and Current (I) are

inversely proportional, for constant
Voltage (V)

As Resistance Increases the current

allowed to pass decreases

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 Ohm’s Law:
Ohm’s law states that Current and Voltage are directly proportional for
constant resistance.

The graph is a straight line passing through

the origin, so they are directly proportional.

The slope of the line is the resistance

- So this device has constant resistance.

Ohmic Resistor

Ex: Which line represents a resistor with a higher value of

resistance?

Mr. Hussein Khaled 131

Some common electrical devices:
1- Ammeter

➢ It is used to measure the current intensity (I).

➢ Units : Amperes (A)
➢ It is connected in series to the object that we need to measure its
current.

Measuring the current in one Measuring the current in each of

resistor the two resistors

➢ Ammeters have very small/ negligible resistance, that

doesn’t affect the circuit.

2- Voltmeter:

➢ It is used to measure the potential difference / e.m.f

➢ Its unit is Volts (V)
➢ It is connected in parallel to the object that we need to measure
its voltage.
➢ It has very high resistance to prevent the current from passing
through it, instead of the main component.

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 3- Bulb / Lamp:

➢ It is characterized by its Power and Voltage.

➢ Ex: a bulb with Power = 100 W and Voltage = 220 V
As the Volt increases, the power increases, so the
Brightness increases.
➢ As the current passes through the filament lamp its wire heats up
until it glows and produces light.

Experiment: Design an experiment to determine the value of

the resistance of a fixed resistor.
➢ Connect the circuit as shown

➢ Record the readings of the voltmeter and the

ammeter.
𝑉
➢ Calculate the value of the resistance R =
𝐼
➢ Change the value of the e.m.f by changing the
battery, and record the new values of V, I and R.

Conclusion:
➢ The value of the resistance is constant
➢ V and I are directly proportional → Ohm’s Law (Ohmic Resistor)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 133

Hints:
➢ Make sure you are working at constant temperature, as changing
the temperature will change the resistance.
➢ We can use variable battery instead of changing the
battery

Factors affecting the resistance of a wire:

a- Length of the wire (L)
➢ R is directly proportional to L

As L increases → R increases
As L decreases → R decreases

b- Cross-sectional area of the wire (A) or the Diameter (D):

➢ R is inversely proportional to A

As A increases → R decreases
As A decreases → R increases

𝒅𝟐
A=𝜫𝒓 =𝜫 𝟐
𝟒
Hint: R is inversely proportional to A, so R is inversely
proportional to 𝑟 2 or 𝑑 2 .

Mr. Hussein Khaled 134

Example: what will happen to the resistance if:
1- Area is doubled → R will be halved.
2- Radius in doubled → R will be quartered.
3- Diameter is doubled → R will be quartered.

c- Temperature:

➢ For Metals: (Ex: Filament bulb)

When the temperature of a conductor / wire increases, its
resistance increases.

Example: in filament lamp, as it works for a period of time its

temperature starts increasing, so the resistance increases.

The Slope of the “V-I” graph = Resistance.

➢ Here the slope is increasing so the

resistance is increasing.
➢ We can say that as V increases, R
increases.

Hint: Look at the difference between this graph and the graph of
ohm’s law of the Ohmic resistor (it’s a straight line directly
proportional).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 135

 ➢ For Non-metals: (ex: graphite or semi-conductors as Silicon)

When the temperature increases, the resistance decreases.

The Slope of the “V-I” graph = Resistance.

➢ Here the slope is decreasing so the

resistance is decreasing

Example: IF we have two Wires A and B made of the same

material. Resistance of Wire A is 8 Ω. Find the resistance of
Wire B if:
a- Wire A has double the area of wire B, but same length. R = 16 Ω

b- Wire A has double the diameter of Wire B, but same length R =32 Ω

c- Wire A has double the length, but same thickness/area of Wire B R = 4 Ω

d- Wire A has double the area and double the length of Wire B. R=8Ω

General Rule for Resistance:

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 Series Vs Parallel Connections
Resistors or any electric components can be connected
either in Series or in Parallel in the circuit.

Two Lamps in Series Two Lamps in Parallel

Two Resistors in Series Two Resistors in Parallel

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 1-Series Circuits:

a- The total current (It) coming out of the battery is constant

and has the same value anywhere in the circuit, so all the
components in the circuit have the same current.
It = I1 = I2
b- The emf (voltage) of the battery is divided among all the
components in the circuit.

emf = V1 + V2
If we need to calculate the value of each voltage (V1 and V2).

o V1 = I . R1
o V2 = I . R2
Hint:
➢ For Resistor R1, as its value of resistance increases the
value its Voltage (V1) increases, as it becomes stronger
and can take larger portion of the emf.

➢ So the larger the resistance, the more volt it gets in series

connection.

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 c- Total resistance (Rt) = R1 + R2 + R3 +R4 + …

Total Resistance= 3+5+6=14Ω

The Poles of the lamps in Series:

The Positive Pole of the battery has to be

connected to the positive pole of each
component in the circuit.

Example 1:
emf = 18 V
R1= 6 Ω , R2 = 3 Ω
Find:
a- R total
b- I total
c- V1 and V2

Mr. Hussein Khaled 139

Solution:
a- R total = 6 +3 = 9 Ω
𝑉 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 18
b- I total = 𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 9
= 2 A (I has the same value for all components)
c- V 1 = I X R1 = 2X6 = 12 V

V 2 = I X R2 = 2X3 = 6 V
Check: V total (emf) = V1 + V2
18 = 12 + 6

Example 2:
emf = 24 V
R1= 5 Ω

I total = 2 A
Find: R2

Solution: Another Solution:

𝑉 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (𝑒𝑚𝑓) 24
R total = = = 12 Ω Emf = V1 + V2
I 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 2

R total = R1 + R2 Emf = It X R1 + It X R2

12 = 5 + R2 → R2 = 7 Ω 24 = 2 X 5 + 2 X R2 → R2 = 7 Ω

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Example 3:
Ammeter Reading = 0.5 A (I total)
R1 = 8
R2 = 16
Find the emf of the battery.

Solution:

Emf = V1 + V2 and It = I1 = I2
Emf = I1 X R1 + I2 X R2 = 0.5 X 8+ 0.5 X 16 = 12 V

Example 4:

There are three identical lamps in this

circuit, Calculate the following:
a- R1, R2 and R3
b- R total
c- Which Lamp will be the brightest?
d- If the resistance of lamp 1 increases to 15 Ω, what will
happen to lamps 1, 2 and 3 ?

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Solution:
𝑉
a- Use the rule R = 𝐼
3
R1 = 0.5 = 6 Ω
5
R2 = 0.5 = 10 Ω
4
R3 = 0.5 = 8 Ω
b- R total = R1 + R2 + R3 = 6+10+8 = 24 Ω
c- The brightest lamp is the one with the highest voltage
→ Lamp 2
d- If the resistance of lamp 1 increases to 15 Ω, it will get
more Volt, so it will become brighter, while the
other two lamps will become dimmer as their
voltage will decrease.

2-Parallel Circuits:

a- The total current coming out of

the battery (It) is divided among
the branches (resistors in parallel)
It = I1 + I2

Hint: the branch with higher resistance will have Lower Current!

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 b- The potentoial difference (Voltage) has the same value
for all the components in parallel
Emf = V1 = V2

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠′ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

c- Total Resistance (Rt) =
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 ′ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
→ this rule is used if we have two resistors only
If we have more than two resistors:
1 1 1
𝑅𝑡 = ( + + + … )−1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
Hints:
- R total is not the sum of resistors as we do in Series !!
- The R total of all resistors in parallel should be less than
the least individual resistor.

The Poles of the lamps in Parallel:

The Positive Pole of the battery has to be

connected to the positive pole of each component
in the circuit.

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Example 1:
Emf = 6V

R1 = 6 Ω

R2 = 3 Ω

Find: I1, I2, It and Rtotal

Solution:

To get the values of currents I1 and I2, we have to know the voltage
of the lamps→ as they are in parallel with the battery so they have the
same voltage of the battery. V1 = V2 = 6V
𝑽𝟏 𝟔 𝑽𝟐 𝟔
➔ I1 = = =1𝐴 → I2 = = =2𝐴
𝑹𝟏 𝟔 𝑹𝟐 𝟑
➔ It = I1 + I2 = 1+2 = 3A
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝟔 𝑿 𝟑
➔ R total = = =2Ω
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝟔+𝟑

Example 2:

Emf = 20 V R1 = 5 Ω

It = 5 A

Find: I1, I2, R2 and Rtotal

Mr. Hussein Khaled 144

Solution:

a- The voltage is constant as they are in parallel, so Lamp 1 has

Voltage = 20 V
I1 = 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝟏 𝟐𝟎
= =4𝐴
𝟓

b- It = I1 + I2
5 = 4 + I2 → I2 = 1 A

𝑽𝟐 𝟐𝟎
c- R2 = = = 20 Ω
𝐈2 𝟏

𝑽𝒕 𝟐𝟎
d- Rt = = = 4Ω
𝐈t 𝟓

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝟓 𝑿 𝟐𝟎
or using the rule R total = = = 4Ω
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝟓+𝟐𝟎

Example 3:

I1 = 3 A
I2 = 2 A
R1 = 4 Ω

Find: emf, R2 and It

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Solution:

a- V1 = I1 X R1 = 3 X 4 = 12V → as they are in parallel so

emf = V1 = V2= 12 V
𝑽𝟐 𝟏𝟐
b- R2 = = =6Ω
𝐈2 𝟐
c- It = I1 + I2 = 3 + 2 = 5 A

Example 4:

Find: I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5

Solution: all resistors are in parallel, so they all have the same
value of voltage as the battery = 12V
𝑽
Then use the rule I = 𝑹
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
I2 = 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐
=6𝐴
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
I3 = 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟒
=4𝐴
𝑽 𝟏𝟐
I4 = 𝑹𝟒 = 𝟒
=3𝐴

I1= I5 = I2+ I3+ I4 = 6+4+3 = 13 A

Mr. Hussein Khaled 146

 Example 5: Find the resistance of the following circuits:

First get the total of R1 and R2 =

First get 8+4 = 12 𝛀 𝑹𝟏 𝑿 𝑹𝟐
𝟏𝟐𝑿𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
Then 𝑹𝒕 = =6𝛀
𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐
Then get the total of R3 and R4 =
𝑹𝟑 𝑿 𝑹𝟑
𝑹𝟑+𝑹𝟒

Then add the two values

𝟐𝑿𝟏
→𝑹𝒕 = + 𝟒 + 𝟔 = 10.7 Ω
𝟐+𝟏

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑹𝒕 𝟏𝟓 𝟑 𝟕
First get 8+4 = 12 𝛀
𝟏𝟐𝑿𝟏𝟐
Rt = 1.84 𝛀
𝑹 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒍
ThenMr. =
Hussein Khaled =6𝛀
𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐

Then Rt = 6 + 6 = 12 𝛀 147
 Series Circuits Vs Parallel Circuits:

1- In Parallel Circuits, each device can be switched On or Off

independently if we put a switch beside each lamp, while in Series
they are dependent (they are all controlled by one switch).
2- In parallel Circuits each component will be supplied with the main
value of the voltage (Voltage will not be divided as in Series
connections).
3- In Parallel Circuits, if any Lamp is faulted (broke down), the rest of
the circuit will work normally (Independently), While in Series
Circuits all the lamps will be switched off.
4- However in parallel connection, the battery runs out quickly.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 148

Example:
Which Lamps will light up if:
a) Lamp A fails → None
b) Lamp B fails →A and C
c) Lamp C fails → A, B and D

Power
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
We already Know: Power = (Watt)
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

In electricity we have more rules for Power:

P=IXV
or P = I 2 X R
V2
or P =
𝑅

We can use any one of them as they all give the same result !!

Then to calculate the Energy consumed = Power x Time

Mr. Hussein Khaled 149

Units of Energy:
If the power of a device = 1 KW, and it’s working for 1 hour.
Calculate the energy:
E = P x T = 1000 W x (60x60) sec = 3600,000 J
Or E = P x T = 1 KW x 1 hour = 1 KWh.
1 KWh = 3600,000 (3.6 x106) J
* Kilowatt- hour (kwh) : it`s the energy transfered in 1 hour
at rate of 1 kw.
Cost of electricity:
A student is checking his electricity bill for a 2 months period. The
meter start was 2431 KWh and at the end it was 2782 KWh. Electricity
costs 14 p per unit (KWh). What is the electricity bill amount?

Cost = 2782 – 2431 = 351 KWh x 14

= 4914 piasters = 49.14 pounds

Challenging Example:
Find: a) The total Resistance in
the circuit
b) the Resistance of the lamp.
c) the Power consumed by the Lamp and
d) The energy consumed by the Lamp in 20 mins.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 150

Solution:
𝑉𝑡 20
a- Rt = 𝐼𝑡 = = 10 𝛺
2
12 𝑋 𝑅 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝
b- Rt = 3 + 4 + = 10 → get R lamp = 4 𝛺
12+𝑅 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝
V2
c- Power of Lamp = (we can use any one of the three rules)
𝑅

The emf of the battery is divided among the three Series components,
which are:

The voltage of the 3 𝛺 resistor = I X R = 2 x 3 = 6 V

The voltage of the 4 𝛺 resistor = I X R = 2 x 4 = 8 V

The remaining voltage for the lamp and the 12 𝛺 resistor = 20 – (6+8) =
V2 62
6 V → Power of Lamp = = =9W
𝑅 4

d- Energy = Power X Time = 9 X (20x60) = 10800 J

How to control the current in the circuit (How to control

the Brightness of a lamp)?
1- Variable Resistor (Rheostat):
It is used to vary the resistance in the circuit, so
the current is varies, so the brightness of the
lamps in the circuit varies.

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 ➢ Variable resistors are connected in Series to the
lamp that we need to control its brightness.

Example: If we need to control the brightness of the lamp in the

following figure, we connect a variable resistor in series to it as shown.

Slider

➢ As the slider moves from “a“→ “c”, the resistance increase, as the
length of the resistance inside the circuit increases. As the
resistance increases, the current in the circuit will decrease, so the
lamp will become dimmer.
➢ Moving the slider towards “a” decreases the resistance. So the
total current in the circuit increases, so the lamp will light
brighter.

Or we can just draw it this way →

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 Example: Explain why the following lamps have different brightness?

Variable
Resistor

Lamp

Explanation: as the resistance of the variable resistor increases the

current in the circuit decreases (as they are inversely proportional), so
the brightness of the lamp decreases.

2- Potential Divider
It is a circuit where the main voltage (emf) of the supply is
divided among two resistors according to their resistances.
a- Fixed Potential Divider:

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 • If we have R1 = R2 → so the voltage of the
battery will be divided equally among the
𝑒𝑚𝑓
two resistors. (V1=V2= )
2

• If R1>R2 → The Voltage of R1 will be higher

than the Voltage of R2 (V1>V2)

• If R2>R1 → The Voltage of R2 will be higher

than the Voltage of R1 (V2>V1)

Important Hint: The larger resistor takes more voltage. To

make the lamp brighter connect it parallel to the larger
resistor to get higher volt, so higher current.

Potential divider equation:

𝑅1 𝑉1 𝑅1 𝑉1
= or =
𝑅2 𝑉2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

* Symbol :

Mr. Hussein Khaled 154

Ex: Calculate the Pd (Volt) of
each resistor:

Answer:
𝑽𝟏 = 9V
𝑽𝟐 = 3V
𝑽𝟑 = 1.5V
𝑽𝟒 = 1.5V
𝑽𝟓 = 6V

b- Variable Potential Divider

(Potentiometer):
The output Voltage (Vout) is proportional
to the distance between “a” and the
slider/pointer “b”.
• As the pointer moves towards “c”, the distance a→b (Shaded
Part) increases, so the Vout increases.
• As the pointer moves towards “a”, the distance a→b (Shaded
Part) decreases, so the Vout decreases.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 155

Example:
• If the pointer K is at the middle, both
lamps will have the same voltage.
• If we move the pointer towards X, Lamp
L2 will be in parallel to more resistance so
it will brighter.
• If we move the pointer towards Y, Lamp L1 will be in parallel to
more resistance so it will brighter.

Fuse, Circuit breaker and Trip switch:

If the current passing through a wire or a device increases and exceeds
a certain limit, it can cause:

- Overheating and Melting the wires

- Emit poisonous fumes
- Damage the equipment
- Cause firing.

So we have to protect the circuit from overheating due to excessive

current.

This is done through Fuse, Circuit Breaker or trip switch:

The Fuse:
It consists of a short length of thin wire that melts if the current
intensity exceeded a certain value → So the whole circuit will be
switched off to protect the components in the circuit.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 156

Example: If a metal wire can withstand maximum current of 8 A afterwards
it melts, we should connect it to a fuse with rating 8A or less. But if we
connect it to a fuse with rating 10A, it will be useless and it will not protect
the wire, which can lead to melting the wires and firing.

Circuit breaker:
It does the same job of the fuse, through the use of
an electromagnet that opens the switch in the circuit
if the current exceeds a certain value to protect the
wire and the devices.

Trip switch:

It applies the same concept, by cutting off the electricity when the
current exceeds a certain value, relying on the concept of overheating.

We have two types multiplug

adaptors. The multi-way is more
safe than the block adaptor as the
multi-way has a fuse attached to it.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 157

 House (Mains) Electricity:

➢ The Live cable is the source of electricity (220 V)

➢ The Neutral cable is used to close the circuit (0V)
➢ Earth cable is connected to the outer casing of the device.
➢ If the casing is made of insulating material like plastic,
the Earth cable is not needed.
➢ Also, if the electric circuit is double insulated, the Earth
cable is not needed.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 158

How the Earthing works:

• Devices with metal casing as tumble dryer are usually earthed by

having the earth wire connected to their metal case as shown.
• Normally the current flows between the Live and Neutral wires
through the dryer.
• The metal case is at 0 V and is safe to touch.
Hint: If the Live wire touches the casing, the casing will become Live (220V).
Hazards of Mains electricity:
1- Overheating can lead to fires, emitting poisonous fumes or
damaging the equipment:
• We can avoid it using a fuse attached to the Live Wire.
2- Electric Shocks, we can avoid it by:
• Never using the devices in damp conditions
• Wires to be well insulated (avoid exposed wires)
• Using the Earth cable connected to the metal casing.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 159

 Direct Current VS Alternating Current
Direct Current (dc) Alternating Current (ac)
The current in one direction The direction of the current
only. changes each cycle.
The poles of the battery are The poles of the battery are
fixed. reversed each cycle.

Then

Example: Batteries, Fuel cells, Example: The House Mains

or solar cells electricity

DC AC

Mr. Hussein Khaled 160

Diode (Rectifier):
It is used in Rectification, which is the process of
converting “ac” current (or voltage) to “dc”
current (or voltage).

• It allows the current to pass in one

direction only (the forward direction),
as it conducts electricity in one
direction.
• If it is connected in the reverse
(opposite) direction it will not allow the
current to pass.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 161

How the Diode works:

Rectified Current

Hint: There are some diodes that give out light when current
passes through them; these are called Light Emitting Diodes (LED).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 162

Bridge Rectifier:
The traditional diode shown above makes half wave
rectification as shown. If we need to make full rectification, we
use Bridge Rectifier.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 163

Thermistor:
It is a resistor that changes its resistance
with the change in temperature.

As T increases → R decreases

As T decreases → R increases

Temperature and Resistance are inversely proportional.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR):

It is a resistor that changes its

resistance with the change in light
intensity (brightness).

As Light increases→ R decreases

As Light decreases→ R increases

Light and Resistance are inversely proportional.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 164

Example:
If we have this circuit shown and we have a
lamp. Shall we connect the lamp in parallel
to the LDR or the Resistor (R), such that
when the light in the room goes off, the
lamp will light up.

Solution:
We have to connect the lamp in parallel to
the LDR, such that when the light in the
room goes off, the resistance of the LDR will
increase, so it will take larger voltage and so
the lamp will get more volt to light up.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 165

 Magnetism
Magnets have different shapes:
• Bar magnets

• Horse shoe magnets

Any magnet has two poles: North and South

➢ Not any metal can be attracted by a magnet. Magnets can attract
four types of metals only (Magnetic/Ferrous materials):
• Iron
• Steel
• Cobalt
• Nickel

Hint: Aluminum, copper and brass are metals but non-magnetic substances
(can’t be attracted by a magnet and can’t do a magnet of these materials).

How to test the polarity of the magnet?

1- Suspend the magnet freely using a string, its North Pole will point
towards the North Hemisphere of the Earth.

2- by repulsion with the same pole of another magnet.

3- Using a compass, the compass will point at the South Pole of the magnet.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 166

The Compass is a magnet with a pivot to rotate freely.

❖ Like Poles Repel, while unlike poles attract:

➢ Magnetic Forces are non-contact forces → they can apply

force on each other without touching.

This is called “magnetizing by induction”: The iron bar becomes

magnetized when placed in a magnetic field.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 167

Magnetic Field:
Any magnet produces a magnetic field, which is a region around the
magnet where any magnetic substance (ex: iron or steel) that is present
in this region will experience a force.

Direction of the magnetic Field (Flux Lines):

This figure shows the shape of the magnetic field lines and their
directions.

Magnetic field: It’s the region around the magnet or electric current in
which a megnetic pole experiences a force.

Direction of arrows: It’s the direction of the force on the N-pole.

➢ It is always directed from the N-pole to the S-pole

➢ If we put a compass anywhere in the magnetic field, its arrow will
be directed with the magnetic field lines.

Hint: what is the direction of the Magnetic Field?

➢ It is the direction of force on a North Pole in the field.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 168

Strength of the Magnetic Field:
➢ The spacing between the field lines shows how strong is
the field.
➢ The closer the lines to each other the stronger the field.
➢ As we come closer to the magnet, the spacing decreases.
➢ There is no magnetic field lines inside the magnet itself.
To know the magnetic field lines (flux) look like, we can use a piece of
paper and some iron filings. Then shake the paper with the iron filings
gently above the magnet. We can get the following shape.

Now we know the shape of the

magnetic field lines, but we don’t know
the directions of the arrows. We can get
the directions using compass.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 169

What is the shape of the magnetic field for a horse shoe
magnet?

It is also directed from N-pole to S-pole. →

Sources of Magnetic Fields:

1- The Earth
2- Permanent Magnets
3- Flow of charge ( Ex: flowing current in a wire)

1- The Earth:
➢ A compass needle experiences deflection due to magnetic field
caused by the Earth
➢ If the needle or any magnet is suspended freely without the effect
of any external magnetic field its N-pole will point towards the
North Hemisphere of the Earth.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 170

 Inner Magnet of
the Earth

The North Hemisphere represents the South Magnetic Pole, while the
South Hemisphere represents the North Magnetic Pole.

2- Permanent Magnets:
When a magnetic substance (Ex: Iron or Steel) is placed in a magnetic
field, it becomes magnetized. This is called magnetization by induction.
It is a poor way of magnetization.

Comparison between Iron and Steel:

If we get a rod of iron and another of steel (they

are not magnetized and not attracting iron filings)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 171

When both rods are approached near a permanent magnet, they
become magnetized (by induction). However, Iron rod will attract more
iron filings.

When the permanent magnet is removed, the iron rod will return to be
demagnetized. While the steel rod will still be magnetized for a while
and it will still hold some iron filings. Thus we can conclude the
following:

➢ Iron (Soft Magnetic Material) is easily magnetized and easily

demagnetized, while steel (Hard Magnetic Material) is hardly
magnetized and hardly demagnetized.
➢ We can make permanent magnets out of steel only and not iron!!

Note: The directions of the poles of the magnetized steel or iron

depends on the poles of the main permanent magnet (as shown in the
figure above).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 172

 3- Flow of charge/ Current in a wire:
Any current flowing in a wire will produce a magnetic field. This
wire can be:
a- Straight wire
b- Solenoid (Coiled wire)

a- Straight wire:
The magnetic field lines (Flux lines) will be concentric circles
and the spacing between the circles increase as we move
away from the wire as the magnetic field becomes weaker.
Knowing that the wire is the center of the circles.

The direction of the magnetic field depends on the direction of

the current. We can know it using the “Right Hand Grip Rule”.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 173

Put the thumb of your right hand in the
direction of the current, you will find the
rest of your fingers pointing towards the
direction of the magnetic field circles.
Example: Try the following directions of
currents and find the Magnetic field directions.

Hint: Increasing the current will increase the strength of the magnetic
field.

Example: Get the direction of the magnetic field for the part “a b” of
the wire.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 174

 b- Solenoid (Coiled wire):
If we have a coil connected to a battery, it will make a
magnetic field stronger than a straight wire.

N S

➢ Outside the solenoid: the magnetic field lines are similar to

that of a bar magnet (from N → S)
➢ Inside the solenoid: The magnetic field lines are parallel,
equally spaced and directed (from S→N)

Hint: reversing the direction of the current will reverse the poles of the
magnet and thus reversing the direction of magnetic field.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 175

We can get the direction of the North and South of the solenoid using
the “Right Hand Grip Rule”. By pointing the 4 fingers (other than the
thumb) of your right hand in the direction of the current in the
solenoid, then you will find the thumb pointing towards the N-pole.

How to increase the strength of the magnetic field of a Solenoid:

1- Increase the current intensity (by using battery with larger emf)
2- Increase the number of turns of the coil
3- Pushing the turns closer (reduce spacing)
4- Insert a ferrous core (a core made of iron or steel)
• Iron is preferred as it is easily magnetized and
demagnetized, while steel will be magnetized permanently.

Hint: For Electromagnets we use iron

core not Steel core.
- To be easily magnetized and demagnetized.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 176

Applications of electromagnet:
➢ Electric Bell:
When the switch is closed, the circuit is completed and the
current flows. The solenoid becomes magnetized and hence attracts
the soft-iron armature and at the same time pulls the hammer to strike
the gong.

When the hammer moves towards the gong, the contact opens,
so the current stops flowing and the solenoid loses its magnetism, so it
releases the armature to return back to its original place to close the
circuit again and repeat the operation continuously.

Contact

➢ Carrying Cars or heavy iron Scrap:

Mr. Hussein Khaled 177

 Methods of Magnetization:
1- Stroking:
➢ In the same direction
➢ Using the same pole of magnet
➢ Repeatedly

2- Electrical Method:
➢ By inserting the steel bar inside the
solenoid, then allow Direct Current
(d.c.) current to flow.
➢ The current in the solenoid will
produce magnetic field, which will
DC supply
magnetize the steel bar.
➢ Leave it for a while to be magnetized

Or: you can just place the steel bar parallel to a strong magnetic field, the steel bar will
become magnetized.

Methods of Demagnetization:
1- Heating till red
2- Hammering repeatedly.

The magnet should be in East-West direction

while demagnetization.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 178

 3- Put the magnet in a solenoid connected to Alternating
Current (a.c.) supply, this will produce alternating
magnetic field. Then pull the magnet slowly out of the
solenoid or reduce the current gradually to Zero to make
sure the magnet is totally demagnetized.

Electromagnetic Forces
(Forces experienced by Current in Magnetic Fields)
Here we have three factors to be considered:
1- Force (Motion)
2- Moving Charge (Current)
3- Magnetic Field (caused by a magnet)
Combining the Current with the Magnetic field Perpendicularly
can result in Motion … as stated by “Fleming”

Current + Magnetic Field → Motion (Force)

I + M = F

Mr. Hussein Khaled 179

Why this happens??
This motion is due to the
interaction between two
magnetic fields. The one caused
by the current and the other one
caused by the magnet.

How to increase the value of this force or the speed of the

resulting motion?
1- By increasing the current in the wire
2- By increasing the strength of the magnetic field (Stronger
Magnet)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 180

How to determine the direction of the resulting motion?
➢ Using “Fleming’s Left Hand Rule”

M + I = F

Hint: Current and Magnetic Field have to be Perpendicular!!

Thumb → Force (Motion)

First Finger → Magnetic Field
Second Finger → Current

Example: Find the direction of motion (Force) of the part of the

circuit inside the magnet.
a-

Force: out of the page

Mr. Hussein Khaled 181

 b-

Force: Downwards

Example: How the wire in the magnetic field will move?

Force: towards the Right

Hints:
If we have a positive charge moving inside a magnetic field it will
experience a force like that of the current.

If we have a negative charge moving inside a magnetic field it will

experience a force opposite to that of the current.

If we have a positive or negative charge stationary inside a magnetic

field, it will not experience a force as it is not moving.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 182

If we have a wire with a current as shown in the following figure in
“Case a” and this wire is put inside a magnetic field as shown, it will
experience an upwards force.

➢ If we reverse the direction of the current only, the direction

of the force will be reversed (as shown in “Case b”).
➢ If we reverse the direction of the Magnetic Field only, the
direction of the force will be reversed.
➢ If we change both the directions of the current and
the Magnetic Field, the direction of the force will not
change and will stay the same as it is!!

Example:
How the
part of the circuit inside the magnetic field will move?

I
Force: It will not move,
because the direction of
current is parallel to the
magnetic field.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 183

What is the application of this Phenomenon?
➢ DC Motor
- It is a device that converts Electric energy to Kinetic energy.
- It applies Fleming’s Left hand rule
- Electricity (current) + Magnetic Field → Motion (Kinetic energy)

The concept of the DC motor:

- First, the circuit is horizontal and there is no current in the
circuit as the switch is opened so there will be no motion.
- Once the current from the battery starts flowing, the two sides
of the circuit (coil) will experience two forces in opposite
directions, so the coil will start rotation (experiences Moment).
- When the circuit is vertical, there will be no contact with the
split rings, so there is no current in the circuit at this moment,
which means that there is no force to push the coil at this
instant. However the circuit will continue rotation by inertia
(or as it has Momentum).

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Function of the Split rings commutator:
The brushes exchange the split rings each half
rotation, so this allows reversing the direction of
the current in the coil (circuit) every half rotation, to
keep the coil rotating in the same direction.

The split rings reverse the direction of the current when the plane of
the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field. (when the coil is vertical)

Function of the carbon/graphite brushes:

It connects delivers the current between the battery and the commutator. It
is fixed to the battery, while the commutator slides over it.

How to increase the speed of rotation:

1- Use stronger magnet
2- Increase the number of turns/ coils
3- Increase the current intensity (I)
o Either by increasing the emf of the battery (stronger
battery)
o Or by decreasing the resistance of the circuit

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Example: If we have a positively charged particle moving to the right as
shown in the figure towards a magnetic field. How will it move
afterwards??

But, If it is a negative charge, it will move downwards.

Hint: Electromagnetic force (M + I = F) is used in loudspeakers. As the
electric signals coming from the microphone (I) interact with the magnet
inside a loudspeaker (M), so the cone vibrates (F) to produce a sound.

Electromagnetic induction
If we Move a wire (Force) inside a Magnetic Field perpendicularly →The
result will be a Current/emf.

Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon in which “emf” is induced

in a wire when this wire cuts through a magnetic field.

Magnetic Field + Motion → Current

Galvanometer is a sensitive
Ammeter

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Experiment:

Get a wire connected to an ammeter and put it between the two poles
of a magnet as shown in figure.

• If the wire is stationary → the Ammeter will read Zero

• If the wire moves it cuts through the magnetic field → so the
Ammeter will deflect (give a reading)
o The reading is maximum if the motion of the wire is
perpendicular to the magnetic field (up or down)
o The reading is Zero if the motion is parallel to the
magnetic field (right or left)

How to increase the value of the emf or current induced?

• Use stronger magnet (or push the magnets closer)

• Move the wire faster
• Increase the length of the wire inside the magnetic field

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 Hint: If we move both wires, the left hand side Ammeter
will give larger reading (due to higher rate of cutting of
magnetic field lines)

Direction of current: We Can determine the direction of the

induced current using the “Right Hand Fleming’s Rule”.

Use your Right hand:

Thumb → Motion (Force)

First Finer → Magnetic Field

Second Finger → Current (Output)

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Experiment:
Bring a wire connected to an Ammeter as
shown in the figure, then make a coil/ solenoid
out of it and bring a magnet as shown in the
figure.

• If the magnet and the coil are stationary → No current is produced

• If the magnet moves (towards or away from the coil) → the Ammeter
will give a reading
o When the direction of motion is reversed, the direction of
current produced is also reversed.
• If the coil moves (towards or away from the magnet) → the Ammeter
will give a reading
• If both the coil and the magnet move in the same direction with the
same speed → No current is produced (because there is no cutting in
the magnetic field).

The Ammeter will give a higher reading by:

• Using a stronger magnet

• Moving the magnet or the wire faster
• Increase the number of turns in the coil
How to change the direction of current:

• By reversing the direction of motion

• By reversing the poles of the magnet

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 How to get the direction of the induced current in this case?
Lenz’s law: The induced current will produce magnetic field to oppose the main
motion causing it.

a) If we are pushing the magnet towards the coil → it will make the
same pole as the approaching pole of the magnet to oppose the
motion (to push the magnet away).
b) If we are pushing the magnet away from the coil → it will make an
opposite pole to the near pole of the magnet to oppose the
motion (to attract the magnet).

If we know the poles, we can get the direction of the current

easily using the Right Hand Grip Rule.

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 Applications of Electromagnetic Induction:
AC Generator:
It is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to convert Kinetic
energy to Electric energy.

Magnetic Field + Motion (Force) → Current/emf

• A magnet is used to produce the magnetic field
• A turbine is used to rotate the coil around its axis to cut the
magnetic field to produce current

Slip Rings and fixed Carbon Brushes are used to deliver the induced
current to another external circuit without twisting wires.

Explain how the generator works?

- As the coil rotates, it cuts through the magnetic field lines,

so it experiences changing magnetic field.
- So EMF is induced, which changes its direction every half
turn.
- And the slip rings allow the circuit to be connected
without the risk of wires tangling.

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How to increase the induced current or emf?
1- Use stronger magnet
2- Increase the number of coils
3- Increase the speed of the turbine (speed of rotation)
o Increasing the speed of rotation will increase the value of
current and the frequency.

The output of the ac generator is always A.C. current/emf as

the circuit is rotating in the same direction.

The Maximum current produced is when the circuit is in Horizontal

position (maximum rate of cutting of magnetic field lines) and
Minimum (Zero) when it is in Vertical position (No cutting of
magnetic field lines).

Hint: as the speed of rotation increase, the frequency increases

and the value of induced emf increase.

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192
 Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device which makes use of
electromagnetic induction to transmit electrical power from
one circuit (Primary circuit) to another (Secondary circuit).

How does the Transformer Work?

1- Primary Coil: The ac current at the primary coil will produce
alternating magnetic field.

2- Iron Core: it becomes magnetized in alternating directions, so

Magnetic Field is transmitted from the Primary to the Secondary Coils.

➢ It acts as a magnetic link between the Primary and the Secondary

coils, but it doesn’t conduct electricity.

3- Secondary Coil: emf is induced across the terminals of the secondary

coil because there is a wire cutting through a changing magnetic field
coming out of the primary coil.

Hint: Transformers work by ac only, if we connect a dc power supply,

the output will be Zero at the secondary coil.

➢ Power Loss from the transformer can occur as heat from the coils
or Magnetic Leakage from the core.

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There are two types of Transformers:
• Step Up: increases the voltage at the secondary coil.
• Step Down: decreases the voltage at the secondary coil.

Relation between Voltage (V) and the Number of Turns (N):

➢ if Ns > NP --→ Vs > Vp --→ Step Up

➢ if Ns < NP --→ Vs < Vp --→ Step Down

Assumption: The Transformer is 100% Efficient.

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 Relation between Current and Voltage:
Power is constant in the Primary and Secondary coils

Pp = Ps
And we know P = I V

Ip Vp = Is Vs
So if we increase the Voltage, the current will decrease (Step Up)
If we decrease the Voltage, the current will increase (Step Down)

Example:
A transformer supplies 6V to an
external circuit with resistance
R=12Ω, Ns= 10 turns, Vp= 120 V

Find: Np, Is, Power and Ip

𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠 6 10
a- 𝑉𝑝 = 𝑁𝑝 → 120 = 𝑁𝑝 → Np = 200 turns
Our calculations assuming the
𝑉𝑠 6
b- Is = 𝑅𝑠 = 12 = 0.5 A Transformer is 100% Efficient.

c- Power = Pp = Ps = 6X0.5 = 3 Watt

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 3
d- Ip = = 120 = 0.025 A
𝑉𝑝

Hint: if we have the same number of turns at the primary and

secondary coils → Vp = Vs
If more lamps are connected in parallel in the secondary coil, this means that the secondary
coil needs more power, so the power in the primary coil will increase by increasing the
current in the primary coil.
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195
 Power Transmission
Electrical power is transmitted from the main power station to the houses
through cables which travel long distances.

Part of this power is lost due to the resistance of the cables. The higher the
current, the higher the power loss in the form of heat in the cables.

Power Loss (P) = 𝐈 𝟐 X R

Our goal is to reduce the power loss, this can be achieved by decreasing the
resistance or decreasing the current (by using transformer).

A Step-up transformer is used at the beginning of the cables.

Advantages:
1- To reduce the current transmitted (or increase the Voltage)
2- For less power loss (less heat energy generated)
3- Thinner cables (Cheaper) 4- less Pylons
Finally, just before the power reaches the houses it needs to be stepped down
(reduce the voltage and increase the current) to get applicable value of voltage
for home appliances, to avoid damage of the devices.

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 Relay
When a small circuit operates another circuit, this is called
“Relay”. As shown in the following figure, when we close the
switch in the small circuit (12 V dc), the solenoid will make a
magnetic field and attracts the switch of the larger circuit to
close it and the lamp will light.
➢ Relay can be defined as: using a small circuit (with low
volt) to operate a larger circuit (with higher volt).

Advantages of using a relay:

• The small circuit is portable and can be changed or repaired.
• A small emf can operate a large emf as shown in the above figure.

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 Unit 4

“Waves” is a term that refers to the way in which energy is

propagated (transmitted) through a medium or without a
medium that results from the vibration of an object.
Hint: Waves are used to transfer energy and Not Matter!!
There are two classifications for waves:
1- Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves
2- Transverse and Longitudinal Waves
The First classification:
1- Mechanical Waves:
These waves transmit energy through a medium by the vibration of
particles of the medium.
These waves can’t propagate through Vacuum as there are no
particles.
Ex: Sound waves, water waves, slinky waves or vibrating a rope.

Slinky wave
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 2- Electromagnetic waves:
These waves can travel through Vacuum, they do not need a
medium.

Ex: Light waves, infra-red rays and all electromagnetic spectrum (to
be discussed later).

The Second classification:

1- Transverse Waves:
➢ The vibration of the particles of the
medium is up and down.
➢ The motion (vibration) of the particles is perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.

Ex: If you dip your finger in water (ripple tank), you will see the
following:

1) Circles of waves propagating away from your finger, so the energy

is moving outwards.
2) Particles of water are just moving up and down

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The same applies for Rope waves. The particles move perpendicular to
wave motion.

Examples: Light waves, Water waves, Rope waves and all Electromagnetic waves.

Types of transverse waves: Rope waves, Electromagnetic waves (as light), water
(ripple) waves and Seismic (earthquakes) “S-Type”.

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 2- Longitudinal Waves:
The vibration of the particles of the medium is sideways (right and
left) to form compressions and rarefactions.

The vibration of the particles is parallel to the direction of wave

propagation (energy motion).

Compression: Air pressure is high and spacing is low.

Rarefaction: Air pressure is low and spacing is large.
Types of longitudinal waves: Sound waves, Slinky waves, Seismic
(Earthquakes) “P-type”.

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Wave Properties:

1- Wavelength (λ): It is the distance between two successive

similar points on the wave.
• For Transverse waves: It is the distance between two
successive crests or two successive troughs.
• For Longitudinal waves: it is the distance between two
successive compressions or two successive rarefactions.
• Its unit is “meters (m)”.
Hint: the Wavelength of a wave depends on the medium and
the frequency of the source.

2- Amplitude (a): It is the maximum displacement of any point on

the wave from the rest (equilibrium) position.
• Its unit is “meters (m)”.

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 3- Periodic Time (T): It is the time taken to make one complete
oscillation (cycle).
• Its unit is “Sec.”
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
• Periodic Time (T)= 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

4- Frequency (f): It is the number of

oscillations (cycles) per second.
Or: the number of crests passing per
second.

• Its unit is Hertz (Hz).

• The frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the source

producing it.

Hint: There is an equation relating the frequency with the Periodic Time:
𝟏 𝟏
f= & T= T and f are inversely
𝑻 𝒇
proportional.
Hint: We can also draw the longitudinal sound waves as shown (ups
and downs) by putting the pressure on the y-axis.

Air Particles

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Hint: If asked to draw a longitudinal wave with larger
amplitude, this means that we have to draw smaller spacing in
Compressions and larger spacing in Rarefactions.

The Wave equation “Wave Speed”:

Or

• The speed of the wave depends only on the medium in which the
wave is moving.
• Also the wavelength is affected by the medium (mentioned
above).
• But the frequency does not change with changing the medium,
the frequency depends on the source only.

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Drawing Waves:
A wave can propagate (travel) in one direction “Straight waves”
or it can propagate in multiple directions as in “Circular waves”.

Wavefronts: are lines that are drawn perpendicular to the direction of

wave motion.

• The distance between two successive wavefronts is the wavelength (λ)

Example: Find the Amplitude,

Periodic Time and Frequency of
the shown wave graph.
Solution:

• Amplitude = 10cm
• Periodic Time (T) = 0.4 sec
1 1
• f = 𝑇 = 0.4 = 2.5 Hz

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Example: Find the Periodic Time,
Frequency and Speed if λ = 2cm.

Solution:
• Periodic Time (T) = 3 sec.
1 1
• f = = = 0.33 Hz
𝑇 3
• v = λ. F = 0.33X2 = 0.66 cm/sec

Behaviour of Waves
➢ Waves can experience Reflection, Refraction or Diffraction.
➢ Waves are treated as straight rays.
1- Reflection:

Normal Line: it is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the

Surface at the point where the ray touches the surface.

Incident angle (i): it is the angle between the incident ray and the
Normal line.

Reflected angle (r): it is the angle between the reflected ray and the
Normal line.

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 Law of Reflection:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of Reflection (r).

➢ When waves are reflected, the frequency, wavelength and speed of

the wave do not change. Only the direction of the wave changes.

Steps of drawing Reflection:

1- Draw the incident ray
2- Draw the Normal Line perpendicular to the surface.
3- Measure “i”
4- Draw the reflected ray with the reflection angle “r”
i=r
5- Draw the wavefronts perpendicular to the ray (if required)

Also Circular Waves can be reflected.

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 2- Refraction:
When the wave moves from one medium to another medium (with
different density) it changes its speed, this is called Refraction.
➢ There is change in speed and wavelength (λ).
➢ There is no change in frequency.
➢ The new medium where the wave is entering is either:
o Deep: Less dense (Fast medium)
o Shallow: More dense (Slow medium)

➢ As the wave enters a Less dense medium (deep): Speed ↑ and

Wavelength ↑.
➢ As the wave enters a More dense medium (Shallow): Speed↓
and Wavelength ↓.

V=λ.f
If λ↑ V↑ … as “f” is constant (doesn’t change)
If λ↓ V↓ … as “f” is constant (doesn’t change)

Look at the left part of the diagram the water is

deep, while in the right part it’s shallow.

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208
 Cases of Refraction:
From Deep (low Density) From Shallow (high Density)
to Shallow (high Density) to Deep (low Density)

Speed ↓ Speed ↑
Wavelength ↓ Wavelength ↑
Ray bends towards the Normal (i>r’) Ray bends away from the Normal (i<r’)

What if we have a wave with Zero angle of incidence?

If the wave is moving from deep to shallow or the opposite at right
angles to the boundary, so the angle of incidence is Zero. This wave will
not make change in its direction. Just the wavelength and the speed will
change.

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 Angle of incidence (i) = 0

Hint: Wavefronts become closer to

each other as the wave moves from Refraction with Zero Angle of
Deep to Shallow, while they incidence: No change in direction !
become further apart as the wave
moves from shallow to deep.

Refraction with Zero angle of incidence:

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 Hint: There is always some reflection
accompanied with any refraction
process.

Important Example: Draw the wavefronts as they pass through

the boundary from air to water.

Step 1: Draw the ray itself

Step 2: Draw the Normal to the boundary
Step 3: Draw the refracted ray (bent in the correct direction).
Step 4: Draw the new wavefronts perpendicular to the refracted ray, with the correct
spacing between them.

Explain why refraction of a wave occurs?

➢ As part of the wavefornt enters the new medium before the other part
➢ So this part changes its speed before the other part
➢ So the angle of the wavefornt changes (different parts are delayed with different
amounts), so the wavefront changes direction.

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 3- Diffraction:
It is the spreading of waves when they travel through a narrow
gap or a round corner.

If the Gap is too small (much

smaller than wavelength),
diffraction will not occur!!

• In diffraction there is No change in Wavelength, frequency or

speed of the wave.
• Only the shape of the wavefronts changes and the Amplitude
decreases.

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 • If we need to increase the spreading of the wave (increase the
diffraction), we have to:
o Decrease the gap
o Increase the wavelength (λ)
Example: to make sure that the waves
reach the house, we have to produce
waves with larger wavelength.

Why can we hear what is going on in nearby room but we can’t see it?

• Because sound waves have long wavelength so it can be easily

diffracted and spread in many directions to be heard, while light
waves have short wavelength so it needs very narrow gap to be
diffracted.

Diffraction of waves as they hit a corner (pass an edge):

As the wavelength increases, the

diffraction (spreading) increases, as
shown in (b).

Mr. Hussein Khaled 213

 Electromagnetic Spectrum
These are group of waves produced due to combined oscillations of electric and
magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum.

• They have different wavelengths

• They have different frequencies
• All have same speed (speed of light 3𝑋108 m/s).
• They are all Transverse waves.
• They can experience Reflection, Refraction or Diffraction.

Name Gamma rays X-rays Ultraviole Visible light Infra-red Microwave Radio waves
t rays
Source Radioactive High speed Very hot Sun, Laser, Warm and hot Vibration of Vibration of
decay electrons objects or LED or Lamps objects electrons electrons
(unstable hitting a The Sun (electronic (electronic
nuclei) metal circuits) circuits)
Uses Killing cancer Medicine Sun tan Vision Remote Satellites, * Communicati
cells. (imagining and Controls, and Telephones, ons; Radio
defects in making burglar alarms heating and TV.
Sterilization bones). Vitamin D Photography by detecting water and
of food and "Shadow graph" heat coming food * Astronomy
equipment Security Detecting from intruders.
systems fake * Radio
Detecting (seeing banknotes illumination Thermal frequency
cracks in hidden imaging identification
welds objects) Sterilizing (medicine) (RFID)
water
U.V. Optical fibers * Mobile phone
security masts.
marker * Radar
* Bluetooth

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Hazards of exposure to electromagnetic radiation:
Over-exposure to certain types of electromagnetic radiation can be
harmful. The higher the frequency of the radiation, the more damage it
is likely to cause to the body, hazards include the following:
1- Internal heating of body tissues (Microwaves)
2- Skin burns (Infrared)
3- Damage skin cells and the Retina of the human eye (Ultraviolet)
4- Mutations of the body tissues, which may lead to cancer (X-rays
and Gamma rays)
5- Skin Cancer (X-rays and Gamma rays)

Safety Precautions: We have to stay away from the sources as most

as we can (especially pregnant women), don’t get exposed to the rays
for long time and use Lead shields to protect yourself.

Uses of EM waves in communication:

Communication with artificial satellites is mainly using Microwaves:

1- Some satellite phones and direct

broadcast satellite television use high
orbit Geostationary satellites.
- About 35,000 km from Earth.
- Orbit at same rate as Earth.
- Covers large area.
2- Some satellite phones use low orbit
satellites
- About 2000 km from Earth.
- Orbit at faster rate than Earth (can finish the orbit in 2 hours)
- Covers small area.

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Other systems of communication that depends on EM waves:
- Mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves as they can pass
through walls and only a small aerial is needed for transmitting and
receiving.
- Bluetooth uses radio waves, but it is weakened as it passes through
walls. It can be used in short range communication as hands-free mobile
phone systems.
- Optical fibers (for cable television and high speed internet) use infrared
radiation and visible light, as these waves have higher frequency and can
carry more data. Also as glass is transparent to light and infrared
radiation.

Analogue Vs Digital transmission:

Analogue signal: a signal which varies
continuously in frequency and amplitude.

Digital signal: a signal that consists of

pulses which are either on or off.

In telephone communication, the sound produced at the beginning has variable

frequency and amplitude so it is Analogue. This sound wave is converted to
electrical signals and transmitted via copper wires until it reaches the receiver on
the other side, However it becomes distorted and some unwanted vibrations are
heard as noise.

A Digital signal is a sequence of pulses (ON – OFF) only. The analogue signal is
converted to digital signal using converter (encoder), then transmitted through
optical fibers. Afterwards, it passes through one or more regenerators to clean up
the signal, removing any distortion and boosting the signal if it has lost power

Mr. Hussein Khaled 216

during transmission. Finally the digital signal is converted back to analogue to be
converted to sound wave at the receiver to hear it.

Digital transmission has the following advantages:

- Clearer signal (more accurate)

- Faster
- Higher rate of data transfer
- Increase the range of transmission (longer distance) due to accurate
signal regeneration.

Light Waves
Light waves can experience Reflection, Refraction and Dispersion.
How to make the light move in straight line to study it?
Use a Laser beam or a Ray box

1- Reflection of Light:
• A mirror is used as the reflecting surface (boundary).
• The image of the object is formed at a certain point behind the
mirror and this point is fixed regardless the place we are looking
from

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How to detect the image location:
• We know that any object reflects light rays incident on it in all directions.
• Draw two incident rays from the object towards the mirror, then draw the
Normal lines where these rays touch the mirror.
• Then draw the reflected rays.
• Finally draw the extensions of the reflected rays behind the mirror. The
point of intersection of these two extensions is the image location.

Properties of images formed by the mirror:

1- Virtual image (not Real), as it is
formed by the intersection of
imaginary rays (extensions)
2- Same Size as the original object
3- Upright
4- Laterally inverted (left is right and
right is left).
5- Distance between the object and the mirror is the same as
distance between image and mirror.

Mr. Hussein Khaled 218

 2- Refraction of Light:
When light moves from one medium to another medium “more or less
dense”, the λ and speed will change but the frequency will stay the
same.

• We can see this when the light travels from air (less dense) to glass
(more dense) or from glass to air.

Hint: the image always appear

shallower than the object.

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 Hint: There is always some reflection accompanied with the refraction!!

If the light ray is coming perpendicular to

the boundary (i = 0°), There will be NO
change in direction, but the λ and V will be
affected as ordinary refraction.

Hint: we can see the sun at different

location, as light refracts as it passes
through the atmosphere.

Critical Angle:
We know that when the light moves from a more dense medium (ex:
glass) to a less dense medium (ex: air), the light rays are bent outwards
(away from the Normal).

Critical angle: it is the incident angle in the shallow medium that

makes the refracted ray moves along the surface (boundary) or it the
incident angle that makes angle of refraction equals 90°.

• If the angle of incidence is smaller than the critical angle, the ray will
experience refraction.

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 • If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray will
experience reflection … This is called “Total Internal Reflection”.

Hints:
• Total internal reflection happens: in the shallow medium, when
i>c and applies law of reflection ( i = r)
• Critical angle is always in the Shallow medium.
• The Critical angle can also appear when the ray is approaching the
glass at incidence angle = 90° (it is moving parallel to the surface)
coming from the deep medium (from air to glass), at this situation
the angle of refraction will be the critical angle.

Refractive Index (n):

It is the ratio of the speed of light in one medium to the speed of light
in another medium.

Or: it is the ratio of the wavelengths of the light in two different

mediums.
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏 𝝀 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 Ɵ𝟏
n = 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 = 𝝀 𝒊𝒏 =
𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 Ɵ𝟐

• n is unitless as it is a ratio! 1: Air

2: second medium
Mr. Hussein Khaled 221
 • Sometimes called “optical density”
• There is a relation between the c and the n. 𝟏
n=
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒄

Example: The figure shows a light ray moving from glass to

air with angle of incidence = 30°. The refractive index of glass
n = 1.5. Find the refraction angle? and find the critical angle
of the glass?

Solution:
𝑺𝒊𝒏 Ɵ𝟏
1)n =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 Ɵ𝟐 If the n is smaller than 1 !!
𝑆𝑖𝑛 Ɵ𝟏 So we will reverse the rule
1.5 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 30

Sin Ɵ𝟏 = 1.5 𝑆𝑖𝑛 30 → Ɵ𝟏 = 48.6° = 49°

2) We can calculate the critical angle using the n.

1 1
n= → 1.5 = c = 41.8° = 42°
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑐

Parallel Sided Glass Prism:

If the light ray passes through a piece of
glass with two parallel sides as shown, the
ray will finally emerge parallel to the
original ray.

angle 1 = angle 4
angle 2 = angle 3
Speed of incident ray on the prism = Speed of emerging ray from the prism

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Applications of Refraction of Light:
1- Periscope:
It is a device used to observe things hidden behind barriers.

• Periscopes can use plane mirrors or can use triangle glass prisms.
• At points a, c, d & f there is no change in the direction of the ray
as it is passing along the Normal line (i = 0°).
• At points b and e there is Total Internal Reflection, because i > c.
• The incident angle is the same for both mirrors.

Uses: used by submarines or reading periscopes.

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 2- Optical Fibers:
Optical fibers are very thin glass fibers that are used to transmit light
from one point to another, through several Total internal reflections.

You have to draw

the normal lines
at each point.

The incident angles are all greater than the critical angle, so Total
internal reflection happens.

Uses:

1- Medical applications “Endoscope” (used in checking internal

organs): The ray enters the fiber to reach the part inside the body
then it is reflected back again in the fibers to form the image.
- We use many fibers at the same time to allow more light rays
to get it, for clearer image.
2- Killing cancer cells.
3- Telecommunications: Transmitting information in terms of pulses
of light.
➢ Pulses (Signals) of infra-red rays carrying information (Data)
experience total internal reflection until it reaches the
receiver on the other end.

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 4- Dispersion:
A Monochromatic light has a single wavelength (also it has single
frequency and single colour). While the White light consists of a range
of wavelengths (some are visible and some are invisible).

They all
have same
speed in Air.

When the White light enters a triangular prism, it will experience bending
towards the normal (at a), but with different angles for each color (due to
different speed each color inside glass), this is called dispersion.

Then the difference between the colours becomes clearer at points b

and c (they are not parallel while coming out of glass).

All the resulting rays are visible except Infra-red and Ultraviolet rays.

• Red has the highest λ.

• Violet has the highest f.
• Red has the least refractive index while the
Violet has the largest.
• Temperature is high at the Infra-red region.
• The slowest in glass is the Violet (Most
Convex Lens
refracted).

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Convex Lens:
It is a lens that converges the light rays together by refraction so it is
also called “Converging Lens”

c: optical center

F: Focal point or optical focus

Focal Length: the distance between

the focal point and center of lens.

Hint: Bending of the light rays happens twice, at the

entrance and at the exit of the lens (due to changing
medium). But we draw the bending one time at the
center line of the lens to make it easier.

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There are three cases:

a- Any ray coming parallel to the principal axis of the lens will be
bent to pass through the focal point.

b- Any ray passing through the focal point will be refracted to

become parallel to the principal axis.

c- Any ray passing through the center of the lens will not diverge (No
change in direction).

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227
Producing an image of a luminous object (ex. candle or lamp)
To be able to draw the image formed by the lens, we draw three rays
from the top of the object (one is parallel to principal axis, one passing
through the F and one passing through the center). The intersection of
the three lines forms the image. We have different cases:

Case 1: If the object is very far from the lens > 2 x Focal length (F)

Properties of the image in this case:

Smaller , Inverted and Real (we can get it on a screen)

Case 2: If the object is at a distance = 2 x F

Properties of the image in this case:

Same size, Inverted, Real (we can get it on a screen)
and Equidistant (at same distance)

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Case 3: If the object is at a distance between the F and 2F

Properties of the image in this case:

Larger, Inverted and Real (we can get it on a screen)

Hint: As the object becomes closer to the lens, the image becomes:
1- Larger
2- Farther from the lens
And vice versa !!

Case 4: If the object is exactly at the Focal Point (F):

No image is formed
(parallel rays do
not meet and their
extensions also do
not meet).

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Case 5: Object between the Center of the lens(c) and the Focal point(F):

Properties of the image in this case:

Larger or Magnified
Upright
Virtual (Not real) as it is not formed by real rays

• This case is used in Microscopes to enlarge objects.

• Convex lenses are used in cameras and sight correcting eyeglasses.

Hint: if asked about magnifying glass → so we are talking about Case ”5”, so the
object should be inside the focal length.

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Hint: A fatter lens is more powerful (bends the rays more), so it has shorter focal
length.

Using Lenses to correct eyesight problems:

Healthy human eye can see clear focused image of far

(distant) (a) or close (b) objects, as the image is formed
on the retina.

A person with short sight can see close up objects clearly, but
can’t form a clear image of far objects, the lens is too
powerful. The image is formed in front of the Retina (a), so
Divering lens (Concave lens) is used to correct the sight (b).

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A person with long sight can see far objects clearly, but can’t
form a clear image of close objects, the lens is too weak. The
image is formed behind the Retina (a) so Converging lens
(Convex lens) is used to correct the sight (b).

How ? as converging lens reduces focal length ,

to form focused image on retina.

Sound Waves
Sound waves are produced due to vibration of the source (ex: String of
a guitar or a tuning fork). This makes the particles of the medium
vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer (longitudinal waves).

• Sound waves are Mechanical

waves (needs medium).

Compression: it is the region

where the spacing between the
molecules decrease and pressure
increase.

Rarefaction: it is the region

where the spacing between
molecules increase and pressure
decrease.

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Properties of Sound:
1) Loudness:
It is determined by the amplitude of the Sound wave
As Amplitude ↑ Loudness ↑

B has larger Amplitude

so it is louder than A.

2) Pitch:
It is determined by the frequency of the Sound wave.

As frequency ↑ Pitch ↑

B has higher frequency (more

number of cycles in same
time), so it has higher Pitch
than A.

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 Audible Frequencies:
• Human ear can only hear sound waves with frequencies ranging from:
20 Hz → 20 KHz (20,000 Hz)
• Sound waves with frequencies f < 20 Hz are called “Infra-sound waves”.
• Sound waves with frequencies f > 20 KHz are called “Ultra-sound waves” or
Ultrasonic.
• Ultra-sound waves are used in medical applications as treatment of joints.
It can be used also in measuring depth of water (Sonar), material testing
and Fetal imaging (getting images of babies
during pregnancy).

Speed of Sound in Air:

• The speed of sound in air = 330 m/sec
• This is much slower than the speed of light = 3X108 m/sec

This illustrates why we see lightening before hearing thunder.

Speed of Sound in different states of matter:

Sound travels in solids at higher speeds than liquids, and travels in
liquids at higher speeds than gases. This is due to the fact of closer
particles in solids than liquids and liquids than gases.

Substance Speed of sound (m/sec)

Steel 5000
Water 1400
Air 330 - 350

Hint: The sound in air is affected by the temperature and humidity of the air.

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Example: When you hit one end of a steel bar you will hear two
sounds.

The first sound travels though the metal (steel bar) at higher speed.
While the second sound travels through air at lower speed.

How to calculate the speed of sound in air:

• Measure the distance (d) with a tape
meter.
• After person A fires the gun, person B
with the stop watch measures the time
(T) between seeing the flash or the
smoke of the gun and hearing the sound.
𝑑
• Speed = m/sec
𝑇

Hint:

• This experiment makes assumption the light travels instantly in

zero time, this is due to the fact of its high speed.

Improvements:
• As the distance between the two persons increase, the results
become more accurate.
Hint:
• As youwe
Also move
can away from
repeat thethe source producing
experiment several sound, the take
times and Loudness
average for
(Amplitude) decreases, while the Pitch (Frequency) doesn’t change.
more accuracy.

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Example:

If there is a thunder storm moving above your house making thunder

and lightning. How to know at when the storm is the closest to your
house?

As the distance between the Storm and the house decreases, the
difference in time between seeing the lightning and hearing the
thunder decreases. So in “A” there will be a very small time between
thunder and lightning than “B”.
Day Time 1:00 3:00 5:00 7:00 9:00
Difference in time
between seeing 3 sec. 2 sec. 4 sec. 5 sec. 3 sec.
lightning and hearing
thunder/Sec.

This means that at 3:00 the storm is near to the house, while at 7:00
the storm is far away from the house.

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 Echo
It is hearing the sound more than one time due to reflection of
sound from a boundary.
Hint: it needs short sharp sound to hear it clearly.

𝟐𝒅
Speed = m/sec
𝑻

We use (2d) because the sound moves back and forth during
the total time (T).

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Example:
Person B is observing person A while shooting a gun towards
the cliff. How many sounds each person hears and at what
times, knowing that the speed of sound in air is 330 m/sec.?

Solution:
Person A: he will hear two sounds

• The first one is instantly after shooting T=0

2𝑑 2 𝑋 700
• The second sound after time T = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 4.24 sec.
330

Person B: he will hear two sounds

𝑑 700
• The first one after time T = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 330 = 2.12 sec.
𝑑 3 𝑋 700
• The second sound after time T = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = = 6.36 sec.
330

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 Unit 5
Radioactivity

Atomic Structure:
The atom consists of tiny particles called protons, neutrons and
electrons. Protons and neutrons are found inside the nucleus and are
called “nucleons”. While electrons are found in the outer orbits or
shells.

The Basic properties:

Type of particle Mass Charge Location

𝟏
𝟏𝒑 Proton 1u +ve In the nucleus
𝟏
𝟎𝒏
Neutron 1u Neutral In the nucleus
Electron 1 -ve Orbits around
𝟎 u
−𝟏𝒆 2000 the nucleus

Atomic representation (Nuclide Notation):

X → Symbol of the element
A → Mass number (Nucleon number) = number of
protons + number of neutrons

Z → atomic number = Number of protons OR number of electrons.

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Hint: In any atom the no. of protons = no. of electrons
→Positive charges = negative charges
→So any atom is Neutral
Example:
Protons = 11
Electrons = 11
Neutrons = 24-11 = 13

Isotopes:
These are different atoms of the same element with the same number
of protons but different number of neutrons (Same atomic number but
different mass numbers).

Ex: Isotopes of Hydrogen

Some isotopes are unstable so they emit radioactive emissions from the
nucleus to become stable.

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 Radioactivity
Radioactivity: Unstable nuclei emit particles or electromagnetic
radiation to become stable. These nuclei are said to be Radioactive.

Due to one of two reasons:

- too many neutrons in the nucleus

- the nucleus is too heavy

There are three types of emissions:

1- Alpha particles “α”

2- Beta particles “β”
3- Gamma rays ”ϒ”

1- Alpha particles “α”:

- It consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
- Mass = 4 u
- Charge = +2 (it has 2 protons)
- Atomic number = 2

Alpha Decay: (emitting Alpha particles)

When an unstable nucleus emits alpha particle, it loses w protons and 2

neutrons. So its mass number decreases by 4.

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Example:

• The Radium (Ra) becomes Radon (Rn) by emitting Alpha particle.

2- Beta particles “β”:

• Beta particle has the same mass and charge of an electron.

• Symbol

1
• Mass = u
2000
• Charge = - 1
• Mass number (Nucleon) = 0
• Atomic number = - 1

Beta Decay:

The Beta particle radiated from the radioactive atom is an electron, and
it is emitted from the nucleus and we know that the electrons are in the
outer orbits and not the nucleus. So one of the neutrons is split to a
proton and an electron, this electron is emitted as the Beta radiation.

➔ So the atomic number increases by 1 proton.

➔ The mass number doesn’t change.

Example:

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3- Gamma rays ”ϒ”:
It is a form of electromagnetic radiation that does not change the
number of protons, neutrons or electrons of the parent nucleus.

• Gamma decay just represents a waste of energy.

Hint: if an element emits α or β it will change to a different element,
but if it emits ϒ it will not change.

Comparison between α, β and ϒ:

1) Ionization
2) Penetration
3) Behavior in Electric Fields
4) Behavior in Magnetic Fields

1) Ionization:
Ionization or so called “Charging” of an atom means forcing this atom
to lose an electron (to become positive).
The Alpha particle has the largest power of ionization due to its
relatively larger mass and charge, also as it has the least speed so it can
hit more atoms. Thus, it can hit the electrons out of the atoms to become
positively charged.ᾱ- particles also have largest K.E./ Momentum.
Then come the Beta particles are the next in strength and finally the
Gamma rays are the weakest in ionization effect.

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243
2- Penetration:
• Alpha particles have the least penetration power due to their
larger mass. They can be completely absorbed by just a thick
sheet of paper and they can travel 5 → 10 cm through air.
• Beta Particles can travel several meters through air and can
penetrate a sheet of paper. A thick sheet of Aluminum (thickness
> 3-4 mm) can completely stop it.
• Gamma rays have the strongest penetration power. They can
travel several kilometers in air and can go through several meters
of Concrete and several centimeters of Lead. It is difficult to
completely stop Gamma rays but most of it can be absorbed by
Lead or concrete.

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Example: a person hiding behind a sheet of paper separating him from
a radioactive source producing the three types of radiation will be
affected by Beta particles and Gamma rays.

3- Behavior in Electric Fields:

• Alpha particles and Beta Particles are charges, so they will
experience a force as they move through an electric field.

• Beta particles are much lighter than Alpha particles, so Beta particles
experience larger deflection.
• Both Alpha and Beta deflect in curved path.
• Gamma rays are not deflected as they are not charged (Neutral).

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4- Behavior in Magnetic Fields:
• As the Alpha and Beta particles are charged they will experience a
force also in the Magnetic fields.
• β particle has larger deflection due to its smaller mass.
• We can determine the direction of motion using Fleming’s Left
Hand Rule.
• α and β have opposite directions of forces (because they are
oppositely charged) !!

• Gamma rays have no deflection as they are neutral.

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 Detecting Radioactivity
• The GM tube is the most common detector of radioactive emissions.
• It depends on the ionizing effect of the radiation that ionizes the
Argon atoms inside the tube to produce a current pulse.
• It gives a number or rate of radiation.
• But it does not tell the type of radiation.

Background Radiation

• It is the count rate always found in nature when there is no

radioactive sample in the GM tube.
• Background radiation is produced all the time by natural
resources as:
o Radon gas in air
o Rocks and building materials
o Stars in the outer space (cosmic rays)
o Food and drink
• Its rate from 10→30 counts/min.
• It doesn’t have a fixed number as Radioactivity is a Random
process.
• It has to be considered in the experiments (subtracted from the
reading of the GM tube).

Hint: if we record the background anywhere you can see the following
values (21, 20, 18, 23, 20, 19, 21) Counts/min.

- The Background is not a constant number as radioactivity is a

Random process.

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How to use the GM detector to determine if there are α-
particles emitted or not?
Method 1:
1- Measure the Background radiation
2- Place the sample/source in front of the GM tube and record the
count rate radiation (at a distance not more than 2-3 cm).
3- Insert a sheet of paper between the GM tube and the
sample/source then record the radiation.

Conclusion:

o If the count rate decreases after inserting the paper (but still
higher than the Background), this means that the source
emits α-particles with other types of radiation.
o If the count rate drops to the Background level, this means
that the source produces α-particles only.

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Method 2:
Same as previous steps but in step (3) increase the distance between
the GM detector and the source instead of inserting a piece of paper
between them. Relying on the fact that α-particles can move
maximum 10 cm in air.
How to use the GM detector to determine if there are β-
particles emitted or not?
1- Measure the Background radiation
2- Place the sample/source in front of the GM tube at a distance
10cm → 1 m (Now the β and ϒ radiation only can reach the GM
tube) and record the count rate.
3- Put a sheet of Aluminum (3-4 mm thick) between the source and
the GM tube and record the radiation count rate.

Conclusion:

o If the count rate drops after inserting the Aluminum sheet

(but still higher than the Background rate), so the source
emits β-particles and Gamma rays.
o If the count rate drops to the Background rate, so the source
produces β-particles only.

How to use the GM detector to determine if there are ϒ-rays

emitted or not?
After stopping the Alpha and Beta using Aluminum sheet, if the reading
is still above the Background, so these are the Gamma rays.

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 Safety Precautions:
Exposure to large doses of radiation is dangerous due to the ionizing
effect of the radioactive emissions. It can cause the following:

- It can damage the cells and tissues causing burns.

- It can cause mutations in the cells.
- It can lead to loss of sight.
- It can cause Cancer.

So we have to consider the following:

• Use long tools to hold the source

• In industries dealing with radioactive materials, workers are
protected using Lead shields and thick concrete walls.
• Radioactive sources should be held
inside thick lead containers with the
warning sign of Radioactivity.

Hint: Alpha particles are less harmful if emitted from an outside source
as it can’t penetrate into our bodies, but it is the most harmful if it gets
into the body due to its high ionization power.

Radioactive decay is Spontaneous and Random:

Spontaneous: means that the rate of decay is not affected by external
factors as temperature or pressure.

Random: means that it is not possible to know when an individual

nucleus in the sample will decay (emit radiation) or which atom is the
next one → “unpredictable”.

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 Half Life of the Material
Half Life: it is the time taken for the number of un-decayed nuclei in the
sample to decrease to the half OR it is the time taken for the
radioactivity to decrease to half its value. Not the time needed for the
mass of the sample to decrease to half !!!

Example: if we have 10 grams of radioactive Carbon sample with Half

Life = 2 years. What is the remaining un-decayed mass after 6 years?

Solution:

Time/ Years Weight (g) or Count rate

0 10
2 5
4 2.5
6 1.25

The weight after 6 years = 1.25 g

Hint: if you have Background, you have to subtract it from the initial
value before dividing by 2, then add it again at the end.

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 Applications of Radioactivity
1- Determining the atomic structure of some metals.
Some Alpha particles are directed towards a sheet of gold as shown in
the figure. Using a GM detector at different angles around the foil to
know how the Alpha particles will move after hitting the gold foil.

We can get the following observations:

1- Observation 1: Most α-particles will move with no deviation
o Deduction: This means that most of the volume of the atom
is empty space and this proves that the nucleus is small.
Explanation: as Most of the Alpha particles did not hit or pass near
the nucleus.
2- Observation 2: Some α-particles are deviated through small
angles (10-50°)
o Deduction: The Nucleus is positive charged.
Explanation: Alpha particles are repelled by the positive charge of
the Nucleus (they experience a force)
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 3- Observation 3: Very few α-particles are deviated at angles >90°
o Deduction: most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in
a very small nucleus and it is positively charged.

Explanation: These particles are hit by the nuclei of the gold atoms,
while the nucleus remain in place (stay still).

2- Detecting Leaks in pipes:

o Using small amounts of radioactive isotopes in the fluid
running inside the pipes and using a detector to pass all over
the pipeline → using Gamma rays.

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 3- Checking the thickness of metal sheets or paper.

Hint: in this process we use Beta particles as Alpha particles will

be absorbed at the surface of the sheet.

4- Some medical applications as Radio Therapy (ϒ- rays are

used in treatment of cancer).

5- We can use the Half Life Time calculations to know the

age of old trees and plants (radiocarbon dating), using
radioactive carbon-14 → using Beta particles emitted.

6- Irradiating food to kill bacteria → using Gamma rays.

7- A source of Alpha particles is used in Smoke sensors.

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 Nuclear Fusion and Fission
Both are different types of nuclear reactions that Release Energy due
to the presence of the atomic bonds between the particles found in the
nucleus.

Fission: The atom is split into two or more smaller and lighter atoms
producing energy. It is used in Nuclear power plants.

The Fission process is initiated by a fast moving neutron hitting (or

being absorbed by) the atom to start the process.

Fusion: occurs when two or more atoms fuse together creating a larger
and heavier atom producing energy. It happens at the Sun and the stars
(The sun fuses Hydrogen atoms to form Helium atom).

The Fusion process is initiated by high temperature and pressure to

overcome the repulsive forces between the positive nuclei (it needs
more than 1 million °C) that’s why it is difficult to apply.

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Earth and Solar System:
The Universe consists of billions of galaxies and each galaxy consists of billions of stars, our
solar system is a part of a galaxy called “Milky way”. Our solar system consists of a main star
which is the Sun with eight planets rotating around it in elliptical orbits (nearly circular). Some
of these planets have moons rotating around them.

“The Solar System”

Motion of the Earth and the Moon:

The Earth is a planet of the Sun travelling in a nearly circular orbit, while the moon orbits the
Earth. The motion of the Earth and the moon accounts for some natural events as follows:

The Earth’s motion:

Day and night: due to the Earth spinning on its axis, it
makes one complete revolution in 24 hours.

Rising and setting of the Sun: The sun appears to rise

from the East and sets at the West due to the Earth
spinning on its axis. The height of the sun varies during
the day, it’s highest above the horizon at noon (12:00
pm). In the Northern hemisphere, this height is
maximum (and longest daylight hours) at summer and
minimum (and shortest daylight hours) at winter.

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 The seasons: The different seasons happen for two reasons:

- The rotation of the Earth around the Sun.

- The tilt of the Earth’s axis (23.5⁰) to the plane of its path around the
Sun.

A: The Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, the hours of the daylight are greater
those of the darkness → Summer in Northern Hemisphere and Winter in Southern
hemisphere.

C: The Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun, the hours of the daylight are less
those of the darkness → Winter in Northern Hemisphere and Summer in Southern
hemisphere.

D & B : The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern hemisphere receive nearly the same
amount of heat from the Sun, the hours of the daylight are approximately the same as those of
the darkness → Spring comes after winter and autumn comes after summer.

Extra Hint: The equinoxes happen in March (about March 21) and September (about September
23). These are the days when the Sun is exactly above the Equator, which makes day and night of equal
length.
Hint: Countries at the equator do not experience seasons, because the Sun’s rays always hit them at
the same angle.

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Moons:

➢ Moons are natural satellites that rotate around the planet in elliptical orbit
➢ Their motions are determined by gravitational
forces.
➢ Moons are non-luminous objects, we see them
when they reflect light from the sun.

Earth’s Moon:

➢ The Earth has only one moon.

➢ The gravity of the moon 1/6 from the gravity of
earth, as it has 1/6 from its mass.
➢ The moon has no atmosphere.
➢ It takes our Moon about a month (27.5 days) to complete one rotation around the Earth.
➢ It takes our Moon about a month to complete one revolution on its axis (that’s why it
appears perfectly still to us).
➢ We never see the dark side of the moon.
➢ The Moon appears to rise from the East and sets at the West due to the earth’s rotation on
its axis.

Phases of the Moon:

The Moon’s appearance from the Earth

changes during its monthly journey to show
different phases as in the figure.

➢ We always see the same side of

the moon, but we only see the
lightened part of it.
New Moon Phase: the moon is between the
Sun and the Earth. So we are facing the unlit
(darkened) side of the moon and that’s why
we can’t see it.

Full Moon Phase: the moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun. So we are facing
the side of the moon fully lightened and that’s why we can see it a full bright circle.

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❖ Between the New Moon and Full Moon we can see the Crescent moon, Half moon the
Gibbous moon.
Crescent Moon: less than half of the moon is lightened

Half Moon: half of the moon is lightened

Gibbous Moon: more than half of the moon is lightened

Orbital speed:
➢ The speed of the satellites differs according to their orbit’s radius.

2𝜋r
𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡
r: orbital radius

t: time period

→The unit of the orbital speed can differ based on the unit of r and t (Such as km/day, km/hour, m/s)

Mr. Hussein Khaled 259

Example:

Calculate the speed of a satellite orbiting the Earth at height = 250km, it takes 95 minutes to
make one complete rotation around the Earth. The radius of the Earth = 6400 km.

Solution:

2𝜋r 2 𝜋 (6400+250) x 1000

𝑣= = = 7330 m/s
𝑡 95 𝑥 60

The Solar System:

As mentioned before, the galaxy where we live is called “ The Milky way”, and our
solar system is part of the Milky Way. The Solar system is held together by
gravitational forces acting between the bodies (masses), these forces hold planets,
dwarf planets, comets and asteroids in elliptical orbits around the sun, also It keep
moons and satellites in elliptical orbits around planets.

The solar system is composed of eight planets that orbit around the sun (which is a star) The Universe
(billions of galaxies)
The eight planets in order from closer to the sun to the further:

➔ Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.

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 Newton’s law of gravity
Gravitational force: Is the force of attraction between masses.

The size of gravitational force depends on:

1- The mass of the two objects

➢ The greater the mass, the greater the

attractive force. “Directly proportional”
➢ As one of the masses is doubled, the
gravitational force is doubled.

2- The distance between the objects:

➢ The gravitational force and distance

follow the Inverse square law.
➢ If the distance is doubled, the forces
are quartered. If the distance is tripled,
the force is 1/9.

Planets:

• Planets and moons orbits are nearly circular (slightly elliptical).

• Planets are non-luminous. Which means that they don’t emit light, they reflect the light.
• The four inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) are small, solid and rocky with
a layered structure and have a high density.
• The four outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) are much larger, cooler,
consist mainly of gas and have a low density.

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 • Dwarf planet: A dwarf planet is a small object that orbits the Sun, something smaller
than any of the eight classical planets like Pluto.
• A trans-Neptunian object (TNO): is any minor planet in the Solar System that orbits the
Sun at a greater average distance than Neptune like Pluto.
• We can see some of the planets from the Earth like Mars and Jupiter, because they
reflect light of the Sun, however this light takes time to reach the Earth.

Example: Calculate the time needed by the light from the Sun to reach the Earth (distance
from the Sun to the Earth = 150 million km).

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 1.5∗1011
Solution : Time = = = 500 s (8.3 min)
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 3∗108

Gravitational Field strength (g):

• Each planet has gravitational field strength (g) [g on earth = 9.8 N/kg, g on the moon
= 1.6 N/kg]
• That’s why the weight differs from planet to another
• The gravitational field strength differs from one planet to another, according to the
mass of the planet and diameter of the planet (greater masses have more gravities).

• For any planet:

o Orbit time around the Sun = 1 Year → (365 days for Earth but 165 years for Neptune)
o Spin time around its own axis = 1 Day → (24 hours for Earth but 16 hours for Neptune)

• All planets are orbiting the Sun due to the gravitational force of the sun. However, the
closer planet experiences the following:
o Higher gravitational force
o More curved path
o Rotates faster (due to stronger centripetal force)
o Shorter time period (time to make one complete rotation around the sun)
o Higher temperature.
• Jupiter is by far the largest planet (it is gaseous planet).
• Saturn has rings made of ice and rock particles (it is gaseous planet)
• Uranus and Neptune are large, cold and windy (they are gaseous planets)

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 • The four outer planets have atmospheres consisting mainly of Methane, Hydrogen and
Helium. These four planets can keep these light gases in their atmospheres unlike Earth
due to their stronger gravitational attraction.

Comets:
➢ Comets consists of dust and ice ( made from water and methane ) .
➢ They orbit the sun due to gravity in highly elliptical orbits
(elongated orbits), with the sun at one focus of the ellipse (not at
the middle).
➢ They have diameters from 1 – 20 km (and more)
➢ As the comet gets closer to the sun its speed increases, why?
o As gravitational force increases
o Law of conservation of energy: as GPE decreases so KE has to increase to keep total
amount of energy constant.
➢ As comets come closer to the sun, frozen gases evaporate forming long tail that shines in the
sun light. These tails can be millions of kilometers in length and always pointing away from the
sun due to radiation pressure from the sun.

Ellipse: Squashed (elongated) circle.

Eccentricity: it’s a measure of how

elliptical an orbit is.

➢ The orbit of the comet has

high eccentricity.

Orbit of the comet around the Sun

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Asteroids:
➢ Asteroids are minor planets made of rocks, metals
and minerals that orbit the sun.
➢ Belt of asteroids between Mars and Jupiter.
➢ As asteroids burn up and fall to Earth we call it
“Meteros” or “shooting stars”.
➢ Asteroids can’t be classified as planets as they don’t satisfy the following conditions.

So, the three criteria for a full-sized planet are:

1. It is in orbit around the Sun.

2. It has sufficient mass for gravitational attraction
to have pulled it into spherical shape
3. It has enough mass to attract smaller objects and clear the area of its orbit.

Satellites:

➢ Artificial satellites are manufactured objects that

orbits a planet.
➢ They are held in the space in orbits by gravitational
forces.

Origin of the Solar System:

Our solar system originated about 4,500 million (4.5 billion) years ago. The sun which
represents more than 99% of the total mass of the Solar System was formed from clouds of
hydrogen gas and dust called “nebula” were attracted together due to gravitational forces. The
planets were formed from the disc of matter left over from the nebula “Accretion model”

Accretion model: the material left around the sun rotates , the spinning motion of dust and gas
formed a flat spinning ring disc called “Accretion disc” around the Sun. Gravitational attraction
pulls the small particles together to form planets. There are some facts that support this theory:

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❖ Radioactive dating of mineral rocks shows that the approximate age of the Earth is 4.5
billion years (also the same for rocks brought back from the moon).
❖ All the orbits of the planets are in the same plane and revolve in the same direction.
The Four inner planets: in this region the temperature is too high for light molecules for
hydrogen, helium, water and methane to exist in solid state, that’s why these planets are
made of heavy elements with high melting temperature as metals (ex:iron) → these planets
are small and rocky.

The Four outer planets: in this region the temperature is too low so light elements can exist in
solid state, their mass represents about 99% of the total masses orbiting the Sun→ these
planets are large and gaseous.

There are many elements in the Interstellar clouds of gas and dust in the space between the
stars. The term interstellar means: is the space between the star systems in a galaxy.

Stars and the Universe “Stellar Evolution”

The Universe contains billions of galaxies and each galaxy contains
billions of stars.

The Milky way

1- It’s a spiral galaxy to which our solar system belongs

2- The Milky way contains 100s of billions of stars orbiting a black
hole, held together by gravitational force.
3- Between stars there are interstellar clouds of gas and dust.
4- Our nearest star is the sun = 150 million km from Earth = 0.000016
light years.

it’s the distance travelled in vacuum of space by light in one year.

5- Stars are further away than the distance between the planets and the sun.
6- The diameter of the Milky way is about 100, 000 light years.

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The Sun
➢ Medium sized star consisting mainly of hydrogen and helium (75% Hydrogen + 24%
Helium + 1% other elements as oxygen and carbon)
➢ Produces energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.
➢ Emits radiations mainly in the form of infrared, visible light and microwaves
➢ The core has higher density and temperature than its outer layers.
➢ Stars of larger masses have higher surface temperatures.
➢ White and blue stars are hotter and brighter than yellow and red ones.
➢ Inside the Sun, the matter exists in the form of Plasma (completely ionized
gas/positive ions+electons)

The Life-cycle of a star:

There are two types of stars

1- Small stars (like our Sun or up to eight times its mass)

2- Massive stars (much larger than our Sun)
➢ Stars that are larger than the sun has shorter lifespans than others. They last for millions of
years while smaller ones last for billions of years.

Stages of the Life-cycle of the star:

1) Nebula
• Nebula are stars made of giant interstellar clouds of gas and dust that contains Hydrogen
(molecular cloud) that is cold and dense enough to collapse.

2) Protostar
• The gravity pulls the particles close together until they form a hot ball of gas, which is the
protostar (young star).
• As the particles are pulled close to each other, the density of the protostar increases as the
same mass has smaller volume.
• GPE is converted to KE of molecules.
• This causes more collisions between the particles causing the temperature increase.

3) Main sequence star

• As the protostar’s temperature increases, nuclear fusion starts to
take place in the core of the star. Nuclear fusion is the fusion
(merging) of the hydrogen nuclei to form helium nuclei.
• This fusion reaction results in heat and light keeping the core hot.

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 • Expansion takes place as the temperature increases. And at this point the star is formed and it
becomes Stable Star (main sequence star).
o If the star has very large mass → blue or white star
o Smaller masses → yellow or red
• The outward force due to expansion (radiation pressure) = the inward gravitational force.

4) Red giant or supergiant

• After sometime, the main Stable Star reaches a stage that it is running out of hydrogen gas in the
core, which causes the fusion reaction to die.
• This causes the core to shrink and heat up. The core shrinks as the inwards force due to gravity is
greater than the outwards force.
• So the temperature increases as the GPE is converted to KE of the particles.
• A new series of fusion reactions occur around the core (Fusion of He atoms to form carbon atoms).
• These fusion reactions cause the outer part of the star to expand and its surface cools to form:
o Small stars → Red Giant
o Massive stars → Red Supergiant

Small and Medium Stars:

5) White Dwarf
• When the Helium is used up, the core collapses due to gravity and enough energy is released to
eject the outer layers.
• The star is converted into a White Dwarf surrounded by planetary nebula (ionized gas).
• This white dwarf starts to cool down and based on this, the amount of energy it emits decreases.
• Eventually it will cool down to a cold Black Dwarf star.

High Mass Stars:

Larger stars are much hotter than the Sun and use up their hydrogen more quickly so their lifetimes are
shorter. After forming Red Supergiants and the helium fuses to form carbon. Then the core collapses
more and the Fusion of carbon starts to form heavier elements as iron.

Finaly, nuclear fusion stops and supernova explosion happens.

5) Supernova
• A gigantic explosion causing huge increase in the star’s brightness and temperature.
• Now it is called Supernova.
• Temperature is high enough for fusion of nuclei into many heavier elements than iron.
• it forms nebula

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 6) Neutron Star or a Black Hole
• After Supernova happens, there are two scenarios:

➢ If the star is not very big: High dense Neutron Star is formed in the center of explosion.
➢ If the star is very big: A neutron star that forms at the center will continue to collapse under the
force of gravity until it forms a Black Hole (very high density that it’s gravitational field prevents
the escape of anything from its surface even light.)

Black Dwarf

Important Definitions:

Protostar: a very young star that is gathering its mass from molecular cloud (interstellar hydrogen gas).

Main sequence star: a stable star that is burning the hydrogen in its core by nuclear fusion

( The outward force due to expansion (radiation pressure) = the inward gravitational force)

Red giant: A star that is burning Helium in its core by nuclear fusion (ran out of hydrogen), this star
began by a mass fewer than eight times the mass of the Sun.

Red supergiant: A star that is burning Helium (and heavier elements) in its core by nuclear fusion (ran
out of hydrogen), this star began by a mass more than eight times the mass of the Sun.

Planetary Nebula: the gas surrounding a white dwarf star, that was the outer shell of the red giant.

White dwarf: A collapsed star after all the fuel has been used up, but it is still hot. This star began by a
mass fewer than eight times the mass of the Sun.

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Black dwarf: the final stage of a star after all the fuel has been used up and cooled down. This star
began by a mass fewer than eight times the mass of the Sun.

Supernova: The explosion of a massive star (at least eight times the mass of the Sun), as the fuel has
been run out.

Neutron Star: A collapsed star composed of neutrons, occurs after the Supernova. This star began by a
mass more than eight times the mass of the Sun.

Black hole: A collapsed star to a point where gravity is so strong, that not even light can escape, occurs
after the Supernova. This star began by a mass more than eight times the mass of the Sun.

The Universe
As we said before, the universe is composed of billions of galaxies and each galaxy contains
billions of stars. All the galaxies are receding (moving away) from the Earth “Big Bang Theory”

The Big Bang Theory

- The theory states that 14 billion
years ago, the universe was a very
small region that was extremely hot
and dense (hot/dense point).

- Then the Big Bang explosion

happened which was a giant
explosion, this explosion caused the
universe to expand from the small
single point to form the huge
universe where we are living now.

- As the universe expands, the cooler

it gets.

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 The Doppler effect

When an object emits waves, these waves are symmetrical. But if the source moves, the wave
frequency changes.

If the source is stationary: as in figure (a), waves arrive at A and B at the same rate, so both
observers hear sounds as the same frequency of the source (ex: 500Hz).

-If the source is moving towards A (approaching): the observed frequency appears higher than
the true frequency, as waves are squashed towards observer A (as shown in figure “b”).
→ so person A hears Frequency = 600Hz

-If the source is moving away from B (receding): the observed frequency appears lower than
the true frequency, as waves are spread apart indirection of B (as shown in figure “b”).
→ so person B hears Frequency = 400Hz

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 The Expansion of the Universe
➢ The Doppler effect affects all types of waves including light.
➢ Light emitted from stars and galaxies will be at a certain wavelength in the visible part of
the electromagnetic spectrum.

➢ If an object moves away from an observer

(receding)

→the wavelength of light increases, it

experiences Red-shift (it appears redder).

➢ If an object moves towards an observer

(approaching)

→the wavelength of light decreases, it

experiences Blue-shift (it appears bluer).

➢ That’s why any object moving away (receding) from the Earth in space appears redder.

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Evidence for the big bang theory
➢ Red shift of light emitted from stars
➢ Cosmic Microwave Background radiation
(CMBR)

1- Red shift of light emitted from stars:

➔ Light emitted from stars in distant
galaxies is red-shifted.
➔ The universe is expanding.
➔ The Further away the galaxy from us, the
greater the redshift “Hubble’s law”

2- Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)

During the Big Bang, a huge amount of energy was released in the form of visible light
accompanied with Gamma rays and X-rays. But due to the fact that the universe is expanding,
so these waves are being elongated (wavelength increases as the source is moving away from
us).
So these waves are found in the form of Microwaves (longer wavelength), that we call Cosmic
microwave background radiation (CMBR).

These radiations were discovered by the scientists are coming from all directions prove that the
universe is expanding (The big bang theory).

Summary:

• The detected radiation now is in

the microwave region.
o This is because over the past 14 billion
years, the radiation initially from the Big
Bang has become redshifted (its
wavelength increases) as the Universe is expanding and moving away.

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Hint: How can we check the speed and separation of a distant galaxy?

- The speed using the change in wavelength due to the redshift of its color
- The distance using the brightness of the supernova happening in this galaxy

Hubble’s Law:
The speed of recession of the galaxy “𝑣 ” is directly proportional to its distance “d” away.

The Hubble constant (𝐻𝑜 ): is defined as the ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is
𝑣
moving away from the Earth to its distance from the Earth. 𝐻𝑜 = 𝑑
The Hubble constant represents the rate at which the universe is expanding at the present
time. The value of 𝐻𝑜 = 2.2x10-18 per second.

Example: calculate the speed of recession of a galaxy that is 1 million light years away from
us. (𝐻𝑜 = 2.2x10-18 per second).

Solution: 𝑣 = 𝐻𝑜 . 𝑑 = 2.2x10-18 x (9.5x 1015) x (1x106) = 20,900 m/s

Hubble’s law shows that the most distant galaxies have higher speeds of recession away from
us. This provides evidence of the Big Bang Theory.

The age of the universe:

The Big Bang happens at the time when the galaxies were sticking to each other,
so the age of the universe is the time of the travel of galaxies since they were
touching till today.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑 1
Time = = =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑣 𝐻𝑜

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Example: Calculate the age of the universe in years
1 1
Solution: Time = = 2.2x10−18 = 4.5x1017 s
𝐻𝑜

4.5x1017
→ = 1.4 × 1010 years (14 billion years)
365×24×60×60

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Good Luck
 List of Rules
Unit 1 “Measurements and General Physics”
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔
Average =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔

𝑺
Micrometer Reading: Reading = P+ mm
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Volume of Cube = s x s x s= s3

Volume of Cuboid = L x w x h

Volume of Cylinder = π r2 h = area of cross-section x height

𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑲𝒈 𝒈
Density= ( 𝒐𝒓 )
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Average speed =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒗−𝒖)

Acceleration= (m/sec2)
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝒚𝟐−𝒚𝟏
Slope=
𝒙𝟐−𝒙𝟏

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Distance-time graphs: Slope = = Speed
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆

𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
Speed-time graph: Slope = 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
= Acceleration …. Distance = Area Under the Graph

Newton’s Second Law: F= m x a

Weight (w) = Mass (m) x gravitational acceleration (g)

Springs: Force (F) = Spring Constant (K) x Extension (x)

Moment (M) = Force (F) x perpendicular distance from the force to the pivot (d)

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 Momentum (P) = Mass (m) x Velocity (v)

Total momentum of two bodies = p1+ p2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Change in Momentum or Impulse (Δp) = mv – mu = Foce (F) x Time (T)

Collisions: total “P” before collision (P1) = total “P” after collision (P2)

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Gravitational Potential Energy: G.P.E= m x g x h

𝟏
Kinetic Energy: K.E. = x m x v2
𝟐

Work Done: WD= Force x Distance

𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲
Power = (J/s=Watt)
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
Efficiency = x100
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
Pressure = (N/m2) (Pascal)
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂

Pressure in Liquids and gases (P) = ρ . g. h

Total pressure on a liquid = liquid pressure (P) + atmospheric pressure

Unit 2 “Heat and States of Matter”:

Boyle’s Law : P1 V1 = P2 V2 …. at constant Temperature

Heat Capacity: Q = m. c. ΔT or Q = C. ΔT Q=PxT

Unit 3 “Electricity”
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸) 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝑬) 𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆 (𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚)
Current (I) = Volt (V) = 1Volt =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝑻) 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 (𝑸) 𝟏 𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃 (𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆)

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 𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑽) 𝑽
Resistance (ohms Ω) = or R =
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑨) 𝑰

𝝆. 𝑳
Resistance of a wire: R =
𝑨
Bell Buzzer
Series Connections: The current is the same, while the volt of the battery is
divided among the components according to their resistance (the higher
resistance takes higher Volt).
Total Resistance in Series circuits: R1+R2+R3

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Parallel Connections: All components take the whole EMF (Volt) of the battery,
while the current of the battery is divided among the components according to
their resistance (the higher resistance takes less current).

Total Resistance in parallel circuits:

𝑹𝟏 𝒙 𝑹𝟐 For any number of resistors:
If 2 Resistors only Rt =
𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐

𝑅1 𝑉1 𝑅1 𝑉1
Potential divider equation: = or =
𝑅2 𝑉2 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝐕𝟐
Power (Watt): P = I X V or P = 𝐈 𝟐 X R or P =
𝑹

Energy (joules) E = Power (Watt) x time (sec)

Units of Energy : J or KWh 1 KWh = 3600,000 (3.6 x106) J

Transformers:

Power Loss (P) = 𝐈 𝟐 X R

Unit 4 “Waves”:
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆
Periodic Time (T) =
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔

𝟏 𝟏
Frequency (f) = & T=
𝑻 𝒇

Wave Equation:

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Refractive Index:
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏 𝝀 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟏 𝑺𝒊𝒏 Ɵ𝟏
n= = =
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 𝝀 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝟐 𝑺𝒊𝒏 Ɵ𝟐

𝟏
For critical angle (c): angle in deep medium = 90° → n =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝐂

Speed of sound in air = 300-340 m/sec

Speed of sound in liquids= 1200-1600 m/sec

Speed of sound in solids = 4000 - 6000 m/sec

Speed of light and all electromagnetic radiations in air or Vacuum = 3X𝟏𝟎𝟖 m/sec
𝟐𝒅
Echo: Speed = m/sec
𝑻

Unit 5 “Space Physics”:

2𝜋r
𝑂𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡
Hubble’s law: the speed of recession of a galaxy
1
The age of the Universe: Time =
𝐻𝑜

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