Please note that this copy remains the intellectual property of Harper Collins Publishers Ltd

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AQA GCSE
Maths
4th Edition

Higher Student Book

Kevin Evans
Keith Gordon
Brian Speed
Michael Kent

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have checked that it broadly covers the specification and we are satisfied with the overall
quality. Full details for our approval process can be found on our website.
We approve textbooks because we know how important it is for teachers and students to
have the right resources to support their teaching and learning. However, the publisher is
ultimately responsible for the editorial control and quality of this book.
Please note that when teaching the GCSE Maths course, you must refer to AQA’s specification
as your definitive source of information. While this book has been written to match the
specification, it cannot provide complete coverage of every aspect of the course.
A wide range of other useful resources can be found on the relevant subject pages of our
website: www.aqa.org.uk

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Contents (Higher tier only material appears bold)

How to use this book 6 Ready to progress? 114

Review questions 114
1 Basic number 8
1.1 Solving real-life problems 9
5 Ratio and proportion 116
1.2 Multiplication and division with 5.1 Ratio 117
decimals 12 5.2 Direct proportion problems 125
1.3 Approximation of calculations 15 5.3 Best buys 128
1.4 Multiples, factors, prime numbers, 5.4 Compound measures 132
powers and roots 22 5.5 Compound interest and repeated
1.5 Prime factors, LCM and HCF 25 percentage change 140
1.6 Negative numbers 30 5.6 Reverse percentage (working
Worked exemplars 34 out the original amount) 143
Ready to progress? 36 Worked exemplars 146
Review questions 36 Ready to progress? 148
Review questions 148
2 Fractions, ratio and
proportion 38 6 Angles 150

2.1 One quantity as a fraction of another 39 6.1 Angle facts 151

2.2 Adding, subtracting and calculating 6.2 Triangles 154
with fractions 40 6.3 Angles in a polygon 157
2.3 Multiplying and dividing fractions 42 6.4 Regular polygons 160
2.4 Fractions on a calculator 44 6.5 Angles in parallel lines 163
2.5 Increasing and decreasing 6.6 Special quadrilaterals 166
quantities by a percentage 48 6.7 Scale drawings and bearings 168
2.6 Expressing one quantity as a Worked exemplars 174
percentage of another 51 Ready to progress? 176
Worked exemplars 54 Review questions 176
Ready to progress? 56
Review questions 56 7 Transformations,
constructions and loci 178
3 Statistical diagrams 7.1 Congruent triangles 179
and averages 58 7.2 Rotational symmetry 181
3.1 Statistical representation 59 7.3 Transformations 183
3.2 Statistical measures 65 7.4 Combinations of transformations 195
3.3 Scatter diagrams 74 7.5 Bisectors 198
Worked exemplars 79 7.6 Defining a locus 201
Ready to progress? 82 7.7 Loci problems 203
Review questions 82 7.8 Plans and elevations 208
Worked exemplars 212
Ready to progress? 214
4 Number and sequences 86
Review questions 214
4.1 Patterns in number 87
4.2 Number sequences 89 8 Algebraic manipulation 216
4.3 Finding the nth term of a linear
sequence 92 8.1 Basic algebra 217
4.4 Special sequences 95 8.2 Factorisation 223
4.5 General rules from given patterns 100 8.3 Quadratic expansion 225
4.6 The nth term of a quadratic 8.4 Expanding squares 231
sequence 105 8.5 More than two binomials 232
4.7 Finding the nth term for quadratic 8.6 Quadratic factorisation 235
sequences 108 8.7 Factorising ax2 + bx + c 239
Worked exemplars 113 8.8 Changing the subject of a formula 241

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Worked exemplars 244 12 Similarity 344

Ready to progress? 246
Review questions 246 12.1 Similar triangles 345
12.2 Areas and volumes of similar shapes 351
Worked exemplars 358
9 Length, area and volume 248
Ready to progress? 361
9.1 Circumference and area of Review questions 361
a circle 249
9.2 Area of a parallelogram 252 13 Exploring and applying
9.3 Area of a trapezium 253 probability 362
9.4 Sectors 256
9.5 Volume of a prism 259 13.1 Experimental probability 363
9.6 Cylinders 262 13.2 Mutually exclusive and exhaustive
9.7 Volume of a pyramid 264 outcomes 368
9.8 Cones 266 13.3 Expectation 372
9.9 Spheres 268 13.4 Probability and two-way tables 374
Worked exemplars 270 13.5 Probability and Venn diagrams 377
Ready to progress? 272 Worked exemplars 382
Review questions 272 Ready to progress? 384
Review questions 384
10 Linear graphs 274
14 Powers and standard form 386
10.1 Drawing linear graphs from points 275
14.1 Powers (indices) 387
10.2 Gradient of a line 278
14.2 Rules for multiplying and dividing
10.3 Drawing graphs by gradient-
powers 389
intercept and cover-up methods 282
14.3 Standard form 391
10.4 Finding the equation of a line
Worked exemplars 399
from its graph 286
Ready to progress? 400
10.5 Real-life uses of graphs 290
Review questions 400
10.6 Solving simultaneous equations
using graphs 295
10.7 Parallel and perpendicular lines 297
15 Equations and inequalities 402
Worked exemplars 300 15.1 Linear equations 403
Ready to progress? 302 15.2 Elimination method for
Review questions 302 simultaneous equations 408
15.3 Substitution method for
11 Right-angled triangles 304 simultaneous equations 410
15.4 Balancing coefficients to solve
11.1 Pythagoras’ theorem 305 simultaneous equations 411
11.2 Finding the length of a shorter side 307 15.5 Using simultaneous equations
11.3 Applying Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems 413
in real-life situations 309 15.6 Linear inequalities 416
11.4 Pythagoras’ theorem and isosceles 15.7 Graphical inequalities 421
triangles 311 15.8 Trial and improvement 426
11.5 Pythagoras’ theorem in three Worked exemplars 430
dimensions 314 Ready to progress? 432
11.6 Trigonometric ratios 316 Review questions 432
11.7 Calculating angles 319
11.8 Using the sine and cosine functions 321 16 Counting, accuracy,
11.9 Using the tangent function 326
11.10 Which ratio to use 328 powers and surds 436
11.11 Solving problems using trigonometry 332 16.1 Rational numbers, reciprocals,
11.12 Trigonometry and bearings 336 terminating and recurring decimals 437
11.13 Trigonometry and isosceles 16.2 Estimating powers and roots 440
triangles 338 16.3 Negative and fractional powers 442
Worked exemplars 340 16.4 Surds 447
Ready to progress? 342 16.5 Limits of accuracy 452
Review questions 342 16.6 Problems involving limits of accuracy 455

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16.7 Choices and outcomes 459 21 Variation 578

Worked exemplars 465
Ready to progress? 466 21.1 Direct proportion 579
Review questions 466 21.2 Inverse proportion 585
Worked exemplars 590
17 Quadratic equations 468 Ready to progress? 592
Review questions 592
17.1 Plotting quadratic graphs 469
17.2 Solving quadratic equations by
factorisation 472
22 Triangles 594
17.3 Solving a quadratic equation by 22.1 Further 2D problems 595
using the quadratic formula 478 22.2 Further 3D problems 598
17.4 Solving quadratic equations by 22.3 Trigonometric ratios of angles
completing the square 481 between 0° and 360° 602
17.5 The significant points of a quadratic 22.4 Solving any triangle 609
curve 485 22.5 Using sine to calculate the area
17.6 Solving one linear and one non-linear of a triangle 619
equation using graphs 490 Worked exemplars 622
17.7 Solving quadratic equations by the Ready to progress? 624
method of intersection 492 Review questions 624
17.8 Solving linear and non-linear
simultaneous equations algebraically 496 23 Graphs 626
17.9 Quadratic inequalities 499
23.1 Distance–time graphs 627
Worked exemplars 502
23.2 Velocity–time graphs 633
Ready to progress? 504
23.3 Estimating the area under a curve 638
Review questions 504
23.4 Rates of change 641
23.5 Equation of a circle 644
18 Sampling and more 23.6 Other graphs 647
complex diagrams 506 23.7 Transformations of the graph y = f (x) 653
18.1 Collecting data 507 Worked exemplars 659
18.2 Frequency polygons 510 Ready to progress? 661
18.3 Cumulative frequency graphs 514 Review questions 661
18.4 Box plots 520
18.5 Histograms 524 24 Algebraic fractions
Worked exemplars 531 and functions 664
Ready to progress? 533
Review questions 533 24.1 Algebraic fractions 665
24.2 Changing the subject of a formula 670
19 Combined events 536 24.3 Functions 672
24.4 Composite functions 675
19.1 Addition rules for outcomes of events 537 24.5 Iteration 676
19.2 Combined events 539 Worked exemplars 680
19.3 Tree diagrams 542 Ready to progress? 682
19.4 Independent events 547 Review questions 682
19.5 Conditional probability 550
Worked exemplars 553 25 Vector geometry 684
Ready to progress? 554
Review questions 554 25.1 Properties of vectors 685
25.2 Vectors in geometry 690
20 Properties of circles 556 Worked exemplars 696
Ready to progress? 698
20.1 Circle theorems 557 Review questions 698
20.2 Cyclic quadrilaterals 564
20.3 Tangents and chords 567 Glossary 700
20.4 Alternate segment theorem 571
Worked exemplars 574 Index 708
Ready to progress? 576
Review questions 576 Answers 718

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How to use this book

Welcome to Collins AQA GCSE Maths 4th Edition Higher Student Book. You will find a number of features in the
book that will help you with your course of study.

Chapter overview 1 Number: Basic number 1.1 Solving real-life problems

This section will show you how to:
• solve problems set in a real-life context.

During your maths course, you will meet many problems

set in real-life contexts. You will have to read them carefully,
think about and then plan a strategy. This may involve
arithmetical skills such as long multiplication and long
Key terms
column method (or traditional method)
grid method (or box method)
long multiplication
long division

See what maths you will be doing, what skills

division. You may need to work out the answers with or strategy
without a calculator.
There are several ways to do long multiplication or long division with using a calculator, so make sure

you will learn and how you can build on what

you are familiar with them and confident using at least one method.
The first example shows both the grid method (or box method) and the standard column method
This chapter is going to show you: (or traditional method) for long multiplication. The second example shows one method for long
division. In this type of problem it is important to show your working, as you will get marks for

you already know.

• how to calculate with integers and decimals
correct methods.
• how to round numbers to a given number of significant figures
• how to work out and recognise multiples, factors, prime numbers
and squares, cubes and their roots A supermarket receives a delivery of 235 cases of tins of beans. Each case contains 24 tins.

Example 1
• how to find the prime factors of a number a How many tins of beans does the supermarket receive altogether?
• how to work out lowest common multiples (LCM)
b 5% of the tins were damaged. These were thrown away. The supermarket knows that it sells,
• how to work out highest common factors (HCF) on average, 250 tins of beans a day. How many days will the delivery of beans last before a
• how to calculate with negative numbers. new delivery is needed?
a The number of tins is worked out by the multiplication 235 × 24.
Using the grid method

About this chapter

You should already know:
× 200 30 5 400 0
• how to add, subtract, multiply and divide with integers
60 0
• what multiples, factors, square numbers and prime numbers are 20 4000 600 100 10 0
• the BIDMAS/BODMAS rule and how to substitute values into 80 0
simple algebraic expressions. 12 0
4 800 120 20 + 2 0
564 0

Maths has numerous everyday uses. This About this chapter

Most jobs require some knowledge of mathematics. For any job, you
Using the column method

×
235
24

section puts the chapter’s mathematical skills should be competent in the basic number skills of addition, subtraction, 940
multiplication and division, using whole numbers, fractions and 4700
decimals. You should know when it is sensible to use estimation or 5640

and knowledge into context, historically and

approximation and when it is important to have exact answers. So the answer is 5640 tins.
You need to be able to identify the skills required when questions are b 10% of 5640 is 564, so 5% is 564 ÷ 2 = 282.
set in real-life situations, in preparation for the world of work. Here This leaves 5640 – 282 = 5358 tins to be sold.

for the modern world.

are some examples of mathematical problems faced in a range of jobs:
cashiers need to know what coins to give in change; pilots need to There are 21 lots of 250 in 5358 (you should know that 4 × 250 = 1000), so the beans will last
for 21 days before another delivery is needed.
work out how much fuel they need and what direction to fly the plane;
delivery drivers need to work out their best route to save time and fuel;
doctors need to know how much medicine to prescribe for different
ages and weights of patients.
How many other jobs can you think of that require mathematics?

2 1.1 Solving real-life problems 3

This section will show you …

Detailed learning objectives show you the
skills you will learn in that section.

17.3 Solving a Quadratic Equation A rectangle has sides of x m and (x + 4) m. Its area is 100 m2. Find the perimeter of the rectangle,
Example 9

Key terms and glossary

correct to 1 decimal place.
by using the Quadratic Formula So x(x + 4) = 100 → x2 + 4x – 100 = 0
Put a = 1, b = 4 and c = – 100 into the quadratic formula, which gives
This section will show you how to: Key terms
solve a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula x = − ( 4) ± ( 4 )2 − 4 ( 1) ( −100 )
coefficient 2 ( 1)
recognise why some quadratic equations cannot be solved

Learn the important words you need to know.

constant term
x = −4 ± 16 + 400
=
− 4 ± 416
Many quadratic equations cannot be solved by factorisation quadratic formula 2 2
because they do not have simple factors. For example, try to x = – 12.198 or 8.198
factorise x2 – 4x – 3 = 0 or 3x2 – 6x + 2 = 0. soluble

The explanations for the words in bold in the

Since x is the length of the side of a rectangle, it cannot be negative, so the only valid answer
One way to solve this type of equation is to use the quadratic discriminant is 8.198.
formula. You can use this formula to solve any quadratic The other side of the rectangle is 8.198 + 4 = 12.198.
equation that is soluble. (Some are not, which the quadratic

text can be found in the glossary at the back

formula would immediately show. You will learn about this later in this section.) The perimeter of the rectangle is 2(8.198 + 12.198) = 40.8 cm (1 decimal place).

The solution of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by:

−b ± b − 4 ac

of the book.
2
x=
2a EXERCISE 17D
where a and b are the coefficients of x2 and x respectively and c is the constant term. 1 Use the quadratic formula to solve these equations, giving your answers to
This is the quadratic formula. 2 decimal places.
The symbol ± states that the square root has a positive and a negative value, and you must use both of a 2x2 + x – 8 = 0 b x2 – x – 10 = 0 c 7x2 + 12x + 2 = 0
them in solving for x. d 6x2 + 22x + 19 = 0 e x2 + 3x – 6 = 0 f 4x2 + 5x = 3
g 4x2 – 9x + 4 = 0 h 7x2 + 3x = 2 i 5x2 + 1 = 10x
Solve 5x2 – 11x – 4 = 0, giving solutions correct to 2 decimal places.
Example 8

Hints and tips Use brackets when substituting and do not try to work two

Examples
things out at the same time.
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Substitute a = 5, b = – 11 and c = – 4 into the formula: x =
2a
PS 2 A rectangular lawn is 2 M longer than it is wide.
− ( −11) ± ( −11)2 − 4 ( 5) ( − 4 ) The area of the lawn is 21 m2. The gardener wants to edge the lawn with edging strips,
So x =
2 ( 5) 1
which are sold in lengths of 1 2 m. How many will she need to buy?
Note: Using brackets can help you to avoid arithmetic errors. A common error is to write

Understand the topic before you start the

– 112 is – 121. MR 3 Shaun is solving a quadratic equation, using the formula.

11 ± 121 + 80 11 ± 201 He correctly substitutes values for a, b and c to get:

x= =
10 10 3 ± 37
x=

exercise by reading the examples in blue boxes.

2
x = 2.52 or – 0.32
What is the equation Shaun is trying to solve?
Note: The calculation has been done in stages. You can also work out the answer with
a calculator, but make sure you can use it properly. If not, break the calculation down. CM 4 Terry uses the quadratic formula to solve 4x2 – 4x + 1 = 0.

These take you through questions step by step.

Remember the rule ‘if you try to do two things at once, you will probably get one of June uses factorisation to solve 4x2 – 4x + 1 = 0.
them wrong’.
They both find something unusual in their solutions.
Explain what this is, and why.

5 Solve the equation x + 3x = 7. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.

PS 6 The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 2.05. What are the two numbers?

Hints and tips The reciprocal of the fraction a is b .

Exercises
b a

12 17 Algebra: Quadratic Equations 17.3 Solving a Quadratic Equation by using the Quadratic Formula 13

Once you have worked through the examples

you will be ready to tackle the exercises. There
are plenty of questions, carefully designed to
provide you with enough practice to become
fluent.

Hints and tips

These are provided where extra guidance can
save you time or help you out.

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Colour-coded questions
The questions in the exercises and the review
questions are colour-coded, to show you how
difficult they are. Most exercises start with more
accessible questions and progress through
intermediate to more challenging questions.

Express 25 minutes : 1 hour as a ratio in its simplest form. 5 Dave and Sue share a pizza in the ratio of 2 : 3. They eat it all.

Mathematical skills
Example 1

The units must be the same, so change 1 hour into 60 minutes. 25 minutes : 1 hour a What fraction of the pizza did Dave eat?
= 25 minutes : 60 minutes b What fraction of the pizza did Sue eat?
Cancel the units (minutes). = 25 : 60 6 7
of a campsite is allocated to caravans. The rest is allocated to tents. Write the ratio
10

As you progress you will be expected to absorb

Divide both sides by 5. = 5 : 12 of space allocated in the form caravans : tents.
So, 25 minutes : 1 hour simplifies to 5 : 12.
7 Amy gets 23 of a packet of sweets. Her sister Susan gets the rest. Work out the ratio of
sweets that each sister gets. Write it in the form Amy : Susan.

Ratios as fractions
You can express ratios as fractions by using the total number of parts in the ratio as the denominator
8 a The recipe for a fruit punch is 1.25 litres of fruit crush to 6.25 litres of lemonade.
What fraction of the punch is each ingredient? new ways of thinking and working mathematically.
Some questions are designed to help you develop
(bottom number) of each fraction. Then use the numbers in the ratio as the numerators. If the ratio is b How much fruit crush will you need to mix with 2 litres of lemonade?
in its simplest form, the fractions will not cancel.
Always cancel the ratio to its simplest form before converting it to fractions. Hints and tips Set up a table.

A garden is divided into lawn and shrubs in the ratio 3 : 2. c You have half a litre of fruit crush. How much lemonade will you need?
a specific skill. Look for the icons:
Example 2

What fraction of the garden is covered by: a lawn b shrubs? 9 In a safari park at feeding time, the elephants, lions and chimpanzees are given food
in the ratio 10 to 7 to 3. What fraction of the total food is given to:
The denominator (bottom number) of the fraction is the total number of parts in the ratio each
a the elephants b the lions c the chimpanzees?

Mathematical reasoning – you need to

time (that is, 2 + 3 = 5).
a The 3 in the ratio becomes the numerator.

b The 2 in the ratio becomes the numerator.

The lawn covers

The shrubs cover

3
5
of the garden.
2
of the garden.
10 The recipe for a pudding is 125 g of sugar, 150 g of flour, 100 g of margarine and 175 g
of fruit. What fraction of the pudding made up by each ingredient? MR
apply your skills and draw conclusions from
5
MR 11 3
Andy plays 16 bowls matches. He wins 4
of them.
He plays another x matches and wins them all.
Exercise 5A
mathematical information.
The ratio of wins : losses is now 4 : 1.
Work out the value of x.
1 Express each ratio in its simplest form.
a 6 : 18 b 15 : 20 c 16 : 24 d 24 : 36 MR 12 Three brothers share some money.
e 20 to 50 f 12 to 30 g 25 to 40 h 125 to 30 The ratio of Mark’s share to David’s share is 1 : 2.
The ratio of David’s share to Paul’s share is 1 : 2.
2 Write each ratio of quantities in its simplest form

CM Communicate mathematically – you need to

What is the ratio of Mark’s share to Paul’s share?
a £5 to £15 b £24 to £16 c 125 g to 300 g
d 40 minutes : 5 minutes e 34 kg to 30 kg f £2.50 to 70p EV 13 Three brothers, Jarek, Jerzy and Justyn, share a block of chocolate in the ratio of their
3

show how you have arrived at your answer

g 3 kg to 750 g h 50 minutes to 1 hour i 1 hour to 1 day ages. Jarek gets half of the bar. Jerzy gets 5
of the rest.
a Work out the ratio, in the form Jarek : Jerzy : Justyn, of how the brothers share the
bar of chocolate.
Hints and tips Remember as to express both parts in a common unit before

by using mathematical arguments.

b Justyn is 8 years old. How old is Jarek?
you simplify.
EV 14 Three cows, Gertrude, Gladys and Henrietta, produced milk in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4.
3 Henrietta produced 1 1 litres more than Gladys. How much milk did the three cows
A length of wood is cut into two pieces in the ratio 3 : 7. What fraction of the original 2
length is the longer piece? produce altogether?

4 Jack and Thomas find a bag of marbles. They share the marbles in the ratio of their
CM 15 In a garden, the area is divided into lawn, vegetables and flowers in the ratio 3 : 2 : 1.

PS Problem solving and making connections –

ages. Jack is 10 years old and Thomas is 15 years old. What fraction of the marbles did If one-third of the lawn is dug up and replaced by flowers, what is the ratio of lawn :
Jack get? vegetables : flowers now? Give your answer as a ratio in its simplest form.

4 5 Ratio and proportion: Ratio, proportion and rates of change 5.1 Ratio 5 you need to devise a strategy to answer the
question, based on the information you are
given.
EV Evaluate and interpret – your answer needs
to show that you have considered the
information you are given and commented
upon it.

Worked exemplars
CM 1 The inside of the back of a van is a cuboid that is 2.10 m wide, 4.20 m long and 3.10 m high.
a Show that a pole that is 5.25 m long will not fit in the van if
it is laid on the floor.
Worked exemplars
b Show that a pole that is 5.25 m long can be fitted in the
back of the van.

4.20 m
3.10 m

2.10 m
Develop your mathematical skills with detailed
This is a communicating mathematics question where you have to assess the validity
commentaries walking you through how to
of an argument.
a You need to find the diagonal length
of the floor in order to assess the
approach a range of questions.
statement given. Show the calculation
using Pythagoras’ theorem and then
4.2
assess the statement.
Don’t just say the statement is wrong:

Ready to progress?
give a clear reason for your conclusion.
2.10

The length, c, of the diagonal of the

Ready to progress?
floor is:
I can find the output of a function given an input.
2.12 + 4.22 = c2
c= ( 2.12 + 4.22 ) = 4.7 m
This is shorter than the pole, so the ladder
will not fit on the floor in the van.
I can rearrange more complicated formulae where the subject may appear twice or as a power.
Review what you have learnt from the
chapter with this colour-coded summary
I can find an inverse function by rearranging.
b Let the length of the diagonal of the You need to find the diagonal length of I can find a composite function by combining two functions together.
van be d m. the van. Use a diagram to help identify I can combine and simplify algebraic fractions.

to check you are on track throughout the

the sides to use. I can use iteration to find a solution to an equation to an appropriate degree of accuracy.
Use Pythagoras’ theorem in 3D to make
sure you don’t round too early.

course.
3.10 d
After finding the length, assess the
statement and give a clear reason for
your conclusion.
Review questions
1 f (x) = 20 – 3x2. Find the value of f (–2).
floor diagonal

d = ( 4.22 + 2.12 + 3.12 )

2 a Make x the subject of the formula 6x – K = a – Cx.
b Hence find the value of x when a = 5, K = –12 and C = –8.

Review questions
= 5.627 m
The diagonal of the van is 37.7 cm longer 3 x 9
a Write f (x) = − as a single fraction in its simplest form.
than the pole so the pole can be put in x − 3 x ( x − 3)
diagonally. b Hence find the inverse function f –1(x).
4 21x 2 − 7 x
Simplify fully .
9x2 − 1
EV 5 The iterative formula xn + 1 = 6 xn + 13 can be used to solve the equation x = 6x + 13.
5 3

a Starting with x1 = 2.5, find the first four iterations, all correct to 2 decimal places.
5 3

Practise what you have learnt in all of the

previous chapters and put your mathematical
b Find x5 correct to 2 decimal places and compare it with x4.
340 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles CM 6 f (x) = 3x + 8 g(x) = x3 + 2

skills to the test. Questions range from accessible

a Find a simplified expression for fg(x).
13810_P304_343.indd 340 12/10/14 5:49 PM b Using the expression from part a, verify that fg(3) = 95.

through to more challenging.

7 Find the inverse of each function.
a
a f (x) = px – q b f (x) = a – x3 c f (x) = x + c

( )
2
MR 8 f (x) = 2+ x .
a Find the value of:
i f (0) ii ff (0) iii fff (0) iv ffff (0) v fffff (0).
b Find the nth term of the sequence given by the answers to part a.
CM 9 Show, by iteration, that a solution of the equation x3 = 2x + 2 is given by 1.77, correct
to 2 decimal places.

a Simplify f(x) = 2 x 2 + 3 x − 14 .
2
10
x − 5x + 6

g(x) = 12 − x
2

x
b Solve gf(x) = 1.

20 24 Algebra: Algebraic fractions and functions

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1 Number: Basic number

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to calculate with integers and decimals
• how to round numbers to a given number of significant figures
• how to work out and recognise multiples, factors, prime numbers
and squares, cubes and their roots
• how to find the prime factors of a number
• how to work out lowest common multiples (LCM)
• how to work out highest common factors (HCF)
• how to calculate with negative numbers.

You should already know:

• how to add, subtract, multiply and divide with integers
• what multiples, factors, square numbers and prime numbers are
• the BIDMAS/BODMAS rule and how to substitute values into
simple algebraic expressions.

About this chapter

Most jobs require some knowledge of mathematics. For any job, you
should be competent in the basic number skills of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, using whole numbers, fractions and
decimals. You should know when it is sensible to use estimation or
approximation and when it is important to have exact answers.
You need to be able to identify the skills required when questions are
set in real-life situations, in preparation for the world of work. Here
are some examples of mathematical problems faced in a range of jobs:
cashiers need to know what coins to give in change; pilots need to
work out how much fuel they need and what direction to fly the plane;
delivery drivers need to work out their best route to save time and fuel;
doctors need to know how much medicine to prescribe for different
ages and weights of patients.
How many other jobs can you think of that require mathematics?

8
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1.1 Solving real-life problems

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve problems set in a real-life context. column method (or traditional method)
grid method (or box method)
During your maths course, you will meet many problems
set in real-life contexts. You will have to read them carefully, long division
think about and then plan a strategy. This may involve long multiplication
arithmetical skills such as long multiplication and long
division. You may need to work out the answers with or strategy
without a calculator.
There are several ways to do long multiplication or long division without using a calculator, so make
sure you are familiar with them and confident in using at least one method.
The first example shows both the grid method (or box method) and the standard column method
(or traditional method) for long multiplication. The second example shows one method for long
division. In this type of problem it is important to show your working, as you will get marks for
correct methods.

A supermarket receives a delivery of 235 cases of tins of beans. Each case contains 24 tins.
Example 1

a How many tins of beans does the supermarket receive altogether?

b 5% of the tins were damaged. These were thrown away. The supermarket knows that it sells,
on average, 250 tins of beans a day. How many days will the delivery of beans last before a
new delivery is needed?
a The number of tins is worked out by the multiplication 235 × 24.
Using the grid method

× 200 30 5 4000
600
20 4000 600 100 100
800
120
4 800 120 20 + 20
5640
Using the column method
235
× 24
940
4700
5640
So the answer is 5640 tins.
b 10% of 5640 is 564, so 5% is 564 ÷ 2 = 282.
This leaves 5640 – 282 = 5358 tins to be sold.
There are 21 lots of 250 in 5358 (you should know that 4 × 250 = 1000), so the beans will last
for 21 days before another delivery is needed.

1.1 Solving real-life problems 9

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Example 2 A party of 613 children and 59 adults are going on a day out to a theme park.
a How many coaches, each holding 53 people, will be needed?
b One adult gets into the theme park free for every 15 children. How many adults will have to
pay to get in?
a Altogether there are 613 + 59 = 672 people. 12
So the number of coaches needed is 672 ÷ 53 (number of seats on 53 ) 672
each coach). 530
142
The answer is 12 remainder 36. So, there will be 12 full coaches and one 106
coach with 36 people on it. They would have to book 13 coaches. 36
b This is also a division, 613 ÷ 15. It is useful if you know the 15 times table.
As 4 × 15 = 60, 40 × 15 = 600. This leaves a remainder of 13. So 40 adults
get in free and 59 – 40 = 19 adults will have to pay.

Exercise 1A
1 There are 48 cans of soup in a crate. A supermarket had a delivery of 125 crates
of soup.
a How many cans of soup were in this delivery?
b The supermarket is running a promotion on soup. If you buy five cans, you get one
free. Each can costs 39p. How much will it cost to get 32 cans of soup?

2 Greystones Primary School has 12 classes, each of which has 24 students.

a How many students are there at Greystones Primary School?
b The teacher to student ratio at the school is 1 : 18. How many teachers are there at
the school?

3 Exeter City Football Club is organising travel for an away game. 1300 adults and
500 juniors want to go. Each coach holds 48 people and costs £320 to hire. Tickets to
the match cost £18 for adults and £10 for juniors.
a How many coaches will be needed?
b The club is charging adults £26 and juniors £14 for travel and a ticket. How much
profit does the club make out of the trip?

MR 4 Kirsty collects small models of animals. Last time she bought some, each one cost
45p. She saves enough to buy 23 models but, when she goes to the shop, she finds
that the price has gone up to 55p. How many can she buy now?

5 The magazine MTB Biker comes out every month. In a newsagent the magazine costs
£2.45. The annual (yearly) subscription for the magazine is £21. How much cheaper is
each magazine when bought on subscription?

6 Paula buys a sofa. She pays a deposit of 10% of the cash price and then 36 monthly
payments of £12.50. In total she pays £495. How much was the cash price of the sofa?

7 There are 125 people at a wedding. They need to get to the reception.
52 people are going by coach and the rest are travelling in cars. Each car can take up
to five people.
What is the least number of cars needed to take everyone to the reception?

10 1 Number: Basic number

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PS 8 A fish pond in a shop contains 240 fish.

Each week the manager has a delivery from one supplier of 45 new fish that he adds
to the pond.
On average he sells 62 fish each week. When his stock falls below 200 fish, he buys in
extra fish from a different supplier. After how many weeks will he need to buy in
extra fish?

9 A baker supplies bread rolls to a catering company.

The bread rolls are sold in packs of 24 for £1.99 per pack. The catering company want
500 fresh rolls each day. How much will the bill be for one week, assuming they do
not work on Sundays?

MR 10 Gavin’s car does 8 miles to each litre of petrol. He does 12 600 miles a year, of which
4600 are on company business.
Petrol costs £1.35 per litre.
Insurance and servicing costs £800 a year.
Gavin’s company gives him an allowance of 40p for each mile he drives on
company business.
How much does Gavin pay towards running his car each year?

EV 11 Here are four students’ methods for working out the calculation 32 × 51.

a Which student has worked out the correct answer?

b Three of the students have made mistakes. What are their mistakes?

1.1 Solving real-life problems 11

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1.2 Multiplication and division

with decimals Key terms
This section will show you how to: decimal place decimal point
• multiply a decimal number by another decimal number
• divide by a decimal by changing the calculation to division by an integer.

The number system is extended by using decimal numbers to represent fractions. The decimal point
separates the decimal fraction from the whole-number part.
For example, the number 25.374 means:
Tens Units Tenths Hundredths Thousandths
1 1 1
10 1 10 100 1000

2 5 . 3 7 4

You can already use decimal notation to express amounts of money. For example:
£32.67 means 3 × £10
2 × £1
6 × £0.10 (10 pence)
7 × £0.01 (1 penny)

Decimal places
When you write a number in decimal form, the positions of the digits to the right of the decimal point
are called decimal places (dp). For example:
79.4 is written ‘with one decimal place’
6.83 is written ‘with two decimal places’
0.526 is written ‘with three decimal places’.
These are the steps to round a decimal number to a particular number of decimal places.
• Start at the decimal point and count along the decimal places. Look at the first digit that needs to
be removed.
• When the value of this digit is less than 5, just remove the unwanted digits.
• When the value of this digit is 5 or more, add 1 to round up the digit in the previous decimal place,
then remove the unwanted digits.

Round these numbers.

Example 3

a 5.852 to 2 dp b 7.156 to 2 dp
c 0.274 to 1 dp d 15.3518 to 1 dp
a 5.852 rounds to 5.85 to 2 dp. b 7.156 rounds to 7.16 to 2 dp.
c 0.274 rounds to 0.3 to 1 dp. d 15.3518 rounds to 15.4 to 1 dp.

12 1 Number: Basic number

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Multiplying two decimal numbers together

Follow these steps to multiply one decimal number by another decimal number.
Step 1: Multiply each decimal by a power of 10 to make it into a whole number.
Step 2: Multiply the two whole numbers.
Step 3: Multiply together the powers of 10 from step 1.
Step 4: Divide the product of the numbers from step 2 by the power of 10 from step 3.

Work out this decimal multiplication. 3.42 × 2.7

Example 4

Multiply each number by a power of 10 to make it into a whole number.

3.42 × 100 = 342 and 2.7 × 10 = 27.
Multiply the whole numbers together.
342
× 27
2394
6840
9234

Multiply the powers of 10 (100 and 10) together. 100 × 10 = 1000

Divide 9234 by this power of 10. 9234 ÷ 1000 = 9.234
So, 3.42 × 2.7 = 9.234.

Dividing by a decimal
Look at the number you are dividing by. Decide what multiple of 10 (10, 100, 1000…) you would need
to multiply it by, to make it a whole number or integer.
Then multiply both parts of the division by that multiple of 10.

Work these out. a 42 ÷ 0.2 b 19.8 ÷ 0.55

Example 5

a The calculation is 42 ÷ 0.2, which can b 19.8 ÷ 0.55 = 198 ÷ 5.5

be rewritten as 420 ÷ 2. In this case both = 1980 ÷ 55
values have been multiplied by 10 to
make the divisor into a whole number. This becomes a long division problem that
Then divide normally. The answer is 210. can be solved using the method of repeated
subtraction.
Another way to view this is as a fraction
problem. 1980
– 1 1 0 0 20 × 55
42 = 42 × 10 880
0.2 0.2 10 – 440 8 × 55
440
= 420
2 – 440 8 × 55
0 36 × 55
= 210
1
So, 19.8 ÷ 0.55 = 36.
= 210

1.2 Multiplication and division with decimals 13

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Exercise 1B
1 Round each number to the number of decimal places (dp) indicated.
a 4.568 (1 dp) b 0.0832 (2 dp) c 45.715 93 (3 dp) d 94.8531 (2 dp)
e 602.099 (1 dp) f 671.7629 (2 dp) g 7.1124 (1 dp) h 6.903 54 (3 dp)
i 13.7809 (2 dp) j 0.075 11 (1 dp) k 4.001 84 (3 dp) l 59.983 (1 dp)
2 Work these out.
a 0.14 × 0.2 b 0.3 × 0.3 c 5.6 × 9.1 d 9.12 × 5.1
3 For each part of this question:
i estimate the answer by first rounding each number to the nearest whole number
ii calculate the exact answer
iii calculate the difference between your answers to parts i and ii.
a 4.8 × 7.3 b 2.4 × 7.6 c 15.3 × 3.9 d 19.8 × 7.1
4 Work these out.
a 3.6 ÷ 0.2 b 56 ÷ 0.4 c 0.42 ÷ 0.3
d 8.4 ÷ 0.7 e 3.45 ÷ 0.5
5 Work these out.
a 67.2 ÷ 0.24 b 6.36 ÷ 0.53 c 132 ÷ 0.55
d 162 ÷ 0.36 e 2.17 ÷ 3.5
MR 6 a Use any method to work out 26 × 22.
b Use your answer to part a to work these out.
i 2.6 × 2.2 ii 1.3 × 1.1 iii 2.6 × 8.8

EV 7 Lee and Tracey are trying to work out the answer to 8.6 × 4.7.
a Lee says the answer is 40.24. Without working it out, can you tell whether his
answer is correct?
b Tracey says the answer is 46.42. Without working it out, can you tell whether her
answer is correct?
In each part, show how you decided.

8 Doris buys a big bag of safety pins. The bag weighs 180 g. Each safety pin weighs 0.6 g.
How many safety pins are in the bag?

MR 9 a Use any method to work out: 81 ÷ 3.

b Use your answer to part a to work these out.
i 8.1 ÷ 0.3 ii 0.81 ÷ 30 iii 0.081 ÷ 0.3
PS 10 Mark went shopping. He went into three stores and bought one item from
each store.
Music shop Clothes shop Book shop
CDs £5.98 Shirt £12.50 Magazine £2.25
DVDs £7.99 Jeans £32.00 Pen £3.98

In total he spent £43.97. What did he buy?

14 1 Number: Basic number

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EV 11 The largest crowd to watch a match at Wembley was 89 874 for the Cup Final in 2008.
Here are three headlines from the newspapers the following day.
A: Wembley crowd a record – capacity of 90 000 almost reached.
B: A record crowd of 89 874 watch the Cup Final.
C: New Wembley record: 1345 more watched the Cup Final than the previous
best attendance.
Comment on the usefulness of each headline.

1.3 Approximation of calculations

This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• round to a given number of significant figures
approximate significant figure
• approximate the result before multiplying two numbers
together
• approximate the result before dividing two numbers
• round a calculation, at the end of a problem, to give what is considered to be a sensible answer.

Rounding to significant figures

You often use significant figures (sf) when you want to approximate a number with quite a few digits in
it. You will use this technique in estimations.
Look at this table, which shows some numbers rounded to one, two and three significant figures.

One sf 8 50 200 90 000 0.000 07 0.003 0.4

Two sf 67 4.8 0.76 45 000 730 0.0067 0.40
Three sf 312 65.9 40.3 0.0761 7.05 0.003 01 0.400

The steps taken to round a number to a given number of significant figures are very similar to those
used for rounding to a given number of decimal places.
• From the left, count the digits. If you are rounding to 2 sf, count two digits, for 3 sf count
three digits, and so on. When the original number is less than 1, start counting from the first
non-zero digit.
• Look at the next digit to the right. When the value of this next digit is less than 5, leave the digit you
counted to the same. However, if the value of this next digit is equal to or greater than 5, add 1 to
round up the digit you counted to.
• Ignore all the other digits, but put in enough zeros to keep the number the right size (value).
For example, this table shows some numbers rounded to 1, 2 and 3 significant figures, respectively.

Number Rounded to 1 sf Rounded to 2 sf Rounded to 3 sf

45 281 50 000 45 000 45 300
568.54 600 570 569
7.3782 7 7.4 7.38
8054 8000 8100 8050
99.8721 100 100 99.9
0.7002 0.7 0.70 0.700

1.3 Approximation of calculations 15

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Exercise 1C
1 Round each number to 1 significant figure.
a 46 313 b 85 299 c 30 569 d 199 e 0.5388
f 0.00584 g 0.2823 h 9.9 i 0.047 85 j 999.99
2 Round each number to 2 significant figures.
a 56 147 b 79 611 c 30 578 d 1.689 e 0.0658
f 0.458 g 4.0854 h 8.0089 i 0.9996 j 0.8006
3 Round each number to the number of significant figures (sf) indicated.
a 57 402 (1 sf) b 5288 (2 sf) c 89.67 (3 sf) d 105.6 (2 sf)
e 8.69 (1 sf) f 1.087 (2 sf) g 0.261 (1 sf) h 0.732 (1 sf)
4 What are the least and the greatest numbers of sweets that can be found in
these jars?

a b c

70 100 1000
sweets sweets sweets
(to 1sf) (to 1sf) (to 1sf)

5 What are the least and the greatest numbers of people that live in these towns?
Elsecar population 800 (to 1 significant figure)
Hoyland population 1200 (to 2 significant figures)
Barnsley population 165 000 (to 3 significant figures)

PS 6 A joiner has from 15 to 25 (inclusive) pieces of skirting board in stock.

He uses 8 pieces and now has between 10 and 15 (inclusive) left. How many
pieces could he have had to start with? Work out all possible answers. Show
your working.

CM 7 The number of fish in a pond is 500, to 1 significant figure. What is the least
possible number of fish that could be taken from the pond so that the number of
fish in the pond is 400, to 1 significant figure? Give a reason for your answer.

CM 8 Karen says that the population of Preston is 132 000 to the nearest thousand. Donte
says that the population of Preston is 130 000. Explain why Donte could also
be correct.

16 1 Number: Basic number

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EV 9 This is an aerial image of a penguin colony in Antarctica. Scientists use images like
this to estimate the size of the penguin population. They use two methods.

Method 1: Estimate the area of the whole colony and then assume there are three
penguins per square metre.
Method 2: Draw a square, to scale, to represent 5 m by 5 m on the diagram. Count the
penguins in the square, and then estimate the area of the whole colony and multiply
the number of penguins in the sample square.
a Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using method 1.
b Give one advantage and one disadvantage of using method 2.

Multiplying and dividing by multiples of 10

Questions often involve multiplication of multiples of 10, 100, … This method is used in estimation.
You should have the skill to do this mentally so that you can check that your answers to calculations
are about right. (Approximation of calculations is covered in the next section.)
Use a calculator to work these out.
a 300 × 200 = b 100 × 40 = c 2000 × 0.3 =
d 0.2 × 50 = e 0.2 × 0.5 = f 0.3 × 0.04 =
Can you see a way of doing these without using a calculator or pencil and paper? You multiply the
non-zero digits and then work out the number of zeros or the position of the decimal point by
combining the zeros or decimal places in the original calculation.
The method for dividing is similar. Try doing these on your calculator.
a 400 ÷ 20 = b 200 ÷ 50 = c 1000 ÷ 0.2 =
d 300 ÷ 0.3 = e 250 ÷ 0.05 = f 30 000 ÷ 0.6 =
Once again, there is a quick way of doing these ‘in your head’. Look at these examples.
300 × 4000 = 1 200 000 5000 ÷ 200 = 25 20 × 0.5 = 10
0.6 × 5000 = 3000 400 ÷ 0.02 = 20 000 800 ÷ 0.2 = 4000
Can you see a connection between the digits, the number of zeros and the position of the decimal
point, and the way in which these calculations are worked out?
For example:
300 × 4000 = 3 × 4 × 100 × 1000 0.6 × 5000 = 6 × 500 20 × 0.5 = 2 × 5
= 12 × 100 000 = 3000 = 10
= 1 200 000
5000 ÷ 200 = 5000 ÷ 200 400 ÷ 0.02 = 4000 ÷ 0.2 800 ÷ 0.2 = 8000 ÷ 2
= 50 ÷ 2 = 40 000 ÷ 2 = 4000
= 25 = 20 000

1.3 Approximation of calculations 17

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Exercise 1D
1 Write down the answers, without using a calculator.
a 200 × 300 b 30 × 4000 c 50 × 200 d 0.3 × 50
e 200 × 0.7 f 200 × 0.5 g 0.1 × 2000 h 0.4 × 0.2
i 0.3 × 0.3 j 0.3 × 150
2 Write down the answers, without using a calculator.
a 2000 ÷ 400 b 5000 ÷ 200 c 2100 ÷ 0.7
d 300 ÷ 0.5 e 400 ÷ 0.2 f 2000 ÷ 0.4
g 2000 × 40 ÷ 200 h 200 × 20 ÷ 0.5 i 200 × 6000 ÷ 0.3
3 Match each calculation to its answer and then write out the calculations in order,
starting with the smallest answer.
5000 × 4000 600 × 8000 200 000 × 700 30 × 90 000
140 000 000 4 800 000 2 700 000 20 000 000

MR 4 You are given that 16 × 34 = 544.

Write down the value of each calculation.
a 160 × 340 b 544 000 ÷ 34
5 In 2009 there were £28 000 million worth of £20 notes in circulation.
How many notes is this?

CM 6 A teacher asks her class to work out sixty-thousand divided by two hundred. This is
Matt’s working.

When Matt read out his answer of 300, his teacher said he was correct. Is Matt
correct? If not, what mistake has Matt made?

PS 7 There are 66 325 000 20p coins in circulation.

Each one weighs 5 g.
Bernie sees an advert for a yacht.
Bernie thinks that all of the 20p coins in circulation
would weigh more than the yacht and would be worth
enough in total to buy it. Is Bernie correct?

For sale
White Lightning
£13 000 000
Weight 360 Tonnes

PS 8 The National Debt of the United Kingdom is about £1420 billion. A billion is one
thousand million. The population of the UK is about 64 million.
How much is the National Debt per head of population? Give your answer correct to
3 significant figures.

18 1 Number: Basic number

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Approximation of calculations
How do you approximate the value of a calculation?
What do you actually do when you try to approximate an answer to a problem?
For example, what is the approximate answer to 35.1 × 6.58?
To approximate the answer in this and many other similar cases, you need to round each number to
1 significant figure, then work out the calculation.
So, in this case, the approximation is 35.1 × 6.58 ≈ 40 × 7 = 280.
Note that the ≈ symbol means ‘approximately equal to’.
For the division 89.1 ÷ 2.98, the approximation is 90 ÷ 3 = 30.
If you are using a calculator, whenever you need to work out a fraction that has a calculation in the
numerator and/or denominator, always put brackets around each calculation. This is to remind you to
work out the numerator and denominator separately before completing the division. You can work
out the numerator and denominator separately but most calculators will work out the answer straight
away if you use brackets. Learning to use a calculator efficiently can save time and lead to you making
fewer mistakes.

a Find an approximate answer to each calculation.

Example 6

213 × 69 78 × 397
i ii
42 0.338
b Use a calculator to work out each answer, correct to 3 significant figures.

a i Round each number to 1 significant figure. 200 × 70

40
Work out the numerator. 14 000
=
40
Divide by the denominator. = 350
80 × 400
ii Round each value to 1 significant figure.
0.4
Work out the numerator. 32000
=
0.4
320 000
=
4
Divide by the denominator. = 80 000
b To check your approximate answers, key in these sequences.

The display as a decimal should say 349.9285714, which rounds to 350. This agrees exactly
with the estimate.
Note that you do not have to put brackets around the 42 but it is a good habit to get into.
ii

The display as a decimal should say 81489.47368, which rounds to 81 500. This agrees with
the estimate.

1.3 Approximation of calculations 19

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Sensible rounding
Sensible rounding is simply writing or saying answers to questions with a real-life context, so that the
answer makes sense and is the sort of thing someone may say in a normal conversation.
For example:
“The distance from Birmingham to Wolverhampton is 16 miles” is a sensible statement.
“The distance from Birmingham to Wolverhampton is 16.3247 miles” is not sensible.
“Painting a house takes 6 tins of paint” is sensible.
“Painting a house takes 5.91 tins of paint” is not sensible.
As a general rule, if it sounds sensible it will be acceptable.
When you need to give an answer to a sensible or appropriate degree of accuracy, express it to the same
accuracy as the numbers in the question. So, for example, if the numbers in the question are given to
2 significant figures give your answer to 2 significant figures but remember, unless you are working out
an approximation, do all the working to at least 4 significant figures or use the calculator display.

Exercise 1E
1 Find approximate answers.
a 5435 × 7.31 b 5280 × 3.211 c 63.24 × 3.514 × 4.2
d 354 ÷ 79.8 e 5974 ÷ 5.29 f 208 ÷ 0.378
2 Use a calculator to work out the answers to question 1. Round your answers to
3 significant figures and compare them with the estimates you made.

3 Round each of the numbers in these statements to a suitable degree of accuracy.

a I am 1.7359 m tall.
b It took me 5 minutes 44.83 seconds to mend the television.
c My kitten weighs 237.97 g.
d The correct temperature at which to drink Earl Grey tea is 82.739 °C.
e There were 34 827 people at the test match yesterday.
f The distance from Winchester to Andover is 15.528 miles.
g The area of the floor is 13.673 m2.
4 By rounding, find approximate answers to each of these.
783 – 572 352 + 675 3.82 × 7.95
a b c
24 999 9.9
5 Use a calculator to work out the answers to question 4. Round your answers to
3 significant figures and compare them with the estimates you made.

6 Rewrite this blog, using sensible numbers.

It was a hot day; the temperature was 81.699 °F and still rising. I had now walked
5.3289 km in just over 113.98 minutes. But I didn’t care since I knew that the
43 275 people watching the race were cheering me on. I won by clipping 6.2 seconds
off the record time. This was the 67th time it had happened since records first
began in 1788. Well, next year I will only have 15 practice walks beforehand as I
strive to beat the record by at least another 4.9 seconds.

20 1 Number: Basic number

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7 Find the approximate annual pay of each person.

a Kevin: £270 a week b Malcolm: £1528 a month c David: £347 a week

8 Gold bars weigh 400 ounces (12.44 kg). On 6 October 2014, one gold bar was worth
$413 080.
Approximately how much is 1 ounce of gold worth, in dollars?

9 It took me 6 hours 40 minutes to drive from Sheffield to Bude, a distance of 295 miles.
My car uses petrol at the rate of about 32 miles per gallon. The petrol cost £3.51 per gallon.
a Approximately how many miles did I travel each hour?
b Approximately how many gallons of petrol did I use in driving from Sheffield to
Bude?
c What was the approximate cost of all the petrol I used in the journey to Bude and
back again?

10 By rounding, find an approximate answer to each of these.

462 × 79 583 – 213 252 + 551 296 × 32
a b c d
0.42 0.21 0.78 0.325
297 + 721 12.31 × 16.9 38.3 + 27.5 29.7 + 12.6
e f 0.394 × 0.216 g h
0.578 − 0.321 0.776 0.26
11 Use a calculator to work out the answers to question 10. Round your answers to
3 significant figures and compare them with the estimates you made.

12 A sheet of paper is 0.012 cm thick. Approximately how many sheets will there be in a
pile of paper that is 6.35 cm deep?

MR 13 A 5p coin weighs 4.2 g. How many 20-tonne lorries (lorries that can carry 20 tonnes)
would be needed to transport a million pounds in 5p coins?

EV 14 The accurate temperature is 18.2 °C. David rounds the temperature to the nearest
5 °C. David says the temperature is about 20 °C.
How much would the temperature need to rise for David to say that the temperature
is about 25 °C?
15 Use your calculator to complete these calculations. In each case:
i write down the full calculator display of the answer
ii round your answer to 3 significant figures.
12.3 + 64.9 13.8 × 23.9 48.2 × 58.9
a b c
6.9 − 4.1 3.2 × 6.1 3.62 × 0.042
EV 16 Here are three calculations.
37.5 × 48.6 21.7 × 103.6 985 ÷ 0.54
a Show that the estimated answer to each of them is the same.
b Pete says that the largest actual answer must be to 21.7 × 103.6. Explain why Pete is
correct.
c He also says that it is not possible, without doing the full calculation, to say which
of the other two has the larger answer. Is Pete correct? Use a calculator to work out
which is larger.

1.3 Approximation of calculations 21

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CM 17 The distance from the Sun to Earth is approximately 149 000 000 km. The speed of
light is approximately 300 000 km per second.
Use your calculator to work out how many seconds it takes for light to travel from the
Sun to Earth. Give your answer to a sensible degree of accuracy.

18 a Explain why the estimated answer to 58.9 × 4.8 is 300.

CM b Is the actual answer higher or lower than the estimate? Explain your answer.
PS 19 The population density of a country is measured by dividing the population by the
area. For example, the population of the United Kingdom is about 64 000 000 and the
area is 243 000 km2, so the population density is approximately 260 people per
square kilometre.
The most densely populated country is Macau with a population of 541 200 and an
area of 29.2 km2.
The least densely populated country is Greenland with a population of 57 000 and an
area of 2 176 000 km2.
How many times greater is the population density of Macau than the population
density of Greenland?
Give your answer to a suitable degree of accuracy.

CM 20 Which calculation will have the larger answer? Explain how you can tell.
26.8 ÷ 3.1 or 36.2 ÷ 3.9

1.4 Multiples, factors, prime

numbers, powers and roots
This section will show you how to:
• find multiples and factors
• identify prime numbers
• identify square numbers and triangular numbers
• find square roots
• identify cubes and cube roots.

Multiple: Any number in the multiplication table. For example, the multiples of 7 are 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, …
Factor: Any whole number that divides exactly into another number. For example, factors of 24 are 1,
2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24.
Prime number: Any number that only has two factors, 1 and itself. For example, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 11 are
prime numbers. Note that 1 is not a prime number.
Square: A number that results from multiplying a number by itself. For example, 1, 4, 9, 16 and 25 are
square numbers.
Triangular numbers: Numbers that can make triangular patterns. For example, 1, 3, 6, 10 and 15 are
triangular numbers. Start with 1, add 2 to get 3, add 3 to 3 to get 6, add 4 to 6 to get 10, and so on.
Square root: The square root of a given number is a number that, when multiplied by itself, produces
the given number. For example, the square root of 9 is 3, since 3 × 3 = 9.
A square root is represented by the symbol . For example, 16 = 4.

22 1 Number: Basic number

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Note that – 4 × – 4 = 16. Every positive number has two square roots.
So 16 = + 4 or – 4. This can be written as 16 = ± 4 and you should read it as ‘positive or negative four’.
Cube: The cube of a number is a number multiplied by itself and then by itself again. For example, the
cube of 4 is 4 × 4 × 4 = 64.
Cube root: The cube root of a number is the number that, when multiplied by itself and then
multiplied by itself again, gives the number. For example, the cube root of 27 is 3 because
3 × 3 × 3 = 27 and the cube root of – 8 is –2 because –2 × –2 × –2 = – 8. If the cube root of b is written
as 3 b then 3 b × 3 b × 3 b = b .
Powers: A square number may be written as 52. A cube may be written as 63. The small numbers are
called powers and they tell you how many ‘lots’ of the number are multiplied together.

Exercise 1F
1 Choose the number from the box that fits each of these descriptions (one number
per description).
a a multiple of 3 and a multiple of 4
b a square number and an odd number 12 21
c a factor of 24 and a factor of 18
8 15
d a prime number and a factor of 39
e an odd factor of 30 and a multiple of 3 13
17
f a number with four factors and a multiple of
2 and 7 9 18
g a number with five factors exactly
10
h a triangular number and a factor of 20 6
i an even number and a factor of 36 and a 14 16
multiple of 9
j a prime number that is one more than a square
number
k a number with factors that, when written out in order, make a number pattern in
which each number is twice the one before
l an odd triangular number that is a multiple of 7

MR 2 Hot-dog sausages are sold in packs of 10 and hot-dog buns are sold in packs of 8.
How many of each do you have to buy to have complete hot dogs with no wasted
sausages or buns?

3 A bell chimes every 6 seconds. Another bell chimes every 5 seconds. If they both
chime together, how many seconds will it be before they both chime together again?

4 Fred runs round a running track in 4 minutes. Debbie runs round in 3 minutes. If they
both start together on the line at the end of the finishing straight, when will they
both be on the same line together again? How many laps will Debbie have run? How
many laps will Fred have run?

5 Copy these sums and write out the next four lines.
1=1
1+3=4
1+3+5=9
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16

1.4 Multiples, factors, prime numbers, powers and roots 23

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6 Write down the negative square root of each number.

a 4 b 49 c 144 d 1 e 900
7 Write down the cube root of each number.
a 1 b 27 c 64 d 8 e – 64
8 Work out the value of each number.
a 202 b 302 c 502 d 0.52 e (– 4)2
9 The triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21 …
a Investigate why they are called triangular numbers.
b Continue the sequence until the first triangular number that is greater than 100.
c Add up consecutive pairs of triangular numbers, starting with 1 + 3 = 4, 3 + 6 = 9.
What do you notice?

EV 10 Here are four numbers.

8 28 49 64
Copy and complete the table by putting each of the numbers in the correct box.

Square number Factor of 56

Cube number
Multiple of 7

CM 11 John is writing out his 4 times table. Mary is writing out her 6 times table.
They notice that some answers are the same.
In which other times tables do these common answers also appear?

EV 12 a 363 = 46 656. Work out 13, 43, 93, 163, 253.

b 46 656 = 216. Use a calculator to find the square roots of the numbers you
worked out in part a.
c 216 = 36 × 6. Can you find a similar connection between the answer to part b and
the numbers cubed in part a?
d What type of numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 and 36?
13 Write down the values of these numbers.
a 0.04 b 0.25 c 0.36 d 0.81
e 3
3.375 f 3
9.261 g 3
0.512 h 3
0.343

14 Estimate the answers to these.

29.6 × 11.9
a 13.7 + 21.9 b c 87.5 − 32.6
0.239 0.038 0.8 − 0.38

24 1 Number: Basic number

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1.5 Prime factors, LCM and HCF

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• identify prime factors
highest common factor (HCF)
• identify the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers
index notation
• identify the highest common factor (HCF) of two numbers.
lowest common multiple (LCM)
The unique factorisation theorem states that every integer
greater than 1 is either a prime number or can be written as
the product of prime numbers. This gives the prime factors
of the number.
Consider 110. Find two numbers that, when multiplied together, give that number, for example, 2 × 55.
Are they both prime? No, 55 isn’t. So take 55 and repeat the operation, to get 5 × 11. Are these both
prime? Yes, so:
110 = 2 × 5 × 11
The prime factors of 110 are 2, 5 and 11.
This method is not very logical and you need to know your multiplication tables well to use it. There
are, however, two methods that you can use to make sure you do not miss any of the prime factors.
The next two examples show you how to use the first of these methods.

Find the prime factors of 24.

Example 7

Divide 24 by any prime number that goes into it. (2 is an obvious choice.) 2 24
Divide the answer (12) by a prime number. Repeat this process until you have 2 12
a prime number as the answer.
2 6
So the prime factors of 24 are 2 and 3.
3
24 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 3
When 24 is expressed as 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 it has been written as a product of its prime factors.
Another name for the product 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 or 23 × 3 is the prime factorisation of 24.
A quicker and neater way to write this answer is to use index notation, expressing the answer
using powers.
In index notation, the prime factorisation of 24 is 23 × 3.

Find the prime factors of 96. Write your answer in index form.
Example 8

The prime factors of 96 are 2 and 3. 2 96

96 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 2 48
= 25 × 3 2 24
The prime factorisation of 96 is 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 or 25 × 3, which is also the 2 12
product of its prime factors. 2 6
3

The second method uses prime factor trees. You start by dividing the number into a pair of factors.
Then you divide this, and carry on dividing until you get to prime numbers.

1.5 Prime factors, LCM and HCF 25

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Example 9 Find the prime factors of 76.

Stop dividing the factors because 2, 2 and 19 are all prime numbers. 76
So, the prime factors of 76 are 2 and 19.
2
38
76 = 2 × 2 × 19
= 22 × 19 2 19

Find the prime factors of 420.

Example 10

The process can be done upside down to make an upright tree. 2 3

So, the prime factors of 420 are 2, 3, 5 and 7.
6 7
420 = 2 × 5 × 2 × 3 × 7
= 22 × 3 × 5 × 7 5 42

2 210

420

Exercise 1G
1 Copy and complete these prime factor trees.
a b c

2 10 9

2 5 2

84 100 180

84 = 2 × 2 ... ... 100 = 5 × 2 ... ... 180 = 2 ... ... ... ...

d e

4
2

20 28

220 280
220 = 2 ... ... ... 280 = ... ... ... ... ...

26 1 Number: Basic number

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f g

4 2

50
4

50 = ... ... ...

128

128 = ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

2 In index notation, 100 is written as 22 × 52 and 540 is written as 22 × 33 × 5. Rewrite your

answers to question 1 in index notation.

3 Write the numbers from 1 to 50 as products of their prime factors. Use index
notation. For example:
1=1 2=2 3=3 4 = 22 5=5 6=2×3 …

4 a What is special about the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …?

b What are the next two terms in this series?
c What are the next three terms in the series 3, 9, 27, …?
d Continue the series 4, 16, 64, … for three more terms.
e The series in part a can be written in index notation: 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, …
Rewrite the series in parts a–d in index notation.
PS 5 a Express 60 as a product of prime factors.
b Write your answer to part a in index form.
c Use your answer to part b to write 120, 240 and 480 as a product of prime factors in
index form.
PS 6 1001 = 7 × 11 × 13
10012 = 1 002 001
10013 = 1 003 003 001
a Write 1002 001 as a product of prime factors in index form.
b Write 1 003 003 001 as a product of prime factors in index form.
c Write 100110 as a product of prime factors in index form.
7 Harriet wants to share £40 among three of her grandchildren. Explain why it is not
possible for them to get equal shares.

MR 8 98 = ab2, where a and b are prime numbers. Work out the value of a and b.

MR 9 A number x in prime factor form is 22a3b where a and b are odd prime numbers.
a Which of the following are factors of x?
8 2ab a4b a2 4b
b Which of the following are multiples of x?
8a3b 2ab 4a3b2 a3b 4ab

1.5 Prime factors, LCM and HCF 27

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Lowest common multiple

The lowest common multiple (LCM) of two numbers is the smallest number that appears in the
multiplication tables of both numbers.
For example, the LCM of 3 and 5 is 15, the LCM of 2 and 7 is 14 and the LCM of 6 and 9 is 18.
There are two ways of working out the LCM.

Find the LCM of 18 and 24.

Example 11

Write out the 18 times table. 18, 36, 54, 72 , 90, 108, …
Write out the 24 times table. 24, 48, 72 , 96, 120, …
You can see that 72 is the smallest (lowest) number in both (common) tables (multiples).

Find the LCM of 42 and 63.

Example 12

Write 42 in prime factor form. 42 = 2 × 3 × 7

Write 63 in prime factor form. 63 = 32 × 7
Now write down, in prime factor form, the smallest number that includes all the prime factors
of 42 and of 63. 2 × 32 × 7 (This includes 2 × 3 × 7 and 32 × 7.)
Then work it out. 2 × 32 × 7 = 2 × 9 × 7
= 18 × 7
= 126
The LCM of 42 and 63 is 126.

Highest common factor

The highest common factor (HCF) of two numbers is the biggest number that divides exactly into both
of them.
For example, the HCF of 24 and 18 is 6, the HCF of 45 and 36 is 9 and the HCF of 15 and 22 is 1.
There are two ways of working out the HCF.

Find the HCF of 28 and 16.

Example 13

Write out the factors of 28. 1, 2, 4 , 7, 14, 28

Write out the factors of 16. 1, 2, 4 , 8, 16
You can see that 4 is the biggest (highest) number in both (common) lists (factors).

Find the HCF of 48 and 120.

Example 14

Write 48 in prime factor form. 48 = 24 × 3

Write 120 in prime factor form. 120 = 23 × 3 × 5
Write down the biggest number in prime factor form that is in the prime factors of 48 and 120.
23 × 3 (This is in both 24 × 3 and 23 × 3 × 5.)
Then work it out. 23 × 3 = 8 × 3
= 24
The HCF of 48 and 120 is 24.

28 1 Number: Basic number

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Exercise 1H
1 Find the LCM of each pair of numbers.
a 4 and 5 b 7 and 8 c 2 and 3 d 4 and 7
e 2 and 5 f 3 and 5 g 3 and 8 h 5 and 6
MR 2 What connection is there between the LCMs and the pairs of numbers in question 1?

3 Find the LCM of each pair of numbers.

a 4 and 8 b 6 and 9 c 4 and 6 d 10 and 15
EV 4 Does the connection you found in question 2 still work for the numbers in
question 3? If not, explain why not.

5 Find the LCM of each pair of numbers.

a 24 and 56 b 21 and 35 c 12 and 28 d 28 and 42
e 12 and 32 f 18 and 27 g 15 and 25 h 16 and 36
6 Cheese slices are sold in packs of eight.
Bread rolls are sold in packs of six. What is the least number of each pack that needs
to be bought to have the same number of cheese slices and bread rolls?

7 Find the HCF of each pair of numbers.

a 24 and 56 b 21 and 35 c 16 and 36
d 48 and 64 e 28 and 42 f 18 and 27
MR 8 In prime factor form 1250 = 2 × 54 and 525 = 3 × 52 × 7.
a Which of these are common multiples of 1250 and 525?
i 2 × 3 × 53 × 7 ii 23 × 3 × 54 × 72
iii 2 × 3 × 54 × 7 iv 2 × 3 × 5 × 7
b Which of these are common factors of 1250 and 525?
i 2×3 ii 2 × 5
iii 52
iv 2 × 3 × 5 × 7

PS 9 The HCF of two numbers is 6. The LCM of the same two numbers is 72.
What are the numbers?

PS 10 A = 2x2y and B = 3xy2.

a Work out the LCM of A and B.
b Work out the HCF of A and B.

1.5 Prime factors, LCM and HCF 29

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1.6 Negative numbers

This section will show you how to:
• multiply and divide positive and negative numbers.

The number line

Look at the number line.

–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
negative positive

Notice that the negative numbers are to the left of 0 and the positive numbers are to the right of 0.
Numbers to the right of any number on the number line are always bigger than that number.
Numbers to the left of any number on the number line are always smaller than that number.
So, for example, you can see from a number line that:
• 2 is smaller than 5 because 2 is to the left of 5. You can write this as 2 < 5.
• –3 is smaller than 2 because –3 is to the left of 2. You can write this as –3 < 2.
• 7 is bigger than 3 because 7 is to the right of 3. You can write this as 7 > 3.
• –1 is bigger than – 4 because –1 is to the right of – 4. You can write this as –1 > – 4.
Reminder: < means ‘is less than’. > means ‘is greater than’ or ‘is more than’.

Rules for adding and subtracting negative numbers

• To subtract a negative number, treat the – – as a +.
For example: 4 – (–2) = 4 + 2 = 6
• To add a negative number, treat the + – as a –.
For example: 3 + (–5) = 3 – 5 = –2

Rules for multiplying and dividing with negative numbers

• When the signs of the numbers are the same, the answer is positive.
For example: 2 × 4 = 8, –12 ÷ –3 = 4
• When the signs of the numbers are different, the answer is negative.
For example: 12 ÷ –3 = – 4, –2 × 3 = – 6

Negative numbers on a calculator

You can enter a negative number into your calculator and check the result.
Enter –5 by pressing the keys and . (The order in which you need to press these keys will
depend on the type of calculator that you have.) You will see the calculator shows –5.
Here are two calculations with examples of key sequences. Try them and make sure you know how
your calculator works.
–3 × 4 S 4 –12

–24 ÷ +4 S 4 4 6

Hints and tips Do not enter a plus sign for a positive number or your calculator
will try to add it on.

Now try these calculations.

–8 – 7 S –15
6 – –3 S 9

30 1 Number: Basic number

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Exercise 1I
1 Write down the answer to each calculation. Then use a calculator to check
your answers.
a –2 + 9 = b – 6 + –2 = c –1 + – 4 = d –8 + –3 =
e 5 – –6 = f 3 – –3 = g 6 – –2 = h 3 – –5 =
i –5 – –3 = j –2 – –1 = k –4 – 5 = l 2–7=
m –3 + 8 = n –4 + – 5 = o 1 – –7 = p –5 – –5 =
2 Write down the answer to each calculation.
a –3 × 5 b –2 × 7 c –4 × 6 d –2 × –3
e –7 × –2 f –12 ÷ – 6 g –16 ÷ 8 h 24 ÷ –3
i 16 ÷ – 4 j –6 ÷ –2 k 4 × –6 l 5 × –2
m 6 × –3 n –2 × – 8 o –9 × – 4
3 Write down the answers.
a –3 + – 6 b –2 × – 8 c 2 + –5 d 8 × –4
e –36 ÷ –2 f –3 × – 6 g –3 – –9 h 48 ÷ –12
i –5 × – 4 j 7 – –9 k – 40 ÷ –5 l – 40 + – 8
m 4 – –9 n 5 – 18 o 72 ÷ –9
4 What number do you multiply –3 by to get each number?
a 6 b –90 c – 45
d 81 e 21
5 Evaluate these.
a – 6 + (4 – 7) b –3 – (–9 – –3) c 8 + (2 – 9)
6 Evaluate these.
a 4 × (– 8 ÷ –2) b – 8 – (3 × –2) c –1 × (8 – – 4)
CM 7 Write down six different multiplications that give the answer –12.

CM 8 Write down six different divisions that give the answer – 4.

9 a Work out 12 × –2.

b The average temperature drops by 2 °C every day for 12 days. By how much has the
temperature dropped altogether?
c The temperature drops by 6 °C for each of the next three days. Write down the
calculation to work out the total change in temperature over these three days.

10 Put these calculations in order from lowest result to highest.

–15 × 4 –72 ÷ 4 –56 ÷ –8 13 × – 6

1.6 Negative numbers 31

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PS 11 The rule for converting degrees Celsius (°C) to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) is:
C = 5 (F – 32)
9
a Water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C. Work out the temperatures in degrees
Fahrenheit that water freezes and boils at.
b Work out the temperature that is the same in °C and °F.
12 Absolute zero is the lowest temperature possible. It is –273.15 °C. Use the formula in
question 11 to work out absolute zero in °F. Give your answer to the nearest degree.

Hierarchy of operations
Reminder: The order in which you must do mathematical operations should follow the BIDMAS/
BODMAS rule.
B Brackets
I/O Indices (pOwers)
D Division
M Multiplication
A Addition
S Subtraction
Errors are often made because of negative signs or doing calculations in the wrong order.
For example:
2 + 3 × 4 is equal to 2 + 12 = 14 and not 5 × 4
– 62 is not the same as (– 6)2
– 62 = –(6 × 6)
= –36
but (– 6)2 = – 6 × – 6
= 36

Work these out.

Example 15

a (8 – 32) × 9 ÷ (–1 + 4) b 5 × [62 + (5 – 8)2]

a Calculate the brackets first.
(8 – 32) × 9 ÷ (–1 + 4) = (8 – 9) × 9 ÷ 3
= –1 × 9 ÷ 3
= –9 ÷ 3
= –3
b This has nested brackets. Complete the calculation in the inside (round) brackets first.
5 × [62 + (5 – 8)2] = 5 × [62 + (–3)2]
= 5 × [36 + 9]
= 5 × 45
= 225

32 1 Number: Basic number

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Exercise 1J
1 Work these out. Remember to work out the brackets first.
a –2 × (–3 + 5) b 6 ÷ (–2 + 1) c (5 – 7) × –2
d –5 × (–7 – 2) e –3 × (– 4 ÷ 2) f –3 × (– 4 + 2)
2 Work these out.
a –6 × –6 + 2 b – 6 × (– 6 + 2) c –6 ÷ 6 – 2
d 12 ÷ (– 4 + 2) e 12 ÷ – 4 + 2 f 2 × (–3 + 4)
g –(5) 2
h (–5) 2
i (–1 + 3)2 – 4
j –(1 + 3)2 – 4 k –1 + 32 – 4 l –1 + (3 – 4)2
MR 3 Copy each of these and then put in brackets where necessary to make it true.
a 3 × – 4 + 1 = –11 b – 6 ÷ –2 + 1 = 6 c –6 ÷ –2 + 1 = 4
d 4 + –4 ÷ 4 = 3 e 4 + –4 ÷ 4 = 0 f 16 – – 4 ÷ 2 = 10
4 Work out the value of each expression when a = –2, b = 3 and c = –5.
a (a + c)2 b –(a + b)2 c (a + b) c d a2 + b2 – c2
5 Work out the value of each expression.
a (62 – 42) × 2 b 9 ÷ (1 – 4)2
c 2 × [82 – (2 – 7)2] d [(3 + 2)2 – (5 – 6)2] ÷ 6
PS 6 Use each of the numbers 2, 3 and 4 and each of the symbols –, × and ÷ to make a
calculation with an answer – 6.

7 Use any four different numbers to make a calculation with answer – 8.

CM 8 Explain the difference between (– 4)2 and –(4)2.

PS 9 Use the numbers 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in order, from smallest to largest, together with one
of each of the symbols + , –, × and ÷ and two pairs of brackets to make a calculation
with an answer of 25 .
8
43 43
For example, to make a calculation with an answer of 9
: (5 + 6) – (7 × 8) ÷ 9 = 9
.

PS 10 Work out the value of x to make this equation true.

5 + 2 × (x – 35) = (5 + 2) × x – 35

Hints and tips Make x the subject. The answer is negative.

1.6 Negative numbers 33

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 I earn £30 000 in 12 months.
20% of this is deducted for tax.
x% is deducted for National Insurance.
At the end of each month I have £1800 left.
Work out the value of x.

This is a problem-solving question. You will need to plan a strategy to solve it and,
most importantly, communicate your method clearly.

Method 1 There are two different methods that

Yearly take home pay = £1800 × 12 lead to the correct answer: method
1 works on yearly earnings and
= £21 600 method 2 on monthly earnings. Use
Amount deducted = £30 000 – £21 600 the one you find easier to explain.
= £8400
Tax deducted = £30 000 × 0.2
= £6000
NI deducted = £8400 – £6000
= £2400
NI as a percentage of earnings
= 2400 ÷ 30 000 × 100
= 0.08 × 100
x = 8%
Method 2 Do not just write down numbers.
£30 000 ÷ 12 = £2500 Get used to writing, in words, what
you are calculating. Copy these
£2500 – £1800 = £700 calculations and put some words at
£2500 × 0.2 = £500 the start of each line to explain what
£700 – £500 = £200 is being worked out.

£200 ÷ £2500 × £100 = 8%

MR 2 Two numbers have been rounded.

The first number is 360 to two significant figures.
The second number is 500 to one significant figure.
What is the smallest possible sum of the two original numbers?

This question assesses your mathematical reasoning.

The smallest that the first First work out the smallest possible value for each
number could be is 355. number.
The smallest that the second
number could be is 450.
Smallest sum = 355 + 450 Then work out the sum of these two numbers.
= 805 Sometimes you may make a mistake, say working out
the smallest value of the second number as 495, but as
long as you have explained your working you can still
get some credit. That is why it is essential to write down
what you are working out.

34 1 Number: Basic number

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PS 3 a, b and c form a sequence with common difference 150.

a = 3p2q b = 32p3 c = 3p2r
p, q and r are prime numbers greater than 3.
Work out the values of p, q and r.
This is a problem-solving question. You will need to show your strategy clearly
and make sure that for each line you write down it is clear what you are
calculating
Subtract the first two terms: Use the information that you know.
9p – 3p q = 150
3 2 The difference between the first two
terms is 150. Factorise and cancel as
Factorise: 3p2(3p – q) = 150 much as possible.
Divide by 3: p2(3p – q) = 50
If p is a factor of 50, p = 5.
2
The resulting equation shows that
∴3p – q = 2 ⇒ q = 13 p2 is a factor of 50 so it can only be 25,
which means that p = 5. Then you can
calculate the value of q.
a = 975 and b = 1125 Once you know p and q you can work
∴ c = 1275 out a, b and c.

∴ r = 1275 ÷ (3 × 25) Once you know c you can work out r.

= 17
∴ p = 5, q = 13 and r = 17 Write the final answers clearly.

MR 4 Two numbers, x and y, can be written in prime factor form as x = 23 × a × b2 and

y = 22 × a3 × b, where a and b are prime numbers greater than 2.
a Which of these terms are factors of both x and y?
2ab 4 8a2b 4a2b2
b Which of these expressions is the LCM of x and y?
2ab 8a3b2 4ab 32a4b3
This is a mathematical reasoning question with a multi-choice answer, so there is no
working to be shown.
a 2ab and 4 Look at each expression and decide if it will divide into
x and y. 2ab and 4 will divide into both but a2 will not
divide into x, and 8b2 will not divide into y.
b 8a3b2 Take the number term and each letter term in turn.
There must be at least 23, at least a3 and at least b2 in the
LCM.

1 Worked exemplars 35
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Ready to progress?
I can recognise and work out multiples, factors and primes.
I can multiply and divide with negative numbers.
I can round numbers to a given number of significant figures.
I can estimate the values of calculations involving positive numbers.
I can write a number as the product of its prime factors.
I can work out the LCM and HCF of pairs of numbers.
I can use a calculator efficiently and know how to give answers to an appropriate degree
of accuracy.
I can work out the square roots of some decimal numbers.
I can estimate answers involving the square roots of decimals.

I can work out the HCF and the LCM of two numbers from their prime factors.
I can use numbers rounded to given accuracies to work out complex problems.

Review questions
1 1
Eric earns £14 per hour. He works for 38 hours per week. He saves 4
of his earnings
each week. How many weeks will it take him to save £1200?

2 A floor measures 5.25 m by 4.5 m. It is to be covered with square carpet tiles of side
25 cm. Tiles are sold in boxes of 24. How many boxes are needed?

3 Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 54 and 90.

4 a Express 315 as a product of its prime factors.

b Find the highest common factor (HCF) of 315 and 63.
5 Use a calculator to work out:
52.1 × 10.5
4.2
a Write down all the figures on your calculator display.
b Give your answer to part a to 3 significant figures.
6 a Use your calculator to work out the value of this expression.
20.32 + 3 130 ÷ 9.87
Write down your full calculator display.
b Use approximations to check your answer to a. Show your calculations clearly.
MR 7 The Venn diagram shows the prime factors of two numbers, A and B.

a Which of the following describe the universal set ξ?
A B
i Prime factors of A and B ii Odd numbers less 2 2 3
than 20 13
3
7 3
iii Prime numbers less than 20 iv HCF of A and B 5

b From the numbers in the box, write down: 11 17

19
i the value of A ii the LCM of A and B iii the HCF of A and B.
14 18 252 270 3780

36 1 Number: Basic number

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8 Use your calculator to work out the value of 9.232 + 5.34 2 .

a Write down all the figures on your calculator display.
b Write your answer to part a correct to 2 significant figures.
9 Work out an estimate for 6.13 × 78.8 .
0.405
PS 10 Mary set up her Christmas tree with two sets of twinkling lights.
Set A would twinkle every 4 seconds.
Set B would twinkle every 6 seconds.
How many times in a minute will both sets be twinkling at the same time?

11 a Use your calculator to work out 355 ÷ 113. Give your answer as a decimal.
b Part a is considered to be the best approximation to π as it is a simple calculation
and easy to remember. The accurate value of π is 3.141 592 65 to 8 decimal places.
Round your answer to a to 8 decimal places and calculate the percentage error in
the approximation given by 355 ÷ 113.

PS 12 The Town Hall clock gains two minutes every hour. The clock at the library is
accurate. They both chime on every quarter hour. Both clocks are set at 12:00 noon
on Monday so they chime together.
a At what time and day will they next chime together?
b At what time and day will they next chime on the hour together?
13 In prime factor form, 240 = 24 × 3 × 5 and 756 = 22 × 33 × 7.
Work out, in prime factor form:
a the LCM of 240 and 756 b the HCF of 240 and 756.

14 As a product of prime factors 60 = 22 × 3 × 5.

a What number is represented by 2 × 32 × 5?
b Find the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 60 and 48.
c Find the highest common factor (HCF) of 60 and 78.
MR 15 Jack thinks of two numbers.
He says, “The highest common factor (HCF) of my two numbers is 9.
The lowest common multiple (LCM) of my two numbers is 108.”
Write down two numbers that Jack could be thinking of.

16 a Use approximations to estimate the value of 113 × 8.08 .

0.38
CM b Is the actual answer higher or lower than the estimate? Explain your answer.
PS 17 a p, q and r are prime numbers such that pqr3 = 270.
Work out the values of p, q and r.
b Work out the highest common factor of 270 and 105.
MR 18 The number 864 can be written as 2m × 3n, where m and n are prime numbers. Find the
value of m and the value of n.

1 Review questions 37
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2
Number: Fractions, ratio
and proportion

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out one quantity as a fraction of another
• how to add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions with and without
a calculator
• how to use a percentage multiplier
• how to work out percentage increase and decrease
• how to work out one quantity as a percentage of another.

You should already know:

• how to cancel fractions to their simplest form
• how to find equivalent fractions, decimals and percentages
• how to add and subtract fractions with the same denominator
• how to work out simple percentages, such as 10%, of quantities
• how to convert a mixed number to an improper fraction and vice
versa.

About this chapter

Fractions and percentages are all around you, in your everyday life.
You will often see signs in shops or on the internet with messages such as
‘Sale: Save 41 off the marked price’ or ‘Special offer: 10% off’. When banks
lend money they charge an annual percentage and when you save with
them they give you a percentage in interest. For example, a bank might
1 1
say, ‘Loans interest rate 3 4 %’ or ‘Savings interest rate 2 2 %’. Salespeople often
get a basic salary plus a percentage of the sales they make. The government
uses fractions or percentages to set targets or make claims about changes.
For example: ‘Our aim is to cut carbon emissions by one-third by 2020’,
‘Unemployment has fallen by 1%’, ‘Inflation is 3.6%’, ‘Income tax is 20%’
or ‘Value-added tax is 20%’. Your school probably also uses fractions and
percentages to tell parents about your progress. For example, ‘Mandeep
scored 67% in his mathematics test.’
Without a basic understanding of fractions and percentages, you will not be
able to make sense of a lot of the figures you meet in day-to-day life.

38
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2.1 One quantity as a

fraction of another
Key terms
This section will show you how to:
fraction quantity
• find one quantity as a fraction of another.

There are many situations when you may need to describe one amount or quantity as a fraction of
another. For example, in one day you might find that about half the students in your school are boys, you
spend about a third of your time in bed or your bus fares cost about a fifth of your money each week.
Sometimes you need to be more accurate and work with exact rather than approximate amounts. The
next examples will show you how to do this.

Write £5 as a fraction of £20.

Example 1

5
£5 as a fraction of £20 is written as 20
.
5 1× 5 1
Note that = so you can cancel the fraction to 4 .
20 4×5
So £5 is one-quarter of £20.

3
A book has 320 pages. 200 of the pages have illustrations. of these pages have
Example 2

4
colour illustrations.
How many of the pages of the whole book have colour illustrations? Express the answer as a
fraction of the whole book.
200 100 × 4 × 5
200 pages have illustrations. This is = =
320 4 × 10
10 × 8
5
= = 8 of the book.
3 3
4 of the pages with illustrations are in colour. 4 × 200 = 150
150 of the 320 pages have colour illustrations.
150 15
This is 320
of the book. It cancels to 32 .

Exercise 2A
1 Write the first quantity as a fraction of the second.
a 2 cm, 6 cm b 4 kg, 20 kg c £8, £20 d 5 hours, 24 hours
e 12 days, 30 days f 50p, £3 g 4 days, 2 weeks h 40 minutes, 2 hours
2 During April, it rained on 12 days. For what fraction of the month did it rain?

3 1
MR In a class of 30 students, 3 are boys. Of these boys 3
are left-handed. What fraction of
5
the whole class is made up of left-handed boys?

4 Reka wins £120 in a competition and puts £40 in a bank account. She gives 41 of what is
left to her sister and then spends the rest. What fraction of her winnings did she spend?

CM 5 Jon earns £90 and saves £30 of it. Matt earns £100 and saves £35 of it. Who is saving
the greater proportion of his earnings?

CM 6 In two tests Harry gets 13 out of 20 and 16 out of 25. Which is the better mark? Explain
your answer.
2.1 One quantity as a fraction of another 39
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MR 7 5
In a street of 72 dwellings, 12 are bungalows. The rest are two-storey houses. Half of
the bungalows are detached and 72 of the houses are detached. What fraction of the
72 dwellings are detached?

PS 8 I have 24 T-shirts. 61 have logos on them; the rest are plain. 25 of the plain T-shirts are
long-sleeved. 43 of the T-shirts with logos are long-sleeved. What fraction of all my
T-shirts are long-sleeved?

PS 9 Three quantities are x, y and z. x = 3 and y = 4 .

y 4 z 7
Work out the value of x .
z
PS 10 Three quantities are a, b and c. a = 3 and b = 6 .
b 4 c 11
Work out the value of a .
c

2.2 Adding, subtracting and

calculating with fractions
This section will show you how to:
• add and subtract fractions with different denominators.

You can only add or subtract fractions that have the same denominator. If necessary, change one or
both to equivalent fractions with the same denominator. Then add or subtract the numerators.
Always look for the lowest common denominator of the fractions you are changing. This is the lowest
common multiple (LCM) of both denominators.

Work this out. 5 – 3

Example 3

6 4
The LCM of 4 and 6 is 12, so the problem becomes:
5– 3 = 5× 2– 3×3
6 4 6 2 4 3
10 9
= –
12 12
= 1
12

A fraction in which the numerator is bigger than the denominator is called an improper fraction. You
know how to change improper fractions to mixed numbers, and mixed numbers to improper fractions.
You also know that a mixed number is made up of a whole number and a proper fraction, for example:
14
5
= 2 4 and 3 2 = 23
7
5 7
1 1 3
Work these out. a 2 3 + 3 75 b 3 4 – 15
Example 4

Separate the whole numbers from the fractions.

1
a 2 31 + 3 75 = 2 + 3 + 3
+ 75 b 3 41 – 1 3 = 3 – 1 +
5
1
4
– 3
5
7
=5+ 21
+ 1521
=2+ 5
– 12
20 20
22 7
=5+ 21 =2– 20
1
=5+ 1 21 13
= 1 20
1
= 6 21

40 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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1
Shop A sells a bicycle for £540 including VAT but has an offer of off the selling price.
Example 5 4
1
Shop B sells the same model of bicycle for £350 (excluding VAT). VAT will add 5
to the price.
In which shop is the bike cheaper? Show your working.
Shop A: 540 ÷ 4 × 3 = 405
1
Shop B: 350 × 5
= 70
350 + 70 = 420
So the bike is cheaper in shop A.

Exercise 2B
1 Work these out.
a 1+ 1 b 1+ 1 c 2+1
3 5 3 4 3 4
1 7 3 5 3
d – 1 e – f 6 –
5 10 8 4 4
MR 2 Which is the biggest: half of 96, one-third of 141, two-fifths of 120 or three-quarters
of 68?

3 Work these out.

a 3 31 + 1 20
9
b 1 81 – 5
9
c 7
10
+ 3
8
+ 5
6
d 1 31 + 7
10
– 4
15

4 a In a class election, half of the students voted for Aminah, one-third voted for Jenet
and the rest voted for Pieter. What fraction of the class voted for Pieter?
EV b One of the numbers in the box is the number of students in the class in part a.
25 28 30 32

How many students are there in the class?

PS 5 A one-litre bottle of milk is used to fill four glasses. Three glasses have a capacity of
one-eighth of a litre. The fourth glass has a capacity of half a litre.
Priya likes milky coffee so she always has at least 10 cl of milk in her cup. Is there
enough milk left in the bottle for Priya to have two cups of coffee?

CM 6 Mick has worked out this sum.

2
1 31 + 2 41 = 3 7
His answer is incorrect. What mistake has he made? Work out the correct answer.

CM 7 Write down how you would explain to someone, in a telephone call, how to find the
answer to this calculation.
1 2
+
4 5
11 2
PS 8 There are 900 students in a school. 20 of the students are boys. Of the boys, 11 are
left-handed. Of the girls, 29 are left-handed. What fraction of all the students are
left-handed? Show your working.
3
9 There are 600 counters in a bag. Each counter is red, blue or yellow. 8 of the counters
are red. 51 of the counters are blue.
a What fraction of the counters are yellow?
b How many yellow counters are there in the bag?

2.2 Adding, subtracting and calculating with fractions 41

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2
10 A small gym has 200 members. 27
40
of the members are at least 40 years of age. 5 of the
members are women.
CM a Use calculations to show that some of the women are at least 40 years of age.
5
MR b 8
of the women are at least 40 years old. How many of the men are aged less than 40?

11 This is how Jo works out the fraction at the mid-value of two other fractions.
• Write the two fractions with a common denominator.
• The numerator of the midpoint fraction is the sum of the numerators of the two
fractions written with a common denominator.
• The denominator of the midpoint fraction is the sum of the denominators of the two
fractions written with a common denominator.
1 3
For example, to find the midpoint fraction of 5 and 4
:
1 4 3 15
5
= 20 4 = 20
4 + 115
So the midpoint fraction is = 19 .
20 + 20 40
CM a Show that the calculation above does give the midpoint fraction of 51 and 43 .
EV b Does the method always work? Explain your answer.

2.3 Multiplying and dividing fractions

This section will show you how to: Key term
• multiply proper fractions
reciprocal
• multiply mixed numbers
• divide by fractions.

Multiplying fractions
To multiply fractions, follow these four steps.
Step 1: Convert any mixed numbers into improper fractions and rewrite the multiplication
if necessary.
Step 2: Simplify the multiplication by cancelling by any common factors in the numerators and
the denominators.
Step 3: Multiply the numerators to obtain the numerator of the answer and multiply the
denominators to obtain the denominator of the answer.
Step 4: If the answer is an improper fraction, convert this into a mixed number.

Work these out. a 4

× 3
b 2 25 × 1 78
Example 6

9 10
2 1
4 3 2 Identify any common factors in the numerators and
a × =
3 9 10 5
15 denominators: 2 is a factor of 4 and 10; 3 is a factor of 3 and 9.
Simplify the fractions, cancelling by 2 and 3, before
multiplying.

b 2 25 × 1 78 = 12
5
× 15
8
Convert the mixed numbers into improper fractions.
3
12 15
3 Simplify the fractions, cancelling by 4 and 5.
× = 9
2
= 4 21
1 5 82

42 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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Reciprocal of a fraction
The reciprocal of a number is simply the number divided into one. So the reciprocal of 2 is 1 ÷ 2 = 21 .
2
The reciprocal of a fraction is simply the fraction turned upside down, so the reciprocal of 5
is 25 .
Check on your calculator by keying in:

You will do more work on reciprocals in a later chapter.

For some topics in algebra, you will need to know about the negative reciprocal. This is exactly what it
says: the negative reciprocal of 3 is 43 and the negative reciprocal of 23 is 23 .
4
Dividing fractions
Dividing by a fraction is equivalent to multiplying by the reciprocal of the fraction. For example:
2 3
• dividing by 3
is the same as multiplying by 2
1
• dividing by 4
is the same as multiplying by 4.
Follow these three steps to divide fractions.
Step 1: Convert any mixed numbers into improper fractions.
Step 2: Convert the division calculation into a multiplication calculation by writing the reciprocal of
the divisor.
Step 3: Carry out the multiplication.

5 3
Work these out. a ÷ b 2 21 ÷ 3 31
Example 7

6 4

5 4
2 Convert the division calculation into a multiplication
5 3
a 6
÷ 4 = × 3 calculation by rewriting
36
5
10 ÷ 3 as 65 × 43 .
= 9
6 4
Then cancel common factors, multiply and convert your
= 1 91 answer to a mixed number.

1 Convert the mixed numbers into improper fractions.

b 2 2 ÷ 3 31 = 5
2 ÷ 10
3 Convert the division into a multiplication calculation.
5 ÷ 10 = 5 × 3 Complete the multiplication.
2 3 2 10
1
5 3 3
2 × 10 2
= 4

Exercise 2C
1 Work these out, leaving each answer in its simplest form or as a mixed number.
a 1× 1 b 3×1 c 14 × 3 d 6 × 21
2 3 4 2 15 8 7 30
2 1 2
e 1 41 × 1
3 f 1 43 × 1 3 g 3 41 × 1 5 h 1 41 × 2 3
2 Work these out, leaving your answer as a fraction or mixed number.
1 1 4 3 1 1
a 4
÷ 3
b 5
÷ 4
c 7 2 ÷ 12
5 3 3 1
d 1 12 ÷ 3 16 e 3 5 ÷ 24

2.3 Multiplying and dividing fractions 43

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3 Write down the reciprocal of each number.

1 3 5
a 4 b 5
c 8
d 4

4 Write down the negative reciprocal of each number.

a 5 b – 21 c 7
9
d – 35
5 Bilal eats one-quarter of a cake, and then half of what is left. How much cake is
left uneaten?

6 You are given that 1 tonne = 1000 kilograms.

A dustbin lorry carries 12 tonnes of rubbish. Three-quarters of this is recycled.
Half of the remainder is sent for landfill and the rest is sent to an incinerator.
What fraction of the rubbish goes to landfill?
1 5
7 ahar made 12 2 litres of lemonade for a party. His glasses could each hold 16 of a litre.
How many of the glasses could he fill from the 12 1 litres of lemonade?
2
3
8 Which is larger, 4
of 2 21 or 2
5
of 6 21 ?

CM 9 If £5.20 is two-thirds of three-quarters of a sum of money, what is the total amount

of money?

10 Work these out.

a 18
25
× 15
16 ÷ 2 25 b ( 45 × 45 ) ÷ (141 × 1 41 )
CM 11 1
During a heatwave a pond loses 8
of the water it contains. Show that after two days it
has 49 of the original water left.
64
PS 12 A flour mill produces 120 kg of flour a day. The flour is packed into bags that weigh
either 1 21 kg or 2 21 kg. One day they pack 50 of the 1 21 kg bags. How many 2 21 kg bags
do they pack?

CM 13 a Show that you can use a fraction to estimate the answer to ‘77% of 243’ as 180.
EV b Will the answer to part a be higher or lower than the true value? Explain your answer.

2.4 Fractions on a calculator

This section will show you how to: Key term
• use a calculator to add and subtract fractions
shift key
• use a calculator to multiply and divide fractions.

When you use a calculator for work on fractions, the method of working is different from when
you work ‘on paper’. For example, you will not need to change the denominators to add or subtract,
and you may not need to change mixed numbers to improper fractions to multiply or divide. Your
calculator should do this for you.
Some calculators may give answers as improper fractions. Make sure that you know which keys to use
to convert them.

Hints and tips Not all models of calculator work the same way, so make sure you know how yours
works. The keystrokes in this section are based on a standard calculator.

44 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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Using a calculator to convert improper fractions to

mixed numbers
Find the fraction key on your calculator. Remember, for some
functions, you may need to use the shift key.
To key in a fraction, press .
9
Input the fraction so that it looks like this: 5
or

Now press the equals key so that the fraction displays in the
answer part of the screen.
Pressing shift and the key S<=>D will convert the fraction to a mixed
number:

4
This is the mixed number 1 5 .

Pressing the equals key again will convert the mixed number
back to an improper fraction.
• Try to think of a way of converting an improper fraction to a mixed
number without using a calculator.
• Test your idea, and then use your calculator to check it.

Using a calculator to convert mixed numbers to improper fractions

To input a mixed number, press the shift key first and then the fraction key .
Pressing the equals sign will convert the mixed number to an improper fraction.
• Key in at least 10 improper fractions and convert them to mixed numbers.
• Remember to press the equals sign to change the mixed numbers back to improper fractions.
• Input at least 10 mixed numbers and convert them to improper fractions.
• Look at your results. Try to think of a way of converting a mixed number to an improper fraction
without using a calculator.
• Test your idea and then use your calculator to check it.

Using a calculator to add and subtract fractions

Practise adding and subtracting fractions until you are sure that you know how to do it. Then work
through the next two examples.

A water tank is half full. One-third of the full capacity of the tank is poured out.
Example 8

What fraction of the tank is now full of water?

1 1
The calculation is −
2 3.
Keying in the calculation gives:

The display should show 1 .

6
The tank is now one-sixth full of water.

2.4 Fractions on a calculator 45

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Example 9 Work out the perimeter of a rectangle that is 1 21 cm long and 3 23 cm wide.
To work out the perimeter of this rectangle, use the formula:
P = 2l + 2w
where l = 1 21 cm and w = 3 23 cm.
P = 2 × 1 21 + 2 × 3 23
Keying in the calculation gives:

The display should show 10 31 .

So the perimeter is 10 31 cm.

Using a calculator to multiply and divide fractions

Work out the area of a rectangle of length 3 1 m and width 2 23 m.
Example 10

2
The formula for the area of a rectangle is area = length × width.
Keying in the calculation, where length = 3 21 and width = 2 23 gives:

The display should show 9 31 .

The area is 9 31 cm .

1 3
Example 11

Work out the average speed of a bus that travels 20 4 miles in 4 hour.
total distance travelled
The formula for the average speed is average speed = .
total time taken
1 3
The total distance is 20 4 miles and the total time is 4 hour.
Keying in the calculation gives:

0 4 4
4 4
The display should show 27.
The average speed is 27 mph.

Exercise 2D
In this exercise, try to key in each calculation as one continuous set of operations, without writing
down any intermediate values.

1 Use your calculator to work these out. Give your answers as fractions.
3 4 4 9 5 9 3
a + b + c + +
4 5 5 20 8 16 5
9 1 7 3 1 4 9 2
d − e + − f + −
20 12 16 8 20 5 16 3

46 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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2 a What is the distance between Wickersley and Redbrook, using these roads?

Wickersley Redbrook
4 —12 miles 3
7 —4 miles

b How much further is it to Redbrook than to Wickersley?

3 Use your calculator to work these out. Give your answers as mixed numbers.
7 9
a 4 43 + 1 45 b 3 65 + 4 10 c 2 85 + 3 16 + 5 35

9 1 7 3
d 6 20 – 3 12 e 9 16 + 5 83 – 7 20
1
f 10 43 + 6 29 – 12 11
18 23
4 a Use your calculator to work out −
37 43
.
CM b Explain how your answer tells you that 23
43
is greater than 18
37
.

5 The formula for the perimeter, P, of a rectangle is:

P = 2l + 2w
where l is the length and w is the width.
Work out the perimeter when l = 5 81 cm and w = 4 31 cm.

PS 6 A shape is rotated 90° clockwise and then a further 60° clockwise.

What fraction of a turn will return it to its original position?
Give both possible answers.

7 Use your calculator to work these out. Give your answers as fractions in their
lowest terms.
a 3×4 b 5× 9 ×3 c 9 ÷ 1
4 5 8 16 5 20 12

d 3÷ 7 e 7 ×3÷ 1 f 3× 2÷ 3
4 48 16 8 20 4 9 11
8 Use your calculator to work these out. Give your answers as mixed numbers.
a 4 43 × 1 45 b 7 45 × 8 20
9
c 2 85 × 3 16
9
× 5 35

9
d 6 20 1
÷ 3 12 e 4 43 ÷ 2 48
7 7
f 9 16 × 5 83 ÷ 7 20
1

9 The formula for the area of a rectangle is area = length × width.

Use this formula to work out the area of a rectangle of length 5 23 m and width 3 41 m.
1
EV 10 The ribbon on a roll is 3 2 m long. Joe wants to cut pieces of ribbon that are each
1
6
m long.
He needs 50 pieces.
How many rolls will he need?

2.4 Fractions on a calculator 47

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MR 11 To work out the surface area, A, of a cube with edge length of x, square x and then
multiply the result by 6.
a Work out the surface area of a cube with an edge length of 1 43 cm.
b Work out the edge length of a cube with a surface area of 34 14
25
cm2. Give your
answer as a mixed number.

PS 12 An approximation for the number π is 22 7

. The formulae for the area, A, and
circumference, C, of a circle with radius r are A = πr2 and C = 2πr.
Work out the area of a circle with a circumference of 22 cm.
3
PS 13 An iron cuboid with length = 2 31 cm, width = 3 21 cm and height = 2 4 cm is melted
down and formed into a sphere of radius r. The formula for the volume Vc of a cuboid
is length × width × height. The formula for the volume Vs of a sphere is Vs = 43 π × r3.
Work out the value of r. Take π = 22
7
.

MR 14 1
During a heatwave a pond loses 8
of the water it contains each day. How much water
is left after three days?
1
PS 15 A flour mill produces 120 kg of flour a day. It operates for 4 2 days a week. The flour
1 1
is packed into bags with a mass of either 1 2 kg or 2 2 kg. One week they pack 175 of
the 1 21 kg bags. How many 2 21 kg bags do they pack?

2.5 Increasing and decreasing

quantities by a percentage
This section will show you how to: Key term
• increase and decrease quantities by a percentage.
multiplier

During sales, shops often state that they have reduced prices,
and use a percentage to describe how much the prices have fallen. When newspapers describe
increases in travel fares or wages, they will often use percentages to describe how much the prices
have risen. This is useful because it allows you to compare the new price with the old.

Increasing by a percentage
There are two methods for increasing a quantity by a percentage. The first is to work out the increase
and add it to the original amount.

Work out the increase and add it to the original amount

Example 12

Increase £6 by 5%.
Work out 5% of £6: (5 ÷ 100) × 6 = £0.30
Add £0.30 to the original amount: £6 + £0.30 = £6.30

The second is to use a multiplier. For example, an increase of 6% is equivalent to the original 100%
plus the extra 6%. This is a total of 106% ( 106
100
) and is equivalent to the multiplier 1.06.

48 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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Use a multiplier
Example 13
Increase £6.80 by 5%.
Find the multiplier: A 5% increase is a multiplier of 1.05.
Multiply: £6.80 × 1.05 = £7.14

Decreasing by a percentage
There are also two methods for decreasing by a percentage. The first is to work out the decrease and
subtract it from the original amount.

Work out the decrease and subtract it from the original amount
Example 14

Decrease £8 by 4%.
Work out 4% of £8: (4 ÷ 100) × 8 = £0.32
Subtract it from the original amount: £8 – £0.32 = £7.68

The second method is using a multiplier. For example, a 7% decrease is equivalent to 7% less than the
original 100%, so it represents 100% – 7% = 93% of the original. This is a multiplier of 0.93.

Use a multiplier
Example 15

Decrease £8.60 by 5%.

Find the multiplier: A decrease of 5% is a multiplier of 0.95.
Multiply: £8.60 × 0.95 = £8.17

Exercise 2E
1 Work out the multiplier you would use to increase a quantity by each percentage.
a 10% b 3% c 20%
d 7% e 12%
2 Work out the multiplier you would use to decrease a quantity by each percentage.
a 8% b 15% c 25%
d 9% e 12%
3 Increase each amount by the given percentage. Use any method you like.
a 340 kg by 15% b 670 cm by 23% c 130 g by 95%
d £82 by 75% e 640 m by 15% f £28 by 8%
4 Decrease each amount by the given percentage. Use any method you like.
a 860 m by 15% b 96 g by 13% c 480 cm by 25%
d 180 minutes by 35% e 86 kg by 5% f £65 by 42%
5 A large factory employed 640 people. It reduced the number of workers by 30%.
How many workers remain?

2.5 Increasing and decreasing quantities by a percentage 49

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CM 6 Kerry wants to buy a sweatshirt (£19), a tracksuit (£26) and some running shoes (£56).
If she joins the store’s premium club, which costs £25, she can get 20% off the cost of
the goods.
Should she join or not? Give calculations to support your answer.

CM 7 Kevin is on a salary of £27 500. He is offered a pay rise of 7% or an extra £150 per
month. Which should he accept? Give calculations to support your answer.

8 In 2010 VAT was 17.5%. It was increased to 20% in January 2011.

a After the increase, how much more expensive was a TV that cost £245 without VAT?
EV b Which of these calculations would give the increase in cost of an item costing £x
without VAT, after the rate increases from 17.5% to 20%?
x × 1.175 ÷ 1.2 x × 1.2 ÷ 1.175 x × 0.025 x ÷ 0.025
EV c Which of these calculations would be the new cost of an item costing £y including
17.5% VAT, after the rate increases from 17.5% to 20%?
y ÷ 1.175 × 1.2 y ÷ 1.2 × 1.175 y × 0.025 y ÷ 0.025

9 A cereal packet normally contains 300 g of cereal and costs £1.40.

There are two special offers.
Offer A: 20% more for the same price
Offer B: Same amount for 20% off the normal price
Which is the better offer?
a Offer A b Offer B c Both the same d Cannot tell
Justify your choice.

CM 10 BookWorms increased its prices by 5%, and then increased them by 3%. Books
Galore increased its prices by 3%, and then increased them by 5%.
Which shop’s prices increased by the greater percentage?
a BookWorms b Books Galore c Both the same d Cannot tell
Justify your choice.

CM 11 Shop A increased its prices by 4% and then by another 4%. Shop B increased its
prices by 8%.
Which shop’s prices increased by the greater percentage?
a Shop A b Shop B c Both the same d Cannot tell
Give reasons for your answer.

12 A computer cost £450 at the start of 2013. At the start of 2014 the price was increased
by 5%. At the start of 2015 the price was decreased by 10%. What did the computer
cost at the start of 2015?

CM 13 Show that a 10% decrease followed by a 10% increase is equivalent to a 1%

decrease overall.

Hints and tips Choose an amount to start with.

PS 14 A circle has a radius of 8 cm. Its area increases by 60%. By what percentage does the
radius increase? The formula for the area of a circle of radius r is A = 3.14 × r2.

50 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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EV 15 An approximate formula for the volume of a sphere of radius r is V = 4r3.

4
a The actual formula is V = 3
× π × r3. Show that the approximate formula is accurate
to within 5%.

Hints and tips Choose a value for r.

b Is the value given by the approximate formula lower or higher than the actual
value? Explain your answer.

2.6 Expressing one quantity as

a percentage of another
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• express one quantity as a percentage of another percentage change
• work out percentage change. percentage decrease
percentage increase
You can express one quantity as a percentage of another by setting up
the first quantity as a fraction of the second, making sure that the units percentage loss
of each are the same. Then you convert the fraction into a percentage
percentage profit
by multiplying by 100.

Express £6 as a percentage of £40.

Example 16

6
Set up the fraction and multiply by 100: × 100 = 15%
40

Express 75 cm as a percentage of 2.5 m.

Example 17

First, change both quantities to a common unit: 2.5 m = 250 cm

Now you need to express 75 cm as a percentage of 250 cm.
75
Set up the fraction and multiply by 100: × 100 = 30%
250

Percentage change
A percentage change may be a percentage increase or a percentage decrease.
change
Percentage change = × 100
original amount
You can use this to calculate percentage profit or percentage loss in a financial transaction.

Jake buys a car for £1500 and sells it for £1800. What is Jake’s percentage profit?
Example 18

profit 300
Jake’s profit is £300, so his percentage profit is: × 100 = × 100
original amount 1500
= 20%

2.6 Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another 51

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Using a multiplier (or decimal)

To use a multiplier, divide the increase by the original quantity and change the resulting decimal to
a percentage.

Express 5 as a percentage of 40.

Example 19

Set up the fraction or decimal: 5 ÷ 40 = 0.125

Convert the decimal to a percentage: 0.125 = 12.5%

Exercise 2F
1 Express each fraction as a percentage. Give suitably rounded figures where necessary.
a £5 of £20 b £4 of £6.60 c 241 kg of 520 kg
d 3 hours of 1 day e 25 minutes of 1 hour f 12 m of 20 m
g 125 g of 600 g h 12 minutes of 2 hours i 1 week of a year
j 1 month of 1 year k 25 cm of 55 cm l 105 g of 1 kg
2 Liam went to school with his pocket money of £2.50. He spent 80p at the tuck shop.
What percentage of his pocket money did he spend?

3 In Greece, there are 3 654 000 acres of agricultural land. Olives are grown on
237 000 acres of this land. What percentage of the agricultural land is used for olives?

4 During the wet year of 1981, it rained in Manchester on 123 days of the year. What
percentage of days were wet?

5 Find the percentage profit on each item. Give your answers to one decimal place.

Item Retail or selling price (£) Wholesale price paid by the shop (£)
a CD player 89.50 60
b TV set 345.50 210
c Computer 829.50 750

6 In 2012 Melchester County Council raised £14 870 000 in council tax. In 2013 it raised
£15 597 000 in council tax. What was the percentage increase?

7 When Blackburn Rovers won the championship in 1995, they lost only four of their
42 league games. What percentage of games did they not lose?

8 These are the results from two tests taken by Calum and Stacey. Both tests are out of
the same mark.

Test A Test B
Calum 12 17
Stacey 14 20
Whose result has the greater percentage increase from test A to test B?
Show your working.

52 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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CM 9 A supermarket advertises its cat food like this.

Trading standards are checking the claim.

They observe that over one hour, 46 people buy cat food and 38 buy the store’s
own brand.
Based on these figures is the store’s claim correct?

CM 10 Three quantities are x, y and z. x is 60% of y. y is 75% of z. What percentage is x of z?

Hints and tips Choose a value for z.

CM 11 Three quantities are x, y and z. x is 75% of y. x is 60% of z. What percentage is y of z?

PS 12 In 2000 the population of a town was 4800. 30% of the population of the town owned
a mobile phone. In 2015 the number of people in the town had increased by 20%.
70% of the population now owned a mobile phone. By what percentage has the
number of people owning a mobile phone increased?

EV 13 This letter appeared in a newspaper. Comment on the figures in the letter.

Dear Sir, in your last edition you 31% and 26% respectively. A 31%
said that the vote for Amir Patel share of the vote is in fact 19%
was 5% greater than the vote greater than a 26% share. Did you
for John Smith. The relevant mean that Amir Patel’s vote was 5%
percentages of the total vote were more than John Smith’s?

2.6 Expressing one quantity as a percentage of another 53

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 Bob invests £1500 in some shares. After one month the shares have increased in value
by 12%. Bob decides to buy another £3000 worth of the same shares. After another
month the value of the shares has increased by 5%. Bob decides to sell the shares.
How much profit does he make?

This is a problem-solving question so you will need to show your strategy.

The multiplier is 1.12. Write down the multiplier for an increase of 12%.
1500 × 1.12 = 1680 Work out the value after 1 month.
(3000 + 1680) × 1.05 = 4914 Add on the £3000 and work out the value after
another month but, this time, use a multiplier of
1.05 as the increase has changed.
4914 – 4500 = 414 Subtract the original amount invested to get the
profit.

54 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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CM 2 a Work this out.

( 23 + 45 )
179

b Decide whether 23 + 45 is greater or less than 1 79 .

Show clearly how you decide.

For part a you need to use basic mathematics skills. Then b is the ‘communicating
mathematics’ part of the question. You need to make your method clear.

2 4 10 12 First add the two fractions inside the brackets by

a + = + writing them with a common denominator, that
3 5 15 15
=
22 is, 10
15
+ 12
15
.
15

22 9 Change the mixed number 1 79 into an improper

×
15 16 fraction, 16
9
, then find its reciprocal and multiply.
11 3 Cancel the common factors. Then multiply the
22 9 33
× = numerators and multiply the denominators.
5 15 16 8
40

b The answer to part a ( 4033 ) This is a communicating mathematics question so

you need to make sure your use your answer to part
is less than 1. 2
a to decide whether 3 + 45 is greater or less than 1 79
This means that the and give a reason to support your answer.
2
(
numerator 3 + 45 must )
be smaller than the
denominator 1 79 . ( )

2 Worked exemplars 55
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Ready to progress?
I can write one quantity as a fraction of another.
I can add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions.
I can calculate percentage increases and decreases.

I can compare proportions using percentages.

I can use percentage multipliers to carry out percentage calculations.

I can calculate with mixed numbers.

I can solve complex problems involving percentage increases and percentage decreases.

Review questions
1 Mrs Patel earns £520 per week. She is awarded a pay rise of 10%. How much does she
earn each week after the pay rise?

2 Five girls run a 200-metre race. Their times are shown in the table.

Name Ali Beth Carol Donna Eve

Time (seconds) 28.0 32.0 36.0 36.0 27.0
a Write down the modal time.
b The five girls run another 200-metre race. They all reduce their times by 10%.
i Calculate Ali’s new time.
ii Who won this race?
iii Who improved her time by the least amount of time?
3 The bill for car repairs is £100 plus VAT. VAT is charged at 20%. What is the total bill?

4 The cost of a computer is the list price plus VAT at 20%.

The list price of a computer is £480.
Work out the cost of the computer.

5 A tin of cat food costs 45p.

A shop has a special offer on the Special offer
cat food. Pay for 2 tins and
Julie wants 30 tins of cat food. get 1 tin free
a Work out how much she pays.
The normal price of a dog collar and
lead is £15. 45p Free
In a sale, the price of the collar and lead
is reduced by 12%.
45p
b Work out the sale price of the collar
and lead.

56 2 Number: Fractions, ratio and proportion

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6 7
a Change 8
to a decimal.
b Work out 3
5
– 72 .
c Work out 3 41 × 1 35 .
7 A washing machine normally costs £350. It is reduced by 8% in a sale.
How much is the sale price of the washing machine?
7 2
8 Work out the value of 8
– 5.
3 1
9 On Friday Bonnie the cat eats 1 4 sachets of cat food. On Saturday she eats 2 3
sachets of cat food.
Work out the total sachets of cat food that Bonnie eats on Friday and Saturday.
1
10 Arnold uses 35 of a tin of paint to cover 1 2 m of fence. What is the smallest number of
tins he needs to cover 12 m of fence?

11 22 54 221 312
7 17 71 99
a Put these numbers into order of size, largest on the left, smallest on the right.
b Use your calculator to find which of the numbers is the closest approximation to π.

12 During 2014 the number of unemployed people in Truro fell from 1600 to 1152.
What was the percentage decrease?

MR 13 A painter has 40 litres of paint. Each litre covers 3.5 m2. The area to be painted is 108 m2.
Estimate the percentage of paint used. Give your answer to the nearest one per cent.

MR 14 There are 400 penguins in a zoo. 11 of the penguins are male. 5 of the females lay
20 9
eggs. All the chicks survive.
By what percentage has the number of penguins increased?

CM 15 Bag A contains 48 balls, 9 of which are red. Bag B contains 59 balls, 11 of which are
red. Tomas says: ‘Bag B has the greater number of red balls so the probability of
taking a red ball at random must be greater for bag B than for bag A.’ Is Tomas
correct? Show working to support your answer.

PS 16 The cost of coffee increased by 15% one week but fell back to the original price the
next week.
By what percentage did the cost of coffee fall in the second week? Give your answer
to the nearest one per cent.

PS 17 There are 250 men and women in a golf club.

There are 50% more men than women in the club.
a How many men and women are in the golf club?
b If 10% of the men and 15% of the women are left-handed, what percentage of the
whole membership of the golf club is left-handed?

2 Review questions 57
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3
Statistics: Statistical
diagrams and averages

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to draw and interpret pie charts
• how to draw and interpret line graphs
• how to solve problems that use averages
• how to calculate averages from frequency tables
• how to draw scatter diagrams and lines of best fit.

You should already know:

• how to calculate and use the mode, median and mean
• how to extract information from tables and diagrams.

About this chapter

William Playfair, a Scottish engineer, is thought to
have originated the idea of representing statistics
in a graphical way. He invented three types of
diagram: the line graph and bar chart in 1786 and
the pie chart in 1801.
Florence Nightingale was also a pioneer in
presenting information visually. She was born in
1820 and was very good at mathematics from an William Playfair pioneered
early age. In 1859, she was elected the first female charts and graphs such as
member of the Royal Statistical Society. this pie chart.

She developed a form of the pie chart now known

as the ‘polar area diagram’ or the ‘Nightingale rose
diagram’. It illustrated monthly patient deaths in
military field hospitals. She called these diagrams
‘coxcombs’ and used them a great deal to present
reports on the conditions of medical care in the
Crimean War to Parliament and to civil servants
who may not have fully understood traditional
statistical reports.
Florence Nightingale
Since the latter part of the 20th century, statistical was a nurse and hospital
graphs have become an important way of analysing reformer. She used charts
information. Computer-generated statistical graphs and graphs in her work.
are seen every day on TV, in newspapers and in
magazines. In this chapter, you will learn how to draw and interpret a
range of these graphs.

58
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3.1 Statistical representation

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• draw and interpret bar charts and pie charts line graph trend
• draw and interpret line graphs.

Bar charts and pie charts

You are already familiar with bar charts in which the vertical axis represents frequency and the
horizontal axis represents categorical data – the data you are considering.
The frequency table shows the average monthly rainfall over a six-month period.

Month January February March April May June

Rainfall (mm) 10 25 20 35 15 5

The diagrams below show three different ways the data can be represented.
As a pictogram: As a bar chart:

Average monthly rainfall over a six-month period Average monthly rainfall over
a six-month period
40
Jan

Feb 30
Rainfall (mm)

Mar
20

Apr
10
May
Key
0
Jun represents 5 mm Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Month

As a vertical line chart:

Average monthly rainfall over
a six-month period
40

30
Rainfall (mm)

20

10

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Month

You should also be able to recognise and use multiple or dual bar charts and composite bar charts,
which can be used to compare two sets of related data as shown in the next example.

3.1 Statistical representation 59

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Example 1 This dual bar chart shows the average Average daily maximum temperatures
daily maximum temperatures for England for England and Turkey
and Turkey over a five-month period. 100
In which month was the difference
between temperatures in England and 80
Turkey the greatest?

Temperature (°F)
60
Key
England
40
Turkey

20

0
April May June July August
Month

The largest difference can be seen in August.

This composite bar chart shows the numbers The number of visitors to a museum
Example 2

of visitors to a museum over a three-month 1400

period.
a How many visitors went to the museum over 1200
Child visitors
the three-month period?
b How many visitors were children? 1000
Adult visitors
Number of visitors

800

600

400

200

0
Jun Jul Aug
Month

a Reading from the graph: 500 + 1100 + 1300 = 2900 visitors.

b Reading from the grey sections on the graph: 200 + 600 + 600 = 1400 children.

Pictograms, bar charts and vertical line charts are not always easy to interpret when there is a big
difference between the frequencies or there are only a few categories. In these cases, it is often more
convenient to illustrate the data on a pie chart.
In a pie chart, the whole of the data is represented by a circle (the ‘pie’) and each category of it is
represented by a sector of the circle (a ‘slice of the pie’). The angle of each sector is proportional to
the frequency of the category it represents. So, unlike a bar chart, for example, a pie chart can only
show proportions and not individual frequencies.

60 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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In a survey, 120 people were asked to state which type of transport they used on their most
Example 3
recent holiday. This table shows the results of the survey.
Draw a pie chart to illustrate the data.
Type of transport Train Coach Car Ship Aeroplane
Frequency 24 12 59 11 14

Method 1
Since 120 divides exactly into 360°, each person can be represented by 360° ÷ 120 = 3°.
So multiply all the frequencies by 3 to give the angles of all the sectors.
Type of transport Frequency Calculation Angle
Train 24 24 × 3 72°
Coach 12 12 × 3 36°
Car 59 59 × 3 177°
Ship 11 11 × 3 33°
Aeroplane 14 14 × 3 42°
Totals 120 360°
This is referred to as the scaling method.
Method 2
Here you work out what fraction of the pie chart is for each type of transport by dividing each
frequency by 120 and then multiplying this by 360°.
Type of transport Frequency Calculation Angle

Train 24 24 × 360° 72°

120
Coach 12 12 × 360° 36°
120
Car 59 59 × 360° 177°
120
Ship 11 11 × 360° 33°
120
Aeroplane 14 14 × 360° 42°
120
Totals 120 360°

This is referred to as the proportional method. Type of transport

Use the calculated angle for each sector to draw the pie chart.
Train
Coach

Aeroplane

Ship
Car

Note
• Check that the sum of all the angles is 360°.
• Label each sector.
• You do not need to show the angles or frequencies on the pie chart.

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The pie charts show the favourite sports for two

Example 4 Class 1 Class 2
classes in a school.
Cricket Cricket
James says that more students prefer football Hockey
in class 2 than in class 1. Explain why he could Hockey
be wrong.
Football Tennis
Football
Tennis

There could be a different number of students in each class. The pie charts only show
proportions so there is no way of telling the numbers represented in each pie chart.

Exercise 3A
1 On a sports afternoon, students were asked to choose basketball, badminton
or volleyball.
The table shows the sport they chose.

Basketball Badminton Volleyball

Girls 16 12 10
Boys 22 22 20
a Illustrate the data on a composite bar chart.
b How many girls chose basketball?
c How many boys chose either badminton or volleyball?
2 Draw a pie chart to represent each set of data.

Hints and tips Remember to complete a table, as shown in the example, and
check that the angles add up to 360°.

a The numbers of children in 40 families

Number of children 0 1 2 3 4
Frequency 4 10 14 9 3
b The favourite soap opera of 60 students
Programme Home and Away Neighbours Coronation Street EastEnders Emmerdale
Frequency 15 18 10 13 4
c How 90 students get to school
Journey to school Walk Car Bus Cycle
Frequency 42 13 25 10

3 Mariam asked 24 of her friends which sport they preferred to play. Her data is shown
in this frequency table.
Sport Rugby Football Tennis Squash Basketball
Frequency 4 11 3 1 5
a Draw a pictogram to show the data. b Draw a bar chart to show the data.
c Draw a vertical line chart to show the data. d Draw a pie chart to show the data.
MR e Which diagram best illustrates the data? Give a reason to support your answer.

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4 Hassan wrote down the number of lessons he had per week in each subject on his
school timetable.
Mathematics 5 English 5 Science 8 Languages 6 Humanities 6 Arts 4 Games 2
a How many lessons did Hassan have on his timetable?
b Draw a pie chart to show the data.
c Draw a bar chart to show the data.
MR d Which diagram better illustrates the data? Give a reason to support your answer.
5 In a poll during the run-up to an election, 720 people were asked which political
party they would vote for. The results are given in the table.
Conservative 248
Labour 264
Liberal Democrat 152
Green Party 56
a Draw a pie chart to illustrate the data.
EV b Why do you think pie charts are used to show this sort of information during elections?
6 This pie chart shows the proportions of the different shoe Shoe sizes worn by
144 pupils in Year 11
sizes worn by 144 students in Year 11 in a London school.
a What is the angle of the sector representing shoe 3&4
11 & 12
sizes 11 and 12?
b How many students had a shoe size of 11 or 12? 45°
5&6
60°
c What percentage of students wore the modal size? 120°
80°
9 & 10
7&8

7 The table shows the numbers of candidates, at each grade,

gaining music examinations in Strings and Brass.
Grades
3 4 5 6 7 Total number of candidates
Strings 300 980 1050 600 70 3000
Brass 250 360 300 120 70 1100
a Draw a pie chart to represent each of the two instruments.
MR b Compare the pie charts to decide which group of candidates, Strings or Brass, are
of a higher standard. Give reasons to justify your answer.

PS 8 In a survey, a rail company asked passengers whether Has the rail service improved?
their service had improved.
The results are shown in this pie chart. Same
Improved
80°
Explain how you would work out the probability that a 90°
person picked at random from this survey answered
Don’t know
Don’t know.
Not as good
150°

3.1 Statistical representation 63

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Line graphs
Line graphs are usually used in statistics to show how data changes over a period of time. They can
indicate trends: for example, line graphs can be used to show whether the Earth’s temperature is
increasing as the concentration of carbon dioxide builds up in the atmosphere, or whether a firm’s
profit margin is falling year on year.
Line graphs are best drawn on graph paper.

This line graph shows the outside temperature one day in November.
Example 5

The outside temperature one day in November

6

5
Temperature (°C)

0
9 am 11 am 1 pm 3 pm 5 pm 7 pm
Time

What does this graph show you and what are its limits?
On this graph, the values between the plotted points have no true meaning because only the
temperatures at the plotted points are known. However, by joining the points with dashed
lines, as shown, you can estimate the temperatures at points in between. Although the graph
shows the temperature falling in the early evening, it would not be sensible to try to predict
what will happen after 7 pm that night.

Exercise 3B
1 The table shows the estimated numbers of tourists worldwide.
Year 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Number of tourists (millions) 100 150 220 280 290 320 340 345
a Draw a line graph for the data.
b Use your graph to estimate the number of tourists in 2002.
c In which five-year period did tourism increase the most?
MR d i Explain the trend in tourism.
ii What reasons can you give to explain this trend?

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2 The table shows the maximum and minimum daily temperatures for London over
a week.
Day Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
Maximum (°C) 12 14 16 15 16 14 10
Minimum (°C) 4 5 7 8 7 4 3
a Draw line graphs on the same axes to show the maximum and minimum
temperatures.
b Work out the smallest and greatest differences between the maximum and
minimum temperatures.

3 Maria opened a coffee shop. She was interested in how trade was picking up over the
first few weeks. The table shows the numbers of coffees sold in these weeks.
Week 1 2 3 4 5
Coffees sold 46 71 89 103 113
a Draw a line graph for this data.
b From your graph, estimate the number of coffees Maria can hope to sell in week 6.
MR c Give a possible reason for the way in which the number of coffees sold increased.
MR 4 A puppy is weighed at the end of each week, for five weeks after it is born.
Week 1 2 3 4 5
Mass (g) 850 920 940 980 1000
Is it possible to estimate how much the puppy will weigh after eight weeks?
Explain your answer.

PS 5 When plotting a graph to show the summer midday temperatures in Spain, Abbass
decided to start his graph at the temperature 20 °C.
Explain why he might have made this decision.

3.2 Statistical measures

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• use averages to solve (more complex) problems continuous data
• identify the advantages and disadvantages of each type of
discrete data
average and learn which one to use in different situations
• work out and use the range of a set of data estimate of the mean

• calculate the mode, the median and the mean from a measure of location
frequency table
modal group
• identify the modal group
• estimate the mean from a grouped frequency table.

Averages
You will often use the term ‘average’ when describing or comparing sets of data. The average is also
known as a measure of location. For example, you may refer to the average rainfall in Britain, the
average score of a batsman, an average weekly wage, the average mark in an examination. In each of
these examples, you are representing the whole set of many values by just one single, typical value.

3.2 Statistical measures 65

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The idea of an average is extremely useful, because it enables you to compare one set of data with
another set by comparing just two values – their averages.
There are several ways of expressing an average, but the most commonly used averages are the
mode, the median and the mean.
An average must be truly representative of a set of data. So, when you need to find an average, it
is crucial to choose the correct type of average for this particular set of data. If you use the wrong
average, your results will be distorted and give misleading information.
This table, which compares the advantages and disadvantages of each type of average, will help you
to make the correct decision.

Mode Median Mean

Advantages Very easy to find Easy to find for Easy to find
Not affected by extreme ungrouped data Uses all the values
values Not affected by extreme The total for a given
Can be used for values number of values can be
non-numerical data calculated from it
Disadvantages Doesn’t use all the values Doesn’t use all the values Extreme values can
May not exist Often not understood distort it
Has to be calculated
Used for Non-numerical data Data with extreme values Data with values that are
Finding the most likely spread in a balanced way
value

The range
You know that the range of a set of data is the difference between the highest value and the lowest
values. The range is not an average. It shows the spread of the data. You can use it to compare two or
more sets of similar data, for example, to comment on their consistency.

These are the ages of 20 people attending a conference.

Example 6

23, 25, 26, 28, 28, 34, 34, 34, 37, 45, 47, 48, 52, 53, 56, 63, 67, 70, 73, 77
a Work out: i the mode ii the median iii the mean iv the range of the data.
b Which average best represents the age of the people at the conference?
a i The mode is 34. ii The median is 46.
iii The mean is 920 ÷ 20 = 46. iv The range is 54.
b All three averages are similar (the median and the mean are the same), but it is probably
better to use the mean as it takes in all of the values.

Exercise 3C
1 These are the marks of 21 students in an English examination.
55, 63, 24, 47, 60, 45, 50, 89, 39, 47, 38, 43, 69, 73, 38, 47, 53, 64, 58, 71, 82
a Work out the mode.
b Work out the median.
c Work out the mean.
d Work out the range.

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MR 2 Shopkeepers always want to keep the most popular items in stock.

Which average do you think is often known as ‘the shopkeeper’s average’?

PS 3 A list comprises seven even numbers. The largest number is 24. The smallest number
is half the largest. The mode is 14 and the median is 16. Two of the numbers add up
to 42.
a What are the seven numbers?
b How many different answers can you find?
MR 4 Decide which average you would use for each statistic. Give reasons for your choices.
a The average mark in an examination
b The average pocket money for a group of 16-year-olds
c The average shoe size for all the girls in Year 10
d The average height for all the artistes on tour with a circus
e The average hair colour for students in your school
f The average mass of all newborn babies in a hospital’s maternity ward
5 This table shows the annual salaries for a
Chairman £83 000
firm’s employees.
Managing director £65 000
a What is:
Floor manager £34 000
i the modal salary
Skilled worker 1 £28 000
ii the median salary
Skilled worker 2 £28 000
iii the mean salary? Machinist £20 000
EV b The management has suggested a pay rise Computer engineer £20 000
for all of 6%. The shopfloor workers want
Secretary £20 000
a pay rise for all of £1500. What difference
to the mean salary would each suggestion Office junior £8 000
make?

MR 6 Mr Brennan, a mathematics teacher, told each student their individual test mark. He
told the whole class the modal mark, the median mark and the mean mark.
a Which average would tell a student whether they were in the top half or the
bottom half of the class?
b Which average really tells the students nothing?
c Which average allows a student to gauge how well they have done, compared with
everyone else?

7 Three players were hoping to be chosen for the basketball team.

The table shows their scores for the last few games they played.
The teacher said they would be selected by their best average score.
By which average would each boy choose to be selected?

Tom 16, 10, 12, 10, 13, 8, 10

David 16, 8, 15, 25, 8
Mohammed 15, 2, 15, 3, 5

3.2 Statistical measures 67

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PS 8 A list of nine numbers has a mean of 7.6. What number must be added to the list to
give a new mean of 8?

PS 9 A dance group of 17 teenagers had a mean mass of 44.5 kg. To enter a competition,
there needs to be 18 people in the group with an average mass of 44.4 kg or less.
What is the maximum mass that the 18th person could be?

PS 10 The mean age of a group of eight walkers is 42. Joanne joins the group and the mean
age changes to 40. How old is Joanne?

Frequency tables
When you have gathered a lot of information, it is often convenient to put it together in a frequency
table. Then you can use your table to work out the values of the mode, median, mean and range of
the data.

The results of a survey on the number of people in each car leaving the Meadowhall Shopping
Example 7

Centre, in Sheffield, are summarised in the table.

Number of people in each car 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 45 198 121 76 52 13
Calculate:
a the mode b the median c the mean number of people in a car.
a The modal number of people in a car is easy to identify. It is the number with the largest
frequency (198). Hence, the modal number of people in a car is 2.
b To find the median number of people in a car, you need to locate the middle value of the
set of numbers. First, add up the frequencies to find the total number of cars surveyed. This
comes to 505. Next, calculate the middle position.
(505 + 1) ÷ 2 = 253
You now need to find the group that contains the 253rd item. The 243rd item comes at the
end of the group with 2 in a car. Therefore, the 253rd item must be in the group with 3 in a
car. Hence, the median number of people in a car is 3.
c You can work out the mean number of people in a car by calculating the total number of
people, and then dividing this total by the number of cars surveyed.
Number in car Frequency Number in these cars
1 45 1 × 45 = 45
2 198 2 × 198 = 396
3 121 3 × 121 = 363
4 76 4 × 76 = 304
5 52 5 × 52 = 260
6 13 6 × 13 = 78
Totals 505 1446
Hence, the mean number of people in a car is 1446 ÷ 505 = 2.9 (1 dp).

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Using your calculator

You could also answer the previous example by using the statistical mode, which is available on some
calculators. However, not all calculators are the same, so you will need either to read your instruction
manual or to experiment with the statistical keys on your calculator.
You may find one labelled DATA or or x or x .
Try these keystrokes.
1 4 5 DATA 2 1 9 8 DATA

1 4 5 DATA x

Exercise 3D
1 Work out: i the mode ii the median iii the mean from each frequency table.
a The results of a survey of the shoe sizes of all the Year 10 boys in a school
Shoe size 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of students 12 30 34 35 23 8 3
b A record of the number of babies born each week over one year in a small
maternity unit
Number of babies 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Frequency 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 5 9 8 6 4 5 2 1

2 A survey of the number of children in each family of a school’s intake gave these results.
Number of children 1 2 3 4 5
Frequency 214 328 97 26 3
a Assuming each child at the school is shown in the data, how many children are at
the school?
b State the median number of children in a family.
c How many families have this mean number of children?
d How many families would consider themselves average from this survey?
3 A dentist kept records of how many teeth he extracted from his patients.
In 1989, he extracted 598 teeth from 271 patients.
In 1999, he extracted 332 teeth from 196 patients.
In 2009, he extracted 374 teeth from 288 patients.
a Calculate the mean number of teeth taken from each patient in each year.
CM b Explain why you think the mean number of teeth extracted falls each year.
4 The teachers in a school were asked to indicate the average number of hours they
spent each day marking. The table summarises their replies.
Number of hours spent marking 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of teachers 10 13 12 8 6 1
a How many teachers are there at the school?
b What is the modal number of hours spent marking?
c What is the mean number of hours spent marking?

3.2 Statistical measures 69

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5 Two friends often played golf together. They recorded their scores for each hole over
five games to determine who was more consistent and who was the better player.
The results are summarised in the table.
Number of shots to hole ball (score) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Roger 0 0 0 14 37 27 12 0 0
Brian 5 12 15 18 14 8 8 8 2

a What is the modal score for each player?

b What is the range of scores for each player?
c What is the median score for each player?
d What is the mean score for each player?
CM e Which player is the more consistent? Explain why.
CM f Who would you say is the better player? Explain why.
6 The table shows numbers of league goals scored by a football team over a season.
Number of goals scored 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of matches 3 8 10 11 4 2 1 1

a How many games were played that season?

b What is the range of goals scored?
c What is the modal number of goals scored?
d What is the median number of goals scored?
e What is the mean number of goals scored?
f Which average do you think the team’s supporters would say is the average
number of goals scored by the team that season?
g If the team also scored 20 goals in 10 cup matches that season, what was the mean
number of goals the team scored throughout the whole season?

PS 7 The table shows numbers of sweets in some Number of sweets Frequency

tubes, but a coffee stain has deleted one
of the figures. 32 4
33
The mean number of sweets in a tube is
34 9
known to be 33.5.
35 1
Work out the missing number in the table.
36 1

MR 8 I have been given a frequency table by Corrin. She says: “I can calculate the mean to
be an integer but not the median. Why is that?” Give a possible explanation.

PS 9 The table shows the number of passengers

Number of
in each of 100 taxis leaving London 1 2 3 4
Heathrow Airport one day. passengers in a taxi
Number of taxis x 40 y 26
a Write down the value of x + y.
b The mean number of passengers per taxi is known to be 2.66. Show that x + 3y = 82.
c Work out the values of x and y by solving appropriate equations.
d State the median of the number of passengers per taxi.

70 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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Grouped frequency tables

Sometimes the information may have too many values to represent easily so they are grouped in
some way, as in the table in Example 8, which shows the range of weekly pocket money given to
Year 10 students in a particular class. In this case, all values more than £1 up to £2 are counted as
one group.

From the data in the table:

Example 8

a write down the modal group (the group with the greatest frequency)
b calculate an estimate of the mean weekly pocket money.
Pocket money, p (£) 0<p⩽1 1<p⩽2 2<p⩽3 3<p⩽4 4<p⩽5
Number of students 2 5 5 9 15

a The modal group is easy to pick out, since it is simply the one with the largest
frequency. Here the modal group is £4 to £5.
b The mean can only be estimated, since you do not have all the information. To estimate the
mean, you simply assume that each person in each group has the midpoint amount, then
you can proceed to build up the table as before.
To find the midpoint value, add the two end values and divide the total by two.

Pocket money, p (£) Frequency ( f ) Midpoint (m) f×m

0<p⩽1 2 0.50 1.00
1<p⩽2 5 1.50 7.50
2<p⩽3 5 2.50 12.50
3<p⩽4 9 3.50 31.50
4<p⩽5 15 4.50 67.50
Totals 36 120

The estimated mean is £120 ÷ 36 = £3.33 (correct to 2 decimal places).

Note the notation used for the groups.

0 < p ⩽ 1 means any amount above 0p up to and including £1.
1 < p ⩽ 2 means any amount above £1 up to and including £2.
If you had written 0.01–1.00, 1.01–2.00, … for the groups, the midpoint values would have been 0.505,
1.505, … Although technically correct, this makes the calculation of the mean harder and does not
have a significant effect on the final answer, which is an estimate anyway.
This issue only arises because money is discrete data, which is data that consists of separate numbers.
Other discrete data includes numbers of goals scored, marks in a test, numbers of children and shoe
sizes. Normally, grouped tables use continuous data, which is data that can have an infinite number of
different values, such as height, weight, time, area and capacity. It is always rounded information.
Whatever the type of data, remember to find the midpoint value by adding the two end values of the
group and dividing by 2.

3.2 Statistical measures 71

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Exercise 3E
1 For each table of values, calculate: i the modal group ii an estimate for the mean.
a x 0 < x ⩽ 10 10 < x ⩽ 20 20 < x ⩽ 30 30 < x ⩽ 40 40 < x ⩽ 50
Frequency 4 6 11 17 9
b y 0 < y ⩽ 100 100 < y ⩽ 200 200 < y ⩽ 300 300 < y ⩽ 400 400 < y ⩽ 500 500 < y ⩽ 600
Frequency 95 56 32 21 9 3
c z 0<z⩽5 5 < z ⩽ 10 10 < z ⩽ 15 15 < z ⩽ 20
Frequency 16 27 19 13

d Weeks 1–3 4–6 7–9 10–12 13–15

Frequency 5 8 14 10 7

Hints and tips When you copy the tables, draw them vertically, as in Example 8.

2 Jason brought 100 pebbles back from the beach and weighed them all, to the nearest
gram. His results are summarised in this table.

Mass, m (grams) 40 < m ⩽ 60 60 < m ⩽ 80 80 < m ⩽ 100 100 < m ⩽ 120 120 < m ⩽ 140 140 < m ⩽ 160
Frequency 5 9 22 27 26 11

Work out:
a the modal mass of the pebbles
b an estimate for the total mass of the pebbles
c an estimate for the mean mass of the pebbles.
3 One hundred light bulbs were tested by their manufacturer to see whether the
average life span of the bulbs was over 200 hours. The table summarises the results.

Life span, h (hours) 150 < h ⩽ 175 175 < h ⩽ 200 200 < h ⩽ 225 225 < h ⩽ 250 250 < h ⩽ 275
Frequency 24 45 18 10 3

a What is the modal length of time a bulb lasts?

b What percentage of bulbs last longer than 200 hours?
c Estimate the mean life span of the light bulbs.
MR d Do you think the test shows that the average life span is over 200 hours? Explain
your answer fully.

4 The owners of a boutique did a survey to find the average age of people using the
boutique. The table summarises the results.
Age (years) 14–18 19–20 21–26 27–35 36–50
Frequency 26 24 19 16 11

Calculate the average age of the people using the boutique.

72 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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5 The table shows the distances run by an athlete who is training for a marathon.
Distance, d (miles) 0<d⩽5 5 < d ⩽ 10 10 < d ⩽ 15 15 < d ⩽ 20 20 < d ⩽ 25
Frequency 3 8 13 5 2
a It is recommended that an athlete’s daily average mileage should be at least
one-third of the distance of the race being trained for. A marathon is 26.2 miles.
Is this athlete doing sufficient training?
b The athlete records the times of some runs and calculates that her average pace for
all runs is 6 21 minutes for a mile. Explain why she is wrong to expect a finishing
time of 26.2 × 6 21 minutes ≈ 170 minutes for the marathon.
MR c The athlete claims that the difference between her shortest and longest run is
21 miles. Could this be correct? Explain your answer.

CM 6 Three supermarkets each claimed to have the lowest average price increase over the
year. The table summarises their average price increases.

Price increase (pence) 1–5 6–10 11–15 16–20 21–25 26–30 31–35
Soundbuy 4 10 14 23 19 8 2
Springfields 5 11 12 19 25 9 6
Setco 3 8 15 31 21 7 3

Using their average price increases, make a comparison of the supermarkets and
write a report on which supermarket, in your opinion, has the lowest price increases
over the year. Remember to justify your answers.

7 The table summarises the results of a survey about how quickly the AOne attended
calls that were not on a motorway. The times are rounded to the nearest minute.

Time (minutes) 1–15 16–30 31–45 46–60 61–75 76–90 91–105

Frequency 2 23 48 31 27 18 11

a How many calls were used in the survey?

b Estimate the mean time taken per call.
c Which average would the AOne use to advertise their average call-out time?
d What percentage of calls do the AOne get to within the hour?
PS 8 The table shows the numbers of runs scored by all the batsmen in a cricket
competition.

Runs 0–9 10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49

Frequency 8 5 10 5 2

Helen noticed that two numbers were in the wrong part of the table and that this
made a difference of 1.7 to the arithmetic mean.
Which two numbers were the wrong way round?

CM 9 The table shows profit made each week by a charity shop, to the nearest pound (£).

Profit (£) 0–500 501–1000 1001–1500 1501–2000

Frequency 15 26 8 3

Explain how you would estimate the mean profit made each week.

3.2 Statistical measures 73

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MR 10 The table shows the age of 100 members of a football club.

Age 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69

Frequency 16 34 27 18 5

a Tebor claims that the median age of the members is 39.5.

Is he correct? Explain your answer
b He also says that the range of the age of the members is 34.
Could he be correct? Explain your answer.

3.3 Scatter diagrams

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• draw, interpret and use scatter diagrams line of best fit
• draw and use a line of best fit. negative correlation

A scatter diagram (also called a scatter graph or scattergram) no correlation

is a method of comparing two variables by plotting their values outlier
on a graph. The variables are treated just like a set of (x, y)
coordinates. positive correlation

In this scatter diagram, the marks scored by students in an scatter diagram

English test are plotted against the marks they scored in a
mathematics test.
Comparison of English and mathematics marks

120
110
100
90
English marks

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Mathematics marks

This graph shows that the students who got high marks in the mathematics test also tended to get
high marks in the English test.

Correlation
Here are three statements that may or may not be true.
• The taller people are, the wider their arm span is likely to be.
• The older a car is, the lower its value will be.
• The distance you live from your place of work will affect how much you earn.

74 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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These relationships could be tested by collecting data and plotting each set of data on a
scatter diagram.
Comparison of people's Comparison of the age Comparison of the distances
height and arm span of a car and its value people live from work
and their salaries
Arm span (cm)

Wages (£)
Height (cm) Value (£) Age (years) Distance from work (km)

Good positive correlation Strong negative correlation No correlation

The first statement may give a scatter diagram like the first one above. This diagram has good positive
correlation because as one quantity increases, so does the other. From such a scatter diagram you
could say that the taller someone is, the wider the arm span.
Testing the second statement may give a scatter diagram like the second one. This diagram has strong
negative correlation because as one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases. From such a
scatter diagram you could say that as a car gets older, its value decreases.
Testing the third statement may give a scatter diagram like the third one. This scatter diagram has no
correlation. There is no relationship between the distance a person lives from work and how much
that person earns.
You can describe correlation as positive or negative, strong or weak. Always try to give a full
description, rather than just saying there is positive, negative or no correlation.

The two scatter diagrams show

Example 9

Amount of ice cream eaten (g)

Amount of ice cream sold (£)

the relationship between the

temperature and the amount
of ice cream sold and people’s
age and the amount of ice cream
they eat.
a Comment on the correlation
of each graph.
b What does each graph tell Temperature (°C) Age (years)
you?
a The first diagram shows strong positive correlation.
The second diagram shows weak negative correlation.
b The first diagram tells you that as the temperature increases, the amount of ice cream
sold increases.
The second diagram tells you that as people get older, they eat less ice cream.
Beware! Correlation does not give you any indication of the underlying causes or reasons for a
trend. For example, you cannot make the assumption that older people do not like ice cream.

Line of best fit

A line of best fit is a straight line drawn between all the points on a scatter diagram, passing as close
as possible to all of them. You should try to have the same number of points on both sides of the
line. When drawing a line of best fit you should ignore any point that is outside the main spread of
values. Such a point is called an outlier.
3.3 Scatter diagrams 75
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This scatter diagram shows the marks gained when a class took tests in mathematics and English.
Notice that the teacher ignored the outlier when she drew the line of best fit.
You can use the line of best fit to answer questions such as: ‘A girl took the mathematics test and
scored 75 marks, but was ill for the English test. How many marks was she likely to have scored?’
Comparison
Comparison of and
of English English and Comparison
Comparison of and
of English English and
mathematics
mathematics marks marks mathematics
mathematics marks marks
120 120 120 120

110 110 110 110

100 100 100 100

90 90 90 90
80
English marks

80

English marks
80
English marks

80

English marks
70 70 70 70

60 60 60 60

50 50 50 50

40 40 40 40

30 30 30 30

20 20 20 20
2050
20 30 40 3060
4070
50 80609070100
80110
90 120
100 110 120 20 30 40 30 60
20 50 4070
50 80
60 90
70100
80110120
90 100 110120
Mathematics
Mathematics marks marks Mathematics
Mathematics marks marks

You can find the answer by drawing lines from 76 on the mathematics axis, up to the line of best fit
and then across to the English axis. This gives 73, which is the mark she is likely to have scored in
the English test.
Beware When you are reading a value from a line of best fit (known as interpolation), remember
that any point used is only an indication of what might happen; it is not an exact answer. Likewise,
when predicting values beyond a line of best fit (known as extrapolation), you cannot assume the
trend will continue.

Exercise 3F
1 Describe the correlation in each of these four scatter diagrams. Write down what
each one tells you.
a Comparison
Comparison of number
of number of of b Comparison
Comparison of time
of time taken
taken to to
press-ups
press-ups and and
timetime taken
taken complete
complete a crossword
a crossword withwith
age age
Time to complete a crossword (min)
Time to complete a crossword (min)
Number of press-ups in the gym
Number of press-ups in the gym

Time Time
(s) (s) Age Age (years)
(years)

Comparison
Comparison of speed
of speed of of Comparison
Comparison of savings
of savings
carscars
and and temperature
temperature and and
age age
Speed of cars on M1 (mph)
Speed of cars on M1 (mph)

Amount saved in bank (£)

Amount saved in bank (£)

76 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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 Number of pr

Time to compl
Number of p

Time to compl
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Time Time
(s) (s) Age Age (years)
(years)

c Comparison
Comparison of speed
of speed of of d Comparison
Comparison of savings
of savings
carscars
and and temperature
temperature and and
age age

Speed of cars on M1 (mph)

Speed of cars on M1 (mph)

Amount saved in bank (£)

Amount saved in bank (£)
Temperature
Temperature (°C) (°C) Age Age (years)
(years)

2 The table shows the results of a science experiment in which a ball is rolled along a
desk top. The speed of the ball is measured at various points.

Distance from start (cm) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Speed (cm/s) 18 16 13 10 7 5 3 0

a Plot the data on a scatter diagram.

b Draw the line of best fit.
c If the ball’s speed had been measured at 5 cm from the start, what is it likely to
have been?
d Estimate how far from the start the ball was when its speed was 12 cm/s.
3 The table shows the marks for 10 students in their mathematics and
geography examinations.

Student Anna Beryl Cath Dema Ethel Fatima Greta Hannah Imogen Joan
Maths 57 65 34 87 42 35 59 61 25 35
Geography 45 61 30 78 41 36 35 57 23 34

a Plot the data on a scatter diagram. Use the horizontal axis for the mathematics
scores and mark it from 20 to 100. Use the vertical axis for the geography scores
and mark it from 20 to 100.
b Draw a line of best fit.
c One of the students was ill when she took the geography examination. Which
student was it most likely to be?
d Another student, Katya, was absent for the geography examination. She scored
75 in mathematics. What mark would you expect her to have scored in geography?
e If another student, Lynne, was absent for the mathematics examination but scored
65 in geography, what mark would you expect her to have got in mathematics?

3.3 Scatter diagrams 77

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4 These are the heights, in centimetres, of 20 mothers and their 15-year-old daughters.

Mother 153 162 147 183 174 169 152 164 186 178
Daughter 145 155 142 167 167 151 145 152 163 168
Mother 175 173 158 168 181 173 166 162 180 156
Daughter 172 167 160 154 170 164 156 150 160 152

a Plot these results on a scatter diagram. Use the horizontal axis for the mothers’
heights, labelled from 140 to 200. Use the vertical axis for the daughters’ heights,
labelled from 140 to 200.
b Is it true that the tall mothers have tall daughters?
5 A teacher carried out a survey of his class. He asked students to say how many hours
per week they spent playing sport and how many hours per week they spent
watching TV. This table shows the results of the survey.

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Hours playing sport 12 3 5 15 11 0 9 7 6 12
Hours watching TV 18 26 24 16 19 27 12 13 17 14
Student 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Hours playing sport 12 10 7 6 7 3 1 2 0 12
Hours watching TV 22 16 18 22 12 28 18 20 25 13

a Plot these results on a scatter diagram. Take the horizontal axis as the number of
hours playing sport and the vertical axis as the number of hours watching TV.
CM b If you knew that another student from the class watched 8 hours of TV a week,
would you be able to predict how long she or he spent playing sport? Explain why.

6 The table shows the time taken and distance travelled by a taxi driver for 10 journeys
one day.

Distance (km) 1.6 8.3 5.2 6.6 4.8 7.2 3.9 5.8 8.8 5.4
Time (minutes) 3 17 11 13 9 15 8 11 16 10

a Draw a scatter diagram with time on the horizontal axis.

b Draw a line of best fit on your diagram.
c A taxi journey takes 5 minutes. How many kilometres would you expect the
journey to have been?
d How long would you expect a journey of 4 km to take?
CM e Explain why you cannot give a time for a journey of 12 km.
PS 7 Oliver records the time taken, in hours, and the average speed, in mph, for several
different journeys.

Time (h) 0.5 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.6 1.75 2 2.4 2.6
Speed (mph) 42 38 27 30 22 23 21 9 8

Estimate the average speed for a journey of 90 minutes.

CM 8 Describe what you would expect a scatter graph to look like if someone said that it
showed negative correlation.

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 The table shows the numbers of learners at each grade for two practice driving tests,
Theory and Practical.
Grades
Excellent Very good Good Pass Fail Total number of learners
Theory 208 888 1032 696 56 2880
Practical 240 351 291 108 90 1080

a Represent each of the two practice tests in a pie chart.

b By comparing the pie charts, on which test (Theory or Practical) do you think
learners did better overall? Give a reason to justify your answer.

This is a question that involves communicating mathematics. You will need to use the data
in a form that can be compared, make that comparison, and then assess the validity of the
statement made.
a Theory Work out the angle for each grade.

Grade Frequency Calculation Angle Remember to check that all the

angles add up to 360°.
Excellent 208 208 26°
2880 × 360° Take care to interpret the
information you are given
Very good 888 888 × 360° 111° accurately.
2880

Good 1032 1032 × 360° 129°

2880

Pass 696 696 × 360° 87°

2880

Fail 56 56 × 360° 7°
2880
Total 2880 360°

Grades for driving test: theory Remember to label the pie chart.
Fail Excellent You do not need to show the
angles.
Pass

Very
good

Good

3 Worked exemplars 79
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Practical Work out the angle for each grade.

Grade Frequency Calculation Angle Remember to check that all the
angles add up to 360°.
Excellent 240 240 80°
1080 × 360° Take care to interpret the
information you are given
Very good 351 351 117° accurately.
1080 × 360°

Good 291 291 97°

1080 × 360°

Pass 108 108 36°

1080 × 360°

Fail 90 90 30°
1080 × 360°
Total 1080 360°

Grades for driving test: practical Again, remember to label the pie
Fail chart. You do not need to show the
Excellent angles.
Pass

Good
Very
good

b Overall the learners did better on the practical, as 54% You must justify your answer. This is
obtained Excellent or Very good, whereas only 38% for interpreting and communicating
obtained Excellent or Very good on the theory. the information accurately.

PS 2 Read these three statements.

• The older you are, the higher you score on a speed test.
• The higher the score on the speed test, the less TV you watch.
• The more TV you watch, the more hours you will sleep.
a Sketch a scatter diagram to illustrate the relationship described in each one.
b Draw a line of best fit on each diagram and describe the relationship that it shows.

80 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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This is a problem-solving question. You need to think how you can show the relationship and then
use the line of best fit to illustrate that trend.
a
aa Comparison
Comparisonofof
test speed
test speed Comparison
Comparison ofof
test speed
test speed First you will need
Comparison
Comparison to
ofof decide
test speed
test on
speed
and age
and age and
andtime watching
time watching TVTV how to label
and
and the
hoursaxes.
hoursofof
sleep
sleep
Then plot at least 10 points on
Speed test score

Speed test score

Speed test score

Speed test score

the scatter diagram.

Hours slept
Hours slept
To show that you understand
correlation, try to use a
different type of correlation for
each one where appropriate
so that in part b you can use
Age
Age Hours
Hourswatching
watchingTVTV
the terms: Hours
positive correlation,
watching
Hours TVTV
watching
negative correlation, weak
on of test speed Comparison of test speed correlation, good correlation
watching TV and hours of sleep
and strong correlation.
This translates the problem into
a mathematical context.
Hours slept

watching TV Hours watching TV

b b
b Comparison
Comparison
of test
of test
speed
speed Comparison
Comparison
of test
of test
speed
speed DrawComparison
a Comparison
line of best fittest
of test
of on
speed
speed
andand
ageage andand
time
time
watching
watching
TV TV andand
each diagramhours
hours
andofidentify
sleep
of sleep
the
correct relationship for each
one. Remember to make sure
Speed test score
Speed test score

Speed test score

Speed test score

Hours slept
Hours slept

you leave about equal numbers

of points on either side of the
line.

AgeAge Hours
Hours
watching
watching
TV TV Hours
Hours
watching
watching
TV TV
Weak positive correlation Good negative correlation
n of test speed Comparison of test speed
watching TV and hours of sleep
Hours slept

watching TV Hours watching TV

Strong positive correlation

3 Worked exemplars 81
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Ready to progress?
I can draw and interpret pie charts.
I can draw and interpret line graphs.
I can calculate the mode, median, mean and range and decide which average to use.
I can calculate the mean from a frequency table.
I can estimate the mean from a grouped frequency table.
I can draw and interpret a scatter diagram.
I can draw a line of best fit on a scatter diagram.

Review questions
1 The pie chart gives information about the mathematics examination GCSE grades of
some students.
Mathematics examination grades

Grade 9
Grade 6
40°
80°
100° Grade 8
140°

Grade 7

a What grade was the mode?

b What fraction of the students obtained a grade 8?
c 24 of the students got grade 9.
i How many of the students got grade 6?
ii How many of the students took the examination?
This accurate pie chart gives information about the English examination grades for a
different set of students.
English examination grades

Grade 6
Grade 9

Grade 7
Grade 8

CM d Lizzy says: “More students got a grade 8 in English than in mathematics.”

Explain why Lizzy could be wrong.

82 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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2 The table lists the numbers of matches in 20 matchboxes.

Number of matches Frequency
42 2
43 5
44 11
45 1
46 1

Calculate the mean number of matches in the 20 boxes.

3 Josh asked 30 students how many minutes they each took to get to school.
The table shows some information about his results.
Time taken, t (minutes) Frequency
0 < t ⩽ 10 6
10 < t ⩽ 20 11
20 < t ⩽ 30 8
30 < t ⩽ 40 5

a Write down the modal group.

b Which class interval contains the median time?
c Calculate an estimate for the mean time.
MR 4 The table shows the weekly pocket money of the students in one class. The values
are rounded to the nearest pound.
Pocket money (£) 0–4 5–9 10–14 15–20
Frequency 4 6 12 8

a Sean says that he has estimated the mean amount of pocket money as £9.50.
Explain how you can tell Sean must be wrong without having to calculate the
estimated mean.
b Calculate the correct estimate for the mean amount of pocket money.
5 The table shows the percentage sales for three products sold over a four-week period
in a park kiosk.

Ice cream Chocolate bars Crisps

Week 1 36% 36% 28%
Week 2 32% 28% 40%
Week 3 42% 26% 32%
Week 4 34% 32% 34%

Draw a composite bar chart to illustrate the data.

3 Review questions 83
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PS 6 Tom and Margot grow tomatoes. One weekend Mass, m (grams) Tom’s tomatoes
they compared their tomatoes by each selecting 50 < m ⩽ 100 21
100 from their own plants. The group frequency
100 < m ⩽ 150 28
table shows the masses of Tom’s tomatoes.
150 < m ⩽ 200 26
a Write down the modal group.
200 < m ⩽ 250 14
b Which class interval contains the median mass
for Tom’s tomatoes? 250 < m ⩽ 300 9
c Calculate an estimate for the mean mass for 300 < m ⩽ 350 2
Tom’s tomatoes.
d This is the graph for Margot’s tomatoes. Copy it on to graph paper. On the same
grid draw the graph for Tom’s tomatoes.

How Margot’s tomatoes grew

40

35

30
Number of tomatoes

25

20

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Mass, m (grams)

e Copy and complete the grouped frequency table for Margot’s tomatoes.
Mass, m (grams) Margot’s tomatoes
50 < m ⩽ 100
100 < m ⩽ 150
150 < m ⩽ 200
200 < m ⩽ 250
250 < m ⩽ 300
300 < m ⩽ 350
f Calculate an estimate for the mean mass for Margot’s tomatoes.
CM g Use the graph and the estimates for the mean to compare Tom and Margot’s
tomatoes.

84 3 Statistics: Statistical diagrams and averages

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7 The scatter diagrams show the results of a survey on the average number of hours of
sunshine in a week during the summer in Eastbourne.
a b

Diagram
Diagram A A Diagram
Diagram B B Diagram
Diagram C

Average
Average hours
hours of of sunshine
sunshine Average
Average hours
hours of of sunshine
sunshine Average
Average hours
hours of of sunshine
sunshine

Diagram B Diagram C

Average hours of sunshine Average hours of sunshine

a Which scatter diagram do you think shows the average hours of sunshine plotted
against:
i the number of ice creams sold
ii the number of umbrellas sold
iii the number of births in the town?
b Describe the correlation shown in each diagram.
8 The table shows the time taken and distance travelled by a taxi driver for 10 journeys
one day.

Time (minutes) Distance (km)

3 1.7
17 8.3
11 5.1
13 6.7
9 4.7
15 7.3
8 3.8
11 5.7
16 8.7
10 5.3

a Plot a scatter diagram on a grid with time on the horizontal axis, from 0 to 20, and
distance on the vertical axis, from 0 to 10.
b Draw a line of best fit on your diagram.
c A taxi journey takes 4 minutes. What distance is it likely to be?
d A taxi journey is 10 kilometres. How many minutes is it likely to take?

3 Review questions 85
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4
Algebra: Number and
sequences

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to recognise rules for sequences
• how to express a rule for a sequence, in words and algebraically
• how to generate the terms of a linear and quadratic sequence,
given a formula for the nth term
• how to find the nth term of a linear and quadratic sequence
• some common sequences of numbers.

You should already know:

• how to substitute numbers into an algebraic expression
• how to state a rule for a simple linear sequence in words
• how to factorise simple linear expressions
• how to expand a pair of linear brackets to get a quadratic
expression.

About this chapter

Mathematicians enjoy finding patterns; you have already seen patterns
in sequences such as square numbers and multiples. As well as being
important in mathematics; number patterns can also help in the study of
nature and geometric patterns.
Many mathematical patterns are found in nature.
The most famous of these is probably the
Fibonacci series, in which each term after the
second is formed by adding the two previous 8
terms.
1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 …
The sequence was discovered by the Italian,
Leonardo Fibonacci, in 1202, when he was
1
investigating the breeding patterns of rabbits 2
1
Since then, the pattern has been found in
many other places in nature. The spirals found 5
3
in a nautilus shell and in the seed heads of a
sunflower plant also follow the Fibonacci series.

86
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4.1 Patterns in number

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise patterns in number sequences.
pattern sequence

Look at these number patterns.

0×9+1=1 1×8+1=9
1 × 9 + 2 = 11 12 × 8 + 2 = 98
12 × 9 + 3 = 111 123 × 8 + 3 = 987
123 × 9 + 4 = 1111 1234 × 8 + 4 = 9876
1234 × 9 + 5 = 11 111 12345 × 8 + 5 = 98 765

1 × 3 × 37 = 111 7 × 7 = 49
2 × 3 × 37 = 222 67 × 67 = 4489
3 × 3 × 37 = 333 667 × 667 = 444 889
4 × 3 × 37 = 444 6667 × 6667 = 44 448 889

The numbers form a sequence. Check that the patterns you can see are correct, then try to continue
each pattern without using a calculator. Check them with a calculator afterwards.
Spotting patterns is an important part of mathematics. It helps you to see rules for making
calculations.

Exercise 4A
In questions 1 to 6, look for the pattern and then write the next two lines. Check your answers with a
calculator afterwards.
You might find that some of the answers are too big to fit in a calculator display. This is one of the
reasons why spotting patterns is important.

Hints and tips Look for symmetries in the number patterns.

1 a 1×1=1 b 9 × 9 = 81
11 × 11 = 121 99 × 99 = 9801
111 × 111 = 12 321 999 × 999 = 998 001
1111 × 1111 = 1 234 321 9999 × 9999 = 99 980 001

2 a 3 × 4 = 32 + 3 b 10 × 11 = 110
4 × 5 = 42 + 4 20 × 21 = 420
5 × 6 = 52 + 5 30 × 31 = 930
6 × 7 = 62 + 6 40 × 41 = 1640

Hints and tips Think of the answers to 2b as 1 10, 4 20, 9 30, 16 40 …

3 a 1 = 1 ⇒ 12 b 1 = 1 ⇒ 13
1 + 2 + 1 = 4 ⇒ 22 3 + 5 = 8 ⇒ 23
1 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 9 ⇒ 32 7 + 9 + 11 = 27 ⇒ 33
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 16 ⇒ 42 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 64 ⇒ 43

4.1 Patterns in number 87

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4 a 1= 1 b 12 345 679 × 9 = 111 111 111

1+1= 2 12 345 679 × 18 = 222 222 222
1+2+1= 4 12 345 679 × 27 = 333 333 333
1+3+3+1= 8 12 345 679 × 36 = 444 444 444
1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1 = 16
1 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 = 32

MR 5 a 13 = 12 ⇒ 1 b 32 + 42 = 52
13 + 23 = (1 + 2)2 ⇒ 9 102 + 112 + 122 = 132 + 142
13 + 23 + 33 = (1 + 2 + 3)2 ⇒ 36 212 + 222 + 232 + 242 = 252 + 262 + 272

Hints and tips 4 + 5 = 9 ⇒ 32

12 + 13 = 25 ⇒ 52
24 + 25 = 49 ⇒ 72

Use your observations on the number patterns in questions 1 to 5 to answer question 6 without
using a calculator.

EV 6 a 111 111 111 × 111 111 111 = b 999 999 999 × 999 999 999 =
c 12 × 13 = d 90 × 91 =
e 1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8+9+8+7+6+5+4+3+2+1=
f 57 + 59 + 61 + 63 + 65 + 67 + 69 + 71 =
g 1 + 9 + 36 + 84 + 126 + 126 + 84 + 36 + 9 + 1 =
h 12 345 679 × 81 = i 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53 + 63 + 73 + 83 + 93 =

Hints and tips Look for clues in the patterns from questions 1 to 5, for example,
1111 × 1111 = 1 234 321. This is four 1s times four 1s, so what will it
be for nine 1s times nine 1s?

CM 7 This is Gauss’s method for working out the sum of all the numbers from 1 to 100.

1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … + 50 + 51 + … + 97 + 98 + 99 + 100
101
101 50 × 101 = 5050
101
101
101

Use Gauss’s method to work out the sum of all the whole numbers from 1 to 500.

88 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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4.2 Number sequences

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise how number sequences are built up coefficient consecutive
• generate sequences, given the nth term.
difference nth term
You know that a number sequence is an ordered set of term term-to-term
numbers based on a rule. The rule that takes you from one
number to the next could be a simple addition or multiplication, but it may be a more complex rule.
You always need to look very carefully at the pattern of a sequence.
Each number in a sequence is called a term. Each term has a specific position in the sequence. Terms
that follow on, one from another, are called consecutive terms.
Look at these sequences and their rules.
3, 6, 12, 24, … doubling the previous term each time … 48, 96, …
2, 5, 8, 11, … adding 3 to the previous term each time … 14, 17, …
1, 10, 100, 1000, … multiplying the previous term by 10 each time … 10 000, 100 000, …
22, 15, 8, 1, … subtracting 7 from the previous term each time … –6, –13, …
The first thing to do is identify the link from one term to the next. A pattern in which each term (apart
from the first) is derived from the term before it is a term-to-term sequence.

Differences
For some sequences you need to look at the differences between consecutive terms to determine
the pattern.

Find the next two terms of the sequence 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, …

Example 1

Look at the differences between each pair of consecutive terms.

1 3 6 10 15

2 3 4 5
You can continue the sequence like this.
1 3 6 10 15 21 28

2 3 4 5 +6 +7
The differences usually form a number sequence of their own, so you need to work out the
sequence of the differences before you can continue the original sequence.

Generalising to find the rule

Sometimes, you may need to know a specific term in a number sequence. To do this, you need to find
the rule that produces the sequence and express it in a general form. To see how this works, look at
the problem backwards: make up a rule and see how it produces a sequence.

A sequence is formed by the rule 3n + 1, where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, … Write down the first five
Example 2

terms of the sequence.

Substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in turn:
(3 × 1 + 1) (3 × 2 + 1) (3 × 3 + 1) (3 × 4 + 1) (3 × 5 + 1) …
4 7 10 13 16 …
So the sequence is 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, …

4.2 Number sequences 89

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In the last example, you used the expression 3n + 1 for the rule that generates the sequence. This
expression is called the nth term of the sequence and you can use it to find any term, by substituting
the term number for n.
Notice that the difference between one term and the next is always 3, which is the coefficient of n (the
number attached to n) in the rule. The constant term is the difference between the first term and the
coefficient (in this case, 4 – 3 = 1).

The nth term of a sequence is 4n – 3. Write down the first five terms of the sequence.
Example 3

Substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in turn:
(4 × 1 – 3) (4 × 2 – 3) (4 × 3 – 3) (4 × 4 – 3) (4 × 5 – 3) …
1 5 9 13 17 …
So the sequence is 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, …
Notice that the difference between each term and the next is always 4, which is the coefficient
of n in the formula for the nth term. The constant term is the difference between the first term
and the coefficient (1 – 4 = –3).

Exercise 4B
1 Look carefully at each number sequence below. Find the next two numbers in the
sequence and explain the pattern.
a 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … b 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, … c 3, 4, 7, 11, 18, 29, …

Hints and tips These patterns do not go up by the same value each time so you
will need to find another connection between the terms.

2 The pattern shows how triangular numbers are formed.

1 3 6 10

Work out the next four triangular numbers.

3 The pattern shows how hexagonal numbers are formed.

1 7 19 37

Work out the next three hexagonal numbers.

90 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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4 n−1
The first two terms of the sequence of fractions are:
n+1
2−1 1
n = 1: 1 − 1 = = 0
0
n = 2: =
1+ 1 2 2+1 3
Work out the next five terms of the sequence.

5 A sequence is formed by the rule 1 × n × (n + 1) for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …

2
The first term is given by n = 1: 1 × 1 × (1 + 1) = 1
2
The second term is given by n = 2: 1 × 2 × (2 + 1) = 3
2
a Work out the next five terms of this sequence.
b This is a well-known sequence you have met before. What is it?
6 In mathematics, 5 means ‘factorial 5’, which is 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
In the same way 7 means 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040.
a Calculate the values of 2 , 3 , 4 and 6
b If your calculator has a factorial button, check that it gives the same answers as you
get for part a. What is the largest factorial you can work out with your calculator
before you get an error?

PS 7 On the first day of Christmas my true love sent to me:

a partridge in a pear tree.
On the second day of Christmas my true love sent to me:
two turtle doves
and a partridge in a pear tree.
and so on until…
On the twelfth day of Christmas my true love sent to me:
twelve drummers drumming
eleven pipers piping
ten lords a-leaping
nine ladies dancing
eight maids a-milking
seven swans a-swimming
six geese a-laying
five golden rings
four calling birds
three French hens
two turtle doves
and a partridge in a pear tree.
How many presents were given, in total, during the 12 days of Christmas?

Hints and tips Work out the pattern for the number of presents each day. For
example, on day 1 there was 1 present, on day 2 there were
2 + 1 = 3 presents, and so on. Total the presents after each day,
so after 1 day there was a total of 1 present, after 2 days a total of
4 presents, (remembering that the present for day 1 was repeated
on day 2 and so on). Try to spot any patterns.

4.2 Number sequences 91

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PS 8 The letters of the alphabet are written as the pattern:

ABBCCCDDDDEEEEEFFFFFFGGGGGGG …
so that the number of times each letter is written matches its place in the alphabet.
So, for example, as J is the 10th letter in the alphabet, there will be 10 Js in the list.
The pattern repeats when it gets to the 26th .
What letter will be the 1000th in the list?

Hints and tips Work out how many letters there are in the sequence from ABB …
to … , then work out how many of these sequences you need
to get past 1000 letters.

CM 9 Look at these two sequences.

8, 11, 14, 17, 20, …
1, 5, 9, 13, 17, …
The first term that they have in common is 17. What are the next two terms that the
two sequences have in common?

CM 10 Look at these two sequences.

2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
Will the two sequences ever have a term in common?
Give a reason for your answer.

CM 11 The nth term of a sequence is 3n + 7.

The nth term of another sequence is 4n – 2.
These two sequences have several terms in common but only one term that is
common and has the same position in the sequence.
Without writing out the sequences, show how you can tell, using the expressions for
the nth term, that it is the 9th term.

4.3 Finding the nth term of a

linear sequence
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• find the nth term of a linear sequence.
arithmetic sequence

A linear or arithmetic sequence has the same difference between linear sequence
each term and the next. For example, look at this sequence.
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, … difference of 3
The nth term of a sequence is a rule, written algebraically, that gives any term based on its position (n)
in the sequence. The nth term of this sequence is given by 3n – 1.
Here is another linear sequence.
5, 7, 9, 11, 13, … difference of 2
The nth term of this sequence is given by 2n + 3.

92 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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The nth term of a linear sequence is always of the form An ± b, where:

• A, the coefficient of n, is the difference between each term and the next term (consecutive terms)
• b is the difference between the first term and A.

Find the nth term of each sequence.

Example 4

a 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, … b 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, …

a The difference between consecutive terms is +2. So the coefficient of n in the nth term is
2 and the nth term starts with 2n.
Subtract A, 2, from the first term, 5, which gives 5 – 2 = 3.
So the nth term is given by 2n + 3.
(You can test it by substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …)
b The difference between consecutive terms is –5. So the coefficient of n in the nth term is
–5 and the nth term starts with –5n.
Subtract A, –5, from the first term, 95, which gives 95 – –5 = 100.
So the nth term is given by –5n + 100.
(You can test it by substituting n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …)

Find the nth term of the sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …

Example 5

The difference between consecutive terms is 4. So the coefficient of n in the nth term is 4 and
the nth term starts with 4n.
Subtract A, 4, from the first term, 3, which gives 3 – 4 = –1.
So the nth term is given by 4n – 1.

From the sequence 5, 12, 19, 26, 33, … work out:

Example 6

a the nth term b the 50th term c the first term that is greater than 1000.
a The difference between consecutive terms is 7. So the coefficient of n in the nth term is
7 and the nth term starts with 7n.
Subtract A, 7, from the first term, 5, which gives 5 – 7 = –2.
So the nth term is given by 7n – 2.
b Find the 50th term by substituting n = 50 into the rule, 7n – 2.
Then the 50th term = 7 × 50 – 2 = 350 – 2 = 348.
c The first term that is greater than 1000 is given by:
7n – 2 > 1000
⇒ 7n > 1000 + 2

⇒ n > 1002
7
n > 143.14
So the first term (which has to be a whole number) that is over 1000 is the 144th term which
is 1006.

4.3 Finding the nth term of a linear sequence 93

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Exercise 4C
1 Find the next two terms and the nth term in each linear sequence.
a 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … b 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, … c 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, …
d 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, … e 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, … f 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, …
g 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, … h 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, … i 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
j 32, 22, 12, 2, … k 20, 16, 12, 8, … l 24, 19, 14, 9, 4, …

Hints and tips Remember to look at the differences and the first term.

2 Find the nth term and the 50th term in each linear sequence.
a 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, … b 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, … c 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, …
d 1, 5, 9, 13, 17, … e 2, 10, 18, 26, … f 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, …
g 6, 11, 16, 21, 26, … h 3, 11, 19, 27, 35, … i 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, …
j 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, … k 40, 33, 26, 19, 12, … l 33, 25, 17, 9, 1, …
3 a Which term of the sequence 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, … is the first to be greater than 100?
b Which term of the sequence 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, … is the first one to be greater than 200?
c Which term of the sequence 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, … is the closest to 500?
4 For each sequence a to j, find:
i the nth term ii the 100th term iii the term closest to 100.
a 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, … b 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, … c 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, …
d 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, … e 9, 13, 17, 21, … f 6, 11, 16, 21, …
g 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, … h 2, 8, 14, 20, 26, … i 197, 189, 181, 173, …
j 225, 223, 221, 219, …
3 5 7 9 11
5 A sequence of fractions is , , , , …
4 7 10 13 16

a Find the nth term in the sequence.

b Change each fraction to a decimal. What happens to the decimal values?
c What, as a decimal, will be the value of:
i the 100th term ii the 1000th term?
d Use your answers to part c to predict what the 10 000th term and the millionth
term are. (Check these on your calculator.)
3 7 11 15 19
6 Repeat question 5 for the sequence , , , , …
6 11 16 21 26
7 A2B haulage uses this formula to calculate the cost of transporting n pallets.
For n ⩽ 5, the cost will be £(40n + 50).
For 6 < n < 10, the cost will be £(40n + 25).
For n ⩾ 11, the cost will be £40n.
a How much will the company charge to transport 7 pallets?
b How much will the company charge to transport 15 pallets?
c A2B charged £170 for transporting pallets. How many pallets did they transport?
d Speedy haulage uses the formula £50n to calculate the costs for transporting
n pallets. At what value of n do the two companies charge the same amount?
94 4 Algebra: Number and sequences
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EV 8 2n + 1
The formula for working out a series of fractions is .
3n + 1
a Work out the first three fractions in the series.
b i Work out the value of the fraction as a decimal when n = 1 000 000.
ii What fraction is equivalent to this decimal?
c How can you tell this from the original formula?
CM 9 This chart is used by an online retailer for the charges for buying n T-shirts, including
any postage and packing charges.

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Charge (£) 10 18 26 34 42 49 57 65 73 81 88 96 104 112 120

a Using the charges for one to five T-shirts, work out an expression for the nth term.
b Using the charges for six to 10 T-shirts, work out an expression for the nth term.
c Using the charges for 11 to 15 T-shirts, work out an expression for the nth term.
d What is the basic charge for a T-shirt?
CM 10 Look at this series of fractions.
31 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 39 , …
109 110 111 112 113

a Show that the nth term of the sequence of the numerators is 2n + 29.
b Write down the nth term of the sequence of the denominators.
c Show that the terms of the series will eventually get very close to 2.
PS d Which term of the series has a value equal to 1?

Hints and tips Use algebra to set up an equation.

CM 11 The nth term of the sequence of even numbers is 2n. The nth term of the sequence of
odd numbers is 2n – 1.
Explain why these expressions tell you that there can never be a number in
both sequences.

PS 12 The nth term of a linear sequence is given by An + b, where A and b are integers.
The 5th term is 10 and the 8th term is 19. Work out the values of A and b.

4.4 Special sequences

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise and continue some special number sequences.
geometric sequence

So far you have been working with arithmetic or linear powers of 2 powers of 10
sequences. In these sequences the difference between
consecutive terms has a constant value. There are many other number sequences that you need to
know about.
• The even numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, … The nth term of this sequence is 2n.
• The odd numbers are 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, … The nth term of this sequence is 2n – 1.

4 Special sequences 95
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• The square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, … The nth term of this sequence is n2.
• The cube numbers are 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, … The nth term of this sequence is n3.
• The triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, … The nth term of this sequence is 21 n(n + 1).
• The powers of 2 are 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, … The nth term of this sequence is 2n.
• The powers of 10 are 10, 100, 1000, 10 000, 100 000,
1 000 000, … The nth term of this sequence is 10n.

Geometric sequences
A sequence in which you find each term by multiplying the previous term by a fixed value is a
geometric sequence. The nth term of a geometric sequence is given by a × r n − 1, where a is the first
term and r is the multiplier. Note that any number raised to a power of 0 is 1.
For example: 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, … The nth term for this sequence is 2 × 3n − 1.
12, 48, 192, 768, 3072, … The nth term for this sequence is 12 × 4n − 1.
Note that, as 12 has a factor of 4, the nth term of the last sequence could have been written as 3 × 4n.

Fibonacci sequences
The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, … was discovered by Leonardo Fibonacci in about 1200 AD.
Starting with the third term, each term is the sum of the previous two terms:
1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, 2 + 3 = 5 and so on.
There is no simple expression for the nth term.

Prime numbers
A prime number is a number that only has two factors, 1 and itself.
The first 20 prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71.
There is no pattern to the prime numbers so there is no formula for the nth term.
An important fact to remember is that 2 is the only even prime number.

p is a prime number, q is an odd number and r is an even number.

Example 7

Say if each expression is always odd (O), always even (E) or could be either odd or even ( ).
a pq b p+q+r c pqr d q2 + r2
a The easiest way to answer this question is to substitute numbers and see whether the
outcome is odd or even.
For example, let p = 2 and q = 3. Then pq = 6 and is even; but p could also be 3 and q could
be 5, which are both odd, so pq = 3 × 5 = 15 which is odd.
So pq could be either ( ).
b Let p = 2 or 3, q = 5 and r = 4; so p + q + r = 2 + 5 + 4 = 11, or 3 + 5 + 4 = 12
So p + q + r could be either ( ).
c Let p = 2 or 3, q = 5 and r = 4; so pqr = 2 × 5 × 4 = 40 or 3 × 5 × 4 = 60
Both are even, pqr is always even (E).
d Let q = 5 and r = 4; q2 + r2 = 52 + 42 = 25 + 16 = 41
This is odd, q2 + r2 is always odd (O).

96 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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Work out the first five terms of the sequences with these nth terms.
Example 8
a 5 × 3n − 1 b 2 × 6n
a Substitute n = 1 into the nth term expression, then multiply each term by the multiplier 3 to
find the other terms.
5 × 30 = 5 × 1 = 5, 5 × 3 = 15, … The sequence is 5, 15, 45, 135, 405, …
b Substitute n = 1 into the nth term expression, then multiply each term by the multiplier 6 to
find the other terms.
2 × 61 = 2 × 6 = 12, 12 × 6 = 72, … The sequence is 12, 72, 432, 2592, 15 552, …

Work out the nth term of each geometric sequence.

Example 9

a 3, 15, 75, 375, 1875, … b 14, 28, 56, 112, 224, …

a Each term is the result of multiplying the previous term by 5 so the number raised to a
power will be 5.
The first term is 3, which is less than 5 so the power of 5 must be zero and the nth term is
3 × 5n − 1.
b Each term is the result of multiplying the previous term by 2 so the number raised to a
power will be 2.
The first term is 14, which has a factor of 2 so the nth term can be written as 7 × 2n.

Exercise 4D
1 a Pick any odd number. Pick another odd number. Add the two numbers together. Is
the answer odd or even?
Copy and complete this table.

+ Odd Even
Odd Even
Even
b Pick any odd number. Pick another odd number. Multiply the two numbers
together. Is the answer odd or even?
Copy and complete this table.
× Odd Even
Odd Odd
Even
MR 2 a Write down the next two lines of this number pattern.
1 = 1 = 12
1 + 3 = 4 = 22
1 + 3 + 5 = 9 = 32
b Use the pattern in part a to write down the totals of these numbers.
i 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 ii 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 14
3 a Work out the first 12 terms of the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, …
CM b Explain why the Fibonacci sequence always has a repeated pattern of two odd
terms followed by one even term.
c The first three terms of a Fibonacci sequence are a, b, a + b, …
i Write out the next five terms. ii Describe the pattern of the coefficients of a and b.

4.4 Special sequences 97

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CM 4 p is an odd number, q is an even number. State if each expression is odd or even.

a p+1 b q+1 c p+q
d p2 e qp + 1 f (p + q)(p – q)
g q2 + 4 h p2 + q2 i p3
CM 5 p is a prime number, q is an even number.
State if each expression is odd, even or could be either odd or even.
a p+1 b p+q c p2
d qp + 1 e (p + q)(p – q) f 2p + 3q
CM 6 a p is an odd number, q is an even number and r is an odd number.
Is each expression odd or even?
i pq + r ii pqr iii (p + q)2 + r
b x is a prime number and both y and z are odd.
Write an expression using all of x, y and z, and no other numbers or letters, so that
the answer is always even.

7 The powers of 2 are 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, …

This gives the sequence 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …
The nth term is given by 2n.
a Continue the sequence for another five terms.
b Give the nth term of these sequences.
i 1, 3, 7, 15, 31, … ii 3, 5, 9, 17, 33, … iii 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, …
8 The powers of 10 are 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 , 10 , …
1 2 3 4 5

This gives the sequence 10, 100, 1000, 10 000, 100 000, …
The nth term is given by 10n.
a Describe the connection between the number of zeros in each term and the
power of the term.
b If 10n = 1 000 000, what is the value of n?
c Give the nth term of these sequences.
i 9, 99, 999, 9 999, 99 999, … ii 20, 200, 2000, 20 000, 200 000, …
9 The first four cube numbers are 1, 8, 27 and 64.
a Write down the next two cube numbers.
b Add consecutive cube numbers together. For example:
1 + 8, 1 + 8 + 27, 1 + 8 + 27 + 64.
What do you notice about the answers?
10 The triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, …
a Continue the sequence for another five terms.
b The nth term of this sequence is given by 21 n(n + 1).
Use the formula to find:
i the 20th triangular number ii the 100th triangular number.
c Add consecutive terms of the triangular number sequence.
For example, 1 + 3 = 4, 3 + 6 = 9, …
What do you notice?

98 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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CM 11 a n is a positive integer.
i Explain why n(n + 1) must be an even number.
ii Explain why 2n + 1 must be an odd number.
b p is an odd number and q is an even number.
Copy this table, then tick the correct box to show whether each expression is odd
or even.

Expression Odd Even

p 2

p(q + 1)
2p + 1 + 2q + 1
3(q + 1) + 1
(q – 1)2
c Show algebraically why, when you square an odd number, the answer is always odd
and when you square an even number, the answer is always even.

CM 12 A palindromic number is one that reads the same forwards as backwards, such as
242 and 1001.
In the triangular number series 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, …, the first palindromic number is the
10th term, 55.
Find the next two palindromic triangular numbers.

MR 13 The square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …

The nth term of this sequence is n2.
a Continue the sequence for another five terms.
b Give the nth term of each sequence.
i 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, … ii 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, … iii 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, …
14 Work out the first five terms of the sequences with an nth term of:
a 6 × 4n − 1 b 3 × 7n c 2 × 5n − 1
d 6 × 10n − 1 e 18 × 3n

Hints and tips Remember that any number raised to the power 0 is 1.

15 Work out the nth term of each geometric sequence.

a 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, … b 5, 20, 80, 320, 1280, … c 20, 100, 500, 2500, 12 500, …
d 21, 63, 189, 567, 1701, … e 24, 192, 1536, 12 288, 98 304
PS 16 Mia adds two prime numbers. The result is another prime number. Write down the
value of one of Mia’s two prime numbers. Explain your answer.

PS 17 a Find two prime numbers that add together to give a square number greater than 30.
b Find two square numbers with a difference that is a prime number.

4.4 Special sequences 99

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4.5 General rules from given

patterns
This section will show you how to:
• find the nth term from practical problems involving sequences.

Many problem-solving situations that you are likely to meet involve number sequences. So you need
to be able to formulate general rules from given number patterns.

The diagram shows how a pattern of squares builds up.

Example 10

a How many squares will there be in the nth pattern?

b Which pattern has 99 squares in it?
a First, build up a table for the patterns.

Pattern number 1 2 3 4 5
Number of squares 1 3 5 7 9
Look at the differences between consecutive patterns.
It is always two squares, so use 2n.
Subtract the difference 2 from the first number, which gives 1 – 2 = –1.
So the number of squares in the nth pattern is 2n – 1.
b Now find n when 2n – 1 = 99.
2n – 1 = 99
2n = 99 + 1
= 100
n = 100 ÷ 2
= 50
The pattern with 99 squares is the 50th.

When you are trying to find a general rule from a sequence of diagrams, always set up a table to
connect the pattern number with the number of items (such as squares, matches, seats) for which
you are trying to find the rule. Once you have set up the table, you can find the nth term.

100 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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Exercise 4E
1 This pattern of squares is built up from matchsticks.

1 2 3

Hints and tips Write out the number sequence to help you see the patterns.

a Draw the fourth diagram.

b How many squares are there in the nth diagram?
c How many squares are there in the 25th diagram?
d What is the biggest diagram that you could make with 200 squares?
2 This pattern of triangles is built up from matchsticks.

1 2 3 4

a Draw the fifth set of triangles in this pattern.

b How many matchsticks would you need for the nth set of triangles?
c How many matchsticks would you need to make the 60th set of triangles?
d If you only have 100 matchsticks, what is the largest set of triangles you could
make?

3 The tables at a conference centre can each take six people. When the tables are put
together, people can sit as shown.

1 2 3

a How many people could be seated at four tables put together in this way?
b How many people could be seated at n tables put together in this way?
c When 50 people attend a conference, they decide to use the tables in this way.
How many tables do they need?

4.5 General rules from given patterns 101

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4 Prepacked fencing units come in the shape shown here.

Each is made up from four pieces of wood. When you put them together in
stages to make a fence, you also need an extra joining piece, so the fence
will start to build up like this.
1

2 3

a How many pieces of wood would you have in a fence made up in:
i 5 stages ii n stages iii 45 stages?
b I made a fence out of 124 pieces of wood. How many stages did I use?
5 This pattern is made from regular pentagons of side length 1 cm.

1 2 3 4

a Write down the perimeter of each shape.

b What is the perimeter of patterns like this made from:
i six pentagons ii n pentagons iii 50 pentagons?
c What is the largest number of pentagons that can be put together like this to have
a perimeter less than 1000 cm?

6 Lamp-posts are put at the end of every 100 m stretch of a motorway.

1 2 3

a How many lamp-posts are needed for:

i 900 m of this motorway ii 8 km of this motorway?
b The contractor building the M99 motorway has ordered 1598 lamp-posts. How long
is this motorway?

7 A school dining hall had trapezium-shaped tables.

Each table could seat five people, as shown. When the tables are
joined together, as shown below, fewer people can sit at each table.

1 2 3

a In this arrangement, how many could be seated if there were:

i four tables ii n tables iii 13 tables?
b For an outside charity event, up to 200 people had to be seated. How many tables
arranged like this did they need?

102 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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8 When setting out tins to make a display of a certain height, you need to know how many
tins to start with at the bottom.

a How many tins are needed on the bottom if you wish the display to be:
i five tins high ii n tins high iii 18 tins high?
MR b Albi started to build a display with 20 tins on the bottom. How high was the display
when it was finished?

9 a The values of 2 raised to a positive whole-number power are 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …

What is the nth term of this sequence?
b A supermarket sells four different-sized bottles of water: pocket size, 100 ml;
standard size, 200 ml; family size, 400 ml; giant size, 800 ml.
i Describe the number pattern that the contents form.
ii The supermarket wants to sell a super-giant sized bottle, which is the next-sized
bottle in the pattern. How much does this bottle hold?
PS c A litre of water weighs 1 kg. The supermarket estimates that the heaviest they
could possibly make a bottle of water is 10 kg. Assuming that the plastic bottle has
a negligible weight and that the pattern of bottles continues, what is the largest
size of bottle the supermarket could have?

PS 10 Draw an equilateral triangle.

Mark the midpoints of each side and draw and shade in the equilateral triangle
formed by these points.
Repeat this with the three triangles that remain unshaded.
Keep on doing this with the unshaded triangles that are left.

This is called a Sierpinski triangle. It is one of the earliest examples of a

fractal pattern.
The shaded areas in each triangle are 1 , 7 , 37 , 175 , …
4 16 64 256
It is very difficult to work out an nth term for this series of fractions.
Use your calculator to work out the area left unshaded, for example, 3 , 9, …
4 16
You should be able to write down a formula for the nth term of this pattern.
Pick a large value for n.
Will the shaded area ever cover all of the original triangle?

4.5 General rules from given patterns 103

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MR 11 Thom is using matchsticks to build three different patterns. He builds the patterns in steps.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Pattern 1

Pattern 2

Pattern 3

Thom has five boxes of matches, each labelled ‘Average contents 42 matches’. Can
Thom reach step 20 of each pattern? Show your working.

MR 12 A supermarket manager wants to display grapefruit stacked in layers, each of which is

a triangle. These are the first four layers.

a If the display is four layers deep, how many grapefruit will there be in the display?
b The manager tells her staff that there should not be any more than eight layers, as
otherwise the fruit will get squashed. What is the most grapefruit that could be stacked?

EV 13 Some students are making hollow patterns from small squares.

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

Four students write down their methods for finding the number of squares in the
nth pattern.

Evaluate each student’s method. Do they give the correct answer? Are any of their
methods wrong? What mistake have they made? What should they do to correct it?

104 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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4.6 The nth term of a quadratic

sequence
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• generate the terms of a quadratic sequence, given the nth term. first difference

Some number sequences, called quadratic sequences, are position-to-term rule

governed by quadratic rules. Their nth term is a quadratic quadratic expression
expression, such as n2 + 2n – 3. This is also called the
position-to-term rule. quadratic rule
With the term-to-term rule, the terms increase or decrease quadratic sequence
each time by an amount that follows a linear rule. These
second difference
are called the first differences. The differences in the first
differences are called the second differences. If the second
differences of a sequence are constant, it is a quadratic sequence.
The nth term of the sequence of triangular numbers is 21 n(n + 1). Expanding this, to remove the
brackets, gives 21 n2 + 21 n. This has a ‘squared’ term so it is a quadratic expression.
The sequence of triangular numbers is a quadratic sequence. You can always test if a sequence is a
quadratic sequence by working out the first differences and the second differences. If the sequence
is quadratic then the second differences will always be constant.
You can use a diagram to show the differences for the sequence of triangular numbers.
Sequence 1 3 6 10 15

First difference 2 3 4 5

Second difference 1 1 1

Use the nth term to write down the first five terms of each sequence.
Example 11

a n2 + 5 b n2 + 2n c n2 + 3n – 4
Substitute n = 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 into the expressions to work out the first five terms.
a 6, 9, 14, 21, 30, … b 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, … c 0, 6, 14, 24, 36, …

Work out the first and second differences for each sequence, then state if it is a
Example 12

quadratic sequence.
a 5, 7, 10, 14, 19, 25, 32, … b 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, …
a Sequence 5 7 10 14 19 25 32

First difference 2 3 4 5 6 7

Second difference 1 1 1 1 1
The second difference is constant so this is a quadratic sequence.
b Sequence 1 1 2 3 5 8 13

First difference 0 1 1 2 3 5

Second difference 1 0 1 1 2
The second difference is not constant so this is not a quadratic sequence.

4.6 The nth term of a quadratic sequence 105

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Exercise 4F
1 In each sequence:
i write down the next two terms ii say how the sequence is building up.
a 1 4 8 13 19 26 … …
b 3 4 6 9 13 18 … …
c 9 14 20 27 35 44 … …
d 102 92 83 75 68 62 … …

2 Work out the first five terms of the sequence for which the nth term is given.
a n2 + 3 b 2n2 c n2 + n
d n2 + 2n + 1 e n2 + 3n – 2 f 2n2 – 3n + 5
3 a Write down the nth term of this linear sequence.
3 5 7 9 11 13 …
b Write down the nth term of this linear sequence.
1 2 3 4 5 6 …
c Hence write down the nth term of this sequence.
1 × 3, 2 × 5, 3 × 7, 4 × 9, 5 × 11, 6 × 13, …
d Now write down the nth term of this sequence.
4, 11, 22, 37, 56, 79, …

4 This pattern of rectangles is made from squares.

Rectangle 1 Rectangle 2 Rectangle 3 Rectangle 4 Rectangle 5

a The heights of the rectangles give the sequence 1, 2, 3, …

Write down the nth term of this sequence of heights.
b Write down the nth term of the sequence formed by the lengths of the rectangles.
c Hence, write down the nth term of the sequence formed by the areas of the
rectangles.
d What is the area of the 99th rectangle in the pattern?
5 Find the first and second differences and decide whether each sequence is a
quadratic sequence.
a 6, 8, 11, 15, 20, 26, 33, 41, … b 1, 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, …
c 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, 42, 56, … d 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, …
e 5, 9, 14, 20, 27, 35, 44, … f 0, 2, 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 26, …

106 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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CM 6 This sequence of squares is made from smaller white and blue squares.

Square 1 Square 2 Square 3 Square 4

a The numbers of white squares form the sequence 8, 12, 16, 20, …
Write down the nth term of this sequence.
b The numbers of blue squares form the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, …
Write down the nth term of this sequence.
c Hence write down the nth term of the sequence formed by the total number of
smaller squares in each large square.
d Expand (n + 2)2.
e Explain why the answers to parts c and d are the same.
7 The triangular numbers are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, …
The square numbers are 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, …
Look at this pattern of shaded triangles.

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

a Copy and complete this table.

Pattern 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of shaded triangles 1 3 6
Number of unshaded triangles 0 1 3
Total number of triangles 1 4 9
b One pattern in the sequence has 55 shaded triangles.
i How many unshaded triangles will there be in this pattern?
ii How many triangles will there be altogether in this pattern?

4.6 The nth term of a quadratic sequence 107

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PS 8 The second term of the quadratic sequence with an nth term of n2 + 2n – 3 is 5.

The first term of the quadratic sequence with an nth term of n2 + n + 3 is 5.
Hence the two sequences have a common term of 5. Work out the value of another
term that is common to both sequences.

9 The first term of the quadratic sequence with an nth term of 2n2 – 3n + 5 is 4.
The first term of the quadratic sequence with an nth term of n2 + 4n – 1 is 4.
PS a The two sequences have a common term of 4. Work out the value of another term
that is common to both sequences.
CM b Which term in each sequence is the next common term? Explain how you can use
the nth terms of both sequences to test this.

PS 10 a The nth term of a quadratic sequence is given by n2 + an + b, where a and b are

positive or negative integers. Work out a possible pair of values for a and b so that
the fourth term is 5.
b The nth term of a quadratic sequence is given by n2 + cn + d, where c and d are
positive or negative integers. Work out a possible pair of values for c and d so that
the fourth term is 21 and the fifth term is 32.

PS 11 The nth term of a quadratic sequence is n2 + n + 41.

Chas says: “All the terms of this sequence are prime numbers.”
Chas is wrong as when n = 41, the value 412 + 41 + 41 = 43 × 41 which is not prime.
Is there another value for n < 41 for which n2 + n + 41 is not prime?

Hints and tips Set up a spreadsheet to work out the values and look up a list of
prime numbers on the internet.

CM 12 The nth term of a quadratic sequence can be written as n2 – 1 or (n – 1)(n + 1).

a Expand and simplify the second expression to show that both are the same.
b Which of the expressions would be better to use, to work out the 50th term?
Explain why.
c Which of the expressions would be better to use, to work out the 99th term?
Explain why.

4.7 Finding the nth term for

quadratic sequences
This section will show you how to:
• work out the nth term of a quadratic sequence.

There are several methods for finding the nth term of a quadratic sequence but they are all based on
one simple rule:
If the second difference is constant then it is a quadratic sequence. The coefficient of n2 is half the
constant value of the second difference.

108 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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You can find the nth term in any of four ways, by:
• spotting a simple rule
• breaking into factors
• subtracting the squared term
• extending the differences backwards.
You need to be able to recognise the sequence of square numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, … as ‘simple
rule’ sequences are always based on n2 alone. Look for a hint that it is based on the sequence of
square numbers.

Spotting a simple rule

Example 13

State the nth terms of each sequence.

a 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, …
b 4, 7, 12, 19, 28, 39, 52, 67, …
c 3, 12, 27, 48, 75, 108, 147, 192, …
a You should recognise this as the square numbers, so the nth term is simply n2.
b Each term is 3 more than the corresponding square number in a so the nth term is n2 + 3.
c Each term is 3 times as big as the corresponding square number in a so the nth term is 3n2.

Even if you do not recognise a simple sequence based on n2, any of the other methods will
always work.

Breaking into factors

Example 14

Find the nth term in the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, …

Sequence 2 6 12 20 30

First difference 4 6 8 10

Second difference 2 2 2
The second differences are constant (2) so the sequence is quadratic and the coefficient of n2 is
1. So the nth term includes 1n2, which you just write as n2.
Split each term into factors to try to find a pattern for how the numbers have been formed.
Constructing a table like this can help to sort out which factors to use.
Term 2 6 12 20 30
Factors 1×2 2×3 3×4 4×5 5×6
Now break down the factors to obtain:
1 × (1 + 1) 2 × (2 + 1) 3 × (3 + 1) 4 × (4 + 1) 5 × (5 + 1)
You can now see that the pattern is n × (n + 1).
So the nth term is n(n + 1) = n2 + n.

It may not always be possible to spot how to break terms into factors but either of the next two
methods will still always work.

4.7 Finding the nth term for quadratic sequences 109

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Example 15 Subtracting the squared term

Find the nth term for the sequence of the triangular numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, …

Sequence 1 3 6 10 15

First difference 2 3 4 5

Second difference 1 1 1
The second difference has a constant value of 1, so the coefficient of n2 is 21 ; hence the nth term
includes 21 n2.
Now subtract this term from each term of the original sequence. It can sometimes be easier to
use a table.
n 1 2 3 4 5
Original 1 3 6 10 15
1 n2 1
2 2 2 4 21 8 12 21

Difference 1
2 1 1 21 2 2 21

The differences form a linear sequence 21 , 1, 1 21 , 2, 2 21 , … which has an nth term of 21 n.

Combining this with the squared term gives the nth term for the whole sequence of 21 n2 + 21 n
and this can be written as 21 n(n + 1), which is the usual formula for the nth triangular number.

The fourth method does not involve any difficult calculations. It works the sequence back to the term
for n = 0, then the general quadratic an2 + bn + c when n = 0 gives the value of c. The first difference
between the n = 0 and n = 1 terms eliminates c and is just a × 12 + b × 1 = a + b.

Extending the differences backwards

Example 16

Find the nth term of the sequence 5, 15, 31, 53, …

Set up a difference table.
n 1 2 3 4
nth term 5 15 31 53
First differences 10 16 22
Second differences 6 6
Now extend the table backwards to get the term for n = 0 and call the three lines of the table c,
a + b and 2a.
n 0 1 2 3 4
c 1 5 15 31 53
a+b 4 10 16 22
2a 6 6 6
Starting with the last row: 2a = 6 ⇒ a = 3 a+b=4⇒b=1 c=1
Thus the nth term is 3n + n + 1. 2

110 4 Algebra: Number and sequences

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Exercise 4G
1 For each of the sequences a to e:
i write down the next two terms ii find the nth term.
a 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, … b 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, … c 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, …
d 4, 7, 12, 19, 28, … e –1, 2, 7, 14, 23, … f 11, 14, 19, 26, …
2 For each of the sequences a to e:
i write down the next two terms ii find the nth term.
a 5, 10, 17, 26, … b 3, 8, 15, 24, … c 9, 14, 21, 30, …
d 10, 17, 26, 37, … e 8, 15, 24, 35, …
3 Look at each sequence to see whether the rule is linear, quadratic in n2 alone or fully
quadratic. Then write down:
i the nth term ii the 50th term.
a 5, 8, 13, 20, 29, … b 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, … c 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, …
d 5, 12, 21, 32, 45, … e 3, 6, 11, 18, 27, … f 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, …
4 Find the nth term of each sequence, in the form an2 + bn + c.
a 1, 4, 11, 22, 37, … b 2, 13, 30, 53, 82, … c 4, 8, 13, 19, 26, …
d 3, 9, 16, 24, 33, … e 8, 11, 15, 20, 26, … f 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, …
PS 5 Work out a formula for the surface area of a large cube made up of smaller
centimetre cubes with a side of n centimetres.

CM 6 The diagram shows four houses of cards.

A one-level house of cards (L1) takes 2 cards.
A two-level house of cards (L2) takes 7 cards.
A three-level house of cards (L3) takes 15 cards.

Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

a How many cards are needed to make a four-level (L4) house of cards?
b Work out a formula for an n-level house of cards.
c The world record is a 75-level house of cards. How many cards were used to build
this?

4.7 Finding the nth term for quadratic sequences 111

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PS 7 A supermarket displays tins of beans by lining up n tins in a row

and then putting n – 1 tins in a row on top of these, and then n – 2
tins in a row on top of these, and so on until there is just 1 tin on
top. The diagram shows a display that starts with four tins on the
bottom.
a A shop assistant lined up 9 tins as the bottom row. How many
tins will there be in the display when it is finished?
b Health and safety regulations state that the display cannot be
more than 15 rows high. The supermarket has 100 tins of beans
in stock. Can they make a display that is 15 rows high?

PS 8 Tebor used centimetre cubes to make patterns of cuboids. Work out an expression
for the surface area of cuboid n.

Cuboid 1 Cuboid 2 Cuboid 3 Cuboid 4

PS 9 The diagram shows the first four hexagonal numbers. Work out the 100th
hexagonal number.

EV 10 Garden trellises are made from thin

strips of wood nailed together. Each
trellis is a whole number of feet high
and a whole number of feet wide.
The wooden strips are nailed a foot
apart. For example:
• a trellis 5 feet high and 3 feet wide uses
38 feet of wooden strip
• a trellis 4 feet high and 2 feet wide uses
22 feet of wooden strip.
a Show that the formula for working out the length of wooden strip needed for a
trellis that is m feet high and n feet wide is 2mn + m + n.
b Two nails are used at every point where strips cross. Work out an expression for
the number of nails that are used on a trellis that is m feet high and n feet wide.

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 These are expressions for the nth terms of three sequences.
Sequence 1: 4n + 1
Sequence 2: 5n – 2
Sequence 3: 5n + 10
Say if the sequences generated by the nth terms always give multiples of 5 (A), never
give multiples of 5 (N) or sometimes give multiples of 5 (S).

This is a ‘communicating mathematically’ question so you must show how you arrive
at your decisions.
Sequence 1 → 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, … Substitute n = 1, 2, 3, … until you can be
Sequence 2 → 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, 28, … sure of the sequences.

Sequence 3 → 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, … The sign → means ‘gives’.

Sequence 1: Sometimes (S) The series generated will show whether

Sequence 2: Never (N) their terms are never, sometimes or
always multiples of 5.
Sequence 3: Always (A)

PS 2 A pattern made from squares builds up like this.

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

Work out the number of squares in the nth pattern.

For this ‘problem solving’ question, set up a table of pattern numbers and number of
squares.

Pattern You could set up a difference table but

2 8 18 32
there is a visual clue. Use the diagrams to
Factors 1 × 2 2 × 4 3 × 6 4 × 8 spot the fact that the number of squares
can be split into factors as in Example
14 and add another line to the table.
Alternatively you can see that the width is
n and the height is 2n.
The nth term will be n × 2n = 2n2 The pattern is then the product of the
two sides.
Check for n = 3: 2 × 32 = 2 × 9 = 18 ✔ It is always worth checking with a known
result that your formula works.

4 Worked exemplars 113

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Ready to progress?
I can substitute numbers into an nth-term rule for a linear sequence.
I can understand how prime, odd and even numbers interact in addition, subtraction and
multiplication problems.

I can give the nth term of a linear sequence.

I can give the nth term of a geometric sequence.
I can give the nth term of a sequence of powers of 2 or 10.
I can recognise special patterns, such as the Fibonacci sequence and geometric sequences.
I can generate the terms of a quadratic sequence, given the nth term.

I can find the nth term of a quadratic sequence.

Review questions
CM 1 The nth term of a sequence is 3n + 4.
Beth says: “Every odd term of this sequence is a prime number.”
Is Beth correct?
Justify your answer.

2 These are the first five terms of an arithmetic sequence.

5 9 13 17 21
a Find, in terms of n, an expression for the nth term of the sequence.
b Explain why 112 is a not a term in this arithmetic sequence.
MR c Work out the term in the sequence that is closest to 112.
3 These are the first five terms of an arithmetic sequence.
6 11 16 21 26
Work out the 150th term in the sequence.

MR 4 These are the first five terms of an arithmetic sequence.

9 15 21 27 33
a Find, in terms of n, an expression for the nth term of the sequence.
b Another arithmetic sequence has an nth term of 3n + 2.
Will the two sequences ever have a term in common?
Show working to support your answer.

5 These are the first five terms of a geometric sequence.

2 6 18 54 162
a Find an expression, in terms of n, for the nth term of the sequence.
b Simon says that 1001 is a term in this sequence.
Explain why Simon is wrong.

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6 These are the first four terms of a geometric sequence.

5 30 180 1080
a Find, in terms of n, an expression for the nth term of the sequence.
b Which term in the sequence is the first that is greater than 1 million?
7 The nth term of a quadratic sequence is 2n2 – 29.
a Are any of the first 5 terms of this sequence prime numbers?
MR b Explain how you can tell, without working it out, that the 29th term will not be a
prime number.

8 a Work out the first five terms of the sequence with an nth term of 2n2 – n + 3.
b Work out the first five terms of the sequence with an nth term of 21 n2 – 1 21 n + 3.

CM 9 The nth term of a sequence is 2(n − 1)(n − 2) .

5
Show that the third term is the first non-zero term and find its value.

10 Find the nth term of this quadratic sequence.

3, 7, 15, 27, 43, 63, …

PS 11 Mac is using small squares to make

rectangle patterns.
a Mac has 200 small squares. Can he
make the 12th pattern?
b How many squares will there be
in the 40th pattern?

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

MR 12 These patterns of hexagons are formed with dots. How many dots will there be in the
20th pattern of hexagons?

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

PS 13 These patterns are made with pentagons with increasing numbers of dots along each
side. The diagram shows the first four patterns.
How many dots will there be in the 50th pattern?

Pattern 1 Pattern 2 Pattern 3 Pattern 4

4 Review questions 115

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5
Ratio, proportion and
rates of change: Ratio and
proportion

This chapter is going to show you:

• what a ratio is
• how to divide an amount according to a given ratio
• how to solve problems involving direct proportion
• how to compare prices of products
• how to calculate compound measures (rates of pay, speed, density,
pressure)
• how to calculate compound interest and repeated percentage
change
• how to calculate a reverse percentage.

You should already know:

• multiplication tables up to 12 × 12
• how to simplify fractions
• how to find a fraction of a quantity
• how to multiply and divide, with and without a calculator.

About this chapter

This chapter is about comparing pieces of information. You use fractions,
decimals, percentage, ratio and proportion in everyday life to help calculate
quantities or to compare two or more pieces of information. Here are just a
few examples.
• Russia is the largest country in the world; Vatican City is the
smallest. The area of Russia is nearly 39 million times the area of
Vatican City.
• Monaco has the most people per square mile, Mongolia has the
fewest. The number of people per square mile in Monaco to the
number of people in Mongolia is in the ratio 10 800 : 1.
• Japan has the highest life expectancy. Sierra Leone has the lowest
life expectancy. On average, people in Japan live over twice as long
as people in Sierra Leone.
• On 16 August 2009, Usain Bolt set a new world record of 9.58 seconds
for the 100-metre sprint. This is an average speed of 23.3 mph. The
fastest bird is the swift, which can travel at 106 mph. Can you work
out approximately how long will it take a swift to travel 100 metres?

116
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5.1 Ratio
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• simplify a ratio common units ratio
• express a ratio as a fraction
• divide amounts into given ratios
• complete calculations from a given ratio and partial information.

A ratio is a way of comparing the sizes of two or more quantities.

A ratio can be expressed in a number of ways. For example, the ratio of the quantities when you mix
5 centilitres of cordial with 20 centilitres of water is shown below.
cordial : water
5 : 20
1 : 4 (Divide both sides by 5 to simplify.)

Hints and tips When you say a ratio, you do not say ‘5 colon 20’ or ‘1 colon 4’, you say ‘in the ratio
5 to 20’ or ‘in the ratio 1 to 4’.

When you are comparing ratios, you may find it helpful to use a table. So if the ratio is 5 : 20 (as
above), you can summarise the quantities of cordial and water in a table like this one.
Cordial 5 1 2 4 10 25
Water 20 4 8 16 40 100
The value in each column is simply a multiplier or divisor of the value in a previous column.
This method is useful if you want to know how much cordial to mix with a litre (100 centilitres) of
water. The last column shows that the answer is 25 centilitres.
How much water would you need if you only have 15 centilitres of cordial? You can find out by
adding the numbers in the first and fifth columns, so the answer is 60 centilitres.

Common units
When working with a ratio involving different units, always convert them all to a common unit. You
can only simplify or cancel a ratio when the units of each quantity are the same, because the ratio
itself has no units.
For example, you must convert the ratio of 125 g to 2 kg to the ratio of 125 g to 2000 g, so that you can
simplify it.
125 : 2000
5 : 80 (Divide both sides by 25.)
1 : 16 (Divide both sides by 5.)
You can simplify the ratio 125 : 2000 to 1 : 16.
When a ratio has been simplified so that its parts do not have any common factors, it is in its
simplest form.

5.1 Ratio 117

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Example 1 Express 25 minutes : 1 hour as a ratio in its simplest form.

The units must be the same, so change 1 hour into 60 minutes. 25 minutes : 1 hour
= 25 minutes : 60 minutes
Cancel the units (minutes). = 25 : 60
Divide both sides by 5. = 5 : 12
So, 25 minutes : 1 hour simplifies to 5 : 12.

Ratios as fractions
You can express ratios as fractions by using the total number of parts in the ratio as the denominator
(bottom number) of each fraction. Then use the numbers in the ratio as the numerators. If the ratio is
in its simplest form, the fractions will not cancel.
Always cancel the ratio to its simplest form before converting it to fractions.

A garden is divided into lawn and shrubs in the ratio 3 : 2.

Example 2

What fraction of the garden is covered by: a lawn b shrubs?

The denominator (bottom number) of the fraction is the total number of parts in the ratio each
time (that is, 2 + 3 = 5).
a The 3 in the ratio becomes the numerator. The lawn covers 3 of the garden.
5
b The 2 in the ratio becomes the numerator. The shrubs cover 2 of the garden.
5

Exercise 5A
1 Express each ratio in its simplest form.
a 6 : 18 b 15 : 20 c 16 : 24 d 24 : 36
e 20 to 50 f 12 to 30 g 25 to 40 h 125 to 30
2 Write each ratio of quantities in its simplest form.
a £5 to £15 b £24 to £16 c 125 g to 300 g
d 40 minutes : 5 minutes e 34 kg to 30 kg f £2.50 to 70p
g 3 kg to 750 g h 50 minutes to 1 hour i 1 hour to 1 day

Hints and tips Remember to express both parts in a common unit before
you simplify.

3 A length of wood is cut into two pieces in the ratio 3 : 7. What fraction of the original
length is the longer piece?

4 Jack and Thomas find a bag of marbles. They share the marbles in the ratio of their
ages. Jack is 10 years old and Thomas is 15 years old. What fraction of the marbles did
Jack get?

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5 Dave and Sue share a pizza in the ratio of 2 : 3. They eat it all.
a What fraction of the pizza did Dave eat?
b What fraction of the pizza did Sue eat?
6 7
10
of a campsite is allocated to caravans. The rest is allocated to tents. Write the ratio
of space allocated in the form caravans : tents.

7 Amy gets 23 of a packet of sweets. Her sister Susan gets the rest. Work out the ratio of
sweets that each sister gets. Write it in the form Amy : Susan.

8 a The recipe for a fruit punch is 1.25 litres of fruit crush to 6.25 litres of lemonade.
What fraction of the punch is each ingredient?
b How much fruit crush will you need to mix with 2 litres of lemonade?

Hints and tips Set up a table.

c You have half a litre of fruit crush. How much lemonade will you need?
9 In a safari park at feeding time, the elephants, lions and chimpanzees are given food
in the ratio 10 to 7 to 3. What fraction of the total food is given to:
a the elephants b the lions c the chimpanzees?
10 The recipe for a pudding is 125 g of sugar, 150 g of flour, 100 g of margarine and 175 g
of fruit. What fraction of the pudding is made up by each ingredient?

MR 11 3
Andy plays 16 bowls matches. He wins 4
of them.
He plays another x matches and wins them all.
The ratio of wins : losses is now 4 : 1.
Work out the value of x.

MR 12 Three brothers share some money.

The ratio of Mark’s share to David’s share is 1 : 2.
The ratio of David’s share to Paul’s share is 1 : 2.
What is the ratio of Mark’s share to Paul’s share?

EV 13 Three brothers, Jarek, Jerzy and Justyn, share a block of chocolate in the ratio of their
ages. Jarek gets half of the bar. Jerzy gets 3 of the rest.
5
a Work out the ratio, in the form Jarek : Jerzy : Justyn, of how the brothers share the
bar of chocolate.
b Justyn is 8 years old. How old is Jarek?
EV 14 Three cows, Gertrude, Gladys and Henrietta, produced milk in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4.
Henrietta produced 1 1 litres more than Gladys. How much milk did the three cows
2
produce altogether?

CM 15 In a garden, the area is divided into lawn, vegetables and flowers in the ratio 3 : 2 : 1.
If one-third of the lawn is dug up and replaced by flowers, what is the ratio of lawn :
vegetables : flowers now? Give your answer as a ratio in its simplest form.

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Dividing amounts in a given ratio

To divide an amount in a given ratio, you first look at the ratio to see how many parts there are
altogether.
For example, 4 : 3 has 4 parts and 3 parts giving 7 parts altogether. The whole amount is 7 parts.
You can work out one part by dividing the whole amount by 7.
Then you can work out 3 parts and 4 parts from 1 part.

Divide £28 in the ratio 4 : 3.

Example 3

Method 1: Using a table Method 2: Dividing to find one part

Set up the first column then continue the 4 + 3 = 7 parts altogether.
columns as multiples. So 7 parts = £28.
First part 4 8 12 16 Divide by 7 to find 1 part. 1 part = £4
Second part 3 6 9 12 Multiply by 4 to find 4 parts. 4 × £4 = £16
Total 7 14 21 28 Multiply by 3 to find 3 parts. 3 × £4 = £12
So £28 divided in the ratio 4 : 3 is £16 : £12. So £28 divided in the ratio 4 : 3 is £16 : £12.

You can also use fractions to divide an amount in a given ratio. First, express the whole numbers
in the ratio as fractions with the same common denominator. Then multiply the amount by
each fraction.

Divide £40 between Peter and Hitan in the ratio 2 : 3.

Example 4

Method 1: Using a table Method 2: Using fractions

Set up the first column then work out what Change the ratio to fractions.
you need to multiply 5 by to get 40. 2 2
Peter’s share = =
Do the same thing to the other rows. 2+3 5

Peter 3 3
2 2 × 8 = 16 Hitan’s share = =
2+3 5
Hitan 3 3 × 8 = 24
2
Total 5 5 × 8 = 40 So Peter receives £40 × 5
= £16 and Hitan
receives £40 × 35 = £24.
So Peter receives £16 and
Hitan receives £24.

Exercise 5B
1 Divide each amount according to the given ratio.
a 400 g in the ratio 2 : 3 b 280 kg in the ratio 2 : 5 c 500 in the ratio 3 : 7
d 1 km in the ratio 19 : 1 e 5 hours in the ratio 7 : 5 f £100 in the ratio 2 : 3 : 5
g £240 in the ratio 3 : 5 : 12 h 600 g in the ratio 1 : 5 : 6 i £5 in the ratio 7 : 10 : 8
j 200 kg in the ratio 15 : 9 : 1

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2 The ratio of female to male members at Lakeside Gardening Club is 7 : 3. The total
number of members of the group is 250.
a How many members are female?
b What percentage of members is male?
3 A supermarket aims to stock branded goods and their own goods in the ratio 2 : 3.
They stock 500 kg of breakfast cereal.
a What percentage of the cereal stock is branded?
b How much of the cereal stock is their own?
4 Over the years 1981–1992, the Illinois Department of Health tested a total of
357 horses for rabies. They reported that the ratio of horses with rabies to those
without was 1 : 16.
How many of these horses had rabies?

5 Being overweight increases the chances of an adult suffering from heart disease. A
test for whether an adult has an increased risk is based on comparing the waist
measurement, W, with the hip measurement, H.
W
For women, there is increased risk when > 0.8.
H

W
For men, there is increased risk when > 1.0.
H
a Find whether each of these people has an increased risk of heart disease.
Miss Mott: waist 26 inches, hips 35 inches
Mrs Wright: waist 32 inches, hips 37 inches
Mr Brennan: waist 32 inches, hips 34 inches
Ms Smith: waist 31 inches, hips 40 inches
Mr Kaye: waist 34 inches, hips 33 inches
EV b Give three examples of waist and hip measurements that would not suggest an
increased risk of heart disease for a man, but would for a woman.

6 Rewrite each scale as a ratio in its simplest form.

a 1 cm to 4 km b 4 cm to 5 km c 2 cm to 5 km
d 4 cm to 1 km e 5 cm to 1 km f 2.5 cm to 1 km
g 8 cm to 5 km h 10 cm to 1 km i 5 cm to 3 km
7 The most commonly used ordnance survey maps have a scale of 1 : 50 000.
a How far is the actual distance represented by a distance of 1 cm on the map?
b Ed plans a cycle ride. He estimates the distance on his ordnance survey map to be
78 cm. He plans to leave at 9:00 am and stop for about 30 minutes for a break. He
will cycle at an average of 15 km/h. At about what time will he be back? Show your
working.

Hints and tips 1 km = 1000 m = 100 000 cm

5.1 Ratio 121

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8 Map A has a scale of 2 cm to 5 km. Map B, of the same area, has a scale of 1 cm to
10 km.
a Rewrite these scales as ratios in their simplest form.
b How long is a path that measures 0.8 cm on map A?
c How long should a 12 km road be on map B?
CM d A river is 1.2 cm long on map B. How long will it be on map A?
9 You can simplify a ratio by changing it into the form 1 : n. For example, you can
rewrite 5 : 7 as 1 : 1.4.
Rewrite each ratio in the form 1 : n.
a 5:8 b 4 : 13 c 8:9
d 25 : 36 e 5 : 27 f 12 : 18
g 5 hours : 1 day h 4 hours : 1 week i £4 : £5
MR 10 There are 150 cars in a car park. The ratio of diesel cars to petrol cars is 2 : 3. 51 of the
diesel cars are red. 49 of the petrol cars are red.
Are more than one-third of all the cars in the car park red? Show your working.

11 A car is 240 miles from Manchester. A lorry is 180 miles from Manchester.
a Work out the ratio of the distances, giving your answer in its simplest form.
Two hours later the ratio of the distances is exactly the same.
The car is 120 miles from Manchester.
b How far is the lorry from Manchester at this time?
MR c If the ratio of the distances stays the same for the entire journey to Manchester,
which vehicle arrives first?

MR 12 A piece of wood is 5 m long. It is cut into pieces.

The lengths of the pieces are in the ratio 4 : 3 : 2 : 1.
The longest piece is then cut in the ratio 4 : 1 so that there are now five pieces.
How long is the smallest piece?

PS 13 Look at this number line.

A B C

9 13

The ratio AB : BC is 2 : 3.
Work out the number at B.

MR 14 Athos has 24 more marbles than ena. The ratio of the numbers of marbles that they
have is 4 : 1.
How many marbles does ena have?

122 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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Calculating with ratios when only part of the information is known

Alisha makes a fruit drink by mixing orange squash with water in the ratio 2 : 3.
Example 5

How much water does she need to add to 5 litres of orange squash to make the drink?

Method 1: Using a table Method 2: Comparing ratio and quantity

Squash 2 1 5 2 parts is 5 litres.
Water 3 1.5 7.5 Divide by 2. 1 part is 2.5 litres.
Multiply by 3. 3 parts is 7.5 litres.
So, she needs 7.5 litres of water to make
the drink.

Two business partners, Lubna and Adama, divided their total profit in the ratio 3 : 5. Lubna
Example 6

received £2100. How much did Adama get?

Method 1: Using a table Method 2: Using fractions

Lubna 3 3÷3=1 1 × 2100 = 2100 Lubna’s £2100 was 83 of the total profit.
(Check that you know why.)
Adama 5 5 ÷ 3 = 1 23 1 23 × 2100 = 3500 1
8
of the total profit = £2100 ÷ 3
Adama’s share was £3500. = £700
So Adama’s share, which was 85 , was
£700 × 5 = £3500.

Exercise 5C
1 Derek, aged 15, and Ricki, aged 10, shared all the conkers they found in the woods in
the same ratio as their ages. Derek had 48 conkers.
a Write down and simplify the ratio of their ages.
b How many conkers did Ricki have?
c How many conkers did they find altogether?
2 At a school party, the ratio of plain crisps to salt ’n’ vinegar crisps was 5 : 3. The school
bought 60 packets of salt ’n’ vinegar crisps.
a How many packets of plain crisps did they buy?
b How many packets of crisps did they buy altogether?
3 Robin is making a drink from orange juice and lemon juice, mixed in the ratio 9 : 1. If
Robin has only 3.6 litres of orange juice, how much lemon juice does he need to
make the drink?

EV 4 An old recipe to make pancakes says: “For every four ounces of flour, add two eggs
and half a pint milk. This is enough for 10 pancakes.”
Jamie wants to make two pancakes each for 15 people. He has 1 litre of milk.
Does he have enough milk? Explain your decision.

5.1 Ratio 123

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5 The ratio of male to female spectators at ice hockey games is 5 : 4. At the Beavers’ last
match, 4500 men watched the match. What was the total attendance at the game?

MR 6 On an aeroplane the ratio of business to premium to economy seats is 1 : 6 : 30.

A family of 8 book all the business seats. How many seats are there on the
aeroplane altogether?

7 Three business partners, Kevin, John and Margaret, put money into a business in the
ratio 3 : 4 : 5. They shared any profits in the same ratio. Last year, Margaret received
£3400 profit. How much did Kevin and John receive last year?

CM 8 The ratio of daffodils to tulips in a flowerbed is 3 : 7.

Decide whether each statement is true (T), false (F) or could be true (C). The first one
has been done for you.
a There are 25 daffodils in the flowerbed. F
b There are 140 flowers altogether in the flowerbed.
c The fraction of daffodils in the flowerbed is 73 .
d The percentage of tulips in the flowerbed is 70%.
e If half of the daffodils were dug up, the ratio of daffodils to tulips would be 3 : 14.
PS 9 In a factory, the ratio of female employees to male employees is 3 : 8. There are
85 more males than females.
How many females work in the factory?

PS 10 Some boys and girls are waiting for school buses. 25 girls get on the first bus. The
ratio of boys to girls at the stop is now 3 : 2.
15 boys get on the second bus. There are now the same number of boys and girls at
the bus stop.
How many students were originally at the bus stop?

PS 11 A jar contains 100 ml of a mixture of oil and water in the ratio 1 : 4. Enough oil is
added to make the ratio of oil to water 1 : 2.
How much water must be added to make the ratio of oil to water 1 : 3?

12 For a school disco, the school bought Cola, Orange Fizz and esto in the ratio
10 : 5 : 3. The school bought 80 cans of Orange Fizz.
a How much Cola did they buy? b How much esto did they buy?
13 a Iqra is making a drink from lemonade, orange juice and ginger ale in the ratio
40 : 9 : 1. If Iqra has only 4.5 litres of orange juice, how much of the other two
ingredients does she need to make the drink?
b Another drink made from lemonade, orange juice and ginger ale uses the ratio
10 : 2 : 1.
Which drink has a larger proportion of ginger ale, Iqra’s or this one? Show how
you work out your answer.

124 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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EV 14 A teacher asked her class to choose a number in the 10 times table then divide it into
the ratio 1 : 3 : 5.
eke chose 10. Yoko chose 50. Will chose 90.
a Who made the most sensible choice and why?
b eke correctly worked out the values and wrote them down as 1.1 : 3.3 : 5.5.
Yoko correctly worked out the values and wrote them down as 5.56 : 16.67 : 27.78.
What mistake have they both made?

PS 15 The ratio of my sister’s age to my age is 10 : 9.

The ratio of my brother’s age to my age is 29 : 27.
I am over 40 years old but under 70 years old.
What is my age?

5.2 Direct proportion problems

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise and solve problems that involve direct proportion. direct proportion
unit cost
Suppose you buy 12 items that each cost the same. The total
amount you spend is 12 times the cost of one item. unitary method
The total cost is in direct proportion to the number of items
bought. The cost of a single item (the unit cost) is the constant
factor that links the two quantities.
Direct proportion is not only concerned with costs. Any two related quantities can be in direct
proportion to each other.
One way to solve any problem involving direct proportion is to start by finding the single unit value.
This is called the unitary method. You can do this by using a table or just working out the single unit
value. These methods are very similar, as you will see from Examples 7 and 8. The table can be useful
if you have to do more complicated calculations.

Hints and tips Before solving a direct proportion problem, think about it carefully to make sure
that you know how to find the required single unit value.

If eight pens cost £2.64, what is the cost of five pens?

Example 7

Method 1: Using a table Method 2: Unitary method

÷8 ×5 First, find the cost of 1 pen.
£2.64 ÷ 8 = £0.33
Pens 8 1 5
Then multiply to find the cost of 5 pens.
Cost (£) 2.64 0.33 1.65 £0.33 × 5 = £1.65
÷8 ×5
So, the cost of five pens is £1.65.
The cost of five pens is £1.65.

5.2 Direct proportion problems 125

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Example 8 Emma uses eight loaves of bread to make packed lunches for 18 people.
a How many packed lunches can she make from 20 loaves?
b How many loaves will she need to make packed lunches for 60 people?

Method 1: Using a table

a ÷8 × 20
Loaves 8 1 20
Packed lunches 18 2.25 45
÷8 × 20

From 20 loaves she can make packed lunches for 45 people.

b ÷ 18 × 60
Loaves 8 8 = 4 4
× 60 = 26 23
18 9 9

Packed lunches 18 1 60
÷ 18 × 60

To make packed lunches for 60 people she will require 27 loaves.

Hints and tips Remember that she will need to round up to a whole number of loaves.

Method 2: Unitary method

First, find how many lunches she can make from one loaf.
From one loaf she can make 18 ÷ 8 = 2.25 lunches.
a So, with 20 loaves she can make 2.25 × 20 = 45 lunches.
b Work out how many loaves she needs for 1 packed lunch. 8 ÷ 18 = 49 or 0.444…
4
So for 60 packed lunches she will need 9 × 60 = 26 23 loaves, so she will need 27 loaves.

Exercise 5D
1 If 30 matches weigh 45 g, what do 40 matches weigh?

2 Five bars of chocolate cost £2.90. Find the cost of nine bars.

3 Eight men can chop down 18 trees in a day. How many trees can 20 men chop down
in a day?

4 Find the cost of 48 eggs when 15 eggs can be bought for £2.10.

5 Seventy maths textbooks cost £875.

a How much will 25 maths textbooks cost?
b How many maths textbooks can you buy for £100?

Hints and tips Remember to work out the value of one unit each time. Always
check that answers are sensible.

126 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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6 A lorry uses 80 litres of diesel fuel on a trip of 280 miles.

a How much diesel would the same lorry use on a trip of 196 miles?
b How far would the lorry get on a full tank of 100 litres of diesel?
7 During the winter, I find that 200 kg of coal keeps my open fire burning for 12 weeks.
a If I want an open fire all through the winter (18 weeks), how much coal will I need
to buy?
b Last year I bought 150 kg of coal. For how many weeks did I have an open fire?
8 It takes a photocopier 16 seconds to produce 12 copies. How long will it take to
produce 30 copies?

9 This is a recipe for 12 biscuits.

a What quantities are needed for:

i 6 biscuits ii 9 biscuits iii 15 biscuits?
CM b What is the maximum number of biscuits I could make if I had 1 kg of each
ingredient?

MR 10 Peter the butcher sells sausages in packs of 6 for £2.30.

Paul the butcher sells sausages in packs of 10 for £3.50.
I have £10 to spend on sausages.
I want to buy as many sausages as possible from one shop. Which shop should I use?
Show your working.

EV 11 Lorraine can make three loaves of bread with 1.8 kg of flour. She uses one loaf of
bread to make 10 sandwiches. How much flour will she need to make enough bread
for 400 sandwiches?

PS 12 Buns cost 40p each. Cakes cost 55p each. I spend exactly £4.35 on buns and cakes.
How many of each did I buy?

MR 13 A shredding machine can shred 20 sheets of paper in 14 seconds. The bin has room
for 1000 sheets of shredded paper.
How long will it take to fill the bin if the machine has to stop for 3 minutes after every
200 sheets to prevent overheating?

5.2 Direct proportion problems 127

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EV 14 This is a recipe for making Yorkshire pudding.

Adjust this recipe to use it for two people. Justify any decision you make.

MR 15 An aircraft has two fuel tanks, one in each wing.

The tanks each hold 40 litres when full.
The left tank is quarter full. The right tank is half full.
How much fuel is needed so that both tanks are three-quarters full?

5.3 Best buys Key terms

This section will show you how to: best buy better value

• find the cost per unit mass mass

• find the mass per unit cost

• use the above to find which product is the cheaper.

When you look around a supermarket and see all the different prices for the many different-sized
packets, it is rarely obvious which are the best buys. However, with a calculator you can easily
compare value for money by finding either the cost per unit mass or the mass per unit cost.
To find:
• cost per unit mass, divide cost by mass
• mass per unit cost, divide mass by cost.
The next two examples show you how to do this.
Note that people may say: “How much does this weigh?” or “I weigh 58 kg.” They are actually talking
about mass, which is measured in grams and kilograms.

A 300 g tin of cocoa costs £1.20. Find the cost per unit mass and the mass per unit cost.
Example 9

First change £1.20 to 120p, then divide using a calculator.

Cost per unit mass = 120 ÷ 300
= 0.4p per gram
Mass per unit cost = 300 ÷ 120
= 2.5 g per penny

128 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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Example 10 A supermarket sells Whito soap powder in two different-sized packets. The medium size
contains 800 g and costs £1.60 and the large size contains 2.5 kg and costs £4.75. Which is the
better buy?
Find the mass per unit cost for both packets.
Medium packet 800 ÷ 160 = 5 g per penny
Large packet 2500 ÷ 475 = 5.26 g per penny
From these it is clear that there is more mass per penny with the large size, which means that
the large size is the better buy.

In some cases, it is easier to use a scaling method to compare prices and find better value.

Which of these boxes of fish fingers is better value?

Example 11

12 is a common factor of 24 and 36 so work out the cost of 12 fish fingers.

For the small box, 12 fish fingers cost £3.40 ÷ 2 = £1.70.
For the large box, 12 fish fingers cost £4.95 ÷ 3 = £1.65.
So the large box is better value.

In other examples, it is easier to use a table to compare the cost of one item in each case.

Which of these packs of yoghurt is better value?

Example 12

Set up a table for the six-pack.

÷6 ×5
Pots 6 1 5
Price (£) 1.45 0.241666… 1.208333…
÷6 ×5

So five pots from the six-pack cost more than the five-pack.

(continued)

5.3 Best buys 129

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You could also do this the other way.

Set up a table for the five-pack.

÷5 ×6
Pots 5 1 6
Price (£) 1.20 0.24 1.44
÷5 ×6

So six pots from the five-pack cost less than the six-pack.
Either way, the five-pack is just better value

Exercise 5E
1 Compare the prices of the products in each pair. State which, if either, is the
better buy.
a Chocolate bars: £2.50 for a 5-pack, £4.50 for a 10-pack
b Eggs: £1.08 for 6, £2.25 for 12
c Car shampoo: £4.99 for 2 litres, £2.45 for 1 litre
d Dishwasher tablets: £7.80 for 24, £3.90 for 12

2 Compare the products in each pair. State which is the better buy. Explain your choice.
a Coffee: a medium jar (140 g) for £1.10, a large jar (300 g) for £2.18
b Toothpaste: a large tube (110 ml) for £1.79, a medium tube (75 ml) for £1.15
c Frosted Flakes: a large box (750 g) for £1.64, a medium box (500 g) for £1.10
d Hair shampoo: a medium bottle (400 ml) for £1.15, or a large bottle (550 ml)
for £1.60

3 Julie wants to respray her car with yellow paint. In the local supermarket, she sees
tins at these prices.
Small tin 350 ml for £1.79
Medium tin 500 ml for £2.40
Large tin 1.5 litres for £6.70
a What is the cost per litre of paint in the small tin?
b Which tin is offered at the lowest price per litre?

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4 Tisco’s sells bottled water in three sizes: 40 cl, 2 litres and 5 litres.

£2.50
98p

Spring Spring
38p water
Family size
water
Spring
water 2l Giant size
Handy size
40 cl
5l

a Work out the cost per litre of the 40cl bottle.

b Which bottle is the best value for money?
CM 5 Mary and Jane are arguing about which of them is better at mathematics.
Mary scored 49 out of 80 on a test.
Jane scored 60 out of 100 on a test of the same standard.
Based on these results, who is better at mathematics?

PS 6 Paula and Kelly are comparing their running times.

Paula completed a 10-mile run in 65 minutes.
Kelly completed a 10-kilometre run in 40 minutes.
Given that 8 kilometres are equal to 5 miles, which girl has the greater average speed?

EV 7 Sachets of cat food cost 35p each. Aldo’s supermarket sells them in packs of 12 or 40.
A pack of 12 costs £3.60. A pack of 40 costs £11.50. Today they have an offer.

Which is the better value: the 12-pack, the 40-pack or the ‘5 for 4’ offer? Show
your working.

8 Three people are comparing how much petrol their cars use.

For every 10 km For every litre My car does

my car uses 0.75 litres of petrol my car does 55 miles to a gallon
of petrol. 14 km. of petrol.

Abe Caryl Des

4.55 litres = 1 gallon
CM a Whose car is the most economical?
CM b Why is Abe’s statement not very helpful when comparing his car’s petrol
consumption to those of Caryl and Des?

Hints and tips Pick a distance and work out the amount of petrol they each use.

5.3 Best buys 131

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5.4 Compound measures

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise and solve problems involving the compound average speed
measures or rates of pay, speed, density and pressure.
compound measure

Compound measures always involve three variables. The three density

variables can be connected by a ‘triangle’ that shows the
relationship between them. The triangle is shown in each section below.

Rates of pay
Many jobs are paid on an hourly rate. The amount earned is calculated by the rule:
Pay (P) = Hours worked (H) × hourly rate (R)
These three variables are connected by this triangle.

It shows the three relationships between the three variables.

P P
P P=H×R H= R=
R H

H R

Vikki works 42 hours one week. Her hourly rate of pay is £11.20.
Example 13

From her weekly earnings, 20% is deducted as tax, 8% is deducted as National Insurance and
£3.50 is deducted for union dues.
How much does Vikki take home after deductions?
Calculate her pay. 42 × 11.20 = £470.40
Calculate her tax. 0.2 × 470.40 = £94.08
Calculate her NI. 0.08 × 470.40 = £37.63
Find the sum of her deductions. £94.08 + £37.63 + £3.50 = £135.21
Subtract to find her take-home pay. £470.40 – £135.21 = £335.19

Exercise 5F
1 Work out the total pay for each person.
1
a 40 hours at £6.50 per hour b 37 2 hours at £8.20 per hour
1
c 35 hours at £9.25 per hour d 42 2 hours at £6.80 per hour
2 Work out the hourly rate for each payment.
a £300 for 40 hours’ work b £380.10 for 42 hours’ work
1
c £217.50 for 37 2 hours’ work d £268.75 for 25 hours’ work
3 Work out the number of hours worked for each job.
a £321.10 at £8.45 per hour b £390.10 at £9.40 per hour
c £211.75 at £6.05 per hour d £502 at £12.55 per hour

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CM 4 Mary sees two job adverts for a cook.

a Give a reason why Mary might prefer the job at the Loft.
b Give a reason why Mary might prefer the job at Café Crème.
5 Adele is a joiner. Her normal working week is from 8 to 5 Monday to Friday with a
1-hour lunch break. Her hourly rate is £13.50.
If she works at weekends she is paid ‘time and a half’, which means she gets one and
a half times the normal hourly rate.
a How much does Adele earn for a normal working week?
b One week she works for 8 hours at the weekend. How much does she earn that week?
6 Sasha works for 35 hours at her normal hourly rate and 6 hours at ‘time and a half’.
She earns a total of £303.60. What is her hourly rate of pay?

7 One week Bernice works her normal hours and 8 hours at ‘time and a half’. She is
paid £375. The next week she worked her normal hours and 4 hours at ‘time and a
half’. She is paid £330. How many hours is her normal week? Show your working

PS 8 Bill works 40 hours a week at an hourly rate of £x. Ben works 32 hours a week. They
both get exactly the same weekly pay. What is Ben’s hourly rate? Give your answer in
terms of x.
1
PS 9 Steve works for 37 2 hours at an hourly rate of £11.80. He pays 20% of his pay in
income tax. He also pays National Insurance at a rate of x%. After these deductions
he is left with £327.45. What is the value of x? Show your working.

PS 10 Jeff works for a whole number of hours and is paid a whole number of pounds for
each hour. He earns £407. He works more than one hour a week and the number of
hours is higher than the hourly rate. Work out how many hours he works and his
hourly rate.

Speed, time and distance

The relationship between speed (S), distance (D) and time (T) is:
distance
speed =
time
This diagram will help you remember the relationships between distance, speed and time.

D distance
S= speed =
T time
D
D=S×T distance = speed × time
D distance
T= time =
S T S speed

In problems relating to speed, you usually mean average speed, as it would be unusual to maintain
one exact speed for the whole of a journey. Speed is usually expressed in miles per hour (mph),
kilometres per hour (kph) or metres per second (m/s).
5.4 Compound measures 133
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Example 14 Paula drove a distance of 270 miles in 5 hours. What was her average speed?

Paula’s average speed = total distance she drove

total time she took
270
=
5
= 54 miles per hour (mph)

1
Sarah drove from Sheffield to Peebles in 3 2 hours at an average speed of 60 mph. How far is it
Example 15

from Sheffield to Peebles?

distance = speed × time
Change the time to a decimal number. 3 21 hours = 3.5 hours
Use this to find the distance from Sheffield to Peebles. 60 × 3.5 = 210 miles

Sean is going to drive from Newcastle upon Tyne to Nottingham, a distance of 190 miles. He
Example 16

estimates that he will drive at an average speed of 50 mph. How long will the journey take him?
total distance he drove
Sean’s time for the journey =
his average speed
190
=
50
= 3.8 hours
Change 0.8 hours into minutes. 0.8 × 60 = 48 minutes
So, Sean’s journey will take 3 hours 48 minutes.

Remember When you calculate a time and get a decimal answer, as in Example 16, do not mistake the
decimal part for minutes. You must either:
• leave the time as a decimal number and give the unit as hours, or
• change the decimal part to minutes by multiplying it by 60 (1 hour = 60 minutes) and give the
answer in hours and minutes.

Exercise 5G
1 A cyclist travels a distance of 90 miles in 5 hours. What was her average speed?

2 How far along a motorway would you travel if you drove at 70 mph for 4 hours?

3 I drive to Bude in Cornwall from Sheffield in about 6 hours. The distance from
Sheffield to Bude is 315 miles. What is my average speed?

4 The distance from Leeds to London is 210 miles. The train travels at an average speed
of 90 mph. If I catch the 9:30 am train in London, at what time should I expect to arrive
in Leeds?

5 How long will an athlete take to run 2000 m at an average speed of 4 metres
per second?

134 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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6 Copy and complete this table.

Distance travelled Time taken Average speed

a 150 miles 2 hours
b 260 miles 40 mph
c 5 hours 35 mph
d 3 hours 80 km/h
e 544 km 8 hours 30 minutes
f 3 hours 15 minutes 100 km/h
g 215 km 50 km/h

Hints and tips Remember to convert time to a decimal if you are using a
calculator, for example 8 hours 30 minutes is 8.5 hours.

7 Colin drives home from his son’s house in 2 hours 15 minutes. He says that he drives
at an average speed of 44 mph.
a Change 2 hours 15 minutes to a decimal.
b How far is it from Colin’s home to his son’s house?
8 The distance between Paris and Le Mans is 200 km. The express train between Paris
and Le Mans travels at an average speed of 160 km/h.
a Calculate the time taken for the journey from Paris to Le Mans, giving your answer
as a decimal number of hours.
b Change your answer to part a to hours and minutes.
CM 9 This timetable shows a train journey from Sheffield to London by the Midland
mainline. The distance travelled is 150 miles.
Depart Arrive Travel by Train company Duration

11:29 Sheffield 13:30 London St Train EAST MIDLANDS TRAINS 02h 01

Pancras Intl

This timetable shows a train journey from Sheffield to London by the East Coast
mainline. The distance from Sheffield to Doncaster is 20 miles and from Doncaster to
London is 160 miles.

Depart Arrive Travel by Train company Duration

11:10 Sheffield 11:35 Doncaster Train TRANSPENNINE EXPRESS 00h 25

11:46 Doncaster 13:28 London Kings Train EAST COAST 01h 42

Cross

a Work out the average speed of each journey from Sheffield to London.
b Work out the average speed of the train journey from Doncaster to London.
MR 10 A train travels at 50 km/h for 2 hours, then slows down to do the last 30 minutes of its
journey at 40 km/h.
a What is the total distance of this journey?
b What is the average speed of the train over the whole journey?

5.4 Compound measures 135

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MR 11 Jade runs and walks the 3 miles from home to work each day. She runs the first
2 miles at a speed of 8 mph, then walks the next mile at a steady 4 mph.
What is her average speed for the whole journey?

12 Change the following speeds to metres per second.

a 36 km/h b 12 km/h c 60 km/h

Hints and tips Remember that there are 3600 seconds in an hour and
1000 metres in a kilometre. So to change from km/h to m/s
multiply by 1000 and divide by 3600.

13 Change the following speeds to kilometres per hour.

a 25 m/s b 12 m/s c 0.5 m/s

Hints and tips To change from m/s to km/h multiply by 3600 and divide by 1000.

14 A train travels at an average speed of 18 m/s.

The train set off at 7:30 am on a 40-km journey.
At approximately what time will it reach its destination?

Hints and tips To convert a decimal fraction of an hour to minutes, just multiply
by 60.

PS 15 At 9:00 am Ajeet sets off on a cycle trail at an average speed of 16 km/h.

At 10:00 am Bijay sets off from the same place, in the same direction at an average
speed of 24 km/h.
At approximately what time will Bijay catch up with Ajeet?

Hints and tips Set up a table to show how far each cyclist has gone each
15 minutes after 10:00 am.

CM 16 Rebecca says: “If I travel for 10 minutes at 50 mph, then 10 minutes at 70 mph, then
my average speed must be 60 mph.”
Nick says: “If I travel for 10 miles at 40 mph, then 10 miles at 60 mph, then my average
speed for the 20 miles will be 50 mph.”
Are they both correct? Show your working.
B
EV 17 Josh and Nell need to travel from A to B. A
Town
Across town is 20 miles. By motorway it is 50 miles.
The speed limit in town is 30 mph and on the motorway it is 70 mph. Motorway
They work out the time it will take them to go via the town and via the
motorway if they travel at the speed limit.
Josh decides to go via the town. Nell decides to go via the motorway.
Who is most likely to get there first? Use figures to back up your argument and
explain any assumptions that you make.

136 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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Density
Density is the mass of a substance per unit of volume, usually expressed in grams per cm3. The
relationship between the three quantities is:
mass
density =
volume

You can remember this with a triangle similar to that for distance, speed and time.

M = DV mass = density × volume

M
D= M density = mass ÷ volume
V
D V M
V= volume = mass ÷ density
D

Note: Density is defined in terms of mass. The common metric units for mass are grams and
kilograms. Try not to mix up mass with weight. The common metric unit for weight is the newton (N).
You may have learnt about the difference between mass and weight in science.

A piece of metal has a mass of 30 g and a volume of 4 cm3. What is the density of the metal?
Example 17

mass
Density =
volume
30
=
4
= 7.5 g/cm3

What is the mass of a piece of rock that has a volume of 34 cm3 and a density of 2.25 g/cm3?
Example 18

mass = density × volume

= 2.25 × 34
= 76.5 g

Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area and is expressed in newtons (N) per square metre (m2). A force of
1 N applied to 1 m2 is called 1 pascal (Pa). Other units to measure pressure are pounds per square
inch and bars.
force
The relationship between pressure (P), force (F) and area (A) is pressure = .
area
You can remember this with a triangle similar to that for distance, speed and time.
F
P= pressure = force ÷ area
A
F
F = PA force = pressure × area

P A F
A= area = force ÷ pressure
P

5.4 Compound measures 137

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As an example of pressure, think about pushing your thumb onto a piece of wood. Not much
happens.
Now use your thumb to push a drawing pin onto the wood. The drawing pin will penetrate the wood.
The force is the same but the area it is applied to is much smaller so the pressure applied is much
greater.
Note: If an object has a mass of x kg, then it exerts a downward force, due to gravity of xg newtons,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Under normal conditions, g = 9.81 m/s2 so a mass of 1 kg exerts a force of 9.81 newtons. Usually, to
make calculations easier, you take g as 10 m/s2.

a When does a woman exert the greater pressure on the floor: when she is wearing walking
Example 19

boots or high-heeled shoes?

Explain your answer.
b A woman has a mass of 50 kg. She is wearing a pair of high-heeled shoes. Each shoe has an
area of 40 cm2 for the sole and 1 cm2 for the heel.
Take g = 10 m/s2.
i When she is standing on both shoes with the heel down, what is the average pressure
exerted on the ground?
ii She swivels round on the heel of one shoe only. How much pressure, in pascals, is
exerted on the ground?
You are given that 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2.
a A woman exerts more pressure on the floor when she is wearing high-heeled shoes as they
have a much smaller contact area with the floor than walking boots.
b i Force is 50 × 10 = 500 N
Area is 82 × 0.0001 m2 = 0.0082 m2
pressure = force ÷ area
So average pressure is 500 ÷ 0.0082 ≈ 61 000 Pa.
ii On one heel, the pressure is 500 ÷ 0.0001 = 5 000 000 Pa.

Exercise 5H
1 Find the density of a piece of wood with a mass of 6 g and a volume of 8 cm3.

2 A force of 20 N acts over an area of 5 m2. What is the pressure?

3 Calculate the density of a metal if 12 cm3 of it has a mass of 100 g.

4 1
A pressure of 5 Pa acts on an area of 2
m2. What force is exerted?

5 Calculate the mass of a piece of plastic, 20 cm3 in volume, if its density is 1.6 g/cm3.

6 A crate weighs 200 N and exerts a pressure of 40 Pa on the ground. What is its area?

7 Calculate the volume of a piece of wood which has a mass of 102 g and a density of
0.85 g/cm3.

8 Find the mass of a marble model, 56 cm3 in volume, if the density of marble
is 2.8 g/cm3.

138 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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CM 9 A steel cuboid measures 30 cm by 20 cm by 10 cm. On which face should it be stood

to exert least pressure?

10 Which of these will exert the greatest pressure: carrying a full shopping bag by the
handles or carrying the same bag in your arms?
Explain your answer.

PS 11 Why do camels have large, wide feet?

12 A gold bar is in the shape of a cuboid with dimensions of 5 cm by 10 cm by 20 cm. The

density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. The bar is placed on a weighing scale on its largest face.
a What figure will show on the scale?
CM b The bar is now placed on the scale on its smallest face. What figure will now show
on the scale? Explain your answer.
c Work out the pressure exerted on the scale in a and b above.
Take g = 10 m/s2.

MR 13 Two statues look identical and both appear to be made out of gold. One of them is
a fake.
The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm .
The statues each have a volume of approximately 200 cm3.
The first statue has a mass of 5.2 kg.
The second statue has a mass of 3.8 kg.
Which one is the fake?

14 A piece of metal has a mass of 345 g and a volume of 15 cm3.

A different piece of metal has a mass of 400 g and a density of 25 g/cm3.
Which piece of metal has the bigger volume and by how much?

MR 15 Two pieces of scrap metal are melted down to make a single piece of metal.
The first piece has a mass of 1.5 tonnes and a density of 7000 kg/m3.
The second piece has a mass of 1 tonne and a density of 8000 kg/m3.
Work out the total volume of the new piece of metal.

PS 16 A cuboid has a mass of 20 kg and a volume of 0.4 m3.

When placed on each face the pressures exerted are 400 Pa, 250 Pa and 500 Pa.
Take g = 10 m/s2. Work out the dimensions of the cuboid.

CM 17 The acceleration due to gravity on the Moon is about 1 of what it is on Earth.

6
Say whether each one of these statements is true or false.
a Buzz’s mass is the same on the Earth and the Moon.
b Buzz’s weight is the same on the Earth and the Moon.
c The pressure exerted by Buzz’s feet when standing in his space suit is the same on
the Earth as on the Moon.
d When Buzz is standing in his space suit
force on the Moon force on Earth .
=
pressure on the Moon pressure on Earth

5.4 Compound measures 139

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5.5 Compound interest and

repeated percentage change
This section will show you how to:
• calculate simple interest
Key terms
• calculate compound interest
annual rate
• solve problems involving repeated percentage change.
compound interest
Banks and building societies pay interest on savings accounts. principal
Simple interest is when the same percentage of the original
amount (principal) is paid each year. However, this is rarely simple interest
used now and most banks pay compound interest on savings
accounts.
For compound interest, the interest earned each year is added to the original amount and the new
total then earns interest at the annual rate in the next year. This pattern is then repeated each year
while the money is in the account.
The most efficient way to calculate the total amount in the account after one year or several years is
to use a multiplier.

Elizabeth invests £400 in a savings account. She can invest in an account that pays 6.5% simple
Example 20

interest if she leaves her money in for 3 years. Alternatively, she can put it in an account that
pays 6% compound interest. Which account will give her more money after 3 years?
Simple interest pays the same interest each year. 6.5% of £400 = £26
3 × £26 = £78
After 3 years she will have £478 with the simple interest account.
With compound interest the amount in the account increases by 6% each year, so the
multiplier is 1.06.
After 1 year she will have £400 × 1.06 = £424.
After 2 years she will have £424 × 1.06 = £449.44.
After 3 years she will have £449.44 × 1.06 = £476.41.
If you calculate the differences, you can see that the amount of interest increases each year
(£24, £25.44 and £26.97).
So, the simple interest account gives the most money after 3 years.

You can see from this example that the amount in the account after three years could have been
calculated as £400 × (1.06)3. That is, you could have used the following formula for calculating the total
amount due at any time:
total amount, A = P + P × multiplier raised to the power n

( )
n
A = P 1+ r
100
where P is the original amount invested, r is the percentage interest rate and n is the number
of years for which the money is invested.
r
So, in Example 20, P = £400, = 0.06, n = 3 and the total amount = £400 × (1.06)3.
100

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Using your calculator

You should see that you can do the above calculation on your calculator without having to write
down all the intermediate steps.
To add on the 6% each time, just multiply by 1.06 each time. So you can do the calculation as:

4 0 0 1 0 6 1 0 6 1 0 6
or

4 0 0 1 0 6 x 3
or
4 0 0 ( 1 0 6 1 0 0 ) x 3
You need to find the method that you are comfortable with and that you understand.
The idea of compound interest does not only concern money. It also occurs, for example, in the
growth in population, increases in salaries or increases in body weight or height.
The same idea can involve regular reduction by a fixed percentage: for example, car depreciation,
population losses and even water losses. The next exercise shows the extent to which compound
interest ideas are used.

Exercise 5I
1 Work out the interest on each account.
a £2000 invested for 5 years at 4% simple interest
b £1500 invested for 3 years at 2.5% simple interest
c £200 invested for 2 years at 3.2% simple interest
d £4000 invested for 3 years at 4% compound interest
2 Work out the number of years of investment for each return.
a £3000 invested at 3% simple interest returns £3720
b £5000 invested at 2.5% compound interest returns £6724, to the nearest pound (£)
3 A baby octopus increases its body weight by 5% each day for the first month of its
life. In a safe ocean zoo, a baby octopus was born weighing 10 g.
a What was its weight after:
i 1 day ii 2 days iii 4 days iv 1 week?
b After how many days will the octopus first weigh over 15 g?
4 A certain type of conifer hedging increases in height by 17% each year for the first
20 years. When I bought some of this hedging, it was all about 50 cm tall. How long
will it take to reach 3 m?

5 The manager of a small family business offered his staff an annual pay increase of 4%
for every year they stayed with the firm.
a Gareth started work at the business on a salary of £12 200. What salary will he be
on after 4 years?
MR b Julie started work at the business on a salary of £9350. How many years will it be
until she is earning a salary of over £20 000?

5.5 Compound interest and repeated percentage change 141

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6 Scientists have been studying the shores of Scotland and estimate that due to
pollution the seal population of those shores will decline at the rate of 15% each year.
In 2010 they counted about 3000 seals on those shores.
a If nothing is done about pollution, how many seals did they expect to be there in:
i 2011 ii 2012 iii 2015?
MR b How long will it take for the seal population to fall to less than 1000?
7 I am told that if I buy a new car its value will depreciate at the rate of 20% each year. If
I bought a car in 2011 priced at £8500, what would be the value of the car in:
a 2012 b 2013 c 2015?
8 At the peak of a drought during the summer, a reservoir in Derbyshire was losing
water at the rate of 8% each day. On 1 August this reservoir held 2.1 million litres
of water.
a At this rate of losing water, how much would have been in the reservoir on the
following days?
i 2 August ii 4 August iii 8 August
MR b The danger point is when the water drops below 1 million litres. When would this
have been if things had continued as they were?

9 The population of a small country, Yebon, was only 46 000 in 2001, but it steadily
increased by about 13% each year during the 2000s.
a Calculate the population in:
i 2002 ii 2006 iii 2010.
MR b If the population keeps growing at this rate, in what year will it reach half a million?
MR 10 How long will it take to accumulate one million pounds in the following situations?
a An investment of £100 000 at a rate of 12% compound interest
b An investment of £50 000 at a rate of 16% compound interest
PS 11 An oak tree is 60 cm tall. It grows at a rate of 8% per year. A conifer is 50 cm tall. It
grows at a rate of 15% per year. How many years does it take before the conifer is
taller than the oak?

PS 12 A tree increases in height by 18% per year. When it is 1 year old, it is 8 cm tall. How
long will it take the tree to grow to 10 m?

PS 13 Show that a 10% increase followed by a 10% increase is equivalent to a 21%

increase overall.

PS 14 Here are two advertisements for savings accounts.

Which account is worth more after 2 years?

Show all your working.

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PS 15 A fish weighs 3 kg and increases in mass by 10% each month. A crab weighs 6 kg but
decreases in mass by 10% each month. After how many months will the fish weigh
more than the crab?

MR 16 There is a bread shortage.

Each week during the shortage, a shop increases its price of bread by 20% of the
price the week before.
After how many weeks would the price of the bread have doubled?

5.6 Reverse percentage (working

out the original amount)
This section will show you how to:
• calculate the original amount, given the final amount, after a known percentage increase or
decrease.
Reverse percentage questions involve working backwards from the final amount to find the original
amount when you know, or can work out, the final amount as a percentage of the original amount.
There are two methods: the unitary method and the multiplier method.

The unitary method

The unitary method has three steps.
Step 1 Equate the final percentage to the final value.
Step 2 Use this to calculate the value of 1%.
Step 3 Multiply by 100 to work out 100% (the original value).

In a factory, 70 workers were given a pay rise. This was 20% of all the workers. How many
Example 21

workers are there altogether?

Step 1 Equate the values. 20% represents 70 workers.
Step 2 Calculate 1%. 70 ÷ 20 workers. (There is no need to work out this
calculation yet.)
Step 3 Calculate 100% . 70 ÷ 20 × 100 = 350
So there are 350 workers altogether.

The price of a car increased by 6% to £9116. Work out the price before the increase.
Example 22

Step 1 Equate the values. 106% represents £9116.

Step 2 Calculate 1%. £9116 ÷ 106
Step 3 Calculate 100% . £9116 ÷ 106 × 100 = £8600
So the price before the increase was £8600.

5.6 Reverse percentage (working out the original amount) 143

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The multiplier method

The multiplier method involves fewer steps.
Step 1 Write down the multiplier.
Step 2 Divide the final value by the multiplier to give the original value.

In a sale the price of a freezer is reduced by 12%. The sale price is £220. What was the price
Example 23

before the sale?

Step1 Write down the multiplier. A decrease of 12% gives a multiplier of 0.88.
Step 2 Calculate the original amount. £220 ÷ 0.88 = £250
So the price before the sale was £250.

Exercise 5J
1 Find what 100% represents in each situation.
a 40% represents 320 g b 14% represents 35 m c 45% represents 27 cm
d 4% represents £123 e 2.5% represents £5 f 8.5% represents £34
2 On a gruelling army training session, only 28 youngsters survived the whole day. This
represented 35% of the original group. How large was the original group?

3 VAT is a government tax added to goods and services. With VAT at 20%, what is the
pre-VAT price of the following priced goods?
T-shirt £10.08 Tights £1.44 Shorts £6.24
Sweater £12.90 Trainers £29.76 Boots £38.88

4 Howard spends £200 a month on food. This represents 24% of his monthly take-home
pay. How much is his monthly take-home pay?

5 Tina’s weekly pay is increased by 5% to £315. What was Tina’s pay before the increase?

6 The number of workers in a factory fell by 5% to 228. How many workers were
there originally?

7 In a sale the price of a TV is reduced to £325.50. This is a 7% reduction on the original

price. What was the original price?

8 If 38% of plastic bottles in a production line are blue and the remaining 7750 plastic
bottles are brown, how many plastic bottles are blue?

9 I received £4.40 back from HM Revenue and Customs, which represented the 20%
VAT on a piece of equipment. How much did I pay for this equipment in the
first place?

10 A company is in financial trouble. The workers are asked to take a 10% pay cut for
each of the next two years.
a Rob works out that his pay in two years’ time will be £1296 per month. How much is
his pay now?
CM b Instead he offers to take an immediate pay cut of 14% and have his pay frozen at
that level for two years. Has he made the correct decision?

144 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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CM 11 The population in a village is 30% of the size of the population in a

neighbouring town.
a If both populations double, what is the population of the village as a percentage of
the population of the town?
b If the population of the village stays the same but the population of the town
doubles, what is the population of the village as a percentage of the population of
the town?

CM 12 A man’s salary was increased by 5% in one year and reduced by 5% in the next year. Is
his final salary greater or less than the original one and by how many per cent?

MR 13 A woman’s salary increased by 5% in one year and then increased the following year
by 5% again.
Her new salary was £19 845.
How much was the increase, in pounds, in the first year?

CM 14 When VAT was 17.5%, a quick way of estimating the pre-VAT price of an item with VAT
added was to divide by 6 and then multiply by 5. For example, if an item costs
£360 including VAT, it cost approximately (360 ÷ 6) × 5 = £300 before VAT. Show that
this gave an estimate to within £5 of the pre-VAT price for items costing up to £280.

MR 15 After a 6% increase followed by an 8% increase, the monthly salary of a chef was

£1431. What was the original monthly salary?

PS 16 Cassie invests some money at 4% interest per annum for five years. After five years,
she had £1520.82 in the bank. How much did she invest originally?

PS 17 In 2000, the population of a town was 5400. 28% of the population of the town owned
a mobile phone. In 2015, the number of people in the town owning a mobile phone
had increased by 150%. This represented 72% of the population. Has the population
of the town increased or decreased between 2000 and 2015, and by how much?

EV 18 A teacher asked her class to work out the original price of a cooker for which, after a
12% increase, the price was £291.20.
This is Baz’s answer:

When the teacher read out the answer, Baz ticked his work as correct.
What errors has he made?

PS 19 In a survey, exactly 35% of the people surveyed wanted a new supermarket.

What is the least number that could have been surveyed?

5.6 Reverse percentage (working out the original amount) 145

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 Jonathan is comparing two ways to travel from his flat in London to his parents’ house
in Doncaster.
Tube, train and taxi
It takes 35 minutes to get to the railway station by tube in London. A train journey
from London to Doncaster takes 1 hour 40 minutes. From Doncaster, it is 15 miles by
taxi at an average speed of 20 mph.
Car
The car journey is 160 miles at an average speed of 50 mph.
a Which the journey takes longer: tube, train and taxi or car?
b How do any assumptions you have made affect your answer?

a This part of the question assesses ‘communicating mathematically’, so you

must display your methods clearly and include words to explain what your
calculations show.
Imagine that you will pass your answer to a friend or relative and ask yourself
whether or not they could understand it.
For the taxi First, work out the time taken by the
time = distance ÷ speed taxi. It is not essential to show the
formula ‘time = distance ÷ speed’ but
15 it is useful to draw the triangle that
D = 20
shows the relationship. Be careful
= 0.75 hour with time as a decimal: 0.75 hours =
(or 45 minutes) 45 minutes.
S T

Total time for the journey by tube, rail Next, work out the total time for tube,
and taxi: train and taxi.
35 minutes + 1 hour 40 minutes + 45 minutes
= 3 hours
For the car Now work out the time taken by the
time = distance ÷ speed car.

= 160 ÷ 50 0.1 hours = 6 minutes so 0.2 hours =

12 minutes
= 3.2 hours (or 3 hours 12 minutes)

Travelling by car takes 12 minutes longer. Finally, compare the times taken.
It is essential to write a final
conclusion: do not assume it is
obvious from your working.

146 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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b This part asks you to evaluate your solution in light of any assumptions made, so
think about the practicalities of both journeys.
No allowance is made for time between The journey by tube train and taxi
the different stages of the journey so does not make any allowances for
the journey by tube, train and taxi will time between each part of the journey,
probably take longer. for example, waiting to get a taxi at
Doncaster station. In reality there will
be several minutes between each stage.
You do not need to write a detailed
explanation, just make it clear what
assumptions have been made and how
this will affect the answer.

CM 2 A, B, C and D are four points on a number line.

A B C D

AB : BC = 7 : 3
BC A: CD = 2 : 5 B C
Work out the ratio
B ACC: CD. D
Give your answer in its simplest form.

This question requires you to ‘interpret and communicate information’, so you will
need to extend the information beyond what is stated explicitly.
It may help to draw a diagram.
A B C D

A B C

B C D

This table shows the given ratios. Set up a table and write in the information
you are given.
AB 7

BC 3 2

CD 5

BC has the same value in the first and Now extend and complete the
second columns. third column.
Multiply AB and BC in the first column by
AB 7 14
2 to give AB = 14 and BC = 6.
BC 3 2 6
Multiply BC and CD in the second column
CD 5 15 by 3 to give BC = 6 and CD = 15.

Add AB and BC to find AC. Now extend and complete a fourth

column by combing AB and BC from the
AB 7 14 third column to get AC = 20 (column 4) and
20 4
BC 3 2 6 cancel AC and CD by a factor of 5 (column
5).
CD 5 15 15 3

The ratio of AC : CD is 4 : 3. Give your answer.

5 Worked exemplars 147

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Ready to progress?
I can simplify a ratio.
I can calculate with ratios.
I can calculate distance from speed and time.
I can calculate time from speed and distance.
I can compare prices of products to find the ‘best buy’.
I can solve problems involving density and pressure.
I can work out problems about simple interest.
I can work out compound interest problems.

I can use ratio to solve problems in appropriate situations.

I can solve reverse percentage problems.
I can solve more complex compound interest problems.

I can solve complex problems involving percentage increases and percentage decreases.

Review questions
1 Maura travelled 80 miles in 1 hour 40 minutes.
Work out Maura’s average speed in miles per hour.

2 Ron drives 220 miles in 2 hours 45 minutes on French motorways.

The speed limit on French motorways is 120 km/h.
5 miles = 8 kilometres
Is it likely, unlikely or definite that Ron exceeds the speed limit?

PS 3 The ratio of the totals of the numbers in Box A and Box B is 2 : 3.

4 5 6 7
9 13
10 12 15 19

Swap two numbers, one from each box, so that the ratio of the totals of the numbers
is now 9 : 11.
Show your working.

4 A farmer has three fields. The area of field A is 1.73 hectares, the area of field B is
2.64 hectares and the area of field C is 0.95 hectares. Cattle need 0.065 hectares of
space each, horses need 0.04 hectares of space each and sheep need 0.01 hectares of
space each.
a Show that, if the farmer keeps horses in field A, cattle in field B and sheep in field
C, she will be able to have a total of 178 animals.
CM b Work out the combination of fields, cattle, horses and sheep that will allow the
farmer to keep the maximum possible number of animals.

5 The interior angles of a triangle are in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5.

Calculate the size of the largest angle.

148 5 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Ratio and proportion

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6 A company mixes two types of lawn seed.

E green grass seed costs £18 per kilogram.
Evergreen grass seed costs £21 per kilogram.
The company mixes the seed in the ratio E green : Evergreen = 2 : 3.
a How much Evergreen will the company need to mix with 15 kg of E green?
b How much E green will the company need to mix with 45 kg of Evergreen?
c How much will one kilogram of the mixture cost?
7 Mary invests £6000 for 12 years at 2.8% per annum compound interest.
Work out the value of the investment at the end of 12 years.

8 After a 12% increase, the cost of a washing machine is £420. How much did it cost
before the increase?

9 Henry invested £4500 for 3 years in a savings account.

He was paid 3.2% per annum compound interest.
a How much did Henry have in his savings account after 3 years?
EV b Jake invested £1200 for n years in a savings account.
He was paid 2.5% per annum compound interest.
At the end of the n years, he told his sister he had £1360 in the savings account.
Work out the value of n.
Comment on what Jake told his sister.

PS 10 The cost of petrol increased by 15% one week but fell back to the original price the
next week.
By what percentage did the cost of petrol fall in the second week?

EV 11 A group of 165 men and women visit a cinema.

There are 20% more men than women.
How many men are in the group?

CM 12 Joe pays £41.40 for a meal which includes a £4.40 tip.

Lucy pays £41.40 for a meal which includes a 15% tip.
Whose meal cost more before the tip was added?

CM 13 In 2014, Sally used 5400 units of electricity.

In 2015, the price of electricity increased by 8% but Sally reduced her usage to
4500 units.
Sally paid £680.40 for the units she used in 2015.
Did she pay more or less for the units she used in 2014? Show your working.

CM 14 In a sale, the price of a jacket is reduced by 15%. On the last day of the sale, it is
reduced by another 10% of the sale price and was priced at £50.50.
a How much was the original price of the jacket?
b What assumption can you make about the final price?

5 Review questions 149

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6 Geometry and
measures: Angles

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to find angles on a line and around a point
• how to find angles in a triangle and in any polygon
• how to calculate angles in parallel lines
• how to calculate interior and exterior angles in polygons
• how to read scale maps and drawings
• how to use bearings.

You should already know:

• how to use a protractor to measure an angle
• the meaning of the terms ‘acute’, ‘obtuse’, ‘reflex’ and ‘right’ and
how to use these terms to describe angles
• the names and angle properties of quadrilaterals
• what a polygon is and the names of polygons with up to ten sides
• that a diagonal is a line joining two non-adjacent vertices of a polygon
• the meaning of the terms ‘parallel’ and ‘perpendicular’ in relation to
lines.

About this chapter

Ancient civilisations used right angles in surveying and constructing
buildings, but not everything can be measured in right angles. They needed
a smaller, more useful unit. The ancient Babylonians chose a unit angle that
led to the development of the degree, which is what we still use now.
Historians think the ancient Babylonians believed the
‘circle’ of the year consisted of 360 days. The ancient
Babylonians also knew that the side of a regular
hexagon inscribed in a circle is equal to the radius
60°
of the circle. This may have led to the division of the 60° 60°
full circle (360 ‘days’) into six equal parts, each part 60° 60°
consisting of 60 ‘days’, and so giving a full circle 360 60°

units. They divided one angle of an equilateral triangle

into 60 equal parts, which we now call degrees.
This chapter will show you the connections between various shapes
and their angles. Angles help us construct many things, from tables to
skyscrapers. It is essential that you understand them: they literally shape
our world.

150
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6.1 Angle facts

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate angles on a straight line and angles around
angles around a point
a point
• use vertically opposite angles. angles on a straight line
vertically opposite angles
Angles on a line
The angles on a straight line add up to 180°.

d e
b
a c f

a + b = 180° c + d + e + f = 180°
Draw an example for yourself (and measure a and b) to show that the statement is true.

Angles around a point

The sum of the angles around a point is 360°. For example:

b
c
a
d
e

a + b + c + d + e = 360°

Again, check this for yourself by drawing an example and measuring the angles.
Sometimes you will need to use equations to solve angle problems, as shown in the next examples.

Find the size of angle x in the diagram.

Example 1

27°
x 48°

Angles on a straight line add up to 180°.

Therefore, 27° + x + 48° = 180°
x = 180° – 75°
So x = 105°.

6.1 Angle facts 151

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Example 2 Find the value of x in the diagram.

x + 40
x

2x – 20

These angles are around a point, so they must add up to 360°.

Therefore, x + x + 40° + 2x – 20° = 360°
4x + 20° = 360°
4x = 340°
So x = 85°.

Vertically opposite angles

Vertically opposite angles are equal. a

d b

c
a = c and b = d.

Find the value of x in the diagram.

Example 3

114°
x

The two angles are vertically opposite, so x = 114°.

Exercise 6A
1 Calculate the size of the angle marked x in each of these examples.
a b c
x 78
x 72 38 x 43
x 78
38 x 43

Hints and tips Never measure angles in questions like these, as diagrams are not
always drawn accurately. Always calculate angles unless you are
told to measure them.

2 Write down the value of x in each of these diagrams.

a b
a a b b
x x
71° 71° 52° 52°

x + 20°
x + 20° 80° 80°
x x

152 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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CM 3 In the diagram, angle ABD is 45° and angle CBD is 125°.

Decide whether ABC is a straight line. Write down how you decided.
D

C
A B

PS 4 Calculate the value of x in each of these examples.

a
a b
b cc
x – 10°
130° 3x x
60°
x x – 10°
x + 40° 2x + 10°
70° x 5x

PS 5 Calculate the value of x in each of these examples.

a
a bb c c
10x
3x x + 10° x + 20°
2x + 15° x
x

PS 6 Calculate the value of x and y in each of these examples. Calculate x first each time.
a bb cc
2x + 30°
y 5x
3x – 20° 2x – 80°
y
4x
y
x + 50°

CM 7 Ella has a collection of tiles. They are all equilateral triangles and are all the same size.

She says that six of the tiles will fit together and leave no gaps.
Explain why Ella is correct.

PS 8 Work out the value of y in the diagram.

2x

70° y
x

6.1 Angle facts 153

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6.2 Triangles
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise and calculate the angles in different sorts of
acute-angled triangle
triangles.
equilateral triangle
isosceles triangle
obtuse-angled triangle
right-angled triangle
scalene triangle

Calculate the size of angle a in this triangle.

Example 4

125°

a 20°

Angles in a triangle add up to 180°.

Therefore, a + 20° + 125° = 180°
a + 145° = 180°
So a = 35°.

Special triangles
Scalene triangle
A scalene triangle is a triangle where each side is a
different length.

Equilateral triangle
An equilateral triangle is a triangle with all its sides equal. Therefore, all three
angles are 60°. 60°

60° 60°

Isosceles triangle
An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two equal sides and, therefore, with two
equal angles (at the foot of the equal sides).
Notice how to mark the equal sides and equal angles.

x x

154 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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Right-angled triangle
A right-angled triangle has an angle of 90°. a
a + b = 90°
b

Obtuse-angled triangle
An obtuse-angled triangle is a triangle with an obtuse angle (more
than 90°).

Acute-angled triangle
An acute-angled triangle is a triangle with all its angles less than 90°.

Exercise 6B
1 a Sketch a scalene obtuse-angled triangle.
b Sketch a scalene acute-angled triangle.
c Sketch a scalene right-angled triangle.
d Write down the angle sum of any triangle.
2 In the triangle on the right, all the angles are the same. A
a What is the size of each angle? x
b What is the name of a special triangle like this?
c What is special about the sides of this triangle?
x x
C B

3 In the triangle on the right, two of the angles are the same. A

a Work out the size of the lettered angles.

40°
b What is the name of a special triangle like this?
c What is special about the sides AC and AB of this triangle?
x x
C B

4 Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in each of these diagrams.
a
a bb cc

20° 55°
82°

a 110° b c 80°
27°

6.2 Triangles 155

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5 A town planner has drawn this diagram to show three paths in a park but they have
missed out the angle marked x.
Work out the value of x.

Cafe
75°
45°

x
35°

Lake

EV 6 Joe and Hannah looked at the triangle DEF. D

Joe said: “It’s a right-angled triangle.”

105°
Hannah said: “It’s an isosceles triangle.”
Comment on each of the statements. 30° F E

CM 7 The diagram shows three intersecting straight lines. 80°

Work out the value of a.

Give reasons for your answers. 115°

CM 8 Show that x = a + b.
a

x
b

MR 9 ABC is a triangle. B

Point D is on AC.
x
Work out the size of angle ABD.

56° 2x 48°
A C
D

MR 10 ABC is a triangle. B

Point D is on AC.
Work out the size of angle BDA. 50°
x + 14°

2x x
A C
D

156 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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6.3 Angles in a polygon

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the sum of the interior angles in a polygon. interior angle polygon

Angle sums from triangles

Working through Exercise 6C will show you how you can use triangles to help find the angle sum
of polygons.

Exercise 6C
1 a Draw a quadrilateral (a four-sided shape).
b Draw in a diagonal to make it into two triangles.
c Copy and complete this statement:
The sum of the angles in a quadrilateral is equal to the sum of the
angles in … triangles, which is … × 180° = …°.

2 a Draw a pentagon (a five-sided shape).

b Draw in two diagonals to make it into three triangles.
c Copy and complete this statement:
The sum of the angles in a pentagon is equal to the sum of the
angles in … triangles, which is … × 180° = …°.

3 a Draw a hexagon (a six-sided shape).

b Draw in three diagonals to make it into four triangles.
c Copy and complete this statement:
The sum of the angles in a hexagon is equal to the sum of the
angles in … triangles, which is … × 180° = …°.

4 Complete the table below. Use the number pattern to carry on the angle sum up to a
decagon (ten-sided shape).

Shape Number of sides Triangles Angle sum

Triangle 3 1 180
Quadrilateral 4 2
Pentagon 5 3
Hexagon 6 4
Heptagon 7
Octagon 8
Nonagon 9
Decagon 10

5 Using the number pattern, copy and complete this statement:

The number of triangles in a 20-sided shape is …, so the sum of the angles in a
20-sided shape is … × 180° = …°.

6.3 Angles in a polygon 157

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n-sided polygon
For an n-sided polygon, the sum of the interior angles is 180(n – 2)°.
The interior angles are the angles inside the shape.

Calculate the size of angle a in this quadrilateral.

Example 5

110°
a

54° 50°

Angles in a quadrilateral add up to 360°.

Therefore, a + 50° + 54° + 110° = 360°
a + 214° = 360°
So, a = 146°.

Exercise 6D
1 Find the size of the angle marked with a letter in each of these quadrilaterals.
a a b b c c
70°
95° 110°
95°
130°
b 60°
40°
a
80° c
80°

Hints and tips Remember, the sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral
is 360°.

CM 2 Do any of these sets of angles form the four interior angles of a quadrilateral? Explain
your answer.
a 135°, 75°, 60°, 80° b 150°, 60°, 80°, 70° c 85°, 85°, 120°, 60°
d 80°, 90°, 90°, 110° e 95°, 95°, 60°, 110° f 102°, 138°, 90°, 30°
3 In this quadrilateral, all the angles are the same.
A B
x x

x x
D C

a What size is each angle?

b What is the name of a special quadrilateral like this?
c Is there another quadrilateral with four equal angles? If so, what is it called?

158 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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4 Work out the size of the angle marked with a letter in each of the polygons below.
You may find the table you completed in Exercise 6C useful.
a a bb cc
76° 79° 117°
95° 98°
a 210°
155° d e

90° 39°
118° 134°
80°
104°

d d ee
h
f 111°
143°
270° 69° 150°
140°

79° 145°
135°
65°
128°
125°

Hints and tips Remember, the sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is
180(n – 2)°.

PS 5 Anna is drawing this logo for a school magazine.

It is made up of four equilateral triangles that are all the same size.
She needs to know the sizes of the six angles so that she can draw
it accurately.
What are the sizes of the six angles?

Hints and tips First mark the four equilateral triangles on a copy of the diagram.

MR 6 This quadrilateral is made from two isosceles triangles.

They are both the same size.

x x

Find the value of y in terms of x.

PS 7 The four angles in a quadrilateral are 2x, x + 20, 2x – 10 and 3x + 30.

What is the size of the smallest angle in the quadrilateral?

6.3 Angles in a polygon 159

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6.4 Regular polygons

This section will show you how to: Key term
• calculate the exterior angles and the interior angles of a exterior angle
regular polygon.

Below are three regular polygons.

Square Pentagon Hexagon

4 sides 5 sides 6 sides

A polygon is regular if all its interior angles are equal and all its sides have the same length.
A square is a regular four-sided shape that has an angle sum of 360°, so each angle is 360° ÷ 4 = 90°.
A regular pentagon has an angle sum of 540°, so each angle is 540° ÷ 5 = 108°.

Shape Number of sides Angle sum Each angle

Square 4 360° 90°
Pentagon 5 540° 108°
Hexagon 6 720° 720° ÷ 6 = 120°

Interior and exterior angles of regular shapes

Look again at these three regular polygons.

E E E
I I E I I E I I E
E
EI I I
E I I I E
E E E I I
I
E E

At each vertex, there is an interior angle, I, and an exterior angle, E. Notice that: I + E = 180°.
Clearly, the exterior angles of a square are each 90°. So, the sum of the exterior angles of a square is
4 × 90° = 360°.
You can calculate the exterior angle of a regular pentagon as follows. You know from the previous
table that the interior angle of a regular pentagon is 108°.

108° E

So the exterior angle is 180° – 108° = 72°.

Therefore, the sum of the exterior angles is 5 × 72° = 360°.

160 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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From this table, you can see that the sum of the exterior angles is always 360°.
Regular polygon Number of sides Interior angle Exterior angle Sum of exterior angles
square 4 90° 90° 4 × 90° = 360°
pentagon 5 108° 72° 5 × 72° = 360°
hexagon 6 120° 60° 6 × 60° = 360°

You can use this information to find the exterior angle and the interior angle for any regular polygon.
360°
For an n-sided regular polygon, the exterior angle is given by E = n
and the interior angle is given
by I = 180° – E.

Calculate the size of the exterior and interior angle of a regular 12-sided polygon
Example 6

(a regular dodecagon).
360°
E= 12
I = 180° – 30°
= 30° = 150°

Exercise 6E
1 Copy and complete the table below.

Regular polygon Number of sides Interior angle sum Each interior angle
octagon 8
nonagon 9
decagon 10

2 Copy and complete the table below for regular polygons.

Regular polygon Number of sides Interior angle Exterior angle

square 4 90° 90°
pentagon 5 108° 72°
hexagon 6 120°
octagon 8
nonagon 9
decagon 10

3 Each diagram shows an interior angle of a regular polygon. For each polygon,
work out:
i the exterior angle
ii the number of sides
iii the sum of the interior angles of the polygon.
a bb cc dd

135°
160° 165° 144°

6.4 Regular polygons 161

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4 Each diagram shows an exterior angle of a regular polygon. For each polygon, answer
the following.
i What is its interior angle?
ii How many sides does it have?
iii What is the sum of its interior angles?
a b
b cc dd
6°
8°
24°
3°

Hints and tips Remember that the angle sum is calculated as

(number of sides – 2) × 180°.

CM 5 Explain why each of these cannot be the interior angle of a regular polygon.
a bb cc dd

110°

173° 161°
169°

CM 6 Explain why each of these cannot be the exterior angle of a regular polygon.
aa bb cc dd

26°
7° 44°
13°

PS 7 This star shape has ten sides that are equal in length.
Each reflex interior angle is 240°.
Work out the size of each acute interior angle.

Hints and tips Find the sum of the interior angles of a decagon first.

PS 8 The diagram shows part of a regular polygon.

Each interior angle is 144°. How many sides does the polygon have?

144°

162 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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MR 9 Draw a sketch of a regular octagon and join each vertex to the centre.
Calculate the value of the angle at the centre.
What connection does this have with the exterior angle?
Is this true for all regular polygons?

PS 10 A joiner is making tables so that the shape of each one is half a regular octagon.
He needs to know the size of each angle on the table top.
What are the sizes of the angles?

PS 11 Find the sizes of the angles of a pentagon whose interior angles are in the ratio
2 : 2 : 3 : 4 : 4.

MR 12 Andrily measured all the angles in a polygon and got 987°, but he forgot to measure
one angle. What was the size of the missing angle?

6.5 Angles in parallel lines

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• find angles in parallel lines.
allied angles alternate angles

By drawing a pair of parallel lines with a line through corresponding angles

them, you can verify the following results for yourself.

Angles like these Angles like these Angles like these

are called corresponding angles. are called alternate angles. are called allied angles or co-interior
Corresponding angles are equal. Alternate angles are angles.
equal. Allied angles add up to 180°.

State the size of each lettered angle in the diagram and give
Example 7

a reason. a b

62°
c

a = 62° (alternate angle to 62°)

b = 118° (allied angle to 62° or angles on a line with a)
c = 62° (vertically opposite angle to 62° or corresponding angle to a)

6.5 Angles in parallel lines 163

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Exercise 6F
1 Copy and complete these statements to make them true.
a Angles h and … are corresponding angles. a b
b Angles d and … are alternate angles. d c

c Angles e and … are allied angles.

d Angles b and … are corresponding angles.
e Angles c and … are allied angles.
e f
f Angles c and … are alternate angles.
h g

CM 2 State the sizes of the lettered angles in each diagram and give a reason.
a b c
a
a b
b cc i
i
110°
b d e 130°
110°
b d e 130°
c 75° g h
c 75° f g h
f

d e f l
d e f l

g 72°
n 80° 72°
n 80° g
i k
m 115° h i k
m 115° h
j
j

3 State the sizes of the lettered angles in these diagrams.

a b
114°

c
a
85° b

PS 4 Calculate the values of x and y in each diagram.

aa
a
a bb
b
b ccc cc
2x
2x2x
2x
yyy y 3x
3x +
++ 10°
3x3x + 10°
10°
10°
3x
3x3x
3x yyy y
xxx + 4x
4x ––– 20°
4x4x 20°
– 20°
20°
++x 30°
+ 30°
30°
30° 2x ++ 25°
2x2x
2x + 25°
+ 25°
25°
yyy y

d e f
d
dd
d ee e
e fff f 7x
7x7x
7x
2x
2x ++ 10°
2x2x
+ 10°
+ 10°
10°

yyy y
5x
5x5x
5x
3x
3x +
++ 50°
3x3x + 50°
50°
50° 5x ++ 40°
40°
3x 5x5x
5x + + 40°
40°
3x ––– 40°
3x3x 40°
– 40°
40°

yyy y
yyy y

164 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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PS 5 A company makes signs in the shape of a chevron.

This is one of their signs. It has one line of symmetry.
The designer for the company needs to know the x
size of the angle marked x on the diagram.
What is the size of angle x? 35° a

CM 6 In the diagram, AE is parallel to BD.

A

B d

78°
a 36°
E D C

Work out the size of angle a.

Give a clear explanation of how you obtained
your answer.

EV 7 In this diagram, the line Y crosses the parallel lines A C

AB and CD at P and Q.
Lizzie is trying to find the size of angle DQY, giving
reasons for her answer. This is her solution: 64°
X
P Q Y
Angle PQD = 64° (corresponding angles).
So angle DQY = 124° (angles on a line = 190°).
B D
Lizzie has made a number of errors in her solution.
Identify her errors and write out a correct solution for
the question.

CM 8 Use this diagram to prove that the three angles in a triangle

add up to 180°.

b
c

CM 9 Prove that p + q + r = 180°.

p

6.5 Angles in parallel lines 165

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6.6 Special quadrilaterals

This section will show you how to: Key term
• use angle properties in quadrilaterals.
bisect

Parallelogram
• A parallelogram has opposite sides parallel. B C

• Its opposite sides are equal.

• Its diagonals bisect each other (i.e. cut each other in half).
• Its opposite angles are equal. That is:
A D
angle BAD = angle BCD
angle ABC = angle ADC

Rectangle
• A rectangle is a parallelogram with all its sides equal.
• All four angles are right angles.
• Its opposite sides are equal in length.

Rhombus
• A rhombus is a parallelogram with all its sides equal.
• Its diagonals bisect each other at right angles.
• Its diagonals also bisect the angles.

Square
• A square is a rhombus with all its angles equal (90°).

Kite
• A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of equal adjacent sides.
• Its longer diagonal bisects its shorter diagonal at right angles.
• The opposite angles between the sides of different lengths are equal.

Trapezium
• A trapezium has two parallel sides. A B

• The sum of the interior angles at the ends of each non-parallel

side is 180°. That is:
angle BAD + angle ADC = 180°
D C
angle ABC + angle BCD = 180°

166 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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Exercise 6G
1 For each of these shapes calculate the sizes of the lettered angles.

a a
a
a b b b
b
c c cc
a a 125° g g
a125° 125° g h h
e e
e
h

70° 117°
117° 112°
112°
70° b b 117° i i 112° 60°
60°
70° b i 60°

f f
f

2 For each of these shapes calculate the sizes of the lettered angles.
a b
b 41° cc
122° e
133°

115° f
a 141° c
b
g

3 For each of these shapes calculate the value of x.

aa a a bb b b ccc c
a a 2x2x
2x b b c c
xx x
2x 2x
x x xx x 20°
20°
20°
2x2x
50°
50° 2x2x x 2x 20°20°
xx x 50° 2x x 2x
50°50° 2x
x x 2x 2x

4 Dani is making a kite where angle C is half the size of angle A.

Work out the size of angles B and D.
A

68°
D B

EV 5 David says that a parallelogram is a special type of rectangle.

Marie says that he is wrong and that a rectangle is a special type of parallelogram.
Who is correct? Give a reason for your answer.

6.6 Special quadrilaterals 167

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CM 6 The diagram shows a quadrilateral ABCD.

A B

112°

68° 115°

D C

a Calculate the size of angle B.

b What special name is given to the quadrilateral ABCD? Explain your answer.
PS 7 A parallelogram has a pair of allied angles such that one is three times as large as the
other. What is the size of that largest angle?

PS 8 A kite has every angle either 30° larger or 30° smaller than another one in the kite.
Sketch the two different kites possible from this data and state the size of the
smallest angle in the kite.

CM 9 A quadrilateral ABCD has interior angles of size x, 2x, 3x and 4x respectively at A, B,

C and D. What type of quadrilateral is this?
Explain your answer.

6.7 Scale drawings and bearings

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• read scale drawings and maps
scale drawing
• draw scale drawings
scale factor
• use a bearing to specify a direction.
three-figure bearing
Scale drawings
A scale drawing is an accurate representation of a real object.
Scale drawings are usually smaller than the original objects. All the measurements must be in
proportion to the corresponding
measurements of the original. All the angles must be equal to the
corresponding angles on the original.
To obtain the measurements for a scale drawing, multiply all the actual measurements by a common
scale factor, usually referred to as a scale. Scales are often given as ratios, for example, 1 cm : 1 m.
When the units in a ratio are the same, they are normally not given. For example, a scale of 1 cm :
1000 cm is written as 1 : 1000.
Note: When you are making a scale drawing, take care to express all measurements in the same unit.

168 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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The diagram shows the front of a kennel.

Example 8
It is drawn to a scale of 1 : 30. Find:
a the actual width of the front
b the actual height of the doorway.

1 : 30

The scale of 1 : 30 means that a measurement of 1 cm on the diagram represents a

measurement of 30 cm on the actual kennel.
a So the actual width of the front is: 4 cm × 30 = 120 cm
b The actual height of the doorway is: 1.5 cm × 30 = 45 cm

Map scales are often expressed as ratios, such as 1 : 50 000 or 1 : 200 000.
The first ratio means that 1 cm on the map represents 50 000 cm or 500 m in the real situation.
The second ratio means that 1 cm represents 200 000 cm or 2 km.

Find the actual distances between the following towns.

Example 9

a Bran and Kelv b Bran and Daid c Daid and Malm

1 : 2 000 000
Bran

Kelv

Malm
Daid

The map is drawn to a scale of 1 : 2 000 000.

2 000 000 cm = 20 000 m = 20 km so the scale means that a distance of 1 cm on the map
represents a distance of 20 km on the land.
So, the actual distances are:
a Bran and Kelv: 4 × 20 km = 80 km
b Bran and Daid: 3 × 20 km = 60 km
c Daid and Malm: 2.5 × 20 km = 50 km

6.7 Scale drawings and bearings 169

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Bearings
The bearing of a point B from a point A is the angle through which you turn clockwise N
as you change direction from due north to the direction of B.
For example, in this diagram the bearing of B from A is 060°.
B
As a bearing can have any value from 0° to 360°, you give all bearings in three figures. 60°
This is known as a three-figure bearing. Here are three more examples of bearings.
A
N N N
H

48°
110°
G
C E
330°
F
D is on a bearing F is on a bearing H is on a bearing
of 048° from C of 110° from E of 330° from G

There are eight bearings you should be familiar with:

000°
N
315° 045°
NW NE

270 W E 090°

SW SE
225° 135°
S
180°

A, B and C are three towns.

Example 10

N
a Write down the bearing of B from A and the
bearing of C from A.
B
b Use the scale to work out the actual 70°
115°
distances between:
A
i A and B ii A and C.

C Scale: 1 cm represents 10 km

a The bearing of B from A is 070°.

The bearing of C from A is 360° – 115° = 245°.
Remember: A bearing is always measured clockwise from the north line.
b i On the diagram AB is 3 cm, so the actual distance between A and B is 30 km.
ii On the diagram AC is 4 cm, so the actual distance between A and C is 40 km.

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Exercise 6H
PS 1 The diagram shows a sketch of a garden.

14 m

8m

18 m

a Make an accurate scale drawing of the garden. Use a scale of 1 cm to represent 2 m.

b Marie wants to plant flowers along the side marked x on the diagram. The flowers
need to be planted 0.5 m apart. Use your scale drawing to work out how many
plants she needs.

2 This map is drawn to a scale of 1 : 4 000 000.

Newcastle upon Tyne

Carlisle
Penrith
Workington
Middlesbrough

Scarborough

Give the approximate direct distances for each of the following.

a Penrith to:
i Workington ii Scarborough
iii Newcastle upon Tyne iv Carlisle
b Middlesbrough to:
i Scarborough ii Workington
iii Carlisle iv Penrith

MR 3 This map is drawn to a scale of 1 : x.

Matlock

Stoke
Nottingham

Derby

The distance from Stoke to Nottingham is 80 km.

a State the actual direct distance from Matlock to Derby.
b What is the value of x in the scale 1 : x?
PS 4 Maps for walkers often give a scale of 1 inch represents 1 mile. Use these
measurements to write this scale as a ratio.
12 inches = 1 foot 3 feet = 1 yard 1760 yards = 1 mile

6.7 Scale drawings and bearings 171

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5 This map is drawn on a centimetre-squared grid, to a scale of 1 cm to 2 km.

By measuring distances and angles, find the bearings and distances of each of
the following.

N
Greystones Abbey

Ecclesall

Dore Millhouses

Totley

a Totley from Dore b Dore from Ecclesall

c Millhouses from Dore d Greystones from Abbey
e Millhouses from Greystones f Totley from Millhouses
6 Draw sketches to illustrate these situations.
a Castleton is on a bearing of 170° from Hope.
b Bude is on a bearing of 310° from Wadebridge.
CM 7 A is due north of C. B is due east of A. B is on a bearing of 045° from C.
a Sketch the layout of the three points, A, B and C.
b D is due south of B.
Al said that the bearing of A from D is 030°.
Explain how you know that Al must be wrong.

8 Captain Bird decided to sail his ship around the four sides of a square kilometre.
a Assuming he started sailing due north, write down the three bearings he should
follow in order to complete the square in a clockwise direction.
b Assuming he started sailing on a bearing of 090°, write down the three bearings he
should follow in order to complete the square in an anticlockwise direction.

MR 9 The diagram shows a port P

and two harbours and Y on
the coast. Sea X
Y
N
a A fishing boat sails to from P.
What is the three-figure
bearing of from P?
Land
b A yacht sails to Y from P. P
What is the three-figure
bearing of Y from P?
c Point is 15 km away from point Y.
Show that it is 11.8 km from point Y to point P.

172 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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10 Draw diagrams to solve these problems.

a The three-figure bearing of A from B is 070°. Work out the three-figure bearing of B
from A.
b The three-figure bearing of P from Q is 145°. Work out the three-figure bearing of
Q from P.
c The three-figure bearing of from Y is 324°. Work out the three-figure bearing of Y
from .

11 The diagram shows the position of Kim’s house (H) and the college (C).
N

Scale: 1 cm represents 200 m

a Use the diagram to work out the actual distance from Kim’s house to the college.
b Measure and write down the three-figure bearing of the college from Kim’s house.
c The supermarket (S) is 600 m from Kim’s house on a bearing of 150°.
Mark S on a copy of the diagram.

PS 12 Trevor is flying a plane on a bearing of 072°.

He is instructed by a control tower to turn and fly due south towards an airport.
Through what angle does he need to turn?

PS 13 Apple Bay (A), Broadside (B) and Caverly (C) are three villages in a bay.
The villages lie on the vertices of a square.
The bearing of B from A is 030°.
Work out the bearing of Apple Bay from Caverly.

N B

PS 14 Bryony set sail from Port Terry on a bearing of 036°. After sailing 5 km, she changed
course on a bearing due east. After sailing a further 5 km, she changed course to sail
due south. After sailing a further 10 km, Bryony sailed straight back to Port Terry on a
bearing of 300°. Find the length of the final part of Bryony’s journey.

6.7 Scale drawings and bearings 173

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 ABC is a triangle. D is a point on AB such that BC = BD.
a Work out the value of x.
b Work out the value of y.
c Is it true that AD = DC? Give a reason for your answer.
C
y x

38° 34°
A B
D

This is a question where you are required to communicate mathematically. You will
need to clearly show how you have found the indicated angles and clearly explain
your final response to part c.
a Triangle BCD is isosceles, so angle BDC is First, set up an equation in x from the
equal to x. knowledge that angles in a triangle
Angles in a triangle = 180° add up to 180° and then solve.

Therefore, 2x + 34° = 180°

2x = 146°
x = 73°
b Method 1 To find angle y, you need to show
Angle ADC = 180° – 73° how you are using the given angles
and the found angle x. You should
= 107° (angles on a line) show the mathematical reasoning
y + 38° + 107° = 180° (angles in a triangle) used at each stage. There are two
ways of finding y here. Both are
y + 145° = 180°
acceptable.
y = 35°
Method 2
Angle ACB = 180° – (38° + 34°)
= 108° (angles in a triangle)
y + x = Angle ACB
= 108°
y = 108° – 73°
= 35°
c No, since triangle ACD is not an isosceles Clearly state your explanation about
triangle, no two sides of the triangle are ACD not being isosceles. The answer
equal. ‘No’, alone, is not sufficient.

174 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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EV 2 a Find the value of x.

b What can you deduce about lines AB and DC?
A B
x + 5°
3x
2

x
C D
x + 5°

Part a is a problem-solving question, then part b, as an evaluation problem, requires

you to to demonstrate your interpretive skills.
a Bottom left angle of the triangle is given by In this problem-solving question,
x + 5 as vertically opposite angles are equal. you need to identify where there
3x is a combination of angles with
x+x+5+ 2
= 180 (sum of angles in a triangle) x included where you know the
x = 50° angle sum.
There is another way of
recognising that, with AB and CD
being parallel, the top missing
angle is x (allied angle). Then
angles marked (x + 5), ( 32x ) and x
add up to 180.
b Since there are two angles of x + 5, below This is an evaluation question
the line AB and above the line DC, they are where you need to demonstrate
complementary angles and so imply that lines that you can interpret the results
AB and DC are parallel. in a given situation. So you need
to evaluate the scenario correctly
and recognise that a pair of
complementary angles implies
parallel lines.

6 Worked exemplars 175

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Ready to progress?
I can find angles on a line or at a point.
I can find angles in triangles, quadrilaterals and polygons.
I can find interior and exterior angles in polygons.
I can use scale drawings and bearings.

Review questions
PS 1 The diagram shows three angles on a straight line.
What is the value of x?
78°
2x + 5° 65°

2 Look at the diagram.

a i Write down the value of x.
CM ii Give a reason for your answer.
65°

EV b Explain what is wrong with this diagram.

140°

140°

PS 3 Look at the triangle PQR.

a What is the size of the angle at P?

65°
Q R

P
b The diagram has been extended to point T
as shown.
What is the size of the acute angle at T?

65°
Q T
R

176 6 Geometry and measures: Angles

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CM 4 Explain why the interior angles of a pentagon add up to 540°.

MR 5 A quadrilateral has three angles of x, 3x, 5x and a right angle.

What is the size of the largest angle in the quadrilateral?

CM 6 Look at the diagram below and show that angle QTS is 66°.

P Q
29°

37°
R S

CM 7 Kwana sails from Port Kelly on a bearing of 153°. What bearing should he set to sail
directly back?

CM 8 The diagram shows a regular octagon.

The exterior angle, x, is shown.
Explain how you know that angle x is 45°.

MR 9 This diagram shows a regular hexagon.

One of its interior angles is y.
Calculate the value of y.

EV 10 Selvi said that she had drawn a quadrilateral with opposite angles of 130°, so the
shape must be a kite.
Explain whether Selvi must be correct or may be correct.

PS 11 A lighthouse is 35 km away from the lifeboat station on a bearing of 055°.

a Construct a diagram to show the positions of the lighthouse and the lifeboat
station. Use a scale of 1 cm to represent 5 km.
b A lifeboat sails from the station on a bearing of 075° until it is due south of the
lighthouse. How far away from the lighthouse is the lifeboat at this point?

6 Review questions 177

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7
Geometry and measures:
Transformations,
constructions and loci

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to show that two triangles are congruent
• how to find the order of rotational symmetry of a 2D shape
• what is meant by a transformation
• how to translate, reflect, rotate and enlarge 2D shapes
• how to bisect a line and an angle
• how to construct perpendiculars
• how to define a locus
• how to solve locus problems
• how to construct and interpret plans and elevations of 3D shapes.

You should already know:

• how to find the lines of symmetry of a 2D shape
• how to draw the lines with equations x = ±a, y = ±b, y = x and y = –x
• how to measure lines and angles
• how to use scale drawings.

About this chapter

When a major new train line is planned, people often voice objections –
from proximity to their village to avoiding areas of natural beauty – so
the path traced out for a new rail route has to satisfy specific conditions,
such as missing a village or a forest.
When a point moves according to certain specified conditions, the path
traced out is called a locus (plural loci). This is a Latin word which means
‘place’. Loci have a range of practical applications including helping to
decide on suitable routes for a new train line.
This chapter is going to show you how to change the position of shapes
to certain rules and how to construct loci from given criteria.

178
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7.1 Congruent triangles

This section will show you how to:
• demonstrate that two triangles are congruent.
Key term
congruent
Two shapes are congruent if they are exactly the
same size and shape.
For example, these triangles are all congruent.

Notice that the triangles can be differently oriented (reflected, translated or rotated).

Conditions for congruent triangles

Any one of the following four conditions is sufficient for two triangles to be congruent.

Condition 1
All three sides of one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides of the other triangle.

2.2 cm
2.4 cm 2.2 cm
3 cm
3 cm
2.4 cm

This condition is known as SSS (side, side, side).

Condition 2
Two sides and the angle between them of one triangle are equal 4 cm
50°
to the corresponding sides and angle of the other triangle. 4 cm 3 cm
50°
This condition is known as SAS (side, angle, side).
3 cm

Condition 3
Two angles and a side of one triangle are equal to the corresponding angles and side of the
other triangle.

70° 5 cm 70°

4 cm or 70° 5 cm
35° 70° 35°
35° 35°
4 cm

This condition is known as ASA (angle, side, angle) or AAS (angle, angle, side).

7.1 Congruent triangles 179

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Condition 4
Both triangles have a right angle, an equal hypotenuse
and another equal side. 9 cm

This condition is known as RHS (right angle, 9 cm

4 cm
hypotenuse, side).
4 cm
Notation
Once you have shown that triangle ABC is congruent to triangle PQR by one of the above conditions,
it means that:
Q
A
∠A = ∠P AB = PQ
∠B = ∠Q BC = QR
C B R
∠C = ∠R AC = PR
P

In other words, the points ABC correspond exactly to the points PQR in that order. Triangle ABC is
congruent to triangle PQR can be written as ∆ABC ≡ ∆PQR.

ABCD is a kite. A
Example 1

Show that triangle ABC is congruent to triangle ADC. 5 cm 5 cm

B D

12 cm 12 cm

AB = AD
BC = CD
AC is common.
So ABC ≡ ADC (SSS).

Exercise 7A
1 The triangles in each pair are congruent. State the condition that shows that the
triangles are congruent.

aa b
b cc
3 cm
5 cm 4 cm
100° 70°
5 cm 5 cm 5 cm 7 cm
100° 35° 70°
7 cm
8 cm 8 cm
3 cm 35°
4 cm

d
d ee ff
5 cm 6 cm 6.5 cm
4 cm
7 cm 6.5 cm 79° 6.5 cm 80°
6 cm 21°
7 cm 6.5 cm
5 cm 21°
4 cm

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MR 2 The triangles in each pair are congruent. State the condition that shows that the
triangles are congruent and write down the corresponding points.
a ABC where AB = 8 cm, BC = 9 cm, AC = 7.4 cm
PQR where PQ = 9 cm, QR = 7.4 cm, PR = 8 cm
b ABC where AB = 5 cm, BC = 6 cm, ∠B = 35°
PQR where PQ = 6 cm, QR = 50 mm, ∠Q = 35°

3 Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle PQR; ∠A = 60°, ∠B = 80° and AB = 5 cm. Find these.
a ∠P b ∠Q c ∠R d PQ
4 ABCD is congruent to PQRS; ∠A = 110°, ∠B = 55°, ∠C = 85° and RS = 4 cm. Find these.
a ∠P b ∠Q c ∠R d ∠S e CD
CM 5 Draw a rectangle EFGH. Draw in the diagonal EG. Prove that triangle EFG is congruent
to triangle EHG.

CM 6 Draw an isosceles triangle ABC where AB = AC. Draw the line from A to , the
midpoint of BC. Prove that triangle AB is congruent to triangle AC .

MR 7 In the diagram ABCD and DEFG are squares. A B

F
Use congruent triangles to prove that AE = CG.

E
G

D C

EV 8 Jez says that these two triangles are congruent because two angles and a side are
the same.
Explain why he is wrong.
A P
3 cm
3 cm 35° Q
42° 35° 42°
B
C
R

7.2 Rotational symmetry

This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• find the order of rotational symmetry for a 2D shape
order of rotational symmetry
• recognise shapes with rotational symmetry.
rotational symmetry
A 2D shape has rotational symmetry if it can be rotated about
a point to look exactly the same in a new position.
The order of rotational symmetry is the number of different positions in which the shape looks the
same when it is rotated about the point.
One way to find the order of rotational symmetry for any shape is to trace it and count the number of
times that the shape stays the same as you turn the tracing paper through one complete turn.

7.2 Rotational symmetry 181

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Example 2 Find the order of rotational symmetry for this shape.

First, hold the tracing paper on top of the shape and trace the shape. Place the sharp end of a
pencil on the centre of the shape and rotate the tracing paper, counting the number of times
the tracing matches the original shape in one complete turn.
You will find three different positions.
So the order of rotational symmetry for the shape is 3.

Exercise 7B
1 Find the order of rotational symmetry for each of these shapes.
a b c d e
aa a bb b cc c dd d ee e

2 The following are Greek capital letters. Write down the order of rotational symmetry
for each one.
aaa b
bb ccc dd
d ee
e

PS 3 The upright capital letter A fits exactly onto itself only once. So, its order of rotational
symmetry is 1. This means that it has no rotational symmetry. Write down all the
upright capital letters of the alphabet that have rotational symmetry of order 1.

MR 4 Here is an Islamic star pattern.

Inside the star there are patterns that have rotational symmetry.
a What is the order of rotational symmetry of the whole star?
b There is a pattern inside the shape with an order of
rotational symmetry 8. Identify where this pattern is
found.
c There is another pattern inside the star with an order of
rotational symmetry higher than 8. What is it and where is
it found?

PS 5 Copy the grid below. On your copy, shade in four squares so that
the shape has rotational symmetry of order 2.

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MR 6 Copy the table below. On your copy, write the letter for each shape in the correct
box. The first one has been done for you.

Number of lines of symmetry

0 1 2 3
Order of 1 A
rotational 2
symmetry
3

A B C

E
D

EV 7 A shape with three flagpoles has rotational symmetry of order 3.

Sue says, “The angle between each pole is 120°.”
Evaluate Sue’s comment.

EV 8 Rachel looked at a triangle and said: “It has line symmetry but no rotational symmetry
so it must be isosceles.” Is Rachel correct? Explain your answer.

7.3 Transformations
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• translate, reflect, rotate and enlarge a 2D shape. angle of rotation

A transformation changes the position or the size of a shape. centre of enlargement

The original shape is called the object and the transformed centre of rotation
shape is called the image.
enlargement
There are four basic ways of transforming 2D shapes: translation,
reflection, rotation and enlargement. image
invariant mirror line
Translation
object reflection
A translation is the ‘movement’ of a shape from one place to
another without reflecting it or rotating it. It is sometimes rotation transformation
called a glide, since the shape appears to glide from one
translation vector
place to another. Every point in the shape moves in the same
direction and through the same distance.
You describe translations by using vectors. A vector is represented by the combination of a horizontal
shift and a vertical shift.
The object and its image will always be congruent.

7.3 Transformations 183

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Example 3 Use vectors to describe the translations of the following triangles. y

a A to B 6
b B to C 5
D
c C to D 4

d D to A 3
B C
2
A
1
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

2
a The vector describing the translation from A to B is  1 .
 

2
b The vector describing the translation from B to C is  .
0
−
−3
c The vector describing the translation from C to D is  .
2

 −1
d The vector describing the translation from D to A is  .
−3
Note:
• The top number in the vector describes the horizontal movement. To the right +, to the left –.
• The bottom number in the vector describes the vertical movement. Upwards +, downwards –.
• These vectors are also called direction vectors.

Exercise 7C
1 Use vectors to describe the translations of the shapes on this grid.
a i A to B ii A to C y

iii A to D iv A to E
8
b i B to A ii B to C
iii B to F iv B to G F G
7
c i C to D ii C to E
iii C to F iv C to G 6
d i D to E ii E to B
iii F to C iv G to D 5

B
4

C
3

E
2

A
1

D
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

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2 a Draw a set of coordinate axes, –5  x  5, –5  y  5. Draw the triangle with

coordinates A(1, 1), B(2, 1) and C(1, 3).
2
b Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector  3 . Label this triangle P.
 

−1
c Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector  .
 2
Label this triangle Q.

 3
d Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector  . Label this triangle R.
 −2 

 −2 
e Draw the image of ABC after a translation with vector  .
−4 
Label this triangle S.

3 Using your diagram from question 2, use vectors to describe the translation that
will move:
a P to Q b Q to R c R to S d S to P
e R to P f S to Q g R to Q h P to S.
PS 4 Draw a set of coordinate axes, –5  x  5, –5  y  5. Draw the triangle with
coordinates A(0, 0), B(1, 0) and C(0, 1). How many different translations are there that
use integer values only and move the triangle ABC to somewhere in the grid?

CM 5 In a game of Snakes and ladders, each of the snakes and ladders can be described by
a translation.
 1  2   −3   −2   3
Ladders  ,  ,  ,  ,  
 2   5  4   3  2 

 1  3 −2   −1  2
Snakes ,  ,  ,  ,  
 −3  −4  −2  −3  −5 

a Put all five ladders and all five snakes described above onto a 10 by 10 coordinate
grid in order to design a Snakes and ladders game board.
b Explain why the bottom part of the vectors above are:
i always positive for the ladders
ii always negative for the snakes.
x
MR 6 If a translation is given by   describe the translation that would take the image back
 y
to the original position of the object.

PS 7 A plane flies between three cities: A, B and C. It uses direction vectors, with distances
in kilometres.
 500 
The direction vector for the flight from A to B is   and the direction vector for the
 200 
 −200  C
flight from B to C is  .
 300 
a Using centimetre-squared paper, draw a diagram to show
the three flights. Use a scale of 1 cm represents 100 km. B

b Work out the direction vector for the flight from C to A. A

7.3 Transformations 185

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PS 8 A pleasure launch travels between three jetties on a lake: , Y and . It uses direction
vectors, with distances in kilometres.
 3  −2
The direction vector from to Y is   and the direction vector from Y to is .
 −1  −3

a Using centimetre-squared paper, draw a diagram to show journeys between , Y

and . Use a scale of 1 cm to 1 km.
b Work out the direction vector for the journey from to .

CM 9 A triangle has been translated to a new position. Explain how you know the two
triangles are congruent.

Reflections
A reflection transforms a shape so that it becomes a mirror
image of itself.
Object
Notice the reflection of each point in the object (original shape)
is perpendicular to the mirror line. So if you ‘fold’ the whole
diagram along the mirror line, the object will coincide
with its image (reflection). Mirror line
The object and image will always be congruent.
All transformations, except translations, have points
that are invariant – they will not change. For example, Image
in a reflection, any points on the line of reflection
will be invariant.

Exercise 7D
1 a Draw a pair of axes. Label the x-axis from –5 to 5 and the y-axis from –5 to 5.
b Draw the triangle with coordinates A(1, 1), B(3, 1) and C(4, 5).
c Reflect the triangle ABC in the x-axis. Label the image P.
d Reflect triangle P in the y-axis. Label the image Q.
e Reflect triangle Q in the x-axis. Label the image R.
f Describe the reflection that will move triangle ABC to triangle R.
CM 2 a Draw a pair of axes. Label the x-axis from –5 to +5 and the y-axis from –5 to 5.
b Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(5, 0), C(–3, 3) and D(3, –2) in the x-axis.
c What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
d What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were
reflected in the x-axis?

CM 3 a Draw a pair of axes. Label the x-axis from –5 to 5 and the y-axis from –5 to 5.
b Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(0, 5), C(3, –2) and D(–4, –3) in the y-axis.
c What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
d What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were
reflected in the y-axis?
e Write down three points that are invariant in a reflection in the y-axis.

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PS 4 By using the middle square as the starting square ABCD, describe how to keep
reflecting the square to obtain the final shape in the diagram.

y
5

MR 5 Triangle A is drawn on a grid. 4

Triangle A is reflected to form a new triangle B. 3

2 A
The coordinates of B are (–4, 4), (–3, 1) and (–5, 1).
1
What is the equation of the mirror line?
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

6 Draw each of these triangles on squared paper, leaving plenty of space on the
opposite side of the given mirror line. Then draw the reflection of each triangle.

Hints and tips Turn the page around so that the mirror lines are vertical or horizontal.

7 a Draw a pair of axes and the lines y = x and y = –x, as shown.

y
5 y=x
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5 y = –x

b Draw the triangle with coordinates A(2, 1), B(5, 1) and C(5, 3).
c Draw the reflection of triangle ABC in the x-axis and label the image P.
d Draw the reflection of triangle P in the line y = –x and label the image Q.
e Draw the reflection of triangle Q in the y-axis and label the image R.
f Draw the reflection of triangle R in the line y = x and label the image S.
g Draw the reflection of triangle S in the x-axis and label the image T.
h Draw the reflection of triangle T in the line y = –x and label the image U.
i Draw the reflection of triangle U in the y-axis and label the image W.
j What single reflection will move triangle W to triangle ABC?
7.3 Transformations 187
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8 Copy the diagram and reflect the triangle in these lines.

a y=x b x=1 c y = –x d y = –1
y

5
4
3
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

EV 9 a Draw a pair of axes. Label the x-axis from –5 to 5 and the y-axis from –5 to 5.
b Draw the line y = x.
c Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(5, 0), C(–3, 2) and D(–2, –4) in the line y = x.
d What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
e What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were
reflected in the line y = x?
f Write down two points that are invariant in a reflection in the line y = x.
EV 10 a Draw a pair of axes. Label the x-axis from –5 to 5 and the y-axis from –5 to 5.
b Draw the line y = –x.
c Reflect the points A(2, 1), B(0, 5), C(3, –2) and D(–4, –3) in the line y = –x.
d What do you notice about the values of the coordinates of the reflected points?
e What would the coordinates of the reflected point be if the point (a, b) were
reflected in the line y = –x?

CM 11 Triangle A has been reflected in a straight line. Explain how you know that the
triangle A and its reflection are congruent.

Rotations
A rotation transforms a shape to a new position
by turning it about a fixed point called
the centre of rotation.
See how the shapes shown here are rotated
around the points indicated.

Note:
• The direction of turn or the angle of rotation is
expressed as clockwise or anticlockwise. Rotation of 90 clockwise Rotation of 180
• The position of the centre of rotation is
always specified.
• The rotations 180° clockwise and 180° anticlockwise are the same.
• When a shape is rotated, the rotated shape is congruent to the original shape.
• In a rotation, the point that is always invariant is the centre of rotation.

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Exercise 7E
1 On squared paper, draw each of these shapes and its centre of rotation, leaving
plenty of space all around the shape.

a Rotate each shape about its centre of rotation:

i first by 90° clockwise (call the image A)
ii then by 90° anticlockwise (call the image B).
b Describe, in each case, the rotation that would take:
i A back to its original position ii A to B.
PS 2 A graphic designer came up with the following routine for creating
C
a design.
• Start with a triangle ABC.
• Reflect the triangle in the line AB.
• Rotate the whole shape about point C clockwise 90°, then a further A B
clockwise 90°, then a further clockwise 90°.
a From any triangle of your choice, create a design using the above routine.
b Describe in detail how you could use the triangle above in a series of rotations to
create a regular hexagon.

PS 3 By using the middle square as a starting square ABCD, describe how to keep rotating
the square to obtain the final shape in the diagram.

y
4 Copy the diagram and rotate the given 5
triangle as described. 4
a 90° clockwise about (0, 0) 3

b 180° about (3, 3) 2

c 90° anticlockwise about (0, 2) 1

d 180° about (–1, 0) –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

e 90° clockwise about (–1, –1) –1
–2
–3
–4
–5

7.3 Transformations 189

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5 What other rotations are equivalent to these rotations?

a 270° clockwise b 90° clockwise c 60° anticlockwise
d 100° anticlockwise
MR 6 a Draw a pair of axes where both the x-values and y-values are from –5 to 5.
b Draw the triangle ABC with coordinates A(1, 2), B(2, 4) and C(4, 1).
c i Rotate triangle ABC 90° clockwise about the origin (0, 0) and label the image
A′, B′, C′, where A′ is the image of A, etc.
ii Write down the coordinates of A′, B′, C′.
iii What connection is there between A, B, C and A′, B′, C′?
iv Will this connection always be so for a 90° clockwise rotation about the origin?
MR 7 Repeat question 6, but rotate triangle ABC through 180°.

MR 8 Repeat question 6, but rotate triangle ABC 90° anticlockwise.

9 In a rotation of 90°, what point(s) will be invariant?

CM 10 Show that a reflection in the x-axis followed by a reflection in the y-axis is equivalent
to a rotation of 180° about the origin.

EV 11 Raith said that a reflection in the line y = x followed by a reflection in the line y = –x is
equivalent to a rotation of 180° about the origin.
What can you say about Raith’s comment?

12 a Draw a regular hexagon ABCDEF with centre O.

b Using O as the centre of rotation, describe a transformation that will result in the
following movements.
i Triangle AOB to triangle BOC ii Triangle AOB to triangle COD
iii Triangle AOB to triangle DOE iv Triangle AOB to triangle EOF
c Describe the transformations that will move the rhombus ABCO to these positions.
i Rhombus BCDO ii Rhombus DEFO
13 Triangle A, as shown on the grid, is rotated to form a new triangle B.
The coordinates of the vertices of B are (0, –2), (–3, –2) and (–3, –4).
Describe fully the rotation that maps triangle A onto triangle B.
y
5
4
3 A
2
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

CM 14 Triangle B is rotated to form a new triangle C. Explain how you know that the two
triangles are congruent.

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Enlargements
An enlargement changes the size of a shape to give a similar image. It always has a centre of
enlargement and a scale factor.
Every length of the enlarged shape will be original length × scale factor.
The distance of each image point on the enlargement from the centre of enlargement will be distance
of original point from centre of enlargement × scale factor
The centre of enlargement is the only point in the enlargement that is invariant.
This diagram shows the enlargement of triangle ABC by scale factor 3 from the centre of
enlargement .

C'

X
A B A' B'

Note:
• Each length on the enlargement A′B′C′ is three times the corresponding length on the original
shape. This means that the corresponding sides are in the same ratio:
AB : A′B′ = AC : A′C′ = BC : B′C′ = 1 : 3
• The distance of any point on the enlargement from the centre of enlargement is three times the
distance from the corresponding point on the original shape to the centre of enlargement.
• There are two distinct ways to enlarge a shape: the ray method and the coordinate, or counting
squares, method.

Ray method
This is the only way to construct an enlargement when the diagram is not on a grid.
See how the triangle ABC has been enlarged by scale factor 3 from the centre of enlargement .
C'
C
X

A B

A' B'

Notice that the rays have been drawn from the centre of enlargement to each vertex and beyond.
The distance from to each vertex on triangle ABC is measured and multiplied by 3 to give the
distance from to each vertex A′, B′ and C′ for the enlarged triangle A′B′C′.
Once each image vertex has been found, the whole enlarged shape can then be drawn.
Check the measurements and see for yourself how the calculations have been done.
Notice again that the length of each side on the enlarged triangle is three times the length of the
corresponding side on the original triangle.

7.3 Transformations 191

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Counting squares method

In this method, you use the coordinates of the vertices to ‘count squares’.
See how the triangle ABC has been enlarged by scale factor 3
y
from the centre of enlargement (1, 2). C'
11
To find the coordinates of each image vertex, first work out the 10
horizontal and vertical distances from each original vertex to the
9
centre of enlargement.
8
Then multiply each of these distances by 3 to find the position of
7
each image vertex.
6
For example, to find the coordinates of C′ work out the distance C
5
from the centre of enlargement (1, 2) to the point C(3, 5).
4
horizontal distance = 2
3
vertical distance = 3 2
Make these 3 times longer to give: 1
A B
new horizontal distance = 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
new vertical distance = 9 –1
A' B'
So the coordinates of C′ are: (1 + 6, 2 + 9) = (7, 11)
Notice again that the length of each side is three times as long in
the enlargement.

Negative enlargement
A negative enlargement produces an image shape on the opposite y
side of the centre of enlargement to the original shape. 4
3 B
See how triangle ABC has been enlarged by scale factor –2, with
the centre of enlargement at (1, 0). 2 C
You can enlarge triangle ABC to give triangle A′B′C′ by either the 1 A
ray method or the coordinate method. You calculate the new
lengths on the opposite side of the centre of enlargement to the –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
original shape. –2 A'
Notice how a negative scale factor also inverts the original shape. –3
C' –4
Fractional enlargement
–5
You can have an enlargement in mathematics that is actually
–6
smaller than the original shape B'

A A' O

1
Scale factor 2
B' C'

B C

See how triangle ABC has been enlarged by a scale factor of 1 from the centre of enlargement O to
2
give triangle A′B′C′.

192 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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Exercise 7F
1 Copy each of these shapes with its centre of enlargement. Use the ray method to
enlarge it by the given scale factor.
a b c d

Scale factor 2Scale factorScale

2 factor 3Scale factor Scale
3 factor 2Scale factor 2 Scale factor 3Scale factor 3
ScaleScale
factorfactor
2 2 ScaleScale
factorfactor
3 3 ScaleScale
factorfactor
2 2 ScaleScale
factorfactor
3 3

2 Copy each of these shapes and grids onto squared paper. Enlarge them by scale
factor 2, using the given centre of enlargement.

a y b y

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1O 1 2 3 4 x –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 x
–1 –1

–2 –2

–3 –3

–4 –4

Centre of enlargement (–1, 1) Centre of enlargement (–2, –3)

3 1
Enlarge each of these shapes by a scale factor of 2
from the given centre
of enlargement.

4 Copy this diagram onto squared paper.

y
a Enlarge the rectangle A by scale factor 31 from
10
the origin. Label the image B.
9
b Write down the ratio of the lengths of the sides
8
of rectangle A to the lengths of the sides of
7
rectangle B.
6 A
c Work out the ratio of the perimeter of rectangle
5
A to the perimeter of rectangle B.
4
d Work out the ratio of the area of rectangle A to
3
the area of rectangle B.
2
1

0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

7.3 Transformations 193

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MR 5 A triangle ABC has vertices A(1, 1), B(2, –1), C(–2, –2). It is enlarged by scale factor 2,
with a centre of enlargement (1, 1).
a What are the coordinates of the vertices of the enlarged shape?
b In this enlargement, which point(s) are invariant?
6 Copy this diagram onto squared paper.

y
4
3
2
1

–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

Enlarge the triangle by scale factor –2 from the origin.

PS 7 Copy this diagram onto squared paper.

y
5

B 4
3
A
2
1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5

a Enlarge A by a scale factor of 3 from a centre (4, 5). Label It C.

b Enlarge B by a scale factor 1 from a centre (–1, –3). Label it D.
2
c Enlarge B by scale factor – 1 from a centre (–3, –1). Label it E.
2
d What is the centre of enlargement and scale factor which maps B onto A?
e What is the centre of enlargement and scale factor which maps A onto B?
f What is the centre of enlargement and scale factor which maps D onto E?
g What is the centre of enlargement and scale factor which maps E onto D?
h What is the connection between the scale factors and the centres of enlargement
in parts d and e, and in parts f and g?

194 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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PS 8 Triangle A has vertices with coordinates (2, 1), (4, 1) and (4, 4).
Triangle B has vertices with coordinates (–5, 1), (–5, 7) and (–1, 7).
Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle A onto triangle B.

CM 9 Triangle B has been enlarged by a scale factor of 1.5 to create triangle C. Explain how
you know the two triangles are not congruent.

7.4 Combinations of transformations

This section will show you how to:
• combine transformations.

You often have to use more than one transformation in a question. In this exercise, you will practise
combining the transformations you have met so far.
Remember:
• to describe a translation fully, you need to use a vector
• to describe a reflection fully, you need to use a mirror line
• to describe a rotation fully, you need a centre of rotation, an angle of rotation and the direction
of turn
• to describe an enlargement fully, you need a centre of enlargement and a scale factor.

Exercise 7G
1 A point P(3, 4) is reflected in the x-axis, then rotated by 90° clockwise about the
origin. What are the coordinates of the image of P?

MR 2 A point Q(5, 2) is rotated by 180°, then reflected in the x-axis.

a What are the coordinates of the image of point Q?
b What single transformation would have taken point Q directly to the image point?
CM 3 Describe fully the transformations that will map the shaded triangle onto each of the
triangles A–F.
y
7

6
E
5
F
4

3
B D
2

1
A
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
C
–2

7.4 Combinations of transformations 195

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A B
4 A designer is told to use the following routine.
• Start with a rectangle ABCD.
• Reflect ABCD in the line AC.
• Rotate the whole new shape about C through 180°. D C
• Enlarge the whole shape scale factor 2, centre of
enlargement point A.
Start with any rectangle of your choice and create the design above.

CM 5 Describe fully the transformations that

y
will result in the following movements. 5
T3
a T1 to T2 4
b T1 to T6 3
T1 T2
c T2 to T3 2
1
d T6 to T2
e T6 to T5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
f T5 to T4 –2
T6 T5 T4
–3
–4
–5

CM 6 a Plot a triangle T with vertices (1, 1), (2, 1) and (1, 3).
b Reflect triangle T in the y-axis and label the image Tb.
c Rotate triangle Tb 90° anticlockwise about the origin and label the image Tc.
d Reflect triangle Tc in the y-axis and label the image Td.
e Describe fully the transformation that will move triangle Td back to triangle T.
7 Find the coordinates of the image of the point (3, 5) after a clockwise rotation of 90°
about the point (1, 3).

CM 8 Describe fully at least three different transformations that could

move the square labelled S to the square labelled T.
y

0 5 x

–5

PS 9 The point A (4, 4) has been transformed to the point A′ (4, –4). Describe as many
different transformations as you can that could transform point A to point A′.

196 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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CM 10 Copy the diagram onto squared paper.

y
7
6
5
A
4
3
2
1

–9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7

 −1.5
a Triangle A is translated by the vector  − 3  to give triangle B.

Triangle B is then enlarged by a scale factor –2 from the origin to give triangle C.
Draw triangles B and C on your diagram.
b Describe fully the single transformation that maps triangle C onto triangle A.
EV 11 Helen said that if you reflect a shape in line y = A then reflect that image in a line y = B
(where A and B are any numbers), the final image is always a rotation from
the original.
Is this is true?

12 Triangle ABC has vertices A(6, 0), B(6, 9), C(9, 3).
a Rotate triangle ABC through 180° about the point (2, 4). Label the image R.
b Enlarge triangle ABC by scale factor 31 from the centre of enlargement (3, 0). Label
the image E.
c Describe fully the single transformation which maps E onto R.
y
10
9
B
8
7
6
5
4
3 C
2
1
A
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2

MR 13 Consider reflecting a shape in the line y = x and then reflecting the shape in the line
x = 10. Which is the only point of invariance in the combined transformation?

7.4 Combinations of transformations 197

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7.5 Bisectors Key terms

angle bisector
This section will show you how to: line bisector
• construct the bisectors of lines and angles
perpendicular bisector
• construct angles of 60° and 90°.

To bisect means to divide in half. So a bisector divides

something into two equal parts.
A line bisector divides a straight line into two equal lengths.
An angle bisector is the straight line that divides an angle into two equal angles.

To construct a line bisector

Step 1: Here is a line to bisect.
Step 2: Open your compasses to a radius of about three-quarters of the length
of the line. Using each end of the line as a centre, and without changing the radius
of your compasses, draw two intersecting arcs.

Step 3: Join the two points where the arcs intersect. This line is the perpendicular bisector
of the original line.

To construct an angle bisector

Step 1: Here is an angle to bisect.

Step 2: Open your compasses to any reasonable radius that is less than the length
of the lines forming the angle. If in doubt, go for about 3 cm. With the vertex of the
angle as centre, draw an arc through both lines.
Step 3: With compass point at the two points where this arc intersects the lines,
draw two more arcs so that they intersect.

Step 4: Join the point where these two arcs intersect to the vertex of the angle.
This line is the angle bisector.

To construct an angle of 60°

Step 1: Draw a line and mark a point on it.
Step 2: Open the compasses to a radius of about 4 cm. Using the point as the
centre, draw an arc that crosses the line and extends almost above the point.

198 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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Step 3: Keep the compasses set to the same radius. Using the point where the
first arc crosses the line as a centre, draw another arc that intersects the first one.

Step 4: Join the original point to the point where the two arcs intersect.
Step 5: Use a protractor to check that the angle is 60°.

60°

To construct a perpendicular from a point on a line (an angle of 90°)

Step 1: Draw a line and mark a point on it.
Step 2: Open your compasses to about 2 or 3 cm. With point A as the
centre, draw two short arcs to intersect the line at each side of the point. A

Step 3: Extend the radius of your compasses to about 4 cm. With centres
at the two points where the arcs intersect the line, draw two arcs to X
intersect at above the line.

A
Step 4: Join A .
A is perpendicular to the line.
X
Note that if you needed to construct a 90° angle at the end of a line,
you would first have to extend the line.
You could be even more accurate by also drawing two arcs underneath
the line, which would give three points in line. A

To construct a perpendicular from a point to a line

Note: this perpendicular distance from a point to a line is the shortest
distance to the line.
Step 1: With point A as centre, draw an arc that intersects the line
at two points.
Step 2: Using these two points of intersection as centres, draw two arcs to A
intersect each other both above and below the line.
Step 3: Join the two points where the arcs intersect.
The resulting line passes through point A and is perpendicular to the line.
Note: When a question says construct, you must only use compasses, not
a protractor. When it says draw, you may use whatever you can to produce
an accurate diagram. But also note, when constructing you may use your
protractor to check your accuracy.

7.5 Bisectors 199

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Exercise 7H
EV 1 Draw a line 7 cm long and bisect it. Check your accuracy by measuring each half.

Hints and tips Remember to show your construction lines.

2 Draw a circle of about 4 cm radius.

Draw a triangle inside the circle so that the corners
of the triangle touch the circle.
Bisect each side of the triangle.
The bisectors should all meet at the same point,
which should be the centre of the circle.

3 a Draw any triangle with sides that are between 5 cm and 10 cm.
b On each side construct the line bisector.
Your line bisectors should all intersect at the same point.
c Using this point as the centre, draw a circle that goes through every vertex of the
triangle.

4 Repeat question 3 with a different triangle and check that you get a similar result.

5 a Draw the following quadrilateral.

b Construct the line bisector of each side. These all should 105°
intersect at the same point. 110°
c Use this point as the centre of a circle that goes through 70°
the quadrilateral at each vertex. Draw this circle.
75°
EV 6 a Draw an angle of 50°.
b Construct the angle bisector.
c Check your accuracy by measuring each half.
7 Draw a circle with a radius of about 3 cm.
Draw a triangle so that the sides of the triangle are
tangents to the circle.
Bisect each angle of the triangle.
The bisectors should all meet at the same point, which
should be the centre of the circle.

8 a Draw any triangle with sides that are between 5 cm and 10 cm.
b At each angle construct the angle bisector. All three bisectors should intersect at
the same point.
c Use this point as the centre of a circle that just touches the sides of the triangle.

200 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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9 Repeat question 8 with a different triangle.

PS 10 Draw a circle with radius about 4 cm.

Draw a quadrilateral, not a rectangle, inside the circle so that each vertex is on
the circumference.
Construct the bisector of each side of the quadrilateral.
Where is the point where these bisectors all meet?

CM 11 Briefly outline how you would construct a triangle with angles 90°, 60° and 30°.

12 a Draw a line AB, 6 cm long, and construct an angle of 90° at A.

b Bisect this angle to construct an angle of 45°.
13 a Draw a line AB, 6 cm long, and construct an angle of 60° at A.
b Bisect this angle to construct an angle of 30°.
14 Draw a line AB, 6 cm long, and mark a point C, 4 cm above the middle of the line.
Construct the perpendicular from the point C to the line AB.

7.6 Defining a locus

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• draw a locus for a given rule.
equidistant locus (loci)

A locus (plural loci) is the movement of a point according to

a given rule.

What is the locus of a point that is always 5 cm away from a fixed point A?
Example 4

The locus of the point (P) is such that AP = 5 cm. This will give a circle of P
radius 5 cm, centre A.
5 cm
A

What is the locus of a point that is always the same distance from two fixed points A and B?
Example 5

The locus of the point P is such that AP = BP. A

This will have a locus that is the perpendicular bisector of the P
line joining A and B.
B
Note that a point that is always the same distance from two points
is equidistant from the two points.

7.6 Defining a locus 201

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Example 6 What is the locus of a point that is always 5 cm from a line AB?
A point that moves so that it is always 5 cm from a line AB will have P
a locus that is a racetrack shape around the line. 5 cm 5 cm
A B

Questions will often ask about practical situations rather than abstract mathematical ones.

Imagine a grassy, flat field in which a horse is tethered to a stake by a rope that is 10 m long.
Example 7

What is the shape of the area that the horse can graze?
In reality, the horse may not be able to reach the full 10 m if the rope is tied
round its neck but ignore fine details like that. You ‘model’ the situation by
10 m
saying that the horse can move around in a 10 m circle and graze all the
grass within that circle.
In this example, the locus is the whole of the area inside the circle.
You can express this mathematically as:
the locus of the point P is such that AP  10 m.

Exercise 7I
1 A is a fixed point. Draw the locus of the point P in each of these situations.
a AP = 2 cm b AP = 4 cm c AP = 5 cm
Hints and tips Sketch the situation before doing an accurate drawing.

2 A and B are two fixed points 5 cm apart. Draw the locus of the point P for each of
these situations.
a AP = BP b AP = 4 cm and BP = 4 cm
c P is always within 2 cm of the line AB
PS 3 a A horse is tethered in a field on a rope 4 m long. Describe or sketch the area that
the horse can graze.
b The horse is still tethered by the same rope but there is now a long, straight fence
running 2 m from the stake. Draw the area that the horse can now graze.

4 ABCD is a square of side 4 cm. In each of the following loci, the point A B
P moves only inside the square. Sketch the locus in each case.
a AP = BP b AP < BP c AP = CP 4 cm

d CP < 4 cm e CP > 2 cm f CP > 5 cm

D C

MR 5 One of the following diagrams is the locus of a point on the rim of a bicycle wheel as
it moves along a flat road. Which is it?

6 Draw the locus of the centre of the wheel for the bicycle in question 5.

202 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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B
PS 7 ABC is a triangle.
The region R is defined as the set of points inside the triangle
such that:
• they are closer to the line AB than the line AC
A C
• they are closer to the point A than the point C.
Using a ruler and compasses, construct the region R.

PS 8 ABCD is a rectangle. A B

Copy the diagram and draw the locus of all points that are 2 cm
from the edges of the rectangle.

D C

CM 9 Explain how you could construct an equilateral triangle with sides

of 3 cm using only a ruler.

EV 10 Mark drew a triangle and asked Gary to draw the locus of all the points that were
1 cm away from the sides of the triangle.
Gary said: “That’s easy, it’ll be a triangle inside and a triangle outside the
original triangle.”
Comment on Gary’s statement.

7.7 Loci problems

This section will show you how to:
• solve practical problems using loci.

Most loci problems you come across will be of a practical nature, as in the next example.

A radio company wants to find a site for a transmitter. The transmitter must be the same
Example 8

distance from Doncaster and Leeds and within 20 miles of Sheffield.

In mathematical terms, this means they are concerned with Leeds
the perpendicular bisector between Leeds and Doncaster
and the area within a circle of radius 20 miles from Sheffield.
The diagram, drawn to a scale of 1 cm = 10 miles, illustrates
the situation and shows that the transmitter can be built
anywhere along the thick part of the blue line. Doncaster

Sheffield

7.7 Loci problems 203

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Example 9 A radar station in Birmingham has a range of 150 km (that is, it can pick up any aircraft within a
radius of 150 km).
Another radar station in Norwich has a range of 100 km.
Can an aircraft be picked up by both radar stations at the same time?
The situation is represented by a circle of radius 150 km around Birmingham and another circle
of radius 100 km around Norwich.

Birmingham Norwich

The two circles overlap, so an aircraft could be picked up by both radar stations when it is in
the overlap.

A dog is tethered by a rope, 3 m long, to the corner of a shed, 4 m by 2 m.

Example 10

What is the area that the dog can guard effectively?

Draw the locus.

This is a circle of radius 3 m

but part of it is blocked by the
Shed shed, and the rope is pulled
tight at the other corner.

There is only 1 m of rope left here,

so this is part of a circle of radius 1 m.

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Exercise 7J
1 In a field, a horse is tethered to a stake by a rope 6 m long. Draw the locus of the area
that the horse can graze. Use a scale of 1 cm to 2 m.
For questions 2 to 6, you should start by sketching the picture given in each question before drawing
the locus accurately. The scale for each question is given.

2 a A goat is tethered by a rope, 7 m long, in a corner of a field with Fence

Stake
a fence at each side. What is the locus of the area that the goat
can graze? Use a scale of 1 cm to 2 m.

Fence
b A horse is tethered to a stake near a corner of a fenced field,
at a point 4 m from each fence. The rope is 6 m long. Sketch
the area that the horse can graze. Use a scale of 1 cm to 2 m.

3 A cow is tethered to a rail at the top of a fence 6 m long. The rope is

3 m long. Sketch the area that the cow can graze. Use a scale of
1 cm to 2 m.
Fence

4 A horse is tethered to a corner of a shed, 2 m by 1 m. The rope is

Tethered here
2 m long. Sketch the area that the horse can graze. Use a scale of
Shed
1 cm to 1 m.

5 A goat is tethered by a 4 m rope to a stake at one corner of a pen, 4 m

by 3 m. Sketch the area of the pen on which the goat cannot graze. Stake
Use a scale of 1 cm to 1 m. Pen

PS 6 A puppy is tethered to a stake by a rope, 1.5 m long, on a flat lawn

on which there are two raised brick flower beds. The stake is situated
at one corner of a bed, as shown. Sketch the area that the puppy is
free to roam in. Use a scale of 1 cm to 1 m. Stake

CM 7 Wathsea Harbour is shown in the diagram. A boat

sets off from point A and steers so that it stays the West Pier East Pier
same distance from the sea wall and the West Pier.
Another boat sets off from B and steers so that it
stays the same distance from the East Pier and the A B
sea wall. If each boat sailed at the same speed,
would they hit each other? Sea wall

Explain your answer fully.

CM 8 A distress call is heard by coastguards in both Newcastle and Bristol. The signal
strength suggests that the call comes from a ship that is the same distance from
both places.
Explain how the coastguards could find the area of sea to search.
7.7 Loci problems 205
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For questions 9 to 17, you should use a copy of the map opposite. For each question, trace the map
and mark on those points that are relevant to that question.

9 A radio station broadcasts from London on a frequency of 1000 kHz with a range of
300 km. Another radio station broadcasts from Glasgow on the same frequency with a
range of 200 km.
a Sketch the area to which each station can broadcast.
b Will they interfere with each other?
EV c Find out what happens if the Glasgow station increases its range to 400 km.
10 The radar at Leeds airport has a range of 200 km. The radar at Exeter airport has a
range of 200 km.
a Will a plane flying over Birmingham be detected by the Leeds radar?
b Sketch the area where a plane can be picked up by both radars at the same time.

11 A radio transmitter is to be built according to these rules.

i It has to be the same distance from York and Birmingham.
ii It must be within 350 km of Glasgow.
iii It must be within 250 km of London.
a Sketch the line that is the same distance from York and Birmingham.
b Sketch the area that is within 350 km of Glasgow and 250 km of London.
c Show clearly the possible places where the transmitter could be built.
12 A radio transmitter centred at Birmingham is designed to give good reception in an
area greater than 150 km and less than 250 km from the transmitter. Sketch the area of
good reception.

13 Three radio stations pick up a distress call from a boat in the Irish Sea. The station at
Glasgow can tell from the strength of the signal that the boat is within 300 km of the
station. The station at York can tell that the boat is between 200 km and 300 km from
York. The station at London can tell that it is less than 400 km from London. Sketch
the area where the boat could be.

14 Sketch the area that is between 200 km and 300 km from Newcastle upon Tyne, and
between 150 km and 250 km from Bristol.

15 An oil rig is situated in the North Sea in such a position that it is the same distance
from Newcastle upon Tyne and Manchester. It is also the same distance from
Sheffield and Norwich. Find out where the oil rig is located.

PS 16 Whilst looking at a map, Fred notices that his house is the same distance from
Glasgow, Norwich and Exeter. Where is it?

PS 17 Tariq wanted to fly himself from the Isle of Wight north, towards Scotland. He wanted
to remain at the same distance from London as from Bristol as much as possible.
Once he is past London and Bristol, which city should he aim toward to keep him, as
accurately as possible, the same distance from London and Bristol? Use the map to
help you.

206 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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Glasgow

Newcastle
upon Tyne

North Sea
York
Leeds
Irish Sea
Manchester
Sheffield

Norwich

Birmingham

London
Bristol

Exeter
Isle of Wight

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 km

7.7 Loci problems 207

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7.8 Plans and elevations

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• construct and interpret plans and elevations of 3D shapes.
front elevation plan

Plans and elevations are 2D drawings representing 3D shapes side elevation

as seen from specific directions.
The plan is a view looking down from above.
The front elevation is the view looking horizontally at the shape from the front.
The side elevation is the view looking horizontally at the shape from the side.
Plan Plan

Side
Front
Side elevation Front elevation

If the diagram is shown in 3D and is drawn at an angle, then the front and side elevations could be
either way round, depending on how you view the shape.
When drawing elevations always work from the plan first, then you can use those dimensions to help
create both elevations.

Draw a plan, front elevation and a side elevation of this 2 cm square-based

Example 11

pyramid with a vertical height of 2.5 cm.

Draw the plan first, then use that to help find the correct dimensions Plan
for the elevations.

Front Side

208 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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Describe the 3D shape that has the following plan and elevations.
Example 12
This is a cone with the top part cut off. The cone is slanting Plan
towards the back.

Front Side

Here is a plan and side elevation of a prism. The

Example 13

Plan
side elevation shows the regular cross section
of the prism.
a Draw the front elevation.
b Sketch the 3D shape.

Side

a Use the grid lines to help find the front elevation.

Plan

Front Side

Note how the dotted line shows the hidden line that cannot
be seen from the outside.
b The shape is a prism in the shape of a V.

7.8 Plans and elevations 209

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Exercise 7K
1 Draw the plan, front elevation and side elevation for each shape.

b
a

d
e

2 Draw a plan, front elevation and side elevation for the bungalow shown below. Use a
scale of 1 cm to 2 m.
8m

2m
2m

2m

10 m
6m

210 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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MR 3 Describe the shapes shown by each plan, front elevation and side elevation.
a Plan b Plan

Front Side

Front Side

4 The diagram shows the side elevation of a garden shed, which is the same shape
from end to end. The shed is 4 metres long.
Draw the plan and front elevation of the shed using a scale of 2 cm to 1 m.
2m

2.5 m
2m

3m

MR 5 Draw an accurate plan, front elevation and side elevation for a 8-cm-long regular
octagonal prism with side length 3 cm.

EV 6 Chris, Hannah and Joe look at this diagram, which is a side view of a shape.
Chris says, “The shape is a cylinder with a circular hole through the middle.”
Hannah says, “It could be a cuboid with a square hole through the middle.”
Joe says, “The shape could be a sort of triangular shape standing on a short, flat side.”

a Draw a sketch of each person’s suggestion.

b Draw another possible shape with this plan.

7.8 Plans and elevations 211

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 The grid shows several transformations y
of the shaded triangle. 5

a Describe fully the transformation 4

that takes:
i the shaded triangle to shape A 3
C A
ii the shaded triangle to shape E. 2
b There are two reflections shown
1
in the diagram that do not involve D
the shaded triangle. Fully describe
each reflection and the triangles –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x
concerned. –1
c Pete says that to transform B
–2
shape C to shape D you need a H
translation and then a reflection. F G E
–3
Kathy says you need a rotation
and then a reflection. –4
Comment on what each person says.

This is a communicating mathematics question, in which you need to communicate

clearly and mathematically your responses to each part.

1 a i Reflection in the line x = 3 In this question you need to accurately

 3 communicate what the transformation is
ii Translation of   and the detail about that transformation.
 −5 
For example, it is not enough to say
b F to G, reflection in line x = –2 reflection; you must also state the line of
the reflection.
H to B, reflection in the line
between (0, 0) and (4, –4), which
is y = –x
c They are both correct. This part of the question assesses if you
For Pete’s suggestion you would can evaluate each statement and make
suitable mathematical comments. You
 0
translate the shape by   then need to work through both statements,
 −1 state whether or not they are correct and
reflect in the line between (–4, 3) show why.
and (–1, 0).
For Kathy’s suggestion, rotate the
shaded shape 90° anticlockwise
about (–2, 2) and then reflect in
the line y = 1.5.

PS 2 Some wind turbines follow a design based on arcs within

an equilateral triangle.
Construct this design, based on an equilateral triangle
with sides of length 5 cm.

212 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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This is a problem-solving question. You must recognise that, to create this shape, you
will first need the equilateral triangle and then recognise that the centre of each arc
lies on the bisectors of each side of that triangle.

Start by constructing the equilateral

triangle.

Construct the line bisectors of each side

with a construction of at least two arcs
and at least two bisectors.

Where these bisectors meet gives the

centre of the triangle.
You now need to recognise that the
final arcs will have their centres on the
bisectors of the lines joining each vertex
with the centre of the triangle.
Join each vertex to this centre point and
bisect each of these lines, extending
the new bisectors to intersect with the
bisectors of the sides of the triangle.
Construct bisectors on at least two of
the correct lines and correctly identify at
least two correct centres.
These points where the lines intersect are
the centres of the arcs. Set the compasses
to the distance between one of these
points and the nearest vertex and draw
the arcs from each point.
You need to clearly show your
construction lines but also keep those
lines faint. The final arcs drawn are much
darker than the construction lines.

7 Worked exemplars 213

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Ready to progress?
I can translate, reflect and rotate a 2D shape with a given vector, mirror line or point and angle.
I can draw plans and elevations from a given diagram and interpret them.

I can prove that two triangles are congruent.

I can enlarge a 2D shape about any point using a positive, fractional or negative scale factor.
I can combine transformations of 2D shapes.
I can construct perpendiculars as well as line and angle bisectors.
I can construct certain angles without using a protractor.
I understand what is meant by a locus and can use loci to solve problems.

Review questions
y
1 a Copy the diagram and rotate triangle
6
P 90° clockwise about the point (–1, 1).
5
Label the new triangle A.
4
b Rotate triangle P 90° anticlockwise about 3
the point (–1, 1).
2
Label the new triangle B. 1
c Describe how you would transform
triangle A to triangle B. –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
P
d What is the only invariant point of these –2
rotations? –3
–4
–5
–6

CM 2 Draw a grid from –5  x  5 and –5  y  5. On the grid, draw a triangle with

coordinates A(2, 1), B(4, 1) and C (4, 2).
a Reflect triangle ABC in the line y = x. Label the new triangle T.
b Reflect triangle ABC in the line y = –x. Label the new triangle Q.
c Describe fully the transformation that would map triangle Q to triangle T.
EV 3 a Use a ruler and a pair of compasses to construct an angle of 90°.
b Construct a bisector of this right angle to create an angle of 45°.
c Evaluate how accurate you have been.
4 Use a ruler and a pair of compasses to construct an equilateral triangle with sides of
length 5 cm. Show all your construction lines.

5 a Draw a line AB that is 6 cm long.

b Draw the locus of all points that are exactly 2 cm from the line AB.
6 a Construct a square ABCD with side length 4 cm.
b Shade the set of points inside the square that are less than 3 cm from either point
A or B and less than 1.5 cm from the line BC.

214 7 Geometry and measures: Transformations, constructions and loci

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CM 7 a Using ruler and compasses only, draw a line AB 8 cm long and construct its
perpendicular bisector.
b Copy and complete this sentence.
The perpendicular bisector of the line AB is the locus of points that are …

PS 8 a With ruler and compasses only, construct a hexagon ABCDEF, with side
length 3 cm.
b The region R is defined as the set of points inside the hexagon that are:
• closer to the side AB than the side BC and
• closer to the point C than the point F.
Accurately construct the region R.

9 The diagram shows an L shape, with one line 7 cm and the

other 3 cm.
Draw the diagram and construct the locus of all points 2 cm
from the L shape.

10 Two lifeboat stations P and Q receive a distress call from

a boat.
The boat is within 5 kilometres of station P.
The boat is within 7 kilometres of station Q.
On a copy of the diagram, shade the possible locations
of the boat.

Scale: 1 cm represents 2 km

11 The triangle ABC has coordinates A(3, 1), B(5, –2)

and C(–4, 0).
 6
Triangle ABC is translated by the vector  .
 −1
What are the new coordinates of triangle ABC?

12 Draw a plan and front and side elevations for a 5 cm cube with a 3 cm by 2 cm
rectangular hole from top to bottom straight through its centre.

EV 13 Kieron said that if you rotate a shape by 90° then reflect that image in a line y = A
(where A is any number), the final image is always a reflection of the original shape.
Is this true?

CM 14 ABCD is a rhombus. Prove that triangle ACD is congruent to ACB.

7 Review questions 215

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8
Algebra: Algebraic
manipulation

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to substitute numbers into expressions and formulae
• how to simplify expressions by collecting like terms
• how to expand and factorise expressions
• how to expand two or more binomials
• how to factorise quadratic expressions
• how to rearrange formulae.

You should already know:

• how to use letters to represent numbers
• the basic language of algebra
• how to collect together like terms
• the BIDMAS rule, which gives the order you must use the
operations of arithmetic when they occur together
• how to solve basic linear equations.

About this chapter

If you were asked to circle one of these to describe mathematics, which
would it be?
Art Science Sport Language
In fact, you could circle them all.
But perhaps the most important description in the list above is mathematics
as language. Mathematics is the only universal language. If you write the
equation 3x = 9, it will be understood by people in all countries.
Algebra is the way that the language of mathematics is expressed.
Algebra comes from the Arabic al-jabr which means something similar
to ‘completion’. It was used in a book written in AD820 by a Persian
mathematician called al-Khwarizmi.
The use of symbols then developed until the middle of the 17th century,
when Ren Descartes developed what is regarded as the basis of the algebra
we use today.

216
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8.1 Basic algebra

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise expressions, equations, formulae and identities
equation expand
• substitute into, manipulate and simplify algebraic
expressions. expression formula
identity like terms
Here are some algebraic words that you need to know.
simplify substitute
Variable Letters that are used to represent numbers are
called variables. These letters can take on any variable
value, so they are said to vary.
Expression An expression is any combination of letters and numbers.
p–6
For example, 2x + 4y and are expressions.
5
Equation An equation contains an ‘equals’ sign and at least one variable. The important fact is
that a value can be found for the variable. This is called solving the equation.
Formula You may already have seen lots of formulae (the plural of formula). These are like
equations in that they contain an ‘equals’ sign, but there is more than one variable
and they are rules for working out things such as area or the cost of taxi fares.
1
For example, V = x3, A = 2 bh and C = 3 + 4m are formulae.
Identity These look like formulae, but the important fact about an identity is that it is true for
all values, whether numerical or algebraic.
For example, 5n ≡ 2n + 3n and (x + 1)2 ≡ x2 + 2x + 1 are identities. Note that the special
sign ≡ is sometimes used to show an identity.
Term Terms are the separate parts of expressions, equations, formulae and identities.
For example, in 3x + 2y – 7, there are three terms: 3x, +2y and –7.

State if each of the following is an expression, equation, formula or identity.

Example 1

A: x – 5 = 7 B: P = 4x C: 2x – 3y D: 3n – n = 2n
A is an equation as it can be solved to give x = 12.
B is a formula. This is the formula for the perimeter of a square with a side of length x.
C is an expression with two terms.
D is an identity as it is true for all values of n.

Substitution
Substitution involves replacing one or more letters with numbers in an expression or formula.
Whenever you substitute a number for a variable in an expression, always put the value in brackets
before working it out. This will help you to avoid calculation errors, especially with negative numbers.
To find the value of 3x2 – 5 when x = 3, write 3(3)2 – 5 = 3 × 9 – 5
= 27 – 5
= 22
To find the value when x = – 4, write 3(– 4)2 – 5 = 3 × 16 – 5
= 48 – 5
= 43

8.1 Basic algebra 217

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Find the value of L = a2 – 8b2 when a = – 6 and b = 1

Example 2 2.

Substitute the values –6 and 1 for the letters a and b.

2
L = a2 – 8b2
= (–6)2 – 8( 1 )2
2
= 36 – 8 × 1
4
= 36 – 2
= 34
Note: If you do not use brackets and write – 62, you could wrongly evaluate L as –36.

The formula for the electricity bill each quarter in a household is: total bill = £7.50 + £0.07 ×
Example 3

number of units. A family uses 6720 units in a quarter.

a How much is their total bill?
b The family pays a direct debit of £120 per month towards their electricity costs.
By how much will they be in credit or debit after the quarter?
a Substituting 6720 into the formula £7.50 + £0.07 × number of units = total bill
7.5 + 0.07 × 6720 = 477.9
Total bill = £477.90
b A quarter is three months, so the family pays £360 through their direct debit.
£360 is less than £477.90, so they haven’t paid enough, which means they are in debit.
477.90 – 360 = 117.90
The family are £117.90 in debit.

Exercise 8A
1 Find the value of 4b + 3 when: a b = 2.5 b b = –1.5 c b = 21 .

2 5w – 4 y
Where P = , find the value of P when:
w+y
a w = 3 and y = 2 b w = 6 and y = 4 c w = 2 and y = 3.
3 Where A = b2 + c2, find the value of A when:
a b = 2 and c = 3 b b = 5 and c = 7 c b = –1 and c = – 4.
180 ( n – 2 )
4 Where A = , find the value of A when:
n+5
a n=7 b n=3 c n = –1.

y2 + 4
5 Where Z = 4 + y , find the value of Z when:

a y=4 b y = –6 c y = –1.5.

218 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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PS 6 A holiday cottage costs £150 per day to rent.

A group of friends decide to rent the cottage for seven days.
a Which of the following formulae would represent the cost per day if there are n
people in the group and they share the cost equally?
150 150 1050 150 n
n 7n n 7
b Eventually 10 people go on the holiday.
When they get the bill, they find that there is a discount for a seven-day rental.
After the discount, they each find it costs them £12.50 less than they expected.
How much does a seven-day rental cost?

Hints and tips To check your choice in part a, make up some numbers and try
them in the formulae. For example, take n = 5.

MR 7 Kaz knows that x, y and z have the values 2, 8 and 11, but she does not know which
variable has which value.
a What is the maximum value that the expression 2x + 6y – 3z could have?
b What is the minimum value that the expression 5x – 2y + 3z could have?

Hints and tips You can just try all combinations but, if you think for a moment,
the 6y term has to be the biggest, and this will give you a clue to
the other terms.

MR 8 x and y are different positive whole numbers.

Work out a possible pair of values of x and y so that the value of the expression 5x + 3y
a is odd b is prime.

Hints and tips You need to remember the prime numbers, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . .

MR 9 a p is an odd number and q is an even number.

Say if the following expressions are odd or even.
i p+q ii p2 + q iii 2p + q iv p2 + q2
b x, y and z are all odd numbers.
Write an expression using x, y and z so that the value of the expression is always even.

PS 10 A formula for the cost of delivery, in pounds, of orders from a do-it-yourself warehouse is:
C
D = 2M –
5
where D is the cost of the delivery, M is the distance in miles from the warehouse
and C is the cost of the goods to be delivered.
a How much is the delivery cost when M = 30 and C = 200?
b Bob buys goods worth £300 and lives 10 miles from the warehouse.
i The formula gives a negative value for the cost of delivery. What is this value?
ii Explain why Bob will not get a rebate from the warehouse.
c Martha buys goods worth £400. She calculates that her cost of delivery will be zero.
What is the greatest distance Martha could live from the warehouse?

8.1 Basic algebra 219

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11 State if each of the following is an expression, equation, formula or identity.

A: 2x – 5
B: s = A
C: 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6
D: 2x – 3 = 1

EV 12 Marvin hires a car for the day for £40. He wants to know how much it costs him for
each mile he drives.
Petrol is 98p per litre and the car does 10 miles per litre.
Marvin works out the following formula for the cost per mile, C in pounds, for M
miles driven:
40
C = 0.098 +
M
a Explain each term of the formula.
b How much will it cost per mile if Marvin drives 200 miles that day?

Hints and tips Use the information in the question in your explanation.

Expansion
In mathematics, to ‘expand’ usually means ‘multiply out’. For example, expressions such as 3(y + 2) and
4y2(2y + 3) can be expanded by multiplying them out.
Remember that there is an invisible multiplication sign between the outside number and the opening
bracket. So 3(y + 2) is really 3 × (y + 2) and 4y2(2y + 3) is really 4y2 × (2y + 3).
You expand by multiplying everything inside the brackets by what is outside the brackets.
So in the case of the two examples above,
3(y + 2) = 3 × (y + 2) = 3 × y + 3 × 2 = 3y + 6
4y (2y + 3) = 4y2 × (2y + 3) = 4y2 × 2y + 4y2 × 3 = 8y3 + 12y2
2

Look at these next examples of expansion, which show clearly how the term outside the brackets has
been multiplied with the terms inside them.
y(y2 – 4x) = y3 – 4xy 3(2t + 5) = 6t + 15
m(p + 7) = mp + 7m –2x(3 – 4x) = –6x + 8x2
4t(t3 + 2) = 4t4 + 8t 3t(2 + 5t – p) = 6t + 15t2 – 3pt
Remember:
the product of a negative and a positive is negative
the product of a negative and a negative is positive.
As a result, the signs change when a negative quantity is outside the brackets. For example,
a(b + c) = ab + ac a(b – c) = ab – ac
–a(b + c) = –ab – ac –a(b – c) = –ab + ac
–(a – b) = –a + b –(a + b – c) = –a – b + c
Note: A minus sign on its own in front of the brackets is actually –1, so:
–(x + 2y – 3) = –1 × (x + 2y – 3) = –1 × x + –1 × 2y + –1 × – 3 = – x – 2y + 3

220 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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Collecting like terms

Like terms are terms that have the same letter(s) raised to the same power but can have different
numerical coefficients (numbers in front). For example,
m, 3m, 4m, –m and 76m are all like terms in m
t2, 4t2, 7t2, –t2, –3t2 and 98t2 are all like terms in t2
pt, 5tp, –2pt, 7pt, –3tp and 103pt are all like terms in pt.
Note: All the terms in tp are also like terms to all the terms in pt.
When you have an expression with like terms, you can simplify the expression by combining the like
terms together. For example,
3y + 4y + 3 = 7y + 3 4h – h = 3h 2t2 + 5t2 = 7t2
2m + 6 + 3m = 5m + 6 3ab + 2ba = 5ab 10g – 4 – 3g = 7g – 4

Expand and simplify

When two brackets are expanded there are often like terms that you can collect together. Always
simplify algebraic expressions as much as possible.
Consider finding a simplified expression for the perimeter of a rectangle with sides of (5x – 8) cm and
(2x + 11) cm.
It has two of each side so: 2(5x – 8) + 2(2x + 11) = 10x – 16 + 4x + 22
= (14x + 6) cm

Expand and simplify 3t(5t + 4) – 2t(3t – 5).

Example 4

3t(5t + 4) – 2t(3t – 5) = 15t2 + 12t – 6t2 + 10t

= 9t2 + 22t

Exercise 8B
1 Expand these expressions.
a 2(3 + m) b 5(2 + l) c 3(4 – y) d 4(5 + 2k)
e 3(2 – 4f) f 2(5 – 3w) g 5(2k + 3m) h 4(3d – 2n)
i t(t + 3) j k(k – 3) k 4t(t – 1) l 2k(4 – k)
m 4g(2g + 5) n 5h(3h – 2) o y(y2 + 5) p h(h3 + 7)
q k(k2 – 5) r 3t(t2 + 4) s 3d(5d 2 – d 3) t 3w(2w2 + t)
u 5a(3a2 – 2b) v 3p(4p3 – 5m) w 4h2(3h + 2g) x 2m2(4m + m2)
PS 2 The local supermarket is offering £1 off a large tin of biscuits. Morris wants five tins.
a If the normal price of one tin is £t, which of the expressions below represents how
much it will cost Morris to buy five tins?
5(t – 1) 5t – 1 t–5 5t – 5
b Morris has £20 to spend. If each tin is £4.50, will he have enough money for five
tins? Show working to justify your answer.

8.1 Basic algebra 221

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EV 3 Dylan wrote the following.

3(5x – 4) = 8x – 4
Dylan has made two mistakes.
Explain the mistakes that Dylan has made.

Hints and tips It is not enough to give the right answer. You must try to explain
why Dylan wrote 8 for 3 × 5 instead of 15.

MR 4 The expansion 2(x + 3) = 2x + 6 can be shown by this diagram.

x 3

2 2x 6

a What expansion is shown in this diagram?

3 6y 9

b Write down an expansion that is shown in this diagram.

12z 8

5 Expand and simplify.

a 3(4 + t) + 2(5 + t) b 5(3 + 2k) + 3(2 + 3k)
c 4(3 + 2f ) + 2(5 – 3f ) d 5(1 + 3g) + 3(3 – 4g)

Hints and tips Be careful with minus signs. For example, –2(5e – 4) = –10e + 8

6 Expand and simplify.

a 4(3 + 2h) – 2(5 + 3h) b 5(3g + 4) – 3(2g + 5)
c 5(5k + 2) – 2(4k – 3) d 4(4e + 3) – 2(5e – 4)
7 Expand and simplify.
a m(4 + p) + p(3 + m) b k(3 + 2h) + h(4 + 3k)
c 4r(3 + 4p) + 3p(8 – r) d 5k(3m + 4) – 2m(3 – 2k)
8 Expand and simplify.
a t(3t + 4) + 3t(3 + 2t) b 2y(3 + 4y) + y(5y – 1)
c 4e(3e – 5) – 2e(e – 7) d 3k(2k + p) – 2k(3p – 4k)
9 Expand and simplify.
a 4a(2b + 3c) + 3b(3a + 2c) b 3y(4w + 2t) + 2w(3y – 4t)
c 5m(2n – 3p) – 2n(3p – 2m) d 2r(3r + r2) – 3r2(4 – 2r)

222 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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PS
10
0 A two-carriage train has f first-class seats and 2s standard-class seats.
A three-carriage train has 2f first-class seats and 3s standard-class seats.
On a weekday, 5 two-carriage trains and 2 three-carriage trains travel from Hull
to Liverpool.
a Write down an expression for the total number of first-class and standard-class
seats available during the day.
b On average in any day, half of the first-class seats are used at a cost of £60.
On average in any day, three-quarters of the standard-class seats are used at a cost
of £40.
How much money does the rail company earn in an average day on this route?
Give your answer in terms of f and s.
c f = 15 and s = 80. It costs the rail company £30 000 per day to operate this route.
How much profit do they make on an average day?

MR 11 Fill in whole-number values so that the following expansion is true.

3( . . . x + . . . y) + 2( . . . x + . . . y) = 11x + 17y

Hints and tips There is more than one answer. You don’t have to give them all.

PS 12
2 A rectangle with sides 5 and 3x + 2 has a smaller rectangle with sides 3 and 2x – 1 cut
from it.
Work out the remaining area.
3x + 2

2x – 1

5 3

Hints and tips Write out the expression for the difference between the two
rectangles and then work it out.

8.2 Factorisation
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• factorise an algebraic expression.
common factor factorisation

Factorisation is the opposite of expansion. It puts an expression back into the brackets it may have
come from.
In factorisation, you have to look for the common factors in every term of the expression.
To factorise the expression 6t + 9m, first look at the numerical coefficients 6 and 9. These have a
common factor of 3.
Then look at the letters, t and m. These do not have any common factors as they do not appear in
both terms.
The expression can be thought of as 3 × 2t + 3 × 3m, which gives the factorisation:
6t + 9m = 3(2t + 3m)
Note: You can always check a factorisation by expanding the answer.

8.2 Factorisation 223

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Example 5 Factorise each expression.

a 6my + 4py b 5k2 – 25k c 10a2b – 15ab2
a First look at the numbers. These have a common factor of 2.
m and p do not occur in both terms but y does, and is a common factor, so the
factorisation is:
6my + 4py = 2y(3m + 2p)
b 5 is a common factor of 5 and 25 and k is a common factor of k2 and k.
5k2 – 25k = 5k(k – 5)
c 5 is a common factor of 10 and 15, a is a common factor of a2 and a, b is a common factor of
b and b2.
10a2b – 15ab2 = 5ab(2a – 3b)
Note: If you multiply out each answer, you will get the expressions you started with.

Exercise 8C
1 Factorise these expressions.
a 6m + 12t b 9t + 3p c 8m + 12k
d 4r + 8t e mn + 3m f 5g2 + 3g
g 4w – 6t h 3y2 + 2y i 4t2 – 3t
j 3m2 – 3mp k 6p2 + 9pt l 8pt + 6mp
m 8ab – 4bc n 5b c – 10bc
2
o 8abc + 6bde
p 4a + 6a + 8
2
q 6ab + 9bc + 3bd r 5t2 + 4t + at
s 6mt2 – 3mt + 9m2t t 8ab2 + 2ab – 4a2b u 10pt2 + 15pt + 5p2t
EV 2 Three friends have a meal together. They each have a main meal costing £6.75 and a
dessert costing £3.25.
Chris says that the bill will be 3 × 6.75 + 3 × 3.25.
Mary says that she has an easier way to work out the bill as 3 × (6.75 + 3.25).
a Explain why Chris’ and Mary’s methods both give the correct answer.
b Explain why Mary’s method is better. c What is the total bill?
3 Factorise these expressions where possible. List those that do not factorise.
a 7m – 6t b 5m + 2mp c t2 – 7t
d 8pt + 5ab e 4m2 – 6mp f a2 + b
g 4a2 – 5ab h 3ab + 4cd i 5ab – 3b2c
CM 4 Three students are asked to factorise the expression 12m – 8. These are their answers.
Aidan Bernice Craig
2(6m – 4) 4(3m – 2) 4m(3 – 2)
m
All the answers are accurately factorised, but only one is the normally
accepted answer.
a Which student gave the correct answer?
b Explain why the other two students’ answers are not acceptable as correct answers.
224 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation
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CM 5 Explain why 5m + 6p cannot be factorised.

PS 6 Show that the perimeter of this shape can be written as 8(2x + 3).

10 – x
2x + 8

9x – 3
x+5

5x + 4

MR 7 Alvin has correctly factorised the top and bottom of an algebraic fraction and
cancelled out the terms to give a final answer of 2x. Unfortunately some of his work
has had coffee spilt on it. What was the original fraction?

4x 4
= = 2x
2 2( x – 3)

8.3 Quadratic expansion

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• expand two binomials to obtain a quadratic expression.
binomial

A quadratic expression is one where the highest power of the variables is 2. For example
y2 3t2 + 5t 5m2 + 3m + 8
You can expand an expression such as (3y + 2)(4y – 5) to give a quadratic expression.
(3y + 2) and (4y – 5) are examples of binomials. A binomial is the sum of two terms.
Multiplying out pairs of these brackets is usually called quadratic expansion.
The rule for expanding expressions such as (t + 5)(3t – 4) is similar to the rule for expanding single
brackets:
Multiply everything in one set of brackets by everything in the other set of brackets.
There are several methods for doing this. Examples 6 to 8 show the three main methods: expansion,
FOIL and the box method.

In the expansion method, split the terms in the first set of brackets, make each of them
Example 6

multiply both terms in the second set of brackets and then simplify the outcome.
Expand (x + 3)(x + 4).
(x + 3)(x + 4) = x(x + 4) + 3(x + 4)
= x2 + 4x + 3x + 12
= x2 + 7x + 12

8.3 Quadratic expansion 225

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Exercise 8D
1 Use the expansion method to expand these expressions.
a (x + 3)(x + 2) b (t + 4)(t + 3)
c (w + 1)(w + 3) d (m + 5)(m + 1)
2 Use the expansion method to expand these expressions.
a (p + 10)(p – 7) b (u – 8)(u – 4)
c (k – 3)(k + 5) d (z – 9)(z – 3)
EV 3 Find the mistake in each expansion.
a (v + 5)(v + 7) = v2 + 12v + 30
b (w – 8)(w + 10) = w2 + 2w + 80
c (x – 6)(x – 4) = x2 – 2x + 24
d (y + 11)(y + 1) = y2 + 11y + 11
e (z – 7)(z – 2) = z2 + 9z + 14
FOIL stands for First, Outer, Inner and Last. This is the order of multiplying the terms from each set
of brackets.

Expand (t + 5)(t – 2).

Example 7

First terms give: t × t = t2 F L

Outer terms give: t × –2 = –2t
(t + 5) (t – 2)
Inner terms give: 5 × t = 5t
Last terms give: +5 × –2 = –10 I

(t + 5)(t – 2) = t2 – 2t + 5t – 10 O
= t + 3t – 10
2

Exercise 8E
1 Use the FOIL method to expand these expressions.
a (k + 3)(k + 5) b (a + 4)(a + 1)
c (x + 4)(x – 2) d (t + 5)(t – 3)
e (w + 3)(w – 1) f ( f + 2)( f – 3)
2 Use the FOIL method to expand these expressions.
a (r – 2)(r – 8) b (s – 10)(s – 7)
c (d – 1)(d – 16) d (m – 6)(m – 3)
e (q – 9)(q – 11) f (y – 5)(y – 8)
3 Complete the answer for each expansion.
a (a + 7)(a + 13) = a2 + . . . . . . . . . + 91
b (b – 8)(b + 11) = b2 + . . . . . . . . . – 88
c (c + 20)(c + 10) = c2 + 30c + . . . . . . . . .
d (d – 7)(d – 4) = d2 . . . . . . . . . + 28
e (e + 14)(e – 2) = e2 + . . . . . . . . . – . . . . . . . . .
226 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation
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The box method is similar to that used to do long multiplication.

Expand (k – 3)(k – 2).

Example 8

× k –3

k k2 –3k

–2 –2k +6

(k – 3)(k – 2) = k2 – 2k – 3k + 6
= k2 – 5k + 6
Warning: Be careful with the signs. This is the main place where you can easily make mistakes
in questions involving expanding brackets.

Note that whatever method you use, it is important to show that you know there are four terms in the
expansion before it is simplified.

a Expand (x + 3)(x + 5).

Example 9

b Use your answer to a to find the value of 3.2 × 5.2.

a Expand the brackets using one of the methods in Examples 6 to 8: x2 + 8x + 15
b (x + 3)(x + 5) is the same as 3.2 × 5.2 when x = 0.2.
Substitute x = 0.2 into x2 + 8x + 15: 0.22 + 8 × 0.2 + 15 = 0.04 + 1.6 + 15 = 16.64

Exercise 8F
1 Use the box method to expand these expressions.
a (g + 1)(g – 4) b (y + 4)(y – 3)
c (x – 3)(x + 4) d (p – 2)(p + 1)
e (k – 4)(k + 2) f (y – 2)(y + 5)
g (a – 1)(a + 3)

Hints and tips A common error is to get minus signs wrong. –2x – 3x = –5x and
–2 × –3 = +6

2 The expansions in this question follow a pattern. Work out the first few and try to
spot the pattern that will allow you immediately to write down the answers to
the rest.
a (x + 3)(x – 3) b (t + 5)(t – 5) c (m + 4)(m – 4)
d (t + 2)(t – 2) e (y + 8)(y – 8) f (p + 1)(p – 1)
g (5 + x)(5 – x) h (7 + g)(7 – g) i (x – 6)(x + 6)
PS 3 This rectangle is made up of four parts with areas of x2, 2x, 3x and
6 square units. x2 2x
Work out expressions for the sides of the rectangle, in terms of x.
3x 6

8.3 Quadratic expansion 227

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PS 4 This square has an area of x2 square units.

It is split into four rectangles.
x

A B
x

D C 2

a Copy and fill in the table below to show the dimensions and area of each
rectangle.

Rectangle Length Width Area

A x–1 x–2 (x – 1)(x – 2)
B
C
D

b Add together the areas of rectangles B, C and D.

Expand any brackets and collect like terms together.
c Use the results to explain why (x – 1)(x – 2) = x2 – 3x + 2.
MR 5 a Expand (x – 3)(x + 3).
b Use the result in a to write down the answers to these. (Do not use a calculator or
do a long multiplication.)
i 97 × 103 ii 197 × 203
MR 6 a Expand (y + 9)(y + 5).
b Use the result in a to write down the answers to these. (Do not use a calculator or
do a long multiplication.)
i 9.01 × 5.01 ii 9.03 × 5.03 iii 8.98 × 4.98 iv 109 × 105
CM 7 Expand these expressions.
a (x + 1)(x + 1)
b (x – 1)(x – 1)
c (x + 1)(x – 1)
d Use the results in parts a, b and c to show that (p + q)2 ≡ p2 + 2pq + q2 is an identity.

Hints and tips Take p = x + 1 and q = x – 1.

Quadratic expansion with non-unit coefficients

All the algebraic terms in x2 in Exercise 8F have a coefficient of 1 or –1. The next two examples show
what to do if you have to expand brackets containing terms in x2 with coefficients that are not 1 or –1.

228 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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Expand (2t + 3)(3t + 1).

Example 10
(2t + 3)(3t + 1) = 6t2 + 2t + 9t + 3
× 2t +3
= 6t2 + 11t + 3
3t 6t2 +9t

+1 +2t +3

Expand (4x – 1)(3x – 5).

Example 11

(4x – 1)(3x – 5) = 4x(3x – 5) – (3x – 5) Note: (3x – 5) is the same as 1(3x – 5).
= 12x2 – 20x – 3x + 5
= 12x2 – 23x + 5

A triangle has a base of (2x + 8) m and a perpendicular height of (x – 5) m. Find an expression

Example 12

for its area.

1
The area of a triangle is given by A = 2 bh = 21 (2x + 8)(x – 5)
= 21 (2x2 – 10x + 8x – 40)
= 21 (2x2 – 2x – 40)
= x2 – x – 20

Exercise 8G
1 Expand these expressions.
a (2x + 3)(3x + 1) b (3y + 2)(4y + 3) c (3t + 1)(2t + 5)
d (4t + 3)(2t – 1) e (5m + 2)(2m – 3) f (4k + 3)(3k – 5)
g (3p – 2)(2p + 5) h (5w + 2)(2w + 3) i (2a – 3)(3a + 1)
j (4r – 3)(2r – 1) k (3g – 2)(5g – 2) l (4d – 1)(3d + 2)
m (5 + 2p)(3 + 4p) n (2 + 3t)(1 + 2t) o (4 + 3p)(2p + 1)
p (6 + 5t)(1 – 2t) q (4 + 3n)(3 – 2n) r (2 + 3f )(2f – 3)
s (3 – 2q)(4 + 5q) t (1 – 3p)(3 + 2p) u (4 – 2t)(3t + 1)

Hints and tips Always give answers in the form ±ax2 ± bx ± c even if the quadratic
coefficient is negative.

CM 2 a Without expanding the brackets, match each expression on the left with an
expression on the right. One is done for you.
(3x – 2)(2x + 1) 4x2 – 4x + 1
(2x – 1)(2x – 1) 6x2 – x – 2
(6x – 3)(x + 1) 6x2 + 7x + 2
(4x + 1)(x – 1) 6x2 + 3x – 3
(3x + 2)(2x + 1) 4x2 – 3x – 1
b Taking any expression on the left, explain how you can match it with an expression
on the right without expanding the brackets.

8.3 Quadratic expansion 229

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3 Try to spot the pattern in each of the expressions in parts a–o so that you can
immediately write down the expansion.
a (2x + 1)(2x – 1) b (3t + 2)(3t – 2) c (5y + 3)(5y – 3)
d (4m + 3)(4m – 3) e (2k – 3)(2k + 3) f (4h – 1)(4h + 1)
g (2 + 3x)(2 – 3x) h (5 + 2t)(5 – 2t) i (6 – 5y)(6 + 5y)
j (a + b)(a – b) k (3t + k)(3t – k) l (2m – 3p)(2m + 3p)
m (5k + g)(5k – g) n (ab + cd)(ab – cd) o (a2 + b2)(a2 – b2)
PS 4 Imagine a square of side a units with a square of side b units cut from one corner.
a What is the area remaining after the small square is cut away?
b

a
B C

b The remaining area is cut into rectangles A, B and C, and rearranged as shown.
Write down the dimensions and area of the rectangle formed by A, B and C.

c Explain why a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b).

PS 5 Explain why the areas of the shaded regions are the same.
2k 2k + 1

2k – 1
1 2k
1

MR 6 a Expand (3w + 4)(w + 6).

b Use the result in a to write down the answers to these. (Do not use a calculator or
do a long multiplication.)
i 304 × 106 ii 3.97 × 5.99 iii 4.00006 × 6.00002
PS 7 a Expand (7a + b)(7a – b).
b Use the result in a to write down the answer to 72 × 68. (Do not use a calculator or
do a long multiplication.)

230 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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8.4 Expanding squares

This section will show you how to:
• expand the square of a binomial.

Whenever you see a linear bracketed term squared, such as (x – 2)2, write the brackets down twice
and then use whichever method you prefer to expand.

a Expand (x + 3)2.
Example 13

b Use the answer to find the value of 10032.

a (x + 3)2 = (x + 3)(x + 3)
= x(x + 3) + 3(x + 3)
= x2 + 3x + 3x + 9
= x2 + 6x + 9
b (x + 3)2 is the same as 10032 when x = 1000.
When x = 1000, 10002 + 6 × 1000 + 9 = 1 000 000 + 6000 + 9 = 1 006 009

Expand (3x – 2)2.

Example 14

(3x – 2)2 = (3x – 2)(3x – 2) F L

= 9x2 – 6x – 6x + 4
(3x – 2) (3x – 2)
= 9x2 – 12x + 4
I

Exercise 8H
1 Expand the squares and simplify.
a (x + 5)2 b (m + 4)2 c (6 + t)2
d (3 + p)2 e (m – 3)2 f (t – 5)2
g (4 – m)2 h (7 – k)2

Hints and tips Remember always write down the brackets twice. Do not try to
take any short cuts.

2 Expand the squares and simplify.

a (3x + 1)2 b (4t + 3)2 c (2 + 5y)2 d (3 + 2m)2
e (4t – 3)2 f (3x – 2)2 g (2 – 5t)2 h (6 – 5r)2
i (x + y)2 j (m – n)2 k (2t + y)2 l (m – 3n)2
m (x + 2)2 – 4 n (x – 5)2 – 25 o (x + 6)2 – 36 p (x – 2)2 – 4

8.4 Expanding squares 231

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EV 3 A teacher asks her class to expand (3x + 1)2.

Bernice’s answer is 9x2 + 1.
Pete’s answer is 3x2 + 6x + 1.
a Explain the mistakes that Bernice has made.
b Explain the mistakes that Pete has made.
c Work out the correct answer.
PS 4 Use the diagram to show algebraically and diagrammatically that:
(2x – 1)2 = 4x2 – 4x + 1
2x

(2x – 1)2
2x

PS 5 Expand (3p3 + 7q7)2.

MR 6 a Expand (4 + 3k)2.
b Use the answer to find the value of i 4.032 ii 3042 iii 4.0152

8.5 More than two binomials

This section will show you how to:
• expand more than two binomials.
When more than two binomials are multiplied together, you multiply one pair of binomials together,
then multiply the result by another binomial, and so on. The expansion and the box method
techniques you have met already can be extended, as shown in the examples, although FOIL would
need extra letters for the middle term.
Note that the general rule is that you need to multiply everything in one pair of brackets by
everything in the other pair of brackets, and then continue this for additional pairs of brackets.

Show that (x + 3)(x – 4)(x – 10) = x3 – 11x2 + ax + 120, and find the value of a.
Example 15

Using the expansion method for (x + 3)(x – 4):

(x + 3)(x – 4) = x(x – 4) + 3(x – 4)
= x2 – 4x + 3x – 12
= x2 – x – 12
Now use the expansion method for (x2 – x – 12)(x – 10)
(x2 – x – 12)(x – 10) = x2(x – 10) – x(x – 10) – 12(x – 10)
= x3 – 10x2 – x2 + 10x – 12x + 120
= x3 – 11x2 – 2x + 120
This is the result you were asked for. a = – 2.

232 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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Find a simplified expression for the volume of a cuboid that has sides of (2x – 1) metres, (x + 4)
Example 16
metres and (x + 7) metres.
The volume of a cuboid is the product of the lengths of its sides.
V = (2x – 1)(x + 4)(x + 7).
Using the box method for (2x – 1)(x + 4)

× 2x –1
x 2x 2
–x
4 8x –4

(2x – 1)(x + 4) = 2x2 + 8x – x – 4

= 2x2 + 7x – 4
Using the box method for (2x2 + 7x – 4)(x + 7)

× 2x2 7x –4
x 2x 3
7x
2
– 4x
7 14x2 49x –28

(2x2 + 7x – 4)(x + 7) = 2x3 + 14x2 + 7x2 + 49x – 4x – 28

= 2x3 + 21x2 + 45x – 28
The volume of the cuboid can be written as (2x3 + 21x2 + 45x – 28) m3.

a Expand (x + 2)3.
Example 17

b Find the value of 2.013 without using a calculator.

a (x + 2)3 is the same as (x + 2)(x + 2)(x + 2).
Using the expansion method
(x + 2)(x + 2) = x(x + 2) + 2(x + 2)
= x2 + 2x + 2x + 4
= x2 + 4x + 4
(x2 + 4x + 4)(x + 2) = x2(x + 2) + 4x(x + 2) + 4(x + 2)
= x3 + 2x2 + 4x2 + 8x + 4x + 8
= x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
So (x + 2)3 = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8
b If x = 0.01, then (x + 2)3 = 2.013.
Substitute x = 0.01 in the expression x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 8:
2.013 = 0.013 + 6 × 0.012 + 12 × 0.01 + 8
= 0.000 001 + 0.0006 + 0.12 + 8
= 8.120 601

8.5 More than two binomials 233

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Exercise 8I
1 Expand these expressions.
a (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) b (x + 5)(x + 3)(x – 8)
c (x – 2)(x + 2)(x + 9)
2 Expand these expressions.
a (x – 1)2(x + 9) b (x2 + 3x + 5)(x – 2)
3 Expand these expressions.
a (x + 4)3 b (x – 6)3 c (x + a)3
EV 4 a Find the expansion of (x + 7)(x + 3)(x + 1). Start by multiplying (x + 7) and (x + 3).
b Now find the expansion of (x + 7)(x + 3)(x + 1), starting by multiplying (x + 7)
and (x + 1).
c Now find the expansion of (x + 7)(x + 3)(x + 1), starting by multiplying (x + 3)
and (x + 1).
d What do your answers tell you about the order in which you expand the brackets?
MR 5 a Expand (x + a)(x + b)(x + c).
b If (x + 3)(x – 5)(x + 2) = x3 + px2 + qx + r, use your answer from a to find the values of
p, q and r.

PS 6 A cuboid has edges of (x + 1) cm, (x + 3) cm and (x – 19) cm.

Find simplified expressions for
a the volume of the cuboid
b the surface area of the cuboid.
CM 7 a Expand these expressions. i (x + 1)2 ii (x + 1)3 iii (x + 1)4
b By using a suitable substitution, use your answers to find the values of 112, 113 and 114.
c How do your answers relate to the coefficients of the terms in the answers?
MR 8 a Expand (x + 3)3.
b Find the value of 3.0013 without using a calculator.
9 Expand these expressions.
a (2x – 3)(x + 5)(x – 2)
b (x + 2)2(3x – 1)
10 Expand these expressions.
a (3x – 5)(2x + 7)(4x – 3) b (5x – 2)2(2x – 11) c (3x – 4)3
11 Simplify this expression. (2x – 1)(x – 4)(x – 2) – (2x – 3)(x + 5)(x + 6)

234 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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8.6 Quadratic factorisation

This section will show you how to:
• factorise a quadratic expression of the form x2 + ax + b into Key term
two linear brackets. difference of two squares

Factorisation involves putting a quadratic expression back into its brackets (if possible).
You start by factorising quadratic expressions of the type:
x2 + ax + b
where a and b are integers.
There are some rules that will help you to factorise.
• The expression inside each set of brackets will start with an x, and the signs in the quadratic
expression show which signs to put after the xs.
• When the second sign in the expression is positive, the signs in both sets of brackets are the same
as the first sign.
x2 + ax + b = (x + ?)(x + ?) Since everything is positive.
x – ax + b = (x – ?)(x – ?)
2
Since –ve × –ve = +ve
• When the second sign is negative, the signs in the brackets are different.
x2 + ax – b = (x + ?)(x – ?) Since +ve × –ve = –ve
x – ax – b = (x + ?)(x – ?)
2

• Next, look at the last number, b, in the expression. When multiplied together, the two numbers in
the brackets must give b.
• Finally, look at the coefficient of x, a. The sum of the two numbers in the brackets will give a.

Factorise x2 – x – 6.
Example 18

Because of the signs you know the brackets must be (x + ?)(x – ?).
Two numbers that have a product of –6 and a sum of –1 are –3 and +2.
So, x2 – x – 6 = (x + 2)(x – 3).

a Factorise x2 – 9x + 20.
Example 19

b Find the value of x2 – 9x + 20 when x = 24 without using a calculator.

a Because of the signs you know the brackets must be (x – ?)(x – ?).
Two numbers that have a product of +20 and a sum of –9 are – 4 and –5.
So, x2 – 9x + 20 = (x – 4)(x – 5).
b You could calculate 242 – 9 × 24 + 20, but it is simpler to substitute x = 24 into the
factorised expression.
(x – 4)(x – 5) = (24 – 4)(24 – 5)
= 20 × 19
= 380

8.6 Quadratic factorisation 235

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Exercise 8J
1 Factorise these expressions.
a x2 + 5x + 6 b t2 + 5t + 4 c m2 + 7m + 10 d k2 + 10k + 24
e p2 + 14p + 24 f r2 + 9r + 18 g w2 + 11w + 18 h x2 + 7x + 12
i a2 + 8a + 12 j k2 + 10k + 21 k f 2 + 22f + 21 l b2 + 20b + 96
m t2 – 5t + 6 n d2 – 5d + 4 o g2 – 7g + 10 p x 2 – 15x + 36
q c2 – 18c + 32 r t2 – 13t + 36 s y2 – 16y + 48 t j2 – 14j + 48

2 Factorise these expressions.

a p2 – 8p + 15 b y2 + 5y – 6 c t2 + 2t – 8 d x2 + 3x – 10
e m2 – 4m – 12 f r2 – 6r – 7 g n2 – 3n – 18 h m2 – 7m – 44
i w2 – 2w – 24 j t2 – t – 90 k h2 – h – 72 l t2 – 2t – 63
m d2 + 2d + 1 n y2 + 20y + 100 o t2 – 8t + 16 p m2 – 18m + 81
q x2 – 24x + 144 r d2 – d – 12 s t2 – t – 20 t q2 – q – 56

Hints and tips First decide on the signs in the brackets, then look at the numbers.

PS 3 This rectangle is made up of four parts. Two of the parts have areas of x2 and
6 square units.

x2

The sides of the rectangle are of the form x + a and x + b.

There are two possible answers for a and b.
Work out both answers and copy and complete the areas in the other parts of
the rectangle.

CM 4 a Expand (x + a)(x + b).

b If x2 + 7x + 12 = (x + p)(x + q), use your answer to part a to write down the values of:
i p+q ii pq
c Explain how you can tell that x2 + 12x + 7 will not factorise.
CM 5 a Substitute x = 19 into the expression x2 + 4x + 3.
b i Factorise x2 + 4x + 3.
ii Show that you get the same answer as a substituting x = 19 into your answer to b i.
PS 6 Factorise these expressions.
a x4 – 11x2 + 24 b y10 – 100y5 – 416 c z3456 – 862z1728 – 1728

Difference of two squares

In Exercise 8G, you multiplied out, for example, (a + b)(a – b) and obtained a2 – b2. This type of
quadratic expression, with only two terms that are both perfect squares, separated by a minus sign,
is called the difference of two squares.

236 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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Expand (x – 7)(x + 7).

(x – 7)(x + 7) = x2 – 7x + 7x – 49
= x2 – 49
Note that when you collect the – 7x and + 7x terms, they add together to make zero.
This process will only work when the terms in the brackets are different signs, which is why the
difference of two squares has a minus sign.
You can use this idea to factorise expressions written as the difference of two squares:
x2 – 9 = (x – 3)(x + 3)
x2 – 25 = (x – 5)(x + 5)
25x2 – 4 = (5x – 2)(5x + 2)
Three conditions must be met for the difference of two squares to work.
• There must be two terms.
• They must be separated by a negative sign.
• Each term must be a perfect square, say x2 and n2.
When these three conditions are met, the factorisation is: x2 – n2 = (x + n)(x – n)

a Factorise x2 – 9.
Example 20

b Use your answer to find the two prime factors of 4891.

a Recognise the difference of two squares, x2 and 9.
So it factorises to (x + 3)(x – 3).
Expanding the brackets shows that they do come from the original expression.
b If x2 – 9 = 4891
then x2 = 4900
and x = 70
(x could also equal –70 but that answer will not give you prime factors.)
When x = 70, the factors are 70 + 3 and 70 – 3.
The prime factors are 73 and 67.

Factorise 9x2 – 169.

Example 21

Recognise the difference of two squares (3x)2 and 132.

So it factorises to (3x + 13)(3x – 13).

Exercise 8K
1 Each of the expressions is the difference of two squares. Factorise them.
a x2 – 9 b t2 – 25 c m2 – 16
d 9 – x2 e 49 – t2 f k2 – 100
g 4 – y2 h x2 – 64 i t2 – 81

Hints and tips Learn how to spot the difference of two squares as you will come
across them a lot.

8.6 Quadratic factorisation 237

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PS 2 a A square has a side of x units.

What is the area of the square?
x

b A rectangle, A, 2 units wide, is cut from the square and placed at the side of the
remaining rectangle, B.
A square, C, is then cut from the bottom of rectangle A to leave a final rectangle, D.

B B
A
2 A

B D

i What is the height of rectangle B?

ii What is the width of rectangle D?
iii What is the area of rectangle B plus rectangle A?
iv What is the area of square C?
c By working out the area of rectangle D, explain why x2 – 4 = (x + 2)(x – 2).
CM 3 a Expand and simplify: (x + 2)2 – (x + 1)2
b Factorise: a2 – b2
c In your answer for part b, replace a with (x + 2) and b with (x + 1).
Expand and simplify the answer.
d What can you say about the answers to parts a and c?
e Simplify: (x + 1)2 – (x – 1)2
4 Factorise these expressions.
a x2 – y2 b x2 – 4y2 c x2 – 9y2 d 9x2 – 1
e 16x2 – 9 f 25x2 – 64 g 4x2 – 9y2 h 9t2 – 4w2
i 16y2 – 25x2
PS 5 Factorise the expressions.
a 121x6 – 9y6 b 25m10 – 81n18 c 576p576 – 961q288
MR 6 a Factorise the expression 9x2 – 1.
b Use your answer to find the prime factors of 899.
MR 7 a Factorise the expression 4x2 – 49.
b Use your answer to find the three unique prime factors of 39 951.

238 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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8.7 Factorising ax2 + bx + c

This section will show you how to:
• factorise a quadratic expression of the form ax2 + bx + c into two linear brackets.

You can adapt the method for factorising x2 + ax + b to take into account the factors of the coefficient
of x2.

Factorise 3x2 + 8x + 4.
Example 22

First, note that both signs are positive. So the signs in the brackets must be (?x + ?)(?x + ?).
As 3 has only 3 × 1 as factors, the brackets must be (3x + ?)(x + ?).
Next, note that the factors of 4 are 4 × 1 and 2 × 2.
Now find which pair of factors of 4 combine with 3 and 1 to give 8.
3 4 2
1 1 2
You can see that the combination 3 × 2 and 1 × 2 adds up to 8.
So, the complete factorisation becomes (3x + 2)(x + 2).

Factorise 6x2 – 7x – 10.

Example 23

First, note that both signs are negative. So the signs in the brackets must be (?x + ?)(?x – ?).
As 6 has 6 × 1 and 3 × 2 as factors, the brackets could be (6x ± ?)(x ± ?) or (3x ± ?)(2x ± ?).
Next, note that the factors of 10 are 5 × 2 and 1 × 10.
Now find which pair of factors of 10 combine with the factors of 6 to give –7.
3 6 ±1 ±2
2 1 ±10 ±5
You can see that the combination 6 × –2 and 1 × 5 adds up to –7.
So, the complete factorisation becomes (6x + 5)(x – 2).

Use the factorisation of 2x2 – 17x + 35 to find its value when x = 15.
Example 24

Since the coefficient of the x-term is negative but the coefficient of the constant is positive, the
signs in the brackets must be (?x – ?)(?x – ?).
As 2 has only 2 × 1 as factors, the brackets must be (2x – ?)(x – ?).
Next, note that the factors of 35 are 35 × 1 and 7 × 5.
Now find which pair of factors of 35 combine with 2 and 1 to give 17.
2 –35 –7 –1 –5
1 –1 –5 –35 –7
You can see that the combination 2 × – 5 and 1 × –7 adds up to –17.
So, the complete factorisation becomes (2x – 7)(x – 5).
Substitute x = 15 into (2x – 7)(x – 5): (2 × 15 – 7)(15 – 5) = 23 × 10 = 230

8.7 Factorising ax2 + bx + c 239

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Exercise 8L
1 Factorise these expressions.
a 2x2 + 5x + 2 b 7x2 + 8x + 1 c 4x2 + 3x – 7
d 24t2 + 19t + 2 e 15t2 + 2t – 1 f 16x2 – 8x + 1
g 6y2 + 33y – 63 h 4y2 + 8y – 96 i 8x2 + 10x – 3
j 6t2 + 13t + 5 k 3x2 – 16x – 12 l 7x2 – 37x + 10
PS 2 This rectangle is made up of four parts, with areas of 12x2, 3x, 8x and 2 square units.

12x2 3x

8x 2

Work out expressions for the sides of the rectangle, in terms of x.

CM 3 Three students are asked to factorise the expression 6x2 + 30x + 36.
These are their answers.
Adam Bertie Cara
(6x + 12)(x + 3) (3x + 6)(2x + 6) (2x + 4)(3x + 9)
All the answers are correctly factorised.
a Explain why one quadratic expression can have three different factorisations.
b Which of the following is the most complete factorisation?
2(3x + 6)(x + 3) 6(x + 2)(x + 3) 3(x + 2)(2x + 6)
Explain your choice.

4 Use the factorisation of 3x2 + 47x – 16 to find its value when x = 14.

5 a Factorise 33x2 – 65x – 2.

b Use the factorisation to show that when x = 3, the value of 33x2 – 65x – 2 is 100.
MR 6 Given that (5x + 9) is one factor of 15x2 – 73x – 180, find the other factor.

PS 7 The area of a rectangle is given by the expression 6x2 + 7x – 20.

Find both possible expressions for the perimeter of the rectangle.

240 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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8.8 Changing the subject

of a formula
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• change the subject of a formula.
inverse operations rearrange

The subject is the variable (letter) in a formula or equation subject transpose

which stands on its own, usually on the left-hand side of
the equals sign. For example, x is the subject of each of the
following equations.
1
x = 5t + 4 x = 4(2y – 7) x= t
To change the existing subject to a different variable, you have to rearrange (transpose) the formula to
get that variable on the left-hand side. You do this by using inverse operations.
For example, if 2x + 7 = 13, you subtract 7 from both sides, which gives you 2x = 6. Subtracting 7 is the
inverse operation of adding 7.
Next, you divide both sides by 2, which gives you x = 3. Dividing by 2 is the inverse operation of
multiplying by 2.
The main difference between rearranging formulae and solving equations is that when you solve
an equation each step gives a numerical value. When you rearrange a formula each step gives an
algebraic expression.

Make m the subject of this formula. T=m–3

Example 25

Add the 3 so that the m is on its own. T+3=m

Reverse the formula. m=T+3

From the formula P = 4t, express t in terms of P.

Example 26

(This is another common way of asking you to make t the subject.)

P = 4t
P
Divide both sides by 4:
4
= 44t

Reverse the formula: t= P

4

Make m the subject of the formula C = 2m2 + 3.

Example 27

Subtract the 3 so that the 2m2 is on its own: C – 3 = 2m2

C −3
= 2m
2
Divide both sides by 2:
2 2
Reverse the formula: m2 = C − 3
2

Take the square root on both sides: m = C 2− 3

8.8 Changing the subject of a formula 241

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Example 28 The formula v2 = u2 + 2as relates the final velocity (v) of an object to the initial velocity (u), the
acceleration (a) and the displacement (s).
a Make a the subject of the formula.
b Find the acceleration of a particle which has an initial velocity of 7 m/s, a final velocity of
11 m/s and a displacement of 6 m.
a v2 = u2 + 2as
Subtract the u2 so that the 2as is on its own v2 – u2 = 2as
a= v −u
2 2
Divide both sides by 2s:
2s
112 − 7 2
b Substitute u = 7, v = 11 and s = 6. a=
2×6
121 − 49
= 12
72
=
12
= 6 m/s2

Exercise 8M
1 T = 3k Make k the subject.

2 X=y–1 Express y in terms of X.

3 Q=
p
3
Express p in terms of Q.

4 A = 4r + 9 Make r the subject.

5 p=m+t a Make m the subject. b Make t the subject.

6 m
g= v
Make m the subject.

7 t = m2 Make m the subject.

8 P = 2l + 2w Make l the subject.

9 m = p2 + 2 Make p the subject.

10 The formula for converting degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius is C = 95 (F – 32).

a Show that when F = – 40, C is also equal to – 40.
b Find the value of C when F = 68.
c Use this flow diagram to establish the formula for converting degrees Celsius to
degrees Fahrenheit.
°F °C
– 32 ×5 ÷9

PS 11 Distance, speed and time are connected by the formula:

distance = speed × time.
A delivery driver drove 126 km in 1 hour and 45 minutes. On the return journey, he
was held up at some road works so his average speed decreased by 9 km per hour.
How long was he held up at the road works?

Hints and tips Work out the average speed for the first journey, then work out
the average speed for the return journey.

242 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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CM 12 C2
Given that C = 2πr and A = πr2, show that A =
4π
EV 13 Kieran notices that the price of five cream buns is 75p more than the price of nine
mince pies.
Let the price of a cream bun be x pence and the price of a mince pie be y pence.
a Based upon Kieran’s observation, express the cost of one mince pie, y, in terms of
the price of a cream bun, x.
b The price of a cream bun is 60p and the price of a mince pie is 25p. Check your
formula is correct.
Marlon states that the price of seven cream buns is 40p more than the price of ten
mince pies.
c Based upon Marlon’s statement, express the cost of one mince pie, y, in terms of
the price of a cream bun, x.
d Given the prices of the cream bun and mince pie, evaluate whether or not Marlon’s
statement is correct.

Hints and tips Set up a formula, using the first sentence of information, then
rearrange it.

14 v = u + at a Make a the subject. b Make t the subject.

15 A= 1 2
4 πd Make d the subject.

16 x = 5y – w a Make y the subject. b Express w in terms of x and y.

17 k = 2p2 Make p the subject.

18 v = u2 – t a Make t the subject. b Make u the subject.

19 K = 5n2 + w a Make w the subject. b Make n the subject.
MR 20 a U=K– P Make D the subject.
3D – Y
b Find the value of D when U = –3, Y = 37, P = 77 and K = 4.

8.8 Changing the subject of a formula 243

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Worked exemplars
MR 1 a Expand (5x + 3y)(3x – 4y).
b Use your answer to find the value of 50.03 × 29.96 without using a calculator.
This is a question requiring mathematical reasoning. This means that once you have
expanded the brackets for part a, you then need to find a link between parts a and b so
that you can use your answer from a to help you with b.

a (5x + 3y)(3x – 4y) = 15x2 – 20xy + 9xy – 12y2

= 15x2 – 11xy – 12y2

b Comparing the algebra in a with the

x = 10 multiplication sum in b, you need to
recognise that they are the same when
y = 0.01 x = 10 and y = 0.01
15x2 – 11xy – 12y2 Substitute x = 10 and y = 0.01 into the
= 15 × 10 – 11 × 10 × 0.01 – 12 × 0.01
2 2 expansion.

= 1500 – 1.1 – 0.0012

= 1498.8988

244 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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2x + 4
PS 2 A rectangle has a length of 2x + 4 and width of x + 2.
a Show that the perimeter can be written as 6(x + 2).
x+2
b Mark says that the perimeter must always be an even number.
Prove that Mark is wrong.

Part a is a problem solving question, which means that you need to find the
connections between two topics, in this case collecting like terms and finding
the perimeter.
For part b, this question requires you to assess the validity of an argument.
a Perimeter = 2 × (2 x + 4) + 2 × (x + 2) You need to show your method clearly.
= 2 × 2(x + 2) + 2(x + 2)
= 4(x + 2) + 2(x + 2) Write down a correct unsimplified
expression for the perimeter.
= 6(x + 2)
[Alternatively,
Perimeter = 2x + 4 + 2x + 4 + x + 2 + x + 2 You have to write your answer of 6(x + 2)
to show a complete accurate proof.
= 6x + 12
6x + 12 = 6(x + 2)]
b Mark is wrong because although Either choose a value of x for which the
6(x + 2) is always even when (x + 2) is a perimeter is not even (such as 2.5) or
whole number, there are values of x for choose a perimeter which is not even
which (x + 2) is not a whole number. (such as 15) and find the corresponding
value of x.
Example: x = 2.5, 6(x + 2) = 6 × 4.5 = 27
27 is not even Note that there are many answers. Any
value that makes the value inside the
brackets ‘something and a half’, such as
[Alternatively, x = 1.5 or x = 2.5 will work.
6(x + 2) = 15
x + 2 = 2.5
x = 0.5
It is possible for the perimeter to be a
number which is not even.]

8 Worked exemplars 245

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Ready to progress?
I can substitute numbers into expressions and formulae.
I can expand linear brackets and simplify expressions by collecting like terms.
I can factorise linear expressions.
I can rearrange simple formulae.

I can expand two or more binomials.

I can factorise quadratic expressions of the form x2 + ax + b.
I can recognise the difference of two squares.

I can factorise quadratic expressions of the form ax2 + bx + c.

Review questions
1 a Find an expression for the sum of the expressions (2x + 9), (6x – 5), (3x + 11) and
(9x + 1).
b Find the mean of the expressions (2x + 9), (6x – 5), (3x + 11) and (9x + 1).
2 R = 5c – 9 + 3d + 2(c + 7)
a Make c the subject of the formula. b Find c when R = 20 and d = –9.
PS 3 A formula for calculating a dose (D) of medicine (in ml) for a person of age a is given by
4 (a + 7 )
D= .
a + 10
a Find the dose for a person aged:
i 14 ii 30 iii 65.
b Find the age of a person who would take a dose of:
i 3.625 ml ii 3.75 ml iii 3.88 ml.
PS 4 x2 − 7
Find the area of a triangle with a base of (5x – 11) metres and a height of
x−1
metres when x = 4.

PS 5 The surface area, A, of a cylinder with a radius, r, and a height, h is given by the
formula A = 2πr2 + 2πrh.
a Factorise 2πr2 + 2πrh. b Make h the subject of the formula.
c Find the height of a cylinder which has an area of 208π cm2 and a radius of 8 cm.
6 The formula A = y + 0.01xy calculates the size of an amount y after it has been
increased by x%.
a Make x the subject of the formula. b Factorise y + 0.01xy.
PS c Use the formula to find the mass after 28 g has been increased by 37%.
PS 7 A right-angled triangle has a base of 30 m and a height of (3x + 1) m. If the area of the
right-angled triangle is 240 m2, find the value of x.

246 8 Algebra: Algebraic manipulation

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PS 8 The formula v2 = u2 + 2as relates the final velocity (v) of an object to the initial velocity
(u), the acceleration (a) and the displacement (s). The formula v = u + at relates the
final velocity (v) to the initial velocity (u), the acceleration (a) and the time (t).
A ball rolls for 2 seconds, increasing its velocity from 8 m/s to 12 m/s. Find the
displacement of the ball.

PS 9 A bag has (7x + 3) blue balls, (2x – 4) red balls and (19 – 4x) green balls.
a A ball is removed from the bag and discarded. Write down an expression for the
probability that the ball is green.
b A second ball is removed from the bag. If the first ball was green, what is the
probability that this ball is also green?

Hints and tips Remember that the probability of taking a particular colour of
Number of yellow balls
ball (e.g. yellow) is
Total number of balls

10 a Factorise 2x – 16. b Factorise x2 – 16x.

c Factorise x2 – 16. d Factorise x2 – 16x + 63.
11 y = 3(2x – 5)(x – 6)
a Show that when x = 10, y = 180. b Expand the expression.
PS 12 A rectangle has a base of (3x – 8) cm and a height of (5x + 7) cm.
a Find simplified expressions for:
i its area ii its perimeter.
b If the perimeter of the rectangle is 70 cm, find its area.
MR 13 a Expand (2x + 1)2. b By substituting x = 10, find the value of 212.
c Use the difference of two squares to find the value of 23 × 19.
MR 14 a Expand (a + b)3. b Use your answer to expand (2x + 3)3.
c Hence find the value of 3.023 without a calculator.
PS 15 A cuboid has edges of (x + 3) cm, (x + 4) cm and (x + 5) cm.
a Find expressions for:
i the total length of all the edges
ii the surface area of the cuboid
iii the volume of the cuboid.
b If the sum of the edges of the cuboid is 180 cm, find the surface area and volume.
16 a Expand the brackets: (3x + 5y)(4x – 7y)
b Factorise: 6x2 – xy – 35y2

MR 17 Given that 3x2 + ax + 8 can be factorised, state all the possible values that a can take.

MR 18 a Factorise 2x2 + 7x + 6.
b Use your answer to find the value of:
i 23 × 12 ii 203 × 102 iii 3.02 × 2.01.

8 Review questions 247

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9
Geometry and measures:
Length, area and volume
This chapter is going to show you:
• how to calculate the circumference and area of a circle
• how to calculate the area of a parallelogram and a trapezium
• how to calculate the length of an arc
• how to calculate the area and angle of a sector
• how to calculate the volume of a prism and a pyramid
• how to calculate the volume and surface area of a cylinder, a cone
and a sphere.

You should already know:

• the formula for the area of a rectangle: area = length × width or A = lw
1
• the formula for the area of a triangle: area = 2
× base × height or
A = 21 bh
• the formula for the volume of a cuboid:
volume = length × width × height or V = lwh
• the common metric units to measure area, volume and capacity
shown in this table.
Area Volume Capacity
100 mm = 1 cm
2 2
1000 mm = 1 cm
3 3
1000 cm3 = 1 litre
10 000 cm2 = 1 m2 1 000 000 cm3 = 1 m3 1 m3 = 1000 litres

About this chapter

From earliest times, farmers have wanted to know the area of their fields
to see how many crops they could grow or animals they could support.
One of the oldest units of area used in England was the acre, which was
the amount of land that a man could plough in a day. Even today, when
land is bought and sold, the cost depends on the area. A considerable
part of the cost of a new house is the cost of the land it stands on.
Volumes are important, too. They tell us how much space there is inside
any structure. Whether it is a house, barn, aeroplane, car or office, the
volume is important. Did you know, for example, that in England there
is a regulation that governs the number of people that can use an office,
based on the volume of the room?
So how can you measure areas and volumes? Some shapes and objects
are easy. Others take more ingenuity and skill. In this chapter, you
will learn formulae that can be used to calculate areas and volumes of
different shapes, based on a few measurements. Many of these formulae
were first worked out thousands of years ago. The fact that these
formulae are still in use today shows how important they are.

248
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9.1 Circumference and area

of a circle
This section will show you how to: Key terms
circumference π (pi)
• calculate the circumference and area of a circle.

Circumference of a circle
• Find a cylinder or tin and measure its diameter, d.
• Wrap a piece of string around the cylinder 10 times and measure
the length, L; of the string.
• Divide L; by 10 to find the circumference, C; of the cylinder.
• Divide the circumference, C; by diameter, d; and check you get
the result 3.1.
If you were able to do this accurately you would get the result as
3.141 592…, which is the number π, found on your calculator. π is a
Greek letter; you pronounce it as ‘pi’.
This result illustrates the relationship between the circumference, C, of a circle and its diameter, d.
C = πd

Calculate the circumference of the circle. Give your answer to

Example 1

3 significant figures.
5.6 cm

C = πd
= π × 5.6 cm
= 17.6 cm (3 sf)

Area of a circle
You could divide a circle into 32 sectors as shown.
These 32 sectors are then cut out and rearranged together as the new
shape shown.
This shape is close to a rectangle.

Notice that the length of the rectangle is half the circumference, that is 21 πd = or πr as d = 2r.
Notice that the width of the rectangle is the radius, r, of the circle.
So the area of the circle = the area of rectangle = πr × r = πr 2.
This result illustrates the relationship between the area, A, and the radius, r, of a circle.
A = πr 2

9.1 Circumference and area of a circle 249

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Example 2 Calculate the area of the circle. Give your answer in terms of π.

6m

A = πr 2
= π × 62 m2
= 36π m2

Exercise 9A
1 Copy and complete this table.
Give your answers to 3 significant figures.

Circle Radius Diameter Circumference Area

a 4.0 cm
b 2.6 m
c 12.0 cm
d 3.2 m

2 Find the circumference of each of the following circles.

Give your answers in terms of π.
a Diameter: 5 cm b Radius: 4 cm c Radius: 9 m d Diameter: 12 cm
3 Find the area of each of the following circles.
Give your answers in terms of π.
a Radius: 5 cm b Diameter: 12 cm c Radius: 10 cm d Diameter: 1 m
PS 4 A rope is wrapped eight times around a capstan (a cylindrical post), with a diameter
of 35 cm.
How long is the rope?

PS 5 The roller used on a cricket pitch has a radius of 70 cm.

A cricket pitch has a length of 20 m.
How many complete revolutions does the roller make when rolling the pitch?

6 The diameter of each of these four coins is as follows.

1p: 2.0 cm 2p: 2.6 cm 5p: 1.7 cm 10p: 2.4 cm
Calculate the area of one face of each coin.
Give your answers to 1 decimal place.

7 The distance around the outside of a large pipe is 2.6 m.

What is the diameter of the pipe?

250 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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PS 8 What is the total perimeter of a semicircle of diameter 15 cm?

15 cm

EV 9 A restaurant sells two sizes of pizza. The diameters are 24 cm and 30 cm.
The restaurant claims that the larger size is 50% bigger.
Your friend disagrees and wants to complain. What would you advise? Give a reason
for your answer.

10 Calculate the area of each of these shapes, giving your answers in terms of π.
a b

4 cm
12 cm

MR 11 Calculate the area of the shaded part of the diagram, giving your answer in terms of π.

8m

1m

EV 12 A tree in Sequoia National Park in the USA is considered to be the largest in the
world. It has a circumference at the base of 31.3 m. Would the base of the tree fit
inside your classroom? Explain how you know.

PS 13 The wheel of a bicycle has a diameter of 70 cm.

The bicycle travels 100 m.
How many complete revolutions does the wheel make?

MR 14 The shape shown is made up of semicircles.

a If the radius of the small semicircle is 1 cm, find the area of the shaded shape in
terms of π.
b Repeat part a if the small semicircle has a radius of:
i 2 cm ii 3 cm iii 4 cm.
c What link is there between the radius, r, of the small semicircle and the area, A, of
the shaded shape?

9.1 Circumference and area of a circle 251

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9.2 Area of a parallelogram

This section will show you how to:
• calculate the area of a parallelogram.

The diagram shows that a parallelogram can be rearranged to form a rectangle with the same base
and perpendicular height.

Height Height

Base Base

This means that the formula for the area of a parallelogram is the same as the formula for the area of
a rectangle:
area = base × perpendicular height
A = bh
where b is the length of the base and h is the perpendicular height of the parallelogram.

Work out the area of this parallelogram.

Example 3

6 cm

8 cm

Area = 8 cm × 6 cm
= 48 cm2

Exercise 9B
1 Calculate the area of each parallelogram.
a 8 cm b c
8 cm 10 cm 5m
12 cm 5m
10 cm
7 cm
12 cm
7 cm
4m

4m
d 5 cm e f
5 cm

25 cm

25 cm 4 cm 14 m
4 cm 14 m

1
2 2 cm 8m
1
2 2 cm 8m
252 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume
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EV 2 Sandeep says that the area of this parallelogram is 30 cm2.

Is she correct? Give a reason for your answer. 5 cm 4 cm

6 cm
CM 3 This shape is made from four identical 4 cm
parallelograms. The total area of the
shape is 120 cm2.
Freya said the length marked x on the 10 cm
diagram is 20 cm.
Show that Freya is incorrect.
x

PS 4 This logo, made from two identical parallelograms, 30 cm

is cut from a sheet of card.
a Calculate the area of the logo.
20 cm
b How many logos can be cut from a sheet of card that 25 cm
measures 1 m by 1 m?

9.3 Area of a trapezium

This section will show you how to:
• calculate the area of a trapezium.

a
You can calculate the area of a trapezium by finding the average of the lengths of
its parallel sides and multiplying this by the perpendicular distance between them.
A = 21 (a + b)h h

Find the area of the trapezium ABCD. 4 cm

Example 4

A B

3 cm

D C
7 cm

A = 21 (4 + 7) × 3 cm2
= 16.5 cm2

9.3 Area of a trapezium 253

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Exercise 9C
1 Copy and complete this table.

Trapezium Parallel side 1 Parallel side 2 Vertical height Area

a 8 cm 4 cm 5 cm
b 10 cm 12 cm 7 cm
c 7 cm 5 cm 4 cm
d 5 cm 9 cm 6 cm
e 3m 13 m 5m
f 4 cm 10 cm 42 cm2
g 7 cm 8 cm 22.5 cm2
h 6 cm 5 cm 40 cm2

MR 2 a On squared paper, draw a trapezium similar to the one shown below. Using dotted
lines, split your trapezium into two triangles and a rectangle.

b Find the area of the whole shape by adding the areas of the triangles to the area of
the rectangle.
c Check that you get the same result by using 21 (a + b)h.
3 Calculate the area and perimeter of each of these trapeziums.
a 6.5 cm b 12 cm
c 8m

7 cm 6 cm
6 cm 7 cm
5 cm 9.4 m
9.1 m
9m
8 cm 8.4 cm

12 m

CM 4 How does this diagram show that the area of a trapezium is b a

1
2
(a + b)h?
h

a b
PS 5 Find the area of each of the four shaded parts of this picture frame. 10 cm

6 cm
12 cm 8 cm

254 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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6 Calculate the area of each of these compound shapes.

a 7m b 22 cm c 6m

2m 4m
21 cm 10 m
20 cm 5 cm
4m
8m

10 m
3m

MR 7 Show that the area of the shaded part in this diagram 6m

is 47 m2.
3m

7m 3m

10 m
PS 8 This is a sketch of a shed with four walls and a
sloping roof.
A one-litre can of wood-protection paint will
cover 10 m2.
How many one-litre cans would you need, to put
2.1 m 1.8 m
two coats of preservative on each of the four walls?

1.5 m 2.6 m

PS 9 What percentage of this shape has been shaded? 12 cm

6 cm 9 cm

8 cm

15 cm
MR 10 The shape of most of Egypt roughly approximates to a trapezium.
The north coast is about 900 km long, the south boundary is about
Cairo
1100 km long and the distance from north to south is about 1100 km.
What is the approximate area of this part of Egypt?

PS 11 The diagram shows a trapezium.

26 cm
Calculate its area.

8 cm
10 cm 10 cm

14 cm

9.3 Area of a trapezium 255

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EV 12 The diagram shows a circle of diameter 8 cm with an isosceles

trapezium in the middle.
The shaded and unshaded parts have the same area.
a State a possible set of dimensions for the trapezium.
b What comments can you make about the accuracy of your
dimensions?

9.4 Sectors
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the length of an arc arc sector
• calculate the area and angle of a sector. subtend

A sector is part of a circle, bounded by two radii and one of the arcs formed by
the intersections of these radii with the circumference.
ius
The angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the arc of a sector is known rad
as the angle of the sector. arc
O

When you divide a circle into only two sectors, the larger one is
called the major sector and the smaller one is called the minor
sector. Their arcs are called the major arc and the minor arc, Major Minor
respectively. arc Major Minor arc
sector sector

Length of an arc and area of a sector

A sector is a fraction of the whole circle. The size of the fraction is determined by
the size of angle of the sector. The angle is often written as θ , a Greek letter
pronounced theta. For example, the sector shown in the diagram represents r
θ .
the fraction 360 θ
O
This applies to both its arc length and its area and gives us these results.
arc length =
θ × 2πr or θ × πd
360 360
sector area = θ × πr 2
360
Find the arc length AB and the area of the sector AOB in the diagram.
Example 5

A
5 cm
O 28°

The sector angle is 28° and the radius is 5 cm. So:

28
arc length = ×π×2×5
360
= 2.4 cm (1 dp)
28
sector area = × π × 52
360
= 6.1 cm2 (1 dp)

256 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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Example 6 A sector has a radius of 8 cm and an arc length of 5 cm. What is the angle of the sector?
θ
Arc length = 5 = ×2×π×8
360
5 × 360
θ=
2×π×8
= 35.8° (3 sf)

Exercise 9D
1 For each of these sectors, calculate:
i the arc length ii the sector area.
a b c d
95° 130°
78°
40°
8 cm 5 cm 12 cm 7 cm

2 Calculate the arc length and the area of a sector whose arc subtends an angle of 60°
at the centre of a circle with a diameter of 12 cm. Give your answer in terms of π.

3 Calculate the total perimeter of each of these sectors.

a b
11 cm
22°
8.5 cm

MR 4 Show that the area of the sector shown has the same area as a circle 8 cm
with diameter 8 cm.

5 Calculate the area of each of these sectors.

a b
110°
7 cm
50°
8 cm

6 O is the centre of a circle of radius 12.5 cm. C

Calculate the length of the arc ACB.

O
12.5 cm

A 160° B

9.4 Sectors 257

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CM 7 a Calculate the angle of the minor sector of this circle. Give your
answer in terms of π.
b Angles are sometimes measured in radians.
O
The angle you found in part a is equal to one radian.
10 cm 10 cm
By comparing the sector to an equilateral triangle of side 10 cm,
explain why one radian must be a little less than 60°.

PS 8 a What is the angle of a sector with a radius of 6 cm and an arc 10 cm

length of 7 cm?
b What is the area of a sector with a radius of 5 cm and an arc length of 4 cm?
CM 9 Effie said: “The area of a sector can be found just by halving the product of the arc
length and the radius.”
Prove that Effie is correct.

PS 10 The diagram shows quarter of a circle. Calculate the area of the

shaded shape, giving your answer in terms of π.
12 cm

12 cm
PS 11 ABCD is a square of side length 8 cm. APC and AQC are arcs A B
of the circles with centres D and B. Calculate the area of
the shaded part. P

D C
PS 12 Antique clocks are powered by a pendulum that swings from side to side.
The pendulum of an old clock is 90 cm long.
It swings from side to side through an angle of 10°.
How wide does the clock case need to be so that the pendulum can swing freely?

CM 13 Both squares shown have the same area.

Square shows a quarter of a circle.
Square Y shows four identical quarter circles.
Show that the shaded shapes in the squares have equal areas.

X Y

258 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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9.5 Volume of a prism

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the volume of a prism. cross-section prism

A prism is a 3D shape that has the same cross-section running all the way through it.

Name: Cuboid Triangular prism Cylinder Cuboid Hexagonal prism

Cross-section: Rectangle Triangle Circle Square Hexagon

You can find the volume of a prism by multiplying the area of its cross-section by the length of the
prism (or height if the prism is standing on end).
That is, volume of prism = V = Al
where A is area of cross-section and l is the length of the prism.

Find the volume of the triangular prism.

Example 7

7 cm
9 cm

5 cm

First find the area of the triangular cross-section. A = 5 × 7 = 17.5 cm2

2
Use this to find the volume. V = Al
= 17.5 × 9
= 157.5 cm3

Exercise 9E
1 For each prism calculate:
i the area of the cross-section ii the volume.
a b 8 cm c 5m
9 cm
5 cm
6 cm 2m
6m
3 cm
7 cm 4 cm 9m

2 cm 8m

9.5 Volume of a prism 259

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2 Calculate the volume of each of these prisms.

a 7m b c 15 m
4m
3m 11 m
3m 4m

4m
6m 6m
4m 9m 12 m
6m
5m 3m 3m

CM 3 A swimming pool is 10 m wide and 25 m long.

It is 1.2 m deep at one end and 2.2 m deep at the other end. The floor slopes
uniformly from one end to the other.
a Explain why the shape of the pool is a prism.
b The pool is filled with water at a rate of 2 m3 per minute. How long will it take to fill
the pool?

PS 4 A conservatory is in the shape of a prism. Calculate the volume of air inside the
conservatory in cubic centimetres.

3m 1.5 m

2m
1.7 m

MR 5 A girl builds 27 cubes, each of edge 2 cm, into a single large cube. Show that with
37 more cubes, she could build a larger cube with edge 2 cm longer than the
first one.

6 Each of these prisms has a uniform cross-section in the shape of a right-

angled triangle.
a Find the volume of each prism.
b Find the total surface area of each prism.
i 3.5 cm ii 7 cm
13 cm
5 cm
5 cm
4 cm
12 cm

3 cm

PS 7 The top and bottom of the container shown here are the same size. They are made
up of a rectangle, 4 cm by 9 cm, with a semicircle at each end. The container is 3 cm
deep. Find the volume of the container.

260 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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PS 8 In 2009 the sculptor Anish Kapoor exhibited a work called Svayambh

at the Royal Academy of Arts (RA) in London. It was a block of red
wax in the shape of a prism that slowly travelled through the
galleries on a track. 4.5 m
The cross-section was in the shape of an arched entrance.
It was 8 m long and weighed 30 tonnes.
Calculate the volume of wax used for the sculpture. 2.3 m

PS 9 A horse trough is in the shape of a semicircular prism as shown. What volume of

water will the trough hold when it is filled to the top? Give your answer in litres.
70 cm

1.7 m

PS 10 The dimensions of the cross-section of a girder (in the shape of a prism), 2 m in

length, are shown on the diagram. The girder is made of iron. 1 cm3 of iron weighs
79 g. What is the mass of the girder?

8 cm 8 cm

8 cm 12 cm 8 cm

8 cm 8 cm
30 cm

EV 11 Suzanna and her daughter, Maisy, were trying to work out the volume of this prism.

7 cm

20 cm
12 cm

16 cm 7 cm

Suzanna says it has volume 26 880 cm3. Maisy says: “Don’t be silly, Mum ”
Explain why Maisy says this and calculate the actual volume of the prism.

9.5 Volume of a prism 261

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9.6 Cylinders
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the volume and surface area of a cylinder.
cylinder surface area
Volume
Since a cylinder is an example of a prism, you can find its volume by multiplying r
the area of one of its circular ends by its height. That is
volume = πr 2h
h
where r is the radius of the cylinder and h is its height or length.

What is the volume of a cylinder with a radius of 5 cm and a height of 12 cm?

Example 8

Volume = area of circular base × height

= πr 2h
= π × 52 × 12
= 942 cm3 (3 sf)

Surface area
The total surface area of a cylinder is made up of the area of its curved surface plus the area of its two
circular ends.
The curved surface area, when opened out, is a rectangle with length equal to the circumference of
the circular end.
curved surface area = circumference of end × height of cylinder
= 2πrh or πdh c

area of one end = πr 2 r

h
r

This gives total surface area = 2πrh + 2πr 2

or πdh + 2πr .2

What is the total surface area of a cylinder with a radius of 15 cm and a height of 2.5 m? Give
Example 9

your answer correct to 3 significant figures.

First, you must change the dimensions to a common unit. Use centimetres in this case.
Total surface area = 2πrh + 2πr 2
= 2 × π × 15 × 250 + 2 × π × 152
= 23 562 + 1414
= 24 976
= 25 000 cm2 (3 sf)

262 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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Exercise 9F
1 For the cylinders below find: i the volume ii the total surface area.
Give your answers to 3 significant figures.

3 cm 1 cm

a b c d
6 cm
8 cm 9 cm
19 cm
3.5 cm
15 cm

2 For each of these cylinder dimensions find:

i the volume ii the curved surface area.
Give your answers in terms of π.
a Base radius 3 cm, height 8 cm b Base diameter 8 cm, height 7 cm
c Base diameter 12 cm, height 5 cm d Base radius 10 m, length 6 m
MR 3 The diameter of a cylindrical marble column is 60 cm and its height is 4.2 m. The cost
of making this column is quoted as £67.50 per cubic metre. Show that the estimated
total cost of making the column is £80.

PS 4 Find the mass of a solid iron cylinder 55 cm high with a base diameter of 60 cm. The
density of iron is 7.9 g/cm3.

EV 5 A cylindrical food can has a height of 10.5 cm and a diameter of 7.4 cm.
What can you say about the dimensions of the paper label around the can?

CM 6 A cylindrical container is 65 cm in diameter. Water is poured into the container until it

is 1 m deep. Show that there are approximately 332 litres of water in the container.

EV 7 A drinks manufacturer wishes to market a new drink in a can. The quantity in each
can must be 330 ml. Suggest a suitable height and diameter for the can.
You may like to look at the dimensions of a real drinks can.

PS 8 A metal bar, 1 m long and with a diameter of 6 cm, has a mass of 22 kg. What is the
density of the metal that the bar is made from?

PS 9 Wire is commonly made by putting hot metal through a hole in a plate.

What length of wire, of diameter 1 mm, can be made from a 1 cm cube of metal?

EV 10 The engine size of a car is measured in litres. This tells you the total capacity of the
cylinders in which the pistons move up and down. For example, in a 1.6 litre engine
with four cylinders, each cylinder will have a capacity of 0.4 litres.
Cylinders of a particular size can be long and thin or short and fat; they will give the
engine different running characteristics.
In a racing car, the diameter can be approximately twice the length. This means the
engine will run at very high revs.
Suggest possible dimensions for a 0.4 litre racing car cylinder.

9.6 Cylinders 263

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9.7 Volume of a pyramid

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the volume of a pyramid. apex edge

A pyramid is a 3D shape with a base from which triangular frustum pyramid

faces rise to a common vertex, called the apex. The base vertex vertices
can be any polygon, but is usually a triangle, a rectangle or
a square.
The faces of a pyramid meet at edges. This is the name of the line where any two faces meet in a 3D
shape. A pyramid has eight edges.
Note also that a vertex is the point where any two lines or two edges meet. The Apex
plural of vertex is vertices. The vertices of 2D shapes are the corners where
the angles are found. The vertices of a 3D shape are the points where the
edges meet. A square-based pyramid has five vertices. h
The volume of a pyramid is:
1 A
volume (V)= 3
Ah
where A is the base area and h is the vertical height.

Calculate the volume of this pyramid.

Example 10

6 cm

4 cm
5 cm

First find the base area. 5 × 4 = 20 cm2

1
Then use the formula to find the volume. 3 × 20 × 6 = 40 cm3

A pyramid, with a square base of side 8 cm, has a volume of 320 cm3. What is the vertical height
Example 11

of the pyramid?
Let h be the vertical height of the pyramid. Then,
volume = 1 × 64 × h = 320
3
64 h
= 320
3
h = 960
64
h = 15 cm

264 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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Exercise 9G
1 Calculate the volume of each of these rectangular-based pyramids.

a b c

6 cm 7 cm 12 cm

4 cm 8 cm 13 cm
7 cm 9 cm 20 cm

d e

9 cm
6 cm

4 cm 8 cm

7 cm 10 cm

MR 2 Show that the volume of a pyramid with a square base of side 9 cm and a vertical
height of 10 cm is 270 cm3.
CM 3 Suppose you have six pyramids that each have a height that is
half the side of the square base.
a Explain how they can fit together to make a cube.
b How does this show that the formula for the volume of a pyramid
is correct?

PS 4 The glass pyramid outside the Louvre Museum in Paris was built in the 1980s. It is
20.6 m tall and the base is a square of side 35 m. The design was very controversial.
Suppose that, instead of a pyramid, the building was a conventional shape with the
same square base, a flat roof and the same volume.
How high would it have been?
5 Calculate the volume of each of these shapes.

25 cm
5m 3m 8m 5m
20 cm

4m
2.5 m 10 cm
5m 3m 15 cm

PS 6 What is the mass of a solid pyramid with a square base of side 4 cm, a height of 3 cm
and a density of 13 g/cm3? (1 cm3 has a mass of 13 g.)

MR 7 A crystal is in the form of two square-based pyramids joined

at their bases (see diagram).
7 cm
The crystal has a mass of 31.5 g.
What is the mass of 1 cm3 of the substance?
3 cm

9.7 Volume of a pyramid 265

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MR 8 A pyramid has a square base of side 6.4 cm.

Its volume is 81.3 cm3.
Show that the height of the pyramid is 6.0 cm.

PS 9 A square-based pyramid has the same volume as a cube of side 10 cm.

The height of the pyramid is the same as the side of the square base.
Calculate the height of the pyramid.

EV 10 The pyramid in the diagram has its top 5 cm cut off as shown.
The shape that is left is called a frustum. Hannah said:
26 of the original pyramid.” 5 cm
“The volume of the frustum is 27
Evaluate Hannah’s comment.
2 cm
3 cm

10 cm

6 cm

9 cm

9.8 Cones
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the volume and surface area of a cone. slant height vertical height

You can treat a cone as a pyramid with a circular base. So the formula for the volume of a cone is the
same as the formula for a pyramid:
1
volume = 3
× base area × vertical height
1 2
V= 3 πr h
where r is the radius of the base and h is the vertical height of the cone.
The curved surface area of a cone is:
l
curved surface area = π × radius × slant height h

S = πrl
where l is the slant height of the cone. r
So the total surface area of a cone (A) is the curved surface area plus the area
of its circular base.
A = πrl + πr 2

266 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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For the cone in the diagram, calculate:

Example 12 i its volume ii its total surface area.
Give your answers in terms of π. 10 cm
8 cm

6 cm

1
i The volume is V = 3 πr 2h
1
= 3
× π × 36 × 8
= 96π cm3
ii The total surface area is A = πrl + πr 2
= π × 6 × 10 + π × 36
= 96π cm2

Exercise 9H
1 For each cone, calculate:
i its volume ii its total surface area.
Give your answers to 3 significant figures.
a b c
18 cm
35.4 cm

34 cm
12 cm
5 cm
12 cm
13 cm 15 cm

20 cm

PS 2 A solid cone, base radius 6 cm and vertical height 8 cm, is made of metal with a
density of 3.1 g/cm3. Find the mass of the cone.

MR 3 The total surface area of a cone with base radius 3 cm is 24π cm2 . Show that its slant
height is 5 cm.

4 Calculate the volume of each of these shapes. Give your answers in terms of π.
a b
10 cm
8 cm
8 mm

40 mm 15 mm

20 cm

12 cm

9.8 Cones 267

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5 A cone has the dimensions shown in the diagram.

Calculate the total surface area, leaving your answer in terms of π. 5 cm
4 cm

6 cm
EV 6 A sector of a circle, as in the diagram, can be made into a cone (without a base) by
sticking the two straight edges together.

6 cm 6 cm
120°

a What would be the diameter of the base of the cone in this case?
b What is the diameter if the angle is changed to 180°?
c Investigate other angles.
CM 7 If the slant height of a cone is equal to the base diameter, show that the area of the
curved surface is twice the area of the base.

PS 8 The model shown on the right is made from aluminum.

4 cm
The mass of the model is 140 g. What is the density of aluminum?

6 cm

3 cm
PS 9 A container in the shape of a cone, base radius 10 cm and vertical height 19 cm, is full
of water. The water is poured into an empty cylinder of radius 15 cm. How high is the
water in the cylinder?

PS 10 A cone of base radius 8 cm and height 12 cm has its top cut off to make a frustum.
The frustum is 9 cm high and has a circular top of radius 2 cm. Find the volume of this
frustum in terms of π.

9.9 Spheres
This section will show you how to: Key term
• calculate the volume and surface area of a sphere. sphere

The volume of a sphere, radius r, is:

V = 43 πr3
r
Its surface area is:
A = 4πr 2

268 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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For a sphere of radius of 8 cm, calculate: i its volume ii its surface area.
Example 13
i The volume is given by V = 43 πr3. ii The surface area is given by A = 4πr 2.
4 2048
So, 3 × π × 83 = ×π So, 4 × π × 82 = 256 × π
3
= 2140 cm3 (3 sf) = 804 cm3 (3 sf)

Exercise 9I
1 Calculate the volume of each of these spheres. Give your answers in terms of π.
a Radius: 3 cm b Radius: 6 cm c Diameter: 20 cm
2 Calculate the surface area of each of these spheres. Give your answers in terms of π.
a Radius: 3 cm b Radius: 5 cm c Diameter: 14 cm
3 Calculate the volume and surface area of a sphere with a diameter of 50 cm.

PS 4 A solid sphere fits exactly into an open cubical box of side 25 cm.
a What is the surface area of the sphere?
b How much water can be poured into the box, with the sphere in it, before it spills?
MR 5 A metal sphere of radius 15 cm is melted down and recast into a solid cylinder of
radius 6 cm. Calculate the height of the cylinder.

PS 6 Lead has a density of 11.35 g/cm3. Calculate the maximum number of shot (spherical
lead pellets) of radius 1.5 mm that can be made from 1 kg of lead.

MR 7 A sphere with a radius of 5.0 cm has the same volume as a cone with a base radius of
8.0 cm.
Calculate the height of the cone.

EV 8 The standard (size 5) football must be between 68 cm to 70 cm in circumference and

weigh between 410 g to 450 g. They are usually made from 32 panels: 12 regular
pentagons and 20 regular hexagons.
a Will a football manufacturer be more interested in the surface area or the volume
of the ball? Why?
b What variation in the surface area of a football is allowed?
PS 9 A sphere of diameter 10 cm is carved out of a wooden block in the shape of a cube of
side 10 cm.
What percentage of the wood is wasted?

MR 10 A manufacturer is making cylindrical packaging for a sphere as shown.

The curved surface of the cylinder is made from card.
Show that the area of the card is the same as the surface area of the sphere.

9.9 Spheres 269

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 Hari has a cylindrical glass and another glass in the shape of a cone connected to a stem.
They both hold the same amount of liquid.
The cylindrical glass has a diameter of 5 cm and is 6 cm high.
The other glass has an opening of diameter of 6.4 cm and a stem height of 3 cm.
How high is this glass?

This is a problem-solving question. You need to recognise that you must find the volume
of one glass and then set up an equation to help find the height of the other glass.
The cylindrical glass has a base radius of 2.5 cm. First, find the volume of the
The volume is π × 2.5 × 6 = 37.5π cm .
2 3 cylindrical glass.

If the height of the cone in the second glass is Then set up an equation and solve it
h cm then: to find the height of the other glass.
1 × π × 3.22 × h = 37.5π Note you don’t need to complete
3
37.5 × π × 3 the calculations fully – you can leave
h=
π × 3.2 2 them in terms of π, as π will cancel
= 10.9863 cm. out.

The height of the glass is 11 + 3 cm You need to round the final answer
= 14 cm. off appropriately.

EV 2 Three balls of diameter 8.2 cm just fit inside a cylindrical container.

Andrew said: “The volume of that container is 1300 cm3.”
Sophia said: “No, it’s not.”
Explain the validity of each claim.

This is an evaluating question where you need to evaluate the results obtained.
The diameter of the cylinder is 8.2 cm Before you can evaluate the comments, you
and the height is 24.6 cm. first need to calculate the actual volume.
The internal volume = π × 4.12 × 24.6
= 1299.13…
= 1300 cm3 (2 sf)

Andrew has correctly stated the Once you have found the volume, you
volume to 2 (or 3) significant figures, should evaluate each comment, seeing
which is 1300 cm2. where they may have made an error or what
Sophia could also be correct as the makes their statement correct.
volume is only 1300 cm3 as a rounded Here, you need to make sure you state
answer. Andrew’s accuracy is to 2 or 3 sf and also
state a reason why Sophia is correct. You
could also argue that since the original data
was 2 sf, the accuracy of the answer could
be given to 1 sf, which would be 1000 cm3.

270 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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CM 3 The key hole shape shown is made up of a circle radius 1 cm and a sector of
angle 30°. 1 cm

Show that the area of this shape is 9π .

4
30° 3 cm

This is a communicating mathematics question where you need to construct and

communicate chains of reasoning to achieve a given result.

Area of sector = θ × π × r 2 Plan your solution by considering

360 how to find the total area of the
30 shape. Remember that in this type
= 360
× π × 42
of question you have the final result
= 480 ×π to work towards, so if your answer
360 is not correct, you should be able to
4 see what you have done wrong.
= 3π

Area of major sector in circle = θ × π × r 2

360

= 330 × π × 12
360
11
= 12
π

4 11
Total area = 3 π + 12 π

= (16 + 11) π
12
= 27 π
12
= 9π
4

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Ready to progress?
I can calculate the circumference and area of a circle.
I can calculate the area of a parallelogram and a trapezium.
I can calculate the volume and surface area of prisms and cylinders.

I can calculate the length of an arc and the area of a sector.

I can calculate the volume of pyramids, cones and spheres.
I can calculate the surface area of cones and spheres.

Review questions
1 The diagram shows a circle inside a trapezium.
6 cm

2.5 cm

7 cm

8 cm

Calculate the shaded area of the shape.

2 The diagram shows a cylinder.

21 cm

9 cm

Calculate the total surface area of the cylinder.

PS 3 A solid cube of side 20 cm has a circular hole cut through.

The cylinder has a diameter of 12 cm.
Calculate the volume remaining.

12 cm

20 cm

272 9 Geometry and measures: Length, area and volume

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PS 4 A solid cylinder has a radius of 5 cm and a height of 12 cm.

The cylinder is made from wood with a density of 0.65 g/cm3.
Calculate the mass of the cylinder. Give your answer correct to a 12 cm
suitable degree of accuracy.

5 cm

PS 5 The diagram shows a right-angled triangular prism.

Not drawn
accurately

13 cm
5 cm 20 cm

12 cm

The surface area of the prism is the same as the curved surface area of a cone that has
a base radius of 12 cm. What is the slant height of the cone?

PS 6 The diagram shows a solid prism.

7 cm

9 cm
25 cm

4 cm

The prism is made from plastic with a density of 0.45 g/cm3.

Calculate the mass of the prism.

PS 7 The diagram shows a sector of a circle, centre O.

The radius of the circle is 12 cm.
The angle of the sector is 155°.
155°
Calculate the total perimeter of the sector, correct to
12 cm 12 cm
3 significant figures. O
Not drawn accurately

CM 8 The diagram has rotational symmetry of order 4.

Show that the percentage of the shape that has been shaded
is 57%.

PS 9 A ball is packaged in a cylindrical box. The ball touches the sides of the box all the
way round including the top and bottom. What fraction of the box is left empty?

9 Review questions 273

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10 Algebra: Linear graphs

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to draw a straight-line graph from its equation
• how to find the equation of a linear graph
• how to read information from a conversion graph
• how to use graphs to find formulae and solve simultaneous linear
equations
• how to draw linear graphs parallel or perpendicular to other lines.

You should already know:

• how to plot coordinates in all four quadrants
• how to substitute numbers into a formula
• how to read and estimate from scales
• how to plot a graph from a given table of values
• how to plot equations of horizontal and vertical lines.

About this chapter

The saying: ‘A picture is worth a thousand words’ is definitely true in
mathematics: graphs are worth many lines of algebra as they show the
relationship between two variables in a visual way.
A linear graph (often called a straight-line graph) shows two variables that
increase at a constant rate. You will meet linear graphs and the relationships
they represent in various situations in daily life. For example, when
exchanging money to travel abroad: D = 1.68P is the equation of the graph
showing the exchange rate when £1 = $1.68. For every extra £1, there is an
extra $1.68 (the constant rate). When there is £0, there is $0.
When hiring a van to move house: C = 25T + 20 is the equation of the graph
used by a van hire company to calculate their fees. Every extra hour costs an
extra £25 and there is also a fixed charge of £20 for hiring the van in the first
place. When buying tins at the supermarket: C = 40T is the equation of the
graph showing the cost in pence, C, of T tin cans, where C is given in pence.
This sign from a supermarket,
showing 40p cans sold as
5 for £2, shows that the
supermarket chain
understands how straight
line graphs work

274
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10.1 Drawing linear graphs

from points
This section will show you how to: Key term
• draw linear graphs by finding points.
linear graph

This section is about drawing straight-line graphs. These are usually referred to as linear graphs.
Here are some tips that will help you.
• You need to plot at least two points to draw a linear graph, but it is better to use three or more
because that gives at least one point to act as a check.
• Use a sharp pencil and mark each point with an accurate cross.
• Position yourself so that your eyes are directly over the graph. If you look from the side, you will
not be able to line up your ruler accurately.

Draw the graph of y = 4x – 5 for values of x from 0 to 5.

Example 1

Note that this is usually written as 0  x  5.

Choose three values for x. y
16
These should be the highest and lowest x-values and one in between. It 15
is usually a good idea to choose 0 as one of the x-values. 14

x–5
13
Work out the y-values by substituting the x-values into the equation.
12

y=4
When x = 0, y = 4(0) – 5 = –5. This gives the point (0, –5). 11
10
When x = 3, y = 4(3) – 5 = 7. This gives the point (3, 7). 9
When x = 5, y = 4(5) – 5 = 15. This gives the point (5, 15). 8
7
Keep a record of your calculations in a table. 6
5
x 0 3 5 4
y −5 7 15 3
2
You are given the extent (range) of the x-axis, but you need to decide on 1
the extent for the y-axis. You can find this by looking at the coordinates 0
–1 1 2 3 4 5x
that you have so far. The smallest y-value is –5, the largest is 15. Now draw
–2
the axes, plot the points and complete the graph. –3
–4
–5

Read through these hints before drawing the linear graphs in Exercise 10A.
• Use the highest and lowest values of x given in the range.
• Don’t pick x-values that are too close together, for example 1 and 2. Try to space them out so you
can draw a more accurate graph.
• Always label your graph with its equation. This is particularly important when you are drawing two
graphs on the same set of axes.
• Create a table of values.

10.1 Drawing linear graphs from points 275

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Exercise 10A
Hints and tips Complete the table of values first, then you will know the extent of
the y-axis.

1 Draw the graph of y = 2x – 5 for 0  x  5.

2 Draw the graph of y = x

3
+ 4 for –6  x  6.

3 a On the same axes, draw the graphs of y = 4x –1 and y = 2x + 3 for 0  x  5.

b At which point do the two lines intersect?
CM 4 a On the same axes, draw the graphs of y = x
3 – 1 and y = x
2
– 2 for 0  x  12.
b On another set of axes, draw the graphs of y = 3x + 1 and y = 3x – 2 for 0  x  4.
c Where possible, write down for parts a and b where the two lines intersect.
If it is not possible to write this down, explain why.

CM 5 Liam has completed a table for the y

equation y = 2x + 1 and drawn a graph. 7
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 6

y –7 –5 –3 1 3 5 7 5
4
a How can Liam tell that he has made a
mistake? 3
2
b Correct Liam’s working.
1

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7

EV 6 Ian the electrician used this

300
formula to work out how much to
charge for a job:
C = 25 + 30H, where C is the charge
(in £) and H is how long the job 200
Cost (£)

takes (in hours).

Joan the electrician uses this
formula: C = 35 + 27.5H. 100

a On a copy of the grid, draw lines

to represent these formulae.
0
b Who would you hire for a job that 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
takes 2 hours? Explain your Hours
choice.

276 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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EV 7 Remi and Jada use different methods for finding points on the graph of y = 4x + 2.
Their methods are shown below.

Whose method is more efficient?

PS 8 a Draw the graphs y = 4, y = x and x = 1 on a copy y

of the grid shown on the right. 6

b What is the area of the triangle formed by the three 5

lines?
4

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
PS 9 The first two graphs show y against x and y against z.
y y
6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
x z
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

On a copy of the blank grid, show the graph of x against z.

z
6

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

PS 10 Find the area (in square units) of the quadrilateral formed by these lines.
x+y=5 y = 3x + 5 y=2 y = –1

10.1 Drawing linear graphs from points 277

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10.2 Gradient of a line

This section will show you how to: Key term
• find the gradient of a straight line
gradient
• draw a line with a certain gradient.

The slope of a line is called its gradient. The steeper the slope of the line, the further the value of the
gradient is from zero. So a gradient of 8 is steeper than a gradient of 3. Lines with gradients of 5 and
–5 have the same steepness.
You can measure the gradient of the line by drawing a large right-angled triangle with part of the line
as its hypotenuse (sloping side). The gradient is then given by:
distance measured up
gradient =
distance measured along
difference on y-axis
=
difference on x -axis

For example, to measure the steepness of the line in the next figure, you first draw a right-angled
triangle where the hypotenuse is part of this line. The gradient will be the same wherever you
draw the triangle as you are calculating the ratio of two sides of the triangle. However, it makes the
calculations much easier if you choose a sensible place. This usually means using existing grid lines to
avoid fractional values.
A sensible
choice of triangle

y-difference

x-difference
Not a sensible
choice of triangle

After you have drawn the triangle, measure (or count) how many squares there are on the vertical
side. This is the difference between your y-coordinates. In the line above, this is 2.
You then measure (or count) how many squares there are on the horizontal side. This is the
difference between your x-coordinates. In the line above, this is 4.
Work out the gradient.
difference of the y-coordinates
gradient =
difference of the x -coordinates
2
=
4
1
= or 0.5
2
Note: You can only use the method of counting squares in cases like this, where the scale is one
square to one unit.
Remember: When a line slopes down from left to right, the gradient is negative, so you must place a
minus sign in front of the fraction.

278 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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Find the gradient of each of these lines.

Example 2

a b c d

In each case, a sensible choice of triangle has already been made.

a y difference = 6, x difference = 4 Gradient = 6 ÷ 4 = 3 = 1.5
2
b y difference = 3, x difference = 12 Line slopes down from left to right,
so gradient = –(3 ÷ 12) = – 41 = –0.25
c y difference = 5, x difference = 2 Line slopes down from left to right,
so gradient = –(5 ÷ 2) = – 25 = –2.5
d y difference = 1, x difference = 4 Gradient = 1 ÷ 4 = 1 = 0.25
4

Drawing a line with a certain gradient

To draw a line with a certain gradient, you reverse the process described above. So use the given
gradient to draw the right-angled triangle. For example, take a gradient of 2.
Start at a convenient point (A in the diagrams below). A gradient of 2 means that for an x-step of 1 the y-step
must be 2 (because 2 is the fraction 21 ). So, move one square across and two squares up, and mark a dot.
Repeat this as many times as you like and draw the line. You can also move one square back and two
squares down, which gives the same gradient, as the third diagram shows.

A A A

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

1 1
Example 3

Draw lines with these gradients. a

3
b –3 c −
4
a This is a fractional gradient which has a y-step of 1 and an x-step of 3. Move three squares
across and one square up every time.
b This is a negative gradient, so for every one square across, move three squares down.
c This is also a negative gradient and it is a fraction. So for every four squares across, move
one square down.
a b c

A A

10.2 Gradient of a line 279

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Exercise 10B
1 Find the gradient of lines a to j.

b f
a
d
i

g
c
j
e
h

2 Draw lines with these gradients.

2 4
a 4 b 3 c –2 d −5 e 6 f –6

EV 3 Arianwen and Brianna are

working out the gradient of the
same line.
a Whose calculation is correct?
b Whose method is more likely
to give correct results in
general?

EV 4 Safety regulations stipulate that a ladder must be positioned with a gradient between
2 and 4.
a Why do you think the gradient has to be greater than 2?
Not drawn to scale
b Why do you think the gradient has to be less than 4?
A B C
c Determine
Not drawn towhether
scale each of these ladders satisfies the safety regulations.

i A B
ii C
iii
260 cm 175 cm 108 cm

260 cm 175 cm 108 cm

80 cm 75 cm 72 cm

80 cm 75 cm 72 cm

ivD E
v F
vi

D E F

333 cm 252 cm 242 cm

333 cm 252 cm 242 cm

74 cm 84 cm 88 cm

74 cm 84 cm 88 cm

280 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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MR 5 The line on grid e is horizontal. The lines on grids a to d get nearer and nearer to
the horizontal.
a b c d e

Find the gradient of each line in grids a to d. By looking at the values you obtain, what
do you think the gradient of a horizontal line is?

MR 6 The line on grid e is vertical. The lines on grids a to d get nearer and nearer to the vertical.
a b c d e

Find the gradient of each line in grids a to d. By looking at the values you obtain, what
do you think the gradient of a vertical line is?

CM 7 Raisa says the gradients of these two lines are the same.
y y
20 20
16 16
12 12
8 8
4 4
0 0
0 4 8 12 16 20 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x

Why is Raisa wrong?

CM 8 This puzzle shows what appears to be a right-angled triangle with a base of

13 squares and a height of 5 squares consisting of four pieces. When the pieces are
rearranged, they appear to make the same triangle but with a square hole.

a Find the gradient of the hypotenuse of the red triangle.

b Find the gradient of the hypotenuse of the blue triangle.
c Explain where the square hole comes from.
10.2 Gradient of a line 281
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9 Find the gradient of each side of this pentagon.

y
14
(5, 12) (10, 12)
12
10
8
6 (2, 6) (14, 6)
4
2
(6, 2)
0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

10.3 Drawing graphs by gradient-

intercept and cover-up
methods
This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• draw graphs using the gradient-intercept method
constant term
• draw graphs using the cover-up method.
cover-up method

Gradient-intercept method gradient-intercept

The equation of a straight line can be written in the form intercept
y = mx + c. The constant term, c, is the intercept on the y-axis
y = mx + c
and the number in front of x (called the coefficient of x), m, is
the gradient of the line.
Consider drawing the graph of y = 3x – 1.
3 is the gradient of the line and –1 is the y-intercept.
Because the intercept, c, is –1, the graph goes through the y-axis at –1.
Because the gradient, m, is 3, for an x-step of one unit, there is a y-step of three units.
Starting at –1 on the y-axis, move one square across and three squares up and mark the point with a
dot or a cross (diagram i). Then repeat this from every new point. You can also move one square back
and three squares down.
When you have enough points, join the dots (or crosses) to make the graph (diagram ii). Note that if
the points are not in a straight line, you have made a mistake.

i y ii y
4 4
3 3
B
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 2 3 4 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 2 3 4 x
–1
A
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4

This method is called the gradient-intercept method.

282 10 Algebra: Linear graphs
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Use the gradient-intercept method to draw the graph of y = 2x – 5.

Example 4
c = –5 Mark this point with a dot. y
6
m=2 Move one square across and two squares up.
5
Repeat at least twice and plot the line.
4

–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2

–3

–4

–5

–6

Exercise 10C
1 Draw these lines using the gradient-intercept method. Use the same grid, taking x
from –10 to 10 and y from –10 to 10. If the grid gets too ‘crowded’, draw another one.
a y = 2x + 6 b y = 3x – 4 c y = 21 x + 5
d y=x+7 e y = 4x – 3 f y = 2x – 7
g y= 1x –3 h y= 2x+4 i y = 6x – 5
4 3
j y=x+8 k y= 4x–2
5
l y = 3x – 9
2 a Using the gradient-intercept method, draw the following lines on the same grid.
Use axes with ranges –14  x  4 and –2  y  6.
x x
i y= +3 ii y = + 2
3 4
b Where do the lines cross?
MR 3 Here are the equations of three lines.
A: y = 3x – 1 B: 2y = 6x – 4 C: y = 2x – 2
a State a mathematical property that lines A and B have in common.
b State a mathematical property that lines B and C have in common.
c Which of the following points is the intersection of lines A and C?
(1, –4) (–1, –4) (1, 4)
A
PS 4 a What is the gradient of line A? y
5
b What is the gradient of line B? 4 B
c What angle is there between lines A and B? 3
2
d What relationship do the gradients of A and B have with each 1
other?
0
e Another line C has a gradient of 3. 0 1 2 3 4 5x

What is the gradient of a line perpendicular to C?

10.3 Drawing graphs by gradient-intercept and cover-up methods 283

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Cover-up method
The x-axis has the equation y = 0. This means that all points on the x-axis have a y-value of 0.
The y-axis has the equation x = 0. This means that all points on the y-axis have an x-value of 0.
You can use these facts to draw any line that has an equation of the form:
ax + by = c
Consider the graph of the line 4x + 5y = 20.
Because the value of x is 0 on the y-axis, you can solve the equation for y:
4(0) + 5y = 20
5y = 20
⇒y=4
So the line passes through the point (0, 4) on the y-axis (diagram A).
Because the value of y is 0 on the x-axis, you can also solve the equation for x:
4x + 5(0) = 20
4x = 20
⇒x=5
So the line passes through the point (5, 0) on the x-axis (diagram B).
You only need two points to draw a line. (Normally, you would like a third point but, in this case, you
can accept two.) Draw the graph by joining the points (0, 4) and (5, 0) (diagram C).

A y B y C y

(0,4) (0,4)
4x + 5y = 20

0 x 0 (5,0) x 0 x

This type of equation can be drawn very easily, without much working at all, using the cover-
up method.
Start with the equation: 4x + 5y = 20
Cover up the x-term: + 5y = 20
Solve the equation (when x = 0): y=4
Now cover up the y-term: 4x + = 20
Solve the equation (when y = 0): x=5
This gives the points (0, 4) on the y-axis and (5, 0) on the x-axis.

Draw the graph of 2x – 3y = 12.

Example 5

Solve the equation (when x = 0). – 3y = 12 y

2 2x – 3y = 12
y = –4 1

–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x
Solve the equation (when y = 0). 2x = 12
–2
x=6 –3
–4
This gives the points (0, –4) on the y-axis and (6, 0) on the –5
x-axis. –6

284 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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Exercise 10D
1 Draw these lines using the cover-up method. Use the same grid, taking x from –10 to
10 and y from –10 to 10. If the grid gets too ‘crowded’, draw another.
a 3x + 2y = 6 b 4x + 3y = 12 c 4x – 5y = 20
d x + y = 10 e 3x – 2y = 18 f x–y=4
g 5x – 2y = 15 h 2x – 3y = 15 i 6x + 5y = 30
j x + y = –5 k x+y=3 l x – y = –4
2 a Using the cover-up method, draw the following lines on the same grid.
Use axes with ranges –2  x  6 and –3  y  6.
i x + 2y = 6 ii 2x – y = 2
b Where do the lines cross?
MR 3 Here are the equations of three lines.
A: 2x + 6y = 12 B: x – 2y = 6 C: x + 3y = –9
a State a mathematical property that lines A and B have in common.
b State a mathematical property that lines B and C have in common.
c State a mathematical property that lines A and C have in common.
d The line A crosses the y-axis at (0, 2).
The line C crosses the x-axis at (–9, 0).
Find values of a and b so that the line ax + by = 18 passes through (0, 2) and (–9, 0).

MR 4 Match the equations and the graphs.

i y = 2x – 3 ii y = 1.5x iii 3y = x + 1
iv x + y = 2 v 2x + y = 0 vi 2x + 3y = –4
a y b y c y

O x O x O x

d y e y f y

O x O x O x

5 Put these lines in order of steepness, from steepest to least steep.

y = 3x + 4 2y – 5x = 10 2y – x = 7 y = –6x y=4

10.3 Drawing graphs by gradient-intercept and cover-up methods 285

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MR 6 Which two lines cross at the same point on the y-axis?

y = 6x – 3 3x + 2y = 18 y = 3x – 1 2x + 5y = 15 y=9–x 4x + y = 6

PS 7 The diagram shows an octagon ABCDEFGH.

y

A B

H C

O x
G D

F E

The equation of the line through A and B is y = 3.

The equation of the line through B and C is x + y = 4.
a Write down the equation of the lines through these vertices.
i C and D ii D and E iii E and F
iv F and G v G and H vi H and A
b The gradient of the line through F and B is 3.
Write down the gradient of the lines through these vertices.
i A and E ii G and C iii H and D
EV 8 Elsa has been asked to plot the lines 2x + y = 10 and y = 11 – 2x.
She has been taught the gradient-intercept method and the cover-up method.
Which method would you recommend for each line? Explain your choices.

10.4 Finding the equation of a line

from its graph
This section will show you how to:
• find the equation of a line, using its gradient and intercept
• find the equation of a line given two points on the line.

If you know the gradient, m, of a line and its intercept, c, on the y-axis, you can A y

write down the equation of the line immediately. 4

For example, if m = 3 and c = –5, the equation of the line is y = 3x – 5. 2

All linear graphs can be expressed in the form y = mx + c. This gives a method 0 2 4x
of finding the equation of any line drawn on a pair of coordinate axes.
Consider this line.
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 2) so c = 2.

286 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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Draw a triangle to measure the gradient of the line. B y

4
y-step = 8
2 8
x-step = 2
gradient = 8 ÷ 2 = 4 0 2 4x
So m = 4 2
Hence the equation of the line is y = 4x + 2.

Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, 7) and (10, 3).
Example 6

Draw a sketch of the two points.

y

12
10
8 (2, 7)
6
4
(10, 3)
2
0 x
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

y difference = 4, x difference = 8 Line slopes down from left to right,

so gradient = –(4 ÷ 8) = – 21 .

Substitute m = – 21 into y = mx + c. y = – 21 x + c

Substitute into y = – 21 x + c. You could choose either point to substitute but (2, 7) has
smaller numbers.
7=– 1 ×2+c
2
7 = –1 + c
c=8
So y = – 21 x + 8.

You can also work out the x and y differences without drawing a sketch, meaning you can find the
equation of a graph directly from just two points.
To find the equation of the line that passes through the points (2, –1) and (6, 11), calculate the x and
y differences:
y difference = 11 – –1 = 12
x difference = 6 – 2 = 4
 y-difference 
So the gradient  x -difference  is 12 ÷ 4 = 3.

Substitute m = 3 into y = mx + c to get y = 3x + c.

Now choose one of the two points and substitute for x and y. (6, 11) is simpler to use because both x
and y are positive.
11 = 3 × 6 + c
11 = 18 + c
c = –7
So y = 3x – 7.

10.4 Finding the equation of a line from its graph 287

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Exercise 10E
1 Give the equation of each of these lines, all of which have positive gradients.
a b c
y y y
4 4 4

2 2 2

0 x 0 x 0 x
–4 –2 2 4 –4 –2 2 4 –4 –2 2 4
–2 –2 –2

–4 –4 –4

PS 2 In each of these grids, there are two lines.

a b c
y y y y y y y y y
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

–4 –4
–2–4–2 0 20 24 x24 x 4 x
0 –2 –4 –4
–2–4–2 0 20 24 x24 x 4 x
0 –2 0 –2
–2–4–2
–4 –4 0 20 24 x24 x 4 x
–2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2

–4 –4 –4 –4 –4 –4 –4 –4 –4

For each grid:

i find the equation of each of the lines ii describe any symmetries that
you can see
iii describe any connection between the gradients of each pair of lines.
CM 3 A straight line passes through the points (1, 3) and (2, 5).
a Explain how you can tell that the line also passes through (0, 1).
b Explain how you can tell that the line has a gradient of 2.
c Work out the equation of the line that passes through (1, 5) and (2, 8).
4 Give the equation of each of these lines. They all have negative gradients.
a b c
y y y
4 4 4
2 2 2

0 x 0 0
–4 –2 2 4 –4 –2 2 4 x
–4 –2 2 4 x
–2 –2 –2
–4 –4 –4

288 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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PS 5 In each of these grids, there are three lines. One of them is y = x.

a b c
y y y
4 4 4

2 2 2

–4 –2 0 2 4x –4 –2 0 2 4x –4 –2 0 2 4x
–2 –2 –2

–4 –4 –4

For each grid:

i find the equation of each of the other two lines
ii describe any symmetries that you can see
iii describe any connection between the gradients of each group of lines.
MR 6 On which of these lines does the point (12, 13) lie?
x + y = 25 y = 21 x + 7 y = 37 – 2x y = 19 – 1
2x
1 2
y = 13 y= 4x +9 x = 12 y= 3 x+5

7 Use the clues to find the equation of each line in the form y = mx + c.
a gradient is –3, y-intercept is 5
b gradient is 2, line passes through the point (5, 6)
c y-intercept is –3, line passes through the point (2, 13)
d line passes through the points (3, 19) and (9, 7)
e line passes through the points (–9, –7) and (18, 11)
8 Find the equation of the line that passes through the points (6, 0) and (0, 5), giving the
equation in the form ax + by = c.

CM 9 Ashleigh has drawn a straight-line graph. y

Chris says that the point (12, 8) will lie on the graph. (6, 5)
(2, 3)
Helen says that the point (12, 8) will not lie on the graph.
Who is correct? Explain your answer. O x

10 Here are four sets of four points.

a (75, 25), (17, 83), (50, 50), (k, 99) b (46, 5), (46, 10), (46, –3), (k, 26)
c (13, 27), (48, 97), (32, 65), (k, 121) d (–3, 16), (11, 30), (28, 47), (k, 2)
For each set:
i find the equation of the line passing through the points
ii find the value of k.
11 Line L1 passes through the points (–2, 14) and (6, 10).
Line L2 passes through the points (–1, –4) and (2, 5).
Find the coordinates of the point where the two lines intersect.

10.4 Finding the equation of a line from its graph 289

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10.5 Real-life uses of graphs

This section will show you how to: Key term
• convert from one unit to another unit by using a
conversion graph
conversion graph
• use straight-line graphs to find formulae.

You need to be able to read conversion graphs by finding a value on one axis and following it through
to the other axis. Make sure you understand the scales on the axes to help you estimate the answers.

This is a conversion graph between litres and gallons.

Example 7

25
a How many litres are there in 5 gallons?
b How many gallons are there in 15 litres?
20

15

Litres
10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Gallons

From the graph you can see that:

a 5 gallons are approximately equivalent to 23 litres.
b 15 litres are approximately equivalent to 3 41 gallons.

This graph illustrates taxi fares in one part of England, it tells you that a fare will cost more, the further
you go.

6
Hire charge (£)

0
0 1 2 3 4
Distance travelled (km)

The taxi company charges a basic hire fee to start with of £2.00. This is shown on the graph as the
point where the line cuts through the hire-charge axis (when distance travelled is 0).

290 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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The gradient of the line is:

8−2 6
= = 1.5
4 4
This represents the hire charge per kilometre travelled.
So the total hire charge is made up of two parts: a basic hire charge of £2.00 and an additional charge
of £1.50 per kilometre travelled. This can be put in a formula as
hire charge = £2.00 + £1.50 per kilometre
In this example, £2.00 is the constant term in the formula (the equation of the graph).

Exercise 10F
PS 1 Two taxi companies use these rules for calculating fares.
• CabCo: £2.50 basic charge and £0.75 per kilometre
• YellaCabs: £2.00 basic charge and £0.80 per kilometre
This map shows the distances, in kilometres, that three friends, Anya (A), Bettina (B)
and Calista (C) live from a restaurant (R) and from each other.
A
5
B

12 6 3

10 C
R

Not drawn to scale

You may find a copy of the grid below useful in answering this question.
a If they each take an individual cab home from the restaurant, which company
should they each choose?
b Work out the cheapest way they can travel home from the restaurant if two, or all
three, share a cab.

20

15
Cost (£)

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Distance (km)

Hints and tips Draw a graph for both companies on the grid. Use this to work
out the costs of the journeys.

10.5 Real-life uses of graphs 291

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MR 2 This is a conversion graph between kilograms (kg) and pounds (lb).

10

Kilograms (kg) 8

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Pounds (lb)

a Use the graph to make an approximate conversion of:

i 18 lb to kilograms ii 5 lb to kilograms
iii 4 kg to pounds iv 10 kg to pounds.
b Approximately how many pounds are equivalent to 1 kg?
c Explain how you could use the graph to convert 48 lb to kilograms.
3 This is a conversion graph between temperatures in °C and °F.
a What temperature in °F is equivalent to a temperature of 0 °C?
b What is the gradient of the line?
c From your answers to parts a and b, write down a rule that can be used to convert
°C to °F.

130

110
Degrees Fahrenheit (°F)

90

70

50

30
0 10 20 30 40 50
Degrees Celsius (°C)

292 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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4 This graph illustrates charges for fuel.

a What is the gradient of the line?
b The standing charge is the basic charge before the cost per unit is added. What is
the standing charge?
c Write down the rule used to work out the total charge for different amounts of
units used.
60

50

40
Charge (£)

30

20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Units used

5 Over the course of a year, the exchange rate between the American dollar and the
British pound changes.
The graph shows the exchange rate for three different months of a year.
a If Mr Errington changed £1000 into dollars in March and another £1000 into dollars
in December, approximately how much less did he get in December than in
March?
b George went to America in March and stayed until July. In March, he changed
£5000 into dollars. In July, he still had $2000 dollars left and he changed them back
into pounds.
i How much, in dollars, did George spend between March and July?
ii How much, in pounds, did George actually spend between March and July?

140
March ($133))

120

July ($115)
100

December ($98)
80
Dollars ($)

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Pounds (£)

10.5 Real-life uses of graphs 293

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MR 6 This graph is a sketch of the rate charged for taxi journeys by a firm during weekdays
from 6 am to 8 am.

Cost (£)

0
Distance (km)

a At weekends from 6 am to 8 am, the company charges the same rate per kilometre
but increases the basic charge.
Sketch a graph to show this. Label it A.
b During weekdays from 8 pm to 6 am, the company charges the same basic charge
but an increased charge per kilometre.
On the same axes as in part a, sketch a graph to show this. Label it B.
c During weekends from 8 pm to 6 am, the company increases the basic charge and
increases the charge per kilometre.
On the same axes as in part a, sketch a graph to show this. Label it C.

PS 7 A motorcycle courier will deliver packages, up to a weight of 22 pounds, within a

city centre.
The courier has three charging bands: packages up to 5 pounds, packages from 5 to
12 pounds and packages over 12 pounds.
This graph shows how much he charges. y is the cost (in £) and x is the weight
(in pounds).

35

30
Cost (£)

25

20

15
0 5 10 15 20
Weight (pounds)

Work out the values of a, b, c, d, e and f to show his charges as equations.

y = ax + b, 0 < x  5 y = cx + d, 5 < x  12 y = ex + f, 12 < x  22

294 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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10.6 Solving simultaneous equations

using graphs
This section will show you how to: Key term
• solve simultaneous linear equations using graphs.
simultaneous equation

Two different straight lines that are not parallel will intersect at one point. This point is the solution
of the equations of the lines, or the simultaneous equations. You can solve simultaneous equations
algebraically (as shown in Chapter 15) or graphically, as described below.
Consider finding the solution of the simultaneous equations 3x + y = 6 and y = 4x – 1.
Draw the graph of 3x + y = 6 using the cover-up method. It crosses the x-axis at (2, 0) and the y-axis at
(0, 6).
Draw the graph of y = 4x – 1 by finding some points or by the gradient-intercept method. Using the
gradient-intercept method, the graph crosses the y-axis at –1 and has a gradient of 4.
The point where the graphs intersect is (1, 3). So the solution to the simultaneous equations is
x = 1, y = 3.
y
x–1

6
y=4

5
4
3
2
1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
3x +

–2
–3
y=
6

Draw graphs to find the solution of the simultaneous equations y = 1 x + 1 and x + y = 7.

Example 8

2
Plot both lines on the graph.
y
8

5 y = 1–x + 1
2

2
x+y=7
1

–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
–1
–2
They intersect at (4, 3) so x = 4 and y = 3.

10.6 Solving simultaneous equations using graphs 295

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Exercise 10G
In questions 1–9, draw the graphs to find the solution of each pair of simultaneous equations.

1 x + 4y = 8 2 y = 2x – 1 3 y = 2x + 4
x–y=3 3x + 2y = 12 y=x+7

4 y=x+8 5 y – 3x = 9 6 y = –x
x+y=4 y=x–3 y = 4x – 5

7 3x + 2y = 18 8 y = 3x + 2 x
9 y= +1
y = 3x y + x = 10 3
x + y = 11
PS 10 One cheesecake and two chocolate gateaux cost £9.50.
Two cheesecakes and one chocolate gateau cost £8.50.
Use x to represent the cost of a cheesecake and y to represent the cost of a gateau.
Use graphs to find the cost of a cheesecake and the cost of a gateau.

PS 11 The graph shows four lines.

P: y = 4x + 1 Q: y = 2x + 2 R: y = x – 2 S: x + y + 1 = 0
y
5

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1
–2

–3

–4

–5

Which pairs of lines intersect at the following points?

a (–1, –3) b ( 21 , –1 21 ) c ( 21 , 3) d (–1, 0)
MR 12 Four lines have the following equations.
A: y = x B: y = 2 C: x = –3 D: y = –x
These lines intersect at six different points.
Without drawing the lines accurately, write down the coordinates of the six
intersection points.

Hints and tips Sketch the lines.

CM 13 How many solutions does each pair of simultaneous equations have?

Explain your answers geometrically.
a 3x + 5y = 15 b 2x + y = 7 c 3x + 2y = 12
3x + 5y = 10 4x = 14 – 2y 4x + y = 11

296 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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10.7 Parallel and perpendicular lines

This section will show you how to: Key term
• draw linear graphs parallel or perpendicular to other lines
negative reciprocal
and passing through a specific point.

If two lines are parallel, then their gradients are equal.

If two lines are perpendicular, their gradients are negative reciprocals of each other.
Consider the line AB. Point A is at (2, –1) and point B is at (4, 5).
y
6
B

0
0 2 4 6
x
A
–2

Finding the equation of a parallel line

The gradient of AB is 3, so any parallel line can be written in the form y = 3x + c.
To find the equation of the parallel line that passes through the point C at (2, 8), substitute x = 2 and
y = 8 into the equation y = 3x + c.
8=3×2+c
⇒c=2
So the parallel line that passes through (2, 8) is y = 3x + 2.

Finding the equation of a perpendicular line

The gradient of the perpendicular line is the negative reciprocal of 3, which is − 31.
To find the equation of the perpendicular line that passes through the midpoint of AB, find the
midpoint and substitute for x and y into the equation y = − 31 x + c, or sketch the perpendicular line on
the grid.
To find the x-coordinate of the midpoint of a line between two points, you add the x-coordinates
of the points and divide by 2. To find the y-coordinate, you add the y-coordinates of the points and
divide by 2. This gives you a pair of coordinates.
y
The midpoint of AB is (3, 2). 6
B
The perpendicular line passes through (0, 3).
So the equation of the perpendicular line through the 4
midpoint of AB is y = − 31 x + 3.
2

0
0 2 4 6
x
A
–2

10.7 Parallel and perpendicular lines 297

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Example 9 Two points A and B are A(0, 1) and B (2, 4). y

a Work out the equation of the line AB. 5

4
b Write down the equation of the line parallel to AB and passing B
3
through the point (0, 5). 2
c Write down the gradient of a line perpendicular to AB. 1
A
0
d Write down the equation of a line perpendicular to AB and passing 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
through the point (0, 2).
3 3
a The gradient of AB is 2 and the intercept is (0, 1), so the equation is y = 2
x + 1.
b The gradient is the same ( 23 ) and the intercept is (0, 5), so the equation is y = 3
2 x + 5.
c The perpendicular gradient is the negative reciprocal − 23 .
d The gradient is − 23 and the intercept is (0, 2), so the equation is y = − 23 x + 2.

Find the line that is perpendicular to the line y = 1 x – 3 and passes through (0, 5).
Example 10

The gradient of the new line will be the negative reciprocal of 1 which is –2.
2
The point (0, 5) is the intercept on the y-axis so the equation of the line is y = –2x + 5.

Exercise 10H
CM 1 Here are the equations of three lines.
A: y = 3x – 2 B: y = 3x + 1 C: y = − 31 x + 1
a Give a reason why line A is the odd one out of the three.
b Give a reason why line C is the odd one out of the three.
c Which of the following would be a reason why line B is the odd one out of the
three?
i Line B is the only one that intersects the negative x-axis.
ii Line B is not parallel to either of the other two lines.
iii Line B does not pass through (0, –2).
2 Write down the negative reciprocals of the following numbers.
a 2 b –3 c 1
2
d −2 e 1.5 f 4
3 3
PS 3 Four of these lines make a rectangle. Which four?
y = 3x + 5 y = 5x + 3 3x + y = 6 x + 3y = 10 y = 8 − 31 x y = 3(x + 2)

4 Match the pairs of perpendicular lines.

x=6 x+y=5 y = 8x – 9 2y = x + 4
2x + y = 9 y= − 81 x +6 5y = 2x + 15 y = 0.1x + 2
y = 33 – 10x y = –2 2y + 5x = 2 y=x+4

298 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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5 Write down the equations of these lines.

a Parallel to y = 1x + 3 and passes through (0, –2)
2
b Parallel to y = –x + 2 and passes through (0, 3)
c Perpendicular to y = 3x + 2 and passes through (0, –1)
d Perpendicular to y = − 31 x – 2 and passes through (0, 5)
CM 6 The line segment AB joins A(10, 11) and B(12, 3).
a Find the gradient of AB.
b State the gradient of the line perpendicular to AB.
c Find the midpoint of AB.
d The line L is perpendicular to AB and passes through the midpoint of AB.
Show that the equation of L is given by 4y – x = 17.

7 Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y = 4x – 3, passing though (–4, 3).

PS 8 Here are the coordinates of the vertices of three quadrilaterals

i A(–2, 3) B(3, 2) C(4, 3) D(–1, 4)
ii A(3, 5) B(9, 9) C(7, 12) D(1, 8)
iii A(0, 3) B(10, 7) C(6, 6) D(1, 4)
a For each one, work out the gradients of AB, BC, CD and DA.
b Determine which quadrilateral is a rectangle, which is a parallelogram and which is
a trapezium, explaining your answers.

PS 9 Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the points A(1, 2) and B(3, 6).

CM 10 A is the point (0, 4), B is the point (4, 6) and C is the point (2, 0).
a Find the equation of the line BC.
b Show that the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC is (3, 3).
c Show algebraically that this point lies on the line BC.
y
6
B
A
4

C
0
0 2 4 6 x

–2

PS 11 The points A(1, 34), B(27, 12) and C(21, –6) lie on the circumference of a circle.
Given that a radius always bisects a chord, find the coordinates of the centre of the circle.

chord

radius

10.7 Parallel and perpendicular lines 299

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 A triangle has vertices at A(–1, 3), B(7, 12) and C(9, 8).
Demonstrate that the triangle is right-angled and identify which of A, B and C is the
right angle.

This question requires you to communicate mathematically. You need to present a

valid argument, showing each step in your solution and proving that the triangle is
right-angled.
Method 1 There are two different methods. One
AB: y difference = 12 – 3 = 9 is to work out the gradients of each
of the lines (Method 1), the other is to
x difference = 7 – (–1) = 8 work out the lengths of the lines using
Gradient = 9 ÷ 8 = 9 Pythagoras’ theorem.
8
AC: y difference = 8 – 3 = 5 In both cases, you need to use your
calculations to justify why they are
x difference = 9 – (–1) = 10 showing you that the triangle is
Gradient = 5 ÷ 10 = 1 right-angled.
2
BC: y difference = 8 – 12 = –4 Each method is equally valid.
x difference = 9 – 7 = 2
Gradient = –4 ÷ 2 = –2
Since the gradients of AC and BC are
negative reciprocals of each other, AC and
BC are perpendicular.
So ABC is a right-angled triangle.

Since AC and BC are perpendicular, the

right angle is at C.
Method 2
Using Pythagoras’ theorem:
AB = 92 + 8 2 = 145
AC = 52 + 10 2 = 125

BC = ( − 4) + 22 = 20
2

Since AC2 + BC2 = AB2, the sides of the

triangle satisfy Pythagoras’ theorem.
So ABC is a right-angled triangle.
Given that AC2 + BC2 = AB2, AB is the
hypotenuse and the right angle is at C.

300 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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PS 2 A shop on a cross-channel ferry accepts both pounds and euros.

The exchange rate is £1 = 1.25.
George pays £2.25 for five apples and three bananas.
Pierre pays 1.00 for one apple and two bananas.
a Represent this information in a graph.
b Using the graph, work out the cost of buying three apples and one banana in pounds.
This is a problem-solving question. You need to plan a strategy to solve it and you
should expect to use your knowledge of other areas of mathematics, in this case
currency conversions.
a 1.00 ÷ 1.25 = £0.80 Because the final answer will be in
pounds, it makes sense to solve the
whole question in pounds or pence.
The variables are:
x = the price of an apple
y = the price of a banana
The equations are:
5x + 3y = 225
x + 2y = 80
Using the cover-up method: You can use any method for plotting
5x + 3y = 225 the lines, but the cover-up method is
simplest here.
when x = 0, y = 75
when y = 0, x = 45
x + 2y = 80
when x = 0, y = 40
when y = 0, x = 80
y

80
70
60
50
40
x = 30, y = 25
30
20
10
0
x
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

b The lines intersect when x = 30, y = 25.

An apple costs 30p.
A banana costs 25p.
3x + y = 3 × 30 + 1 × 25 = 115
Three apples and one banana cost £1.15.

10 Worked exemplars 301

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Ready to progress?
I can read off values from a conversion graph.
I can draw a linear graph without being given a table of values.
I can find the gradient of a line.
I can draw straight lines using the gradient-intercept method.
I can draw straight lines using the cover-up method.

I can find the equation of a line.

I can use graphs to find formulae.

I can use graphs to solve simultaneous linear equations.

I can draw linear graphs parallel or perpendicular to other lines.

Review questions
1 Draw the graph of y = 3x + 4 for 0  x  5.

2 Draw the graph of y = x

2
– 3 for 0  x  10.

3 On a copy of the grid, draw the graph of x + y = 6.

y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

4 This graph shows the hire charge for a conference centre, depending on the number
of people at the conference.
a Calculate the gradient of the line.
b What is the basic fee for hiring the conference centre?
c Write down the rule used to work out the total hire charge for the centre.

350
300
250
Charge (£)

200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Number of people at conference

302 10 Algebra: Linear graphs

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5 This graph shows the length of a spring when different weights are attached to it.
a Calculate the gradient of the line.
b How long is the spring when no weight is attached to it?
c By how much does the spring extend per kilogram?
d Write down the rule for finding the length of the spring for different weights.
27

26.5
Length of spring (cm)

26

25.5

25

24.5

24
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Weight attached (kg)

6 Draw the graphs to find the solution of each pair of simultaneous equations.
a y=x b y = 2x + 3 c y = 5x + 1
x + y = 10 5x + y = 10 y = 2x + 10

7 A has coordinates (0, 2). B has coordinates (2, 6). y

8
a Work out the gradient of the line that passes through
A and B. 7
B
6
b Find the equation of the line that passes through A
5
and B.
4
c Find the equation of the line perpendicular to AB that
3
passes through B.
2
A
1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

PS 8 a The line y = 1 + 2x is transformed to the line y = 1 – 2x.

Describe two possible transformations that could have been applied.
b The line y = 3x + 1 is transformed to the line y = – 31 x + 1.
Describe two possible transformations that could have been applied.

PS 9 Find the area of the parallelogram bounded by the lines with equations x = –2,
y = 21 x + 3, x = 4 and y = 21 x – 2.

PS 10 Find the area of the trapezium bounded by the lines with equations y = 2x + 8, y = 4,
y = 2x – 4 and x + y = – 4.

11 The line segment AB has A at (–2, –2) and B at (10, –8).

Line L1 is perpendicular to the line segment AB and passes through its midpoint.
Line L2 passes through the points C(3, 17) and D(8, –3).
Find the coordinates of the point E where L1 and L2 intersect.

10 Review questions 303

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11
Geometry and
measures: Right-angled
triangles

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to use Pythagoras’ theorem in right-angled triangles
• how to use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems
• how to use Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions
• how to use trigonometric ratios in right-angled triangles
• how to use trigonometry to solve problems.

You should already know:

• how to find the square and square root of a number
• how to round numbers to a suitable degree of accuracy.

About this chapter

When a builder needs to build two walls at right angles to each other, how
can he make sure the angle between them is 90°? The chances are that he
will use a 3–4–5 triangle. What the builder may not know is that exactly the
same technique has been used by builders for thousands of years, as far back
as the construction of the pyramids of Egypt and maybe even before that.
The 3–4–5 rule works because it is a special case of Pythagoras’ theorem.
Pythagoras was a Greek who lived about 2600 years ago but, although
the rule was been named after him, he was certainly not the first person
to discover it. There is written evidence that the theorem was known in
ancient Mesopotamia, China and India and it was probably discovered
independently at different times in different parts of the world.
This chapter will show you how you can use Pythagoras’ rule and
trigonometric functions to solve a variety of problems involving right-angled
triangles.

304
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11.1 Pythagoras’ theorem

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate the length of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle.
hypotenuse
Pythagoras, who was a philosopher as well as a mathematician, was born Pythagoras’ theorem
in 580 BC, on the Greek island of Samos. He later moved to Crotona (Italy),
where he established the Pythagorean Brotherhood, which was a secret Pythagorean triple
society devoted to politics, mathematics and astronomy. It is said that
when he discovered his famous theorem he was so full of joy that he
showed his gratitude to the gods by sacrificing one hundred oxen.
Consider drawing squares on each side of a right-angled triangle,
with sides 3 cm, 4 cm and 5 cm. 25 cm2
The longest side is called the hypotenuse and is always opposite
9 cm2
the right angle. 5 cm
3 cm
Pythagoras’ theorem can then be stated as follows:
4 cm
For any right-angled triangle, the area of the square drawn on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares drawn
on the other two sides. 16 cm2
The form of the rule that most people remember is:
In any right-angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
of the squares of the other two sides. c
a
Pythagoras’ theorem is more usually written as a formula.
c2 = a2 + b2
b
Remember that you can only use Pythagoras’ theorem in right-angled triangles.
You can also use Pythagoras’ theorem to test if a triangle is right-angled.
To see if the triangle with sides 7 cm, 12 cm and 13 cm is right-angled, square each side and see if the
sum of the squares of the two shorter sides is the same as the square of the longest side.
Sum the squares of the two shorter sides. 72 + 122 = 49 + 144
= 193
Square the longest side. 132 = 169
These are not the same, so this triangle is not right-angled.
Finding the length of the hypotenuse
If you know the lengths of the two smaller sides of a triangle, you can use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the
length of the hypotenuse. You can square each of the smaller sides, add them together, and then find the
square root. In some cases, you need to round the length of the hypotenuse to a suitable degree of accuracy.

Find the length of the hypotenuse, marked x on the diagram.

Example 1

x
8 cm

5.2 cm

Using Pythagoras’ theorem gives: x2 = 82 + 5.22

= 64 + 27.04
= 91.04
⇒ x= 91.04
= 9.5 cm (1 dp)

11.1 Pythagoras’ theorem 305

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Exercise 11A
MR 1 The diagram shows a right-angled triangle with sides of 3, 4 and
5 units.
a Check that this is a right-angled triangle.
5
3

b If you enlarge this triangle by scale factor 2, you

get this larger triangle. Check to see that this is
also a right-angled triangle.
10
6

c Choose three more scale factors and sketch the enlargement of the 3, 4, 5 triangle
with your scale factors. Check to see whether or not Pythagoras’ theorem also
holds for these triangles.

PS 2 The numbers 3, 4 and 5 are called a Pythagorean triple because 32 + 42 = 52. Any three
(positive) integers – a, b and c – are said to form a Pythagorean Triple if a2 + b2 = c2.
Find as many Pythagorean triples as you can, using numbers of 100 or less.

3 Calculate the length of the hypotenuse, x, for each triangle. Give your answers
correct to 1 decimal place.

a b c 4.8 cm d
x
x 3 cm 7 cm x
9 cm 16 cm
x
5.1 cm
5 cm 13 cm

e f 9 cm g h 4 cm

x
3 cm
11 cm 15 cm 12 cm x x
x

15 cm
5 cm

Hints and tips You are finding the hypotenuse in all these examples so add the
squares of the two short sides each time.

306 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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2 cm
CM 4 a Calculate the lengths of H1, H2 and H3 in the diagram shown,
leaving your answers in square-root form (for example, x ).
2 cm
b Explain how you can write down the value of H4 with little
calculation. H2
H3
H1
2 cm

2 cm

MR 5 How does this diagram show that Pythagoras’ theorem is true?

11.2 Finding the length of a

shorter side
This section will show you how to:
• calculate the length of a shorter side in a right-angled triangle.

If you rearrange the formula for Pythagoras’ theorem, you can use it to calculate the length of one of
the shorter sides.
c2 = a2 + b2 c
a
⇒ a =c –b 2 2 2
and
b2 = c2 – a2 b

Calculate the value of x in this triangle.

Example 2

15 cm 11 cm

The side labelled x is one of the shorter sides.

Use Pythagoras’ theorem.
x2 = 152 – 112
= 225 – 121
= 104
⇒ x= 104
= 10.2 cm (1 dp)

11.2 Finding the length of a shorter side 307

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2424cm
cm
and should be used within Moulton School & Science College, NN3 7SD 17 for
17cm the intended purpose
cm only xx
xx

19
19cm
Exercise 11B 8 8cm
cm
cm

1 Calculate the value of x for each triangle. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
a b c 6.4
6.4cm
cm d

24 cm
17 cm x
31
31cm
cm
19 cm
x17 m
x x
11 cm
x 17 m9 9cm
cm
x 25 cm 19 cm
25cm 11 cm

19 cm
x
8 cm 12 m x xx
12 m
2 Calculate the value of x for each triangle. Give your answers correct to 1 decimal
place. 6.4 cm
17 m
a b c 17 m d
31 cm x x
9 cm
17
x m x 19 cm
25 cm x 9 cm
x
9 cm 11 cm 23 m
23 m
8.5 cm
x x 8.5 cm
12 m

Hints and tips These examples are a mixture. Make sure you combine the squares
17 m
of the sides correctly.

x x
3 9 cm
Work out the length marked x for each triangle.
23 m
a x b 8m c d
8.5 cm
5m
x x
x 30 cm
12 m
13 m 10 m

4m 40 cm

PS 4 In question 3 you found sets of three whole numbers that satisfy the rule a2 + b2 = c2.
Find at least two more.

PS 5 Calculate the area of the triangle.

48.6 cm
23.4 cm

PS 6 The square ABCD has an area of 17 cm2. It is drawn at an angle on a 1-cm coordinate
grid where point A is (1, 4). Point B is on the intersection of two lines of the grid.
What is a possible coordinate for point B?

PS 7 The diagonal length of a rectangle is 10 cm. Show that the maximum area of the
rectangle is 50 cm2.

308 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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CM 8 This is a visual proof of Pythagoras’ theorem.

This is an explanation of how this diagram illustrates
Pythagoras’ rule.
The large square is 7 by 7, giving 49 square units.
The red and yellow triangles all have shorter lengths of 3 and 4,
with an area of 6 square units.
The area of the inner square (green and yellow) must be
49 – 4 × 6 = 25, so the hypotenuse of the yellow triangles must
be 25 = 5.
You can see that 32 + 42 = 52.
Complete a similar proof using a triangle with sides of length 5, 12 and 13.

11.3 Applying Pythagoras’ theorem

in real-life situations
This section will show you how to:
• use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems.

You can use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve certain practical problems. When a problem involves only
two lengths, follow these steps.
• Draw a diagram that includes a right-angled triangle.
• Look at the diagram and decide which side you need to find: the hypotenuse or one of the
shorter sides.
• Label the unknown side x.
• If it’s the hypotenuse, then square both numbers, add the squares and take the square root of the
sum. If it’s one of the shorter sides, then square both numbers, subtract the smaller square from
the larger and take the square root of the difference.
• Finally, round the answer to a suitable degree of accuracy.

A plane leaves Manchester Airport and heads due east. It flies 160 km before turning due
Example 3

north. It then flies a further 280 km and lands. What is the distance of the return flight if the
plane flies straight back to Manchester Airport?
First, sketch the situation.
Then use Pythagoras’ theorem.
x2 = 1602 + 2802 x
280 km
= 25 600 + 78 400
= 104 000
⇒ x= 104 000
Manchester 160 km
= 322 km (3 sf)
The distance of the return flight is 322 km.

Hints and tips Always set out your solution as in Example 3. Avoid taking shortcuts, since they
often cause errors.

11.3 Applying Pythagoras’ theorem in real-life situations 309

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Exercise 11C
PS 1 A ladder, 12 m long, leans against a wall. The ladder reaches 10 m up the wall. A
ladder is safe if the foot of the ladder is about 2.5 m away from the wall. Is this
ladder safe?

12 m

10 m

2 A model football pitch is 2 m long and 0.5 m wide. How long is the diagonal?

PS 3 How long is the diagonal of a square with a side of 8 m?

PS 4 A ship going from a port to a lighthouse steams 15 km east and 12 km north. The
journey takes 1 hour. How much time would be saved by travelling (at the same
speed) directly to the lighthouse in a straight line?

PS 5 Some pedestrians want to get from point on one road to point Y on another. The
two roads meet at right angles.
Instead of following the roads, they decide to follow a footpath that goes directly
from to Y.
How much shorter is this route?

X
Y

33 m
94 m

PS 6 A mast on a sailboat is strengthened by a wire (called a stay), as shown on the

diagram. The mast is 10 m tall and the stay is 11 m long. How far from the base of the
mast does the stay reach?

10 m 11 m

310 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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PS 7 A ladder, 4 m long, is put up against a wall.

a How far up the wall will it reach when the foot of the ladder is 1 m away from the wall?
b When it reaches 3.6 m up the wall, how far is the foot of the ladder away from the wall?
PS 8 A pole, 8 m high, is supported by metal wires, each 8.6 m long, attached to the top of
the pole. How far from the foot of the pole are the wires fixed to the ground?

CM 9 A and B are two points on a coordinate grid. They have coordinates (13, 6) and (1, 1).
Show that the line that joins them has length 13 units.

PS 10 The regulation for safe use of ladders states that the foot of a 5.00 m ladder must be
placed at 1.20 – 1.30 m from the foot of the wall.
a What is the maximum height the ladder can safely reach up the wall?
b What is the minimum height the ladder can safely reach up the wall?
CM 11 Is the triangle with sides 7 cm, 24 cm and 25 cm a right-angled triangle? Give a reason
for your answer.

24 cm 7 cm

25 cm

PS 12 A ladder 4 m long is leaning against a wall. The foot of the ladder is 1 m from the wall.
The foot of the ladder is not securely held and slips 20 cm further away from the wall.
How far does the top of the ladder move down the wall?

EV 13 The diagonal of a rectangle is 10 cm.

Callum said: “The perimeter of that rectangle is between 20 and 30 cm.”
Comment on Callum’s statement.

11.4 Pythagoras’ theorem and

isosceles triangles
This section will show you how to:
• use Pythagoras’ theorem in isosceles triangles.

Every isosceles triangle has a line of symmetry that divides the triangle into two congruent right-
angled triangles. So when you are faced with a problem involving an isosceles triangle, you may have
to split that triangle down the middle to create a right-angled triangle to help solve the problem.

11.4 Pythagoras’ theorem and isosceles triangles 311

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Example 4 Calculate the area of this triangle.

7.5 cm 7.5 cm

6 cm

It is an isosceles triangle and you need to calculate its height to find its area.
First split the triangle into two right-angled triangles to find its height.
Let the height be x.
Then use Pythagoras’ theorem.
x2 = 7.52 – 32
= 56.25 – 9 7.5 cm
x
= 47.25
⇒ x= 47.25 cm
= 6.873 864 cm 3 cm

Keep the accurate figure in the calculator memory and use to calculate the area of the triangle.
1
2
× 6 × 6.873 864 cm2 (from the calculator memory)
= 20.6 cm2 (1 dp)

Exercise 11D
1 Calculate the areas of these isosceles triangles.

a b c

7 cm 10 cm
9 cm 9 cm
3 cm

8 cm 2 cm

2 Calculate the area of an isosceles triangle with sides of 8 cm, 8 cm and 6 cm.

PS 3 Calculate the area of an equilateral triangle of side 6 cm.

MR 4 An isosceles triangle has sides of 5 cm and 6 cm.

a Sketch the two different isosceles triangles that fit this data.
b Which of the two triangles has the greater area?
MR 5 a Sketch a regular hexagon, showing all its lines of symmetry.
b Calculate the area of the hexagon if its side is 8 cm.

312 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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PS 6 Calculate the area of a hexagon of side 10 cm.

CM 7 These isosceles triangles have the same perimeter.

9 cm 9 cm
8 cm 8 cm
7 cm 7 cm

6 cm 8 cm 10 cm

a Do the three triangles have the same area?

b Can you find an isosceles triangle with the same perimeter but a larger area?
c Can you generalise your findings?
CM 8 A piece of land is in the shape of an isosceles triangle with sides 6.5 m, 6.5 m and 7.4 m.
Show that the area of the land is 19.8 m2.

9 The diagram shows an isosceles triangle ABC.

B

10 cm 10 cm

A 16 cm C

Calculate the area of triangle ABC.

PS 10 Calculate the lengths marked x in these isosceles triangles.

10 cm

24 cm x 12 cm x
12 cm 13 cm

10 cm
20 cm

Hints and tips Find the area first.

PS 11 The area of an isosceles triangle with two sides of 5 cm, is 12 cm2. Find the length of
the base of the triangle.

EV 12 A kite had two lengths of 8 cm and two lengths of 10 cm. One of the diagonals was
12 cm long.
Andrew and Olly both calculated the area of the kite. Andrew calculated the area to
be 79.7 cm2 and Olly calculated it to be 79.8 cm2.
Evaluate the accuracy of each answer.

11.4 Pythagoras’ theorem and isosceles triangles 313

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11.5 Pythagoras’ theorem in three

dimensions
This section will show you how to:
• use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems involving three dimensions.

Some questions involve applying Pythagoras’ theorem in 3D situations. These questions are
sometimes accompanied by clearly labelled diagrams, to help you identify the lengths needed for
your solutions.
You deal with these 3D problems in exactly the same way as 2D problems.
• Identify the right-angled triangle you need.
• Redraw this triangle and label it with the given lengths and the length to be found, usually x or y.
• From your diagram, decide whether you need to find the hypotenuse or one of the shorter sides.
• Solve the problem and round to a suitable degree of accuracy.

What is the longest piece of straight wire that can be 20 cm

Example 5

H G
stored in this box measuring 30 cm by 15 cm by 20 cm?
30 cm

D C

E F
15 cm

A B

The longest distance across this box is any one of the diagonals AG, DF, CE or HB.
Consider AG.
G
First, identify a right-angled triangle containing AG and draw it.
This gives a triangle AFG, which contains two lengths you do not x cm
15 cm
know, AG and AF.
Let AG = x and AF = y. A F
y cm
Next identify a right-angled triangle that contains the side AF
A
and draw it.
This gives a triangle ABF. You can now find the value of AF. y cm
20 cm
Use Pythagoras’ theorem. y = 30 + 20
2 2 2

= 1300 (There is no need to find y.) B 30 cm F

Now find AG using Pythagoras’ theorem and triangle AFG.
x2 = y2 + 152
= 1300 + 225
= 1525
⇒ x = 39.1 cm (1 dp)
So, the longest straight wire that can be stored in the box is 39.1 cm.

314 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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Note that in any cuboid with sides a, b and c, the length of a a

b
diagonal is given by:

(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )
c
So that in this example you could have gone straight to this.
Diagonal length = (152 + 30 2 + 20 2 )
= 1525
= 39.1 cm

Exercise 11E
1 A box measures 8 cm by 12 cm by 5 cm. H G

a Calculate the following lengths. 5 cm

D
i AC ii BG iii BE C
E F
b Calculate the diagonal distance BH. 12 cm

A 8 cm B

PS 2 A garage is 5 m long, 3 m wide and 3 m high. Can a pole 7 m long be stored in it?

PS 3 Spike, a spider, is at the corner S of the wedge shown in the F

diagram. Fred, a fly, is at the corner F of the same wedge. 4 cm
R
E Q
a Calculate the shortest distance Spike would have to travel to 8 cm
get to Fred if she used only the edges of the wedge. S P
12 cm
b Calculate the shortest distance Spike would have to travel
across the face of the wedge to get directly to Fred.

PS 4 A corridor is 3 m wide and turns through a right angle, as in

the diagram. 3m
a What is the longest pole that can be carried along the corridor
horizontally?
b If the corridor is 3 m high, what is the longest pole that can be
3m
carried along in any direction?

CM 5 If each side of a cube is 10 cm long, show that it’s 17.3 cm from one corner of the
cube to the opposite corner.

PS 6 A pyramid has a square base of side 20 cm and each sloping edge is 25 cm long.

25 cm

20 cm

20 cm

How high is the pyramid?

11.5 Pythagoras’ theorem in three dimensions 315

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7 The diagram shows a square-based pyramid with base length 8 cm and sloping edges
9 cm. M is the midpoint of the side AB, is the midpoint of the base and E is directly
above .
E
a Calculate the length of the diagonal AC.
b Calculate E , the height of the pyramid. 9 cm
c Using triangle ABE, calculate the length EM.
D C

X
8 cm

A B
M

CM 8 ABCDEFGH is a cuboid where AB = EH = 22.5 cm, BC = GH = 30 cm and AF = CH = 40 cm.

M is the midpoint of the side GH.
Show that the length of AM is 48.3 cm.

PS 9 On a cylindrical can, as shown, there is a straight line drawn from F,

F
on the top to S, at the bottom, going around the can. Point F is
directly above point S. Find the length of the line FS.
10 cm
Hints and tips Imagine the can opened out flat.
S

6 cm

11.6 Trigonometric ratios

This section will show you how to:
• use the three trigonometric ratios.
Key terms
adjacent side cosine
Trigonometry is concerned with the calculation of sides and opposite side sine
angles in triangles, and involves the use of three important
ratios: sine, cosine and tangent. These ratios are defined in tangent trigonometry
terms of the sides of a right-angled triangle and an angle.
The angle is often described as theta, which is the Greek letter θ .
In a right-angled triangle:
• the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse and is the longest side
• the side opposite the angle θ is called the opposite side
• the other side next to both the right angle and the angle θ is called the adjacent side.

Hypotenuse (H)
Opposite (O)

Adjacent (A)

316 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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The sine, cosine and tangent ratios for θ are defined as:
Opposite Adjacent Opposite
sine θ = cosine θ = tangent θ =
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse Adjacent
These ratios are usually abbreviated as:
O
sin θ = O cos θ = A tan θ = A
H H
These abbreviated forms are also used on calculator keys.
To memorise these formulae, you can use a mnemonic such as,
Some Old Hens Cackle All Hours Til Old Age
in which the first letter of each word is taken in order to give:
O A O
S= C= T=
H H A

Using your calculator

• You will need to use a calculator to find trigonometric ratios. Different calculators work in different
ways, so make sure you know how to use your model.
• Angles can be measured in degrees, radians or grads. Calculators can be set to operate in any of
these three units, so make sure your calculator is set up to work in degrees.
• To find the sine of 60 degrees you will probably press the keys in that order,

but it may be different on your calculator. The answer should be 0.8660… or 3. If your calculator
2
3
gives answers in the form , make sure you can convert that to the decimal form.
2
• 3 cos 57° is a shorthand way of writing 3 × cos 57°. On some calculators you do not need to use the
× button and you can just press the keys in the way it is written:

Check to see whether your calculator works this way. The answer should be 1.63.

Find 5.6 sin 30°.

Example 6

This means 5.6 × sine of 30 degrees.

5.6 sin 30 = 2.8

Exercise 11F
1 Find these values, rounding your answers to 3 significant figures (sf).
a sin 43° b sin 56° c sin 67.2° d sin 90°
e sin 45° f sin 20° g sin 22° h sin 0°
2 Find these values, rounding your answers to 3 significant figures.
a cos 43° b cos 56° c cos 67.2° d cos 90°
e cos 45° f cos 20° g cos 22° h cos 0°

11.6 Trigonometric ratios 317

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MR 3 From your answers to questions 1 and 2, what angle has the same value for sine
and cosine?

MR 4 a i What is sin 35°? ii What is cos 55°?

b i What is sin 12°? ii What is cos 78°?
c i What is cos 67°? ii What is sin 23°?
d What connects the values in parts a, b and c?
e Copy and complete these sentences.
i sin 15° is the same as cos …
ii cos 82° is the same as sin …
iii sin x is the same as cos …
5 Find these values.
a tan 43° b tan 56° c tan 67.2° d tan 90°
e tan 45° f tan 20° g tan 22° h tan 0°
6 Find these values.
a sin 73° b cos 26° c tan 65.2° d sin 88°
e cos 35° f tan 30° g sin 28° h cos 5°
EV 7 What is so different about tan compared with both sin and cos?

8 Work out these values.

a 5 sin 65° b 6 cos 42° c 6 sin 90° d 5 sin 0°
9 Work out these values.
a 5 tan 65° b 6 tan 42° c 6 tan 85° d 5 tan 0°
10 Work out these values.
a 4 sin 63° b 7 tan 52° c 5 tan 80° d 9 cos 8°
11 Calculate these values.
5 6 6 5
a b sin 32° c d
sin 63° sin 90° sin 30°

12 Calculate these values.

3 7 5 6
a b c d
tan 64° tan 42° tan 89° sin 40°

13 Calculate these values.

a 8 sin 75° b 19 c 7 cos 71° d 15

sin 23° sin 81°
14 Calculate these values.
a 8 tan 75° b 19 c 7 tan 71° d 15
tan 23° tan 81°

318 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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15 Calculate sin x, cos x and tan x for these triangles. Leave your answers as fractions.
a 3 b
x
25
4 7
5
x
24

MR 16 5
You are told that tan x = 12
.
Show how you can find sin x and cos x from this information without using a
calculator.

11.7 Calculating angles

This section will show you how to: Key term
• use the trigonometric ratios to calculate an angle. inverse

What angle has a cosine of 0.6? You can use a calculator to

find out.
You write ‘the angle with a cosine of 0.6’ as cos–1 0.6. This is called the ‘inverse cosine of 0.6’.
Find out where cos–1 is on your calculator.
You will probably find it on the same key as cos, but you will need to press or
or first. Look to see if cos is written above the cos key.
–1

Check that cos–1 0.6 = 53.1301… = 53.1 (1 dp).

Check that cos 53.1 = 0.600 (3 dp).
Check that you can find the inverse sine and the inverse tangent in the same way.

3
Example 7

What angle has a sine of 8 ?

3
You need to find sin–1 8
.
You could use the fraction button on your calculator or you could calculate sin–1 (3 ÷ 8).
If you use the fraction key you may not need a bracket, or your calculator may put one
in automatically.
Try to do it in both of these ways and then use whichever you prefer.
The answer is 22.0°.

Find the angle with a tangent of 0.75.

Example 8

tan–1 0.75 = 36.869 897…

= 36.9° (1 dp)

11.7 Calculating angles 319

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Exercise 11G
Use your calculator to find the answers to the following. Give your answers to 1 decimal place.

1 What angles have the following sines?

a 0.5 b 0.785 c 0.64
d 0.877 e 0.999 f 0.707
2 What angles have the following cosines?
a 0.5 b 0.64 c 0.999
d 0.707 e 0.2 f 0.7
3 What angles have the following tangents?
a 0.6 b 0.38 c 0.895
d 1.05 e 2.67 f 4.38
4 What angles have the following sines?
a 4÷5 b 2÷3 c 7 ÷ 10
d 5÷6 e 1 ÷ 24 f 5 ÷ 13
5 What angles have the following cosines?
a 4÷5 b 2÷3 c 7 ÷ 10
d 5÷6 e 1 ÷ 24 f 5 ÷ 13
6 What angles have the following tangents?
a 3÷5 b 7÷9 c 2÷7
d 9÷5 e 11 ÷ 7 f 6÷5
CM 7 a What happens when you try to find the angle with a sine of 1.2?
b What is the largest value of sine you can put into your calculator without getting an
error when you ask for the inverse sine?
c What is the smallest value of sine you can put into your calculator without getting
an error when you ask for the inverse sine? (The correct answer is not 0.)
EV 8 a i What angle has a sine of 0.3? (Keep the answer in your calculator memory.)
ii What angle has a cosine of 0.3?
iii Add the two accurate answers of parts i and ii together.
b Will you always get the same answer to part a, whatever number you start with?
1
CM 9 You are told that cos 60° = 2 .
1
a Use this fact to show that the exact value of tan 30° = .
3
b Express tan 60° in square-root form.
c Write down the exact value of sin 60°.
d Write down the exact value of cos 30°.
e Write down the exact value of sin 30°.
CM 10 You are told that tan 45° = 1.
1
a Use this fact to show that the exact value of sin 45° = 2
.
b Express cos 45° in square-root form.

320 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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11.8 Using the sine and cosine

functions
This section will show you how to:
• find lengths of sides and angles in right-angled triangles using the sine and cosine functions.

Sine function
Opposite
Remember sine θ = Hypotenuse
Hypotenuse
Opposite

You can use the sine ratio to calculate the lengths of sides and angles in right-angled triangles.
To find the value of angle θ in this triangle:

10 cm
7 cm

use the sine ratio as you have the opposite side (7 cm) and the hypotenuse (10 cm).
sin θ = O
H
7
= 10
= 0.7
To find out what angle has a sine of 0.7, use the inverse sine function on your calculator.
sin–1 0.7 = 44.4° (1 dp)

Find the length of the side marked a in this triangle.

Example 9

12 cm
a

35°

Side a is the opposite side, with 12 cm as the hypotenuse, so use the sine ratio.
O
sin q =
H
a
sin 35° = 12
⇒ a = 12 sin 35°
= 6.88 cm (3 sf)

11.8 Using the sine and cosine functions 321

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Example 10 Find the length of the hypotenuse, h, in this triangle.

52°
h

8 cm

Note that although the angle is in the other corner, the opposite side is again given. So use the
sine ratio.
sin q = O
H
sin 52° = 8
h
8
⇒h=
sin 52°
= 10.2 cm (3 sf)

Exercise 11H
1 Find the size of the angle marked x in each of these triangles.
a b c
x
10 cm 8 cm
3 cm 8 cm

x x
3 cm 15 cm

2 Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
13 cm 8 cm 46°
x x

24° 32°
x 25 cm

3 Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
x x 61° 59 cm
3 cm

41° 36°
x
6 cm

4 Find the length of the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c d
64° 13 cm 75° x
7 cm x
x 8 cm

47° 55° x
15 cm

322 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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5 Find the value of x in each of these triangles.

a b c d x
15 cm 8 cm
11 cm 9 cm x 13 cm
17° x
x 37°

4 cm

6 Angle θ has a sine of 35 . Calculate the missing lengths in these triangles.

a b c

x 50
x x
10

MR 7 a Write down the exact value of sin 30°.

b Sketch a right-angled triangle with an angle of 30°.
c Label the hypotenuse with a length of 2 and then, without using a calculator, write
down the lengths of the other two sides.

MR 8 a Write down the exact value of sin 45° in square-root form.

b Sketch a right-angled triangle with an angle of 45°.
c Label the opposite side with a length of 1 and then, without using a calculator,
write down the lengths of the other two sides.

Cosine function
Remember cosine θ = Adjacent
Hypotenuse Hypotenuse

You can use the cosine ratio to calculate the

lengths of sides and angles in right-angled
triangles. Adjacent
To find the angle θ in this triangle:

12 cm

5 cm
use the cosine ratio as you have the adjacent side (5 cm) and the hypotenuse (12 cm).
A 5
cos θ = H
= 12
5
To find out what angle has a cosine of 12
, use the inverse cosine function on your calculator.
cos–1 5 = 65.4° (1 dp)
12

11.8 Using the sine and cosine functions 323

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Example 11 Find the length of the side marked a in this triangle.

47°
9 cm
a

Side a is the adjacent side, with 9 cm as the hypotenuse,

so use the cosine ratio.
A
cos q =
H
a
cos 47° =
9
⇒ a = 9 cos 47°
= 6.14 cm (3 sf)

Find the length of the hypotenuse, h, in this triangle.

Example 12

40°
20 cm

The adjacent side is given, so use the cosine ratio.

A
cos q =
H
20
cos 40° =
h
⇒ h = 20
cos 40°
= 26.1 cm (3 sf)

Exercise 11I
1 Find the angle marked x in each of these triangles.
a b c
8 cm x 100 cm
4 cm
1 cm
x x
5 cm 160 cm

2 Find the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
9 cm 42 cm 39° x
x
44° 12°
x 140 cm

324 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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3 Find the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
x x 69° 125 cm
14 cm
35° 22°
6 cm x

4 Find the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c d
52° 14 cm
36° 11 cm x
8 cm x x
12 cm 24°

48°
x

5 Find the value of x in each of these triangles.

a b c 6.5 cm d
x
49°
10 cm 16 cm 17 cm
13 cm
x

56° x
x 11 cm

5
6 Angle θ has a cosine of 13 . Calculate the missing lengths in these triangles.
a b c
x

15 x 6.5
x
26

MR 7 a Write down the exact value of cos 60°.

b Sketch a right-angled triangle with an angle of 60°.
c Label the hypotenuse with a length of 2 and then, without using a calculator, write
down the lengths of the other two sides.

MR 8 a Write down the exact value of cos 45° in square-root form.

b Sketch a right-angled triangle with an angle of 45°.
c Label the opposite side with a length of 1 and then, without using a calculator,
write down the lengths of the other two sides.

11.8 Using the sine and cosine functions 325

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11.9 Using the tangent function

This section will show you how to:
• find lengths of sides and angles in right-angled triangles using the tangent function.

Opposite
Remember tangent θ =
Adjacent
You can use the tangent ratio to calculate the lengths of sides and angles in right-angled triangles.

Opposite

Adjacent

To find the angle θ in this triangle:

3 cm

4 cm

use the tangent ratio as you have the opposite side (3 cm) and the adjacent side (4 cm).
tan θ = O = 3 = 0.75
A 4
To find out what angle has a tangent of 0.75, use the inverse tangent function on your calculator.
tan–1 0.75 = 36.9° (1 dp)

Find the length of the side marked x in this triangle.

Example 13

62°

9 cm

Side x is the opposite side, with 9 cm as the adjacent side, so use the tangent ratio.
tan θ = O
A
x
tan 62° =
9
⇒ x = 9 tan 62°
= 16.9 cm (3 sf)

326 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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Example 14 Find the length of the side marked a in this triangle.

6 cm

35°
a

Side a is the adjacent side and the opposite side is given, so use the tangent ratio.
O
tan q =
A
tan 35° = 6
a
6
⇒a =
tan 35°
= 8.57 cm (3 sf)

Exercise 11J
1 Find the angle marked x in each of these triangles.
a b c
x 35 cm
6 cm 20 cm 45 cm
x x

9 cm 15 cm

2 Find the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
34° 300 cm
x
x 45 cm
23° 75°
12 cm x

3 Find the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
40° x
3 cm x 200 cm
20° 70°
x 52 cm

4 Find the side marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c d
33° 6 cm
x 7 cm
11 cm 34°
43° x
61°
x
5 cm
x

11.9 Using the tangent function 327

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5 Find the value of x in each of these triangles.

a b c x d
52° x
9 cm 9 cm
x
4 cm
x
63°
8 cm
3.5 cm
7 cm

6 Angle θ has a tangent of 43 . Calculate the missing lengths in these triangles.

a b c
9

x x
x

16 1.5

MR 7 a Write down the exact value of tan 60°.

b Sketch a right-angled triangle with an angle of 60°.
c Label the hypotenuse with a length of of 2 and then, without using a calculator,
write down the lengths of the other two sides.

MR 8 a Write down the exact value of tan 45°.

b Sketch a right-angled triangle with an angle of 45°.
c Label the opposite side with a length of 1 and then, without using a calculator,
write down the lengths of the other two sides.

11.10 Which ratio to use

This section will show you how to:
• decide which trigonometric ratio to use in a right-angled triangle.

The difficulty with any trigonometric problem is knowing which ratio to use to solve it.
To find the length of the side marked x in this triangle, follow the steps below.

16 cm
x

37°

Step 1 Identify what information you have been given and what you need to find. In this case, x is
opposite the angle and 16 cm is the hypotenuse.
Step 2 Decide which ratio to use. In this case, use the sine ratio as it uses the opposite
and hypotenuse.

328 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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O
Step 3 Remember sin θ = .
H
x
Step 4 Put in the numbers and letters. sin 37° =
16
Step 5 Rearrange the equation and work out the answer. x = 16 sin 37°
= 9.629 040 371 cm
Step 6 Give the answer to an appropriate degree of accuracy. x = 9.63 cm (3 sf)
In reality, you may not need to write down every step. You can mark the triangle for step 1 and you
can do steps 2 and 3 in your head. You should write down steps 4 to 6 to show your working.
The next examples are set out in a way that shows the minimum amount of working but gives the
correct answers.

Find the length of the side marked x in this triangle.

Example 15

50°
7 cm
x

Mark on the triangle the side you know (H) and the side you want to find (A).
Recognise it is a cosine problem because you have A and H.
So, cos 50° = x H 50°
7 7 cm A
⇒ x = 7 cos 50° x

= 4.50 cm (3 sf)

Find the angle marked x in this triangle.

Example 16

15 cm
9 cm

Mark on the triangle the sides you know.

Recognise it is a sine problem because you have O and H.
H
9 15 cm O
So, sin x = = 0.6
15 9 cm
⇒ x = sin–1 0.6
x
= 36.9° (1 dp)

11.10 Which ratio to use 329

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Example 17 Find the angle marked x in this triangle.

12 cm 7 cm

Mark on the triangle the sides you know. A

O
Recognise it is a tangent problem because you have O and A. 12 cm 7 cm

12
So, tan x = 7 x

12
⇒ x = tan–1 7
= 59.7° (1 dp)

Exercise 11K
1 Find the length marked x in each of these triangles.
a b c
20 40° x
x x

39° 48°
50 50

d e f
20 x 40°
52 x

37° 76°
x 5

2 Find the angle marked x in each of these triangles.

a b c
20 x 70
14 60
x x
50 50

d e f
20 100 x
4
52
x x
13 5

330 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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3 Find the angle or length marked x in each of these triangles.

a 5 b c
x x
10
12
120
62°

d 34 e 26°

x x 39°

16

25

f 56
g h
78° 45 x
80
x 50
54

x
i j
x 23
230
59°
82°

4 sinθ
CM a How does this diagram show that tan θ = cos θ ?

c a
÷c 1 a
–
c
θ θ
b b
–
c

b How does the diagram show that (sin θ )2 + (cos θ )2 = 1?

c Choose a value for θ and check the two results in parts a and b are true.
CM 5 Complete this table, leaving your answers in square-root form.
30° 45° 60°
Sine
Cosine
Tangent

11.10 Which ratio to use 331

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11.11 Solving problems using

trigonometry
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve practical problems using trigonometry angle of depression
• solve problems using an angle of elevation or an angle
angle of elevation
of depression.

Many trigonometry problems do not come as straightforward triangles. Sometimes, solving a triangle
is part of solving a practical problem. You should follow these steps when solving a practical problem
using trigonometry.
• Draw the triangle required.
• Put on the information given (angles and sides).
• Put on x for the unknown angle or side.
• Mark on two of O, A or H as appropriate.
• Choose which ratio to use.
• Write out the equation with the numbers in.
• Rearrange the equation, if necessary, and then work out the answer.
• Give your answer to a sensible degree of accuracy.

A window cleaner has a ladder that is 7 m long. The window cleaner leans it against a wall so
Example 18

that the foot of the ladder is 3 m from the wall. What angle does the ladder make with the wall?
Draw the situation as a right-angled triangle.
Then mark the sides and angle.
H x
Recognise it is a sine problem because you have 7 7
O and H.
3
So, sin x = 7
3 3 3 O
⇒ x = sin–1 7
= 25° (to the nearest degree)

Exercise 11L
In these questions, give answers involving angles to the nearest degree.

1 A ladder, 6 m long, rests against a wall. The foot of the ladder is 2.5 m from the base of
the wall. What angle does the ladder make with the ground?

PS 2 The ladder in question 1 has a ‘safe angle’ with the ground of 70°– 80°. What are the
safe limits for the distance of the foot of this ladder from the wall? How high up the
wall does the ladder reach?

3 A ladder, of length 10 m, is placed so that it reaches 7 m up the wall. What angle does
it make with the ground?

332 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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4 A ladder is placed so that it makes an angle of 76° with the ground. The foot of the
ladder is 1.7 m from the foot of the wall. How high up the wall does the ladder reach?

PS 5 Calculate the angle that the diagonal makes with the long side of a rectangle that
measures 10 cm by 6 cm.

EV 6 This diagram shows a frame for a bookcase. 0.9 m

a What angle does the diagonal strut make with the long side?
b Calculate the length of the strut.
c Why may your answers be inaccurate in this case?
1.9 m

7 This diagram shows a roof truss.

a What angle will the roof make 1.6 m
with the horizontal?
b Calculate the length of the
sloping strut. 4.5 m

CM 8 Alicia paces out 100 m from the base of a

church. She then measures the angle to
the top of the spire as 23°. How would
Alicia find the height of the church spire? 23°

100 m

PS 9 A girl is flying a kite on a string 32 m long.

The string, which is being held 1 m above the
ground, makes an angle of 39° with the horizontal.
How high is the kite above the ground?
32 m

39°

1m

CM 10 Sophia is standing on one bank of a wide river. She wants to find the width of
the river.
She cannot get to the other side.
She asks if you can use trigonometry to find the width of the river.
What can you suggest?

11.11 Solving problems using trigonometry 333

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Angles of elevation and depression

When you look up at an aircraft in the sky, the angle through which your line of sight turns from
looking straight ahead (the horizontal) is called the angle of elevation.
When you are standing on a high point and look down at a boat, the angle through which your line of
sight turns from looking straight ahead (the horizontal) is called the angle of depression.

Horizontal
Angle of
depression
Line of sight

Angle of Line of sight

elevation

Horizontal

From the top of a vertical cliff, 100 m high, Andrew sees a boat out at sea. The angle of
Example 19

depression from Andrew to the boat is 42°. How far from the base of the cliff is the boat?
The diagram of the situation is shown in figure i.
From this, you get the triangle shown in figure ii.

i iiii A
x
42° 42°

O
100 m 100 m

From figure ii, you see that this is a tangent problem.

So, tan 42° = 100

x
100
⇒ x = tan 42°

= 111 m (3 sf)

Exercise 11M
In these questions, give any answers involving angles to the nearest degree.

1 Eric sees an aircraft in the sky. The aircraft is at a horizontal distance of 25 km from
Eric. The angle of elevation is 22°. How high is the aircraft?

2 An aircraft is flying at an altitude of 4000 m and is 10 km from the airport. If a

passenger can see the airport, what is the angle of depression?

3 A man standing 200 m from the base of a television transmitter looks at the top of it
and notices that the angle of elevation of the top is 65°. How high is the tower?

334 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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CM 4 a From the top of a vertical cliff, 200 m high, a boat has an angle of depression of 52°.
How far from the base of the cliff is the boat?

52°

200 m
cliff

boat
sea
b The boat now sails away from the cliff so that the distance is doubled. Does that
mean that the angle of depression is halved? Give a reason for your answer.
5 From a boat, the angle of elevation of the foot of a lighthouse on the edge of a cliff is 34°.
a If the cliff is 150 m high, how far from the base of the cliff is the boat?
lighthouse

50 m

cliff 150 m
boat 34°
sea
b If the lighthouse is 50 m high, what is the angle of elevation of the top of the
lighthouse from the boat?
6 A bird flies from the top of a 12-m tall tree, at an angle of depression of 34°, to catch a
worm on the ground.
a How far does the bird actually fly?
b How far was the worm from the base of the tree?
EV 7 Sunil wants to find the height of a building. He stands about 50 m away from the
building. The angle of elevation from Sunil to the top of the building is about 15°.
a How tall is the building?
b Evaluate your answer.
CM 8 The top of a ski run is 100 m above the finishing line. The run is 300 m long. Show that
the angle of depression of the ski run is 70.5°.
EV 9 Nessie and Cara are standing on opposite sides of a tree.

30° ?
Nessie Cara

14 m 28 m
Nessie is 14 m away and the angle of elevation of the top of the tree is 30°.
Cara is 28 m away. She says the angle of elevation for her must be 15° because she is
twice as far away.
Is Cara correct? If not, give the actual angle of elevation.
PS 10 Isaac is in a boat on the sea and the angle of elevation to the top of the cliffs is 65°.
His brother, William, is in another boat 30 m in front of him and directly in line with
the same cliffs. For William, the angle of elevation of the cliffs is 70°.
How far from the foot of the cliffs are both boys?

11.11 Solving problems using trigonometry 335

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11.12 Trigonometry and bearings

This section will show you how to:
• solve bearing problems using trigonometry.

A bearing is the direction to one place from another. The usual way of giving a bearing is as an angle
measured from north in a clockwise direction. This is how a navigational compass and a surveyor’s
compass measure bearings.
A bearing is always written as a three-digit number, known as a three-figure bearing.
The diagram shows how this works, using the main compass points as examples.
000°

315° 045°
N
NW NE

270° W E 090°

SW SE
S
225° 135°

180°

When working with bearings, remember:

• always work clockwise from North
• always give a bearing in degrees as a three-figure bearing.
Trigonometry problems with bearings can be difficult when there are angles greater than 90°.
To avoid this, you have to find a right-angled triangle that you can easily use. Example 20 shows you
how to deal with such a situation.

A ship sails on a bearing of 120° for 50 km. How far east has it travelled?
Example 20

The diagram of the situation is shown in figure i.

From this, you can get the acute-angled triangle shown in figure ii.
From figure ii, you see that this is a cosine problem.
x i N ii
So, cos 30° = A
50 x km
⇒ x = 50 cos 30° 30°

= 43.301 120°
The ship has sailed 43.3 km east (to 3 sf). 50 km
H
50 km

336 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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Exercise 11N
1 A ship sails for 75 km on a bearing of 078°.
a How far east has it travelled? b How far north has it travelled?
2 Lopham is 17 miles from Wath on a bearing of 210°.
a How far south of Wath is Lopham? b How far east of Lopham is Wath?
CM 3 A plane sets off from an airport and flies due east for 120 km, then turns to fly due
south for 70 km before landing at Seddeth. Another pilot decides to fly the direct
route from the airport to Seddeth.
Show that he should fly on an approximate bearing of 120°.

4 A helicopter leaves an army base and flies 60 km on a bearing of 278°.

a How far west has the helicopter flown?
b How far north has the helicopter flown?
5 A ship sails from a port on a bearing of 117° for 35 km before heading due north for
40 km and docking at Angle Bay.
a How far south had the ship sailed before turning?
b How far north had the ship sailed from the port to Angle Bay?
c How far east of the port is Angle Bay?
d What is the bearing of Angle Bay from the port?
PS 6 Mountain A is due west of a walker. Mountain B is due north of the walker. The
guidebook says that mountain B is 4.3 km from mountain A, on a bearing of 058°.
How far is the walker from mountain B?

7 The shopping centre is 5.5 km east of my house and the supermarket is 3.8 km south.
What is the bearing of the supermarket from the shopping mall?

8 The diagram shows the relative distances and N

bearings of three ships A, B and C.
a How far north of A is B? (Distance x on w°
C
diagram.)
b How far north of B is C? (Distance y on N
diagram.)
y 25 km
c How far west of A is C? (Distance z on 062°
diagram.) z
B
d What is the bearing of A from C? (Angle w°
on diagram.)

PS 9 A ship sails from port A for 42 km on a bearing

of 130° to point B. It then changes course and 75 km
sails for 24 km on a bearing of 040° to point C, x
N
where it breaks down and anchors.
A helicopter flies directly from port A to
the ship at C. What is its course?

332°
A

11.12 Trigonometry and bearings 337

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11.13 Trigonometry and isosceles

triangles
This section will show you how to:
• use trigonometry to solve problems involving isosceles triangles.

Isosceles triangles often feature in trigonometry problems because they can be split into two
right-angled triangles that are the same.

a Find the length x in this isosceles triangle.

Example 21

b Calculate the area of the triangle.

7 cm 7 cm

53° 53°
x

Draw a perpendicular from the apex of the triangle to its base,

splitting the triangle into two the same, right-angled triangles. H
a To find the length y, which is half of x, use cosine. 7 cm
y
So, cos 53° = 7 53°
⇒ y = 7 cos 53°
y
= 4.212 705 1 cm A

So x = 2y = 8.43 cm (3 sf).
b To calculate the area of the original triangle, you first need to find its
vertical height, h.
H
You have two choices, both of which involve the right-angled triangle O 7 cm
of part a. You can use either Pythagoras’ theorem (h2 + y2 = 72) or h
trigonometry. It is safer to use trigonometry again, since you are then 53°
still using known information. y
This is a sine problem. sin 53° = h A
7
⇒ h = 7 sin 53°
= 5.590 448 6 cm
(Keep the accurate figure in the calculator.)
1
The area of the triangle is 2 × base × height. You should use the most accurate figures you
have for this calculation.
A= 1 × 8.425 410 3 × 5.590 448 6 = 23.6 cm2 (3 sf)
2
You do not need to write down these eight-figure numbers, provided that you use the
accurate figures in your calculator.

338 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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Exercise 11P
1 Find the value of the side or angle marked x.
a b c d
15 cm 12 cm
x x 32°

42° x 72°
8.6 cm 20 cm x 45 cm

2 This diagram below shows a roof truss. How wide is the roof?

2.3 m

25°

PS 3 Calculate the area of each of these triangles.

a b c d

9 cm 34°
18 cm 84°

58° 67°
14 cm 24 cm

PS 4 An equilateral triangle has sides of length 10 cm.

A square is drawn on each side.
The corners of the squares are joined as shown.
What is the area of the resulting hexagon?

PS 5 The diagonals of a rectangle make an angle of 40° with each other. If each diagonal is
11 cm long, what is the area of the rectangle?

CM 6 Show that the volume of a cone with a vertical angle of 62° and a height of 8 cm is
194 cm3.

11.13 Trigonometry and isosceles triangles 339

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 The inside of the back of a van is a cuboid that is 2.10 m wide, 4.20 m long and 3.10 m high.
a Show that a pole that is 5.25 m long will not fit in the van if
it is laid on the floor.
b Show that a pole that is 5.25 m long can be fitted in the
3.10 m
back of the van.

4.20 m 2.10 m

This is a communicating mathematics question where you have to assess the validity
of an argument.
a You need to find the diagonal length
of the floor in order to assess the
statement given. Show the calculation
using Pythagoras’ theorem and then
4.2
assess the statement.
Don’t just say the statement is wrong:
give a clear reason for your conclusion.
2.10

The length, c, of the diagonal of the

floor is:
2.12 + 4.22 = c2
c= ( 2.12 + 4.22 ) = 4.7 m
This is shorter than the pole, so the ladder
will not fit on the floor in the van.
b Let the length of the diagonal of the You need to find the diagonal length of
van be d m. the van. Use a diagram to help identify
the sides to use.
Use Pythagoras’ theorem in 3D to make
sure you don’t round too early.
3.10 d
After finding the length, assess the
statement and give a clear reason for
your conclusion.

floor diagonal

d = ( 4.22 + 2.12 + 3.12 )

= 5.627 m
The diagonal of the van is 37.7 cm longer
than the pole so the pole can be put in
diagonally.

340 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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EV 2 a Find the area of a regular hexagon of side 6 cm.

b Comment on the accuracy of your answer.

This is an evaluating question where you are required to evaluate a result.

a You need to show how you are
accurately calculating the area of the
shape without rounding too early.

6 cm

1
Area of one triangle = 2 × 6 × height
height = (62 – 32 )
Area of hexagon = 6 × area of triangle
Then give a final answer with suitable
=6×
1
2 ×6× (62 – 32 ) rounding.
= 93.53 074 4
= 94 cm2 (2 sf)
b The accuracy was kept by not rounding You should make a suitable comment
until the last stage. The initial data was reflecting the accuracy, giving a clear
assumed to be accurate, and so 2 sf gives reason why you selected the accuracy
an appropriate degree of accuracy. you did.

CM 3 A clock is designed to have a circular face on a triangular surround.

The triangle is equilateral.
The face extends to the edge of the triangle.
The diameter of the clock face is 18 cm.
Show that the perimeter of the triangle is 94 cm.

This is a communicating mathematics question where you have to construct a chain

of reasoning to achieve a given result.

You have to find the strategy of getting to

9.0 cm the given result of 94 cm, clearly showing
your method at each stage.
30°
x You need to show a correct trigonometry
The radius is 9 cm. ratio that can be used to calculate x, half
the length of the side of the triangle.
The angle is 30° because it is half the
angle of an equilateral triangle. Use the lengths you are given, and what
you can deduce, to draw a triangle.
tan 30° = 9
x
9
⇒ x = tan 30 o

9 Show the correct value of 93.53 and how

Perimeter of triangle = 6 ×
tan 30 o you rounded to 2 sf in order to get the
= 93.53… cm given solution of 94 cm.

= 94 cm (2 sf)

11 Worked exemplars 341

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Ready to progress?
I can use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems in 2D.

I can use Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems in 3D.

I can use the trigonometric ratios for sine, cosine and tangent in right-angled triangles.
I can use trigonometry to solve problems.
I can use angles of elevation, angles of depression and bearings to solve problems.

Review questions
PS 1 ABC is a right-angled triangle.
A Not drawn
accurately

8 cm
7 cm

B C

What is the area of the triangle?

PS 2 A lighthouse, L, is 15 km due west of a port, P.

A ship, S, is 8 km due north of the lighthouse, L.
N

Not drawn
S
accurately

8 km
N

L P
15 km

The ship leaves its position at 12 noon.

It sails directly to the port at a speed of 8.5 km/h.
What time will it reach the port?

CM 3 This cuboid is 3 cm wide, 4 cm long and 12 cm high.

Show that the diagonal of this cuboid is 13 cm.
Not drawn
accurately

12 cm

4 cm
3 cm

342 11 Geometry and measures: Right-angled triangles

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PS 4 A lighthouse, L, is 4.3 km due east of a port, P. A ship, S, is 2.8 km due north of the
lighthouse, L. Find the bearing of the port, P, from the ship, S.

PS 5 The diagram is made up of two right-angled triangles ABC and BCD.

B

y
3 cm
35°
A
7 cm C

Calculate the value of y.

PS 6 The circle with centre has a radius of 7 cm.

The circle with centre Y has a radius of 2 cm.
The two circles touch each other and have a common tangent AB.

Not drawn
accurately
X

A B

a Explain why ABY is a trapezium.

b Show that the area of ABY is 33.7 cm2.
PS 7 Calculate the area of a pentagon with side length of 8 cm.

EV 8 Leo only had a basic calculator with no trigonometrical functions. He needed to find
the value of sin 60°.
Joy said he could calculate sin 60° by remembering how to express it in square-
root form.
Chris said he could calculate it by using Pythagoras’ theorem and an equilateral
triangle of side length 10 cm.
Evaluate the accuracy of each method.

11 Review questions 343

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12 Geometry and
measures: Similarity

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out the scale factor for two similar shapes
• how to work out lengths of sides in similar shapes
• how to work out areas and volumes of similar shapes.

You should already know:

• how to use and simplify ratios
• how to enlarge a shape by a given scale factor.

About this chapter

Thales of Miletus (c.624–c.547 BC) was a Greek philosopher and one of the
Seven Sages of Greece. He is believed to have been the first person to use
similar triangles to find the height of tall objects.
Thales discovered that, at a particular time of day, the height of an object and
the length of its shadow were the same. He used this observation to calculate
the height of the Egyptian pyramids. Later, he took this knowledge back
to Greece. His observations are considered to be the forerunner of using
similar triangles to solve such problems.
Astronomers use the geometry of triangles to measure the distance to
nearby stars. They take advantage of Earth’s journey in its orbit around the
Sun to calculate the maximum distance between two measurements. They
observe the star twice, from the same point on Earth and at the same time of
day, but six months apart.
This chapter will show you what similar triangles and shapes are and how we
can use the ratio of lengths to solve different sorts of problems.

344
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12.1 Similar triangles

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• show two triangles are similar
similar similar triangles
• work out the scale factor between similar triangles.

Triangles are similar if their angles are equal. Their corresponding sides are then in the same ratio.
These two right-angled triangles are similar triangles.
The scale factor of the enlargement is 2.
The ratios of the lengths of corresponding sides
can all be simplified to give the same ratio.
10 cm
3:6=4:8 6 cm
5 cm
= 5 : 10 3 cm
=1:2
All corresponding angles are equal. 4 cm 8 cm

The triangles ABC and PQR are similar. P

Example 1

A
Calculate the length of the side PR.
8 cm 6 cm x cm 9 cm

C B R Q

Take two pairs of corresponding sides, where one pair contains the unknown side. Form each
pair into a fraction, so that x is on top. Since these fractions must be equal,
PR
AC
= PQ
AB
x
8
= 69
To calculate x:
9×8
x= 6
cm
72
⇒ x= 6
= 12 cm
Alternatively, you could use the scale factor method. The scale factor from ABC to PQR is 9 ,
6
which is 1.5. Hence PR is 8 × 1.5 = 12 cm

Exercise 12A
CM 1 Are these pairs of shapes similar? If so, give the scale factor. If not, give a reason.
a 5 cm 20 cm b
3 cm

12 cm 12 cm

22 cm
5 cm

15 cm

12.1 Similar triangles 345

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A P
CM 2 These triangles are similar.
a Give the ratio of the sides. 5 cm 70° 6 cm 70°
15 cm 18 cm
b Which angle corresponds to
B C
angle C?
c Which side corresponds to side QP? Q R

CM 3 These two triangles are similar. Q

a Which angle corresponds to angle A? B

b Which side corresponds to side AC? 9 cm
6 cm

A C P R
5 cm 7.5 cm

PS 4 a Explain why triangle ABC is similar to triangle AQR. Q

b Which angle corresponds to the angle at B?

B
c Which side of triangle AQR corresponds to side AC of triangle
ABC? Your answers to question 3 may help you. 9 cm
6 cm

A R
5 cm C 2.5 cm

5 In the diagrams a to f, each pair of shapes are similar but not drawn to scale.
a Work out x. b Work out PQ.
Q
P
A
2.5 cm P
16 cm A B
x 6 cm 12 cm
6 cm
2 cm
C B R Q
C R

c Work out x and y. d Work out x and y.

10 cm B
A 10 cm
A B

P Q
x x
26 cm
9 cm
8 cm 12 cm
C
y
R 12 cm
y

E D
C 5 cm

e Work out the lengths of AB and PQ. f Work out the length of QR.

A P A 10 cm B
9 cm
P Q
7 cm
10 cm B 6 cm
6 cm Q
S R
15 cm
D C
C

346 12 Geometry and measures: Similarity

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P
PS 6 a Explain why these two triangles are similar.
b What is the ratio of their sides?
A
c Use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the length
of side AC of triangle ABC.
12 cm 36 cm
d Write down the length of the side PR of
triangle PQR.
C B R Q
5 cm 15 cm

PS 7 Sean is standing next to a tree.

His height is 1.6 m and he casts a shadow that has a length of 2.4 m.
The tree casts a shadow that has a length of 7.8 m.
Use what you know about similar triangles to work out the height of the tree, h.
MR 8 Here are two rectangles.
Explain why the two rectangles are
not similar. 15 cm
12 cm

16 cm 19 cm

EV 9 Triangle ABC is similar to triangle EDC. D

Jay says that the length of DE is 14 cm. A

5 cm
Evaluate Jay’s comment. 7 cm
C

B 12.5 cm
E

Further examples of similar triangles

Calculate the lengths marked x and y in the diagram

Example 2

A
(not drawn to scale). 4 6

D E
5
6 y

C B
x

Using the properties of parallel lines, you can see that triangles AED and ABC are similar. So
using the corresponding sides CB, DE with AC, AD gives,
x 10
5
=
4
10 × 5
⇒x= 4
= 12.5
Using the corresponding sides AE, AB with AD, AC gives,
y+6 10
6
= 4
10 × 6
⇒y+6=
4
= 15
⇒ y = 15 – 6
=9

12.1 Similar triangles 347

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Example 3 Ahmed wants to work out the height of a tall building.

He sticks a 2 m pole in the ground at 100 paces from the building.
At 110 paces from the building he notices that the top of the pole and the top of the building
are in line. How tall is the building?
First, draw a diagram of the situation and label it.
E
Using corresponding sides ED, CB with AD, AB gives:
x 110
2
=
10
x
110 × 2 C
⇒x= 10
2m
= 22 m.
A
So the building is 22 m high. 10 paces B 100 paces D

Exercise 12B
1 In each of the cases below, state a pair of similar triangles and calculate the length
marked x. Separate the similar triangles if it makes it easier for you.
a A
b A

4 cm 5 cm

B C B C
3 cm 4 cm

8 cm 10 cm

D E D E
x x

2 a Work out the value of x. b Work out the length of CE.

TT D
D

R
R B
B
16
16 cm
cm
20 30
30 cm
12
12 cm
cm 20 cm
cm cm

P A
A
P 15
15 cm
cm Q
Q
xx S
S 10
10 cm
cm C
C E
E

c Work out the values of x and y. d Work out the lengths of DC and EB.

P C
C
P

200 D
200 cm D
yy
cm
30
30 cm 20
S
S cm 15 20 cm
cm
100 15 cm
cm
100 cm
cm
Q
Q
75 A
75 cm
cm xx A 24
TT 24 cm
cm E
E B
B
60
60 cm
cm
R
R

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PS 3 This diagram shows a method of

working out the height of a tower.
A stick, 2 m long, is placed vertically
120 m from the base of a tower so that h
the top of the tower and the top of the
stick are in line with a point on the 2m
ground 3 m from the base of the stick.
3m 120 m
How high is the tower?
CM 4 It is known that a factory chimney is 330 feet high. Priya paces out distances as shown
in the diagram, so that the top of the chimney and the top of the flag pole are in line
with each other. Show that the flag pole is 220 feet tall.

400 paces 200 paces

PS 5 The height of a golf flag is 1.5 m. Use the diagram to

calculate the height of the tree.

1.5 m
10 m 90 m

PS 6 Work out the height of a pole that casts a shadow of 1.5 m when at the same time a
man of height 165 cm casts a shadow of 75 cm.
PS 7 Bob, a builder, is making this wooden frame for a roof. A

In the diagram, triangle ABC is similar to triangle A Y. 1.5 m

AB = 1.5 m, B = 3.5 m and Y = 6 m B C

What is the length of wood that Bob needs to make BC? 3.5 m

X 6m Y

MR 8 Triangle ABC is similar to triangle DAC. A

AC = 9 cm and CD = 6 cm
Prove that BC is 13.5 cm. 9 cm

D 6 cm C B
A
EV 9 In the diagram, triangle ABC is similar to triangle A Y.
Which of the following is the correct length of B ? 8 cm

Explain how you decide. B C

10 cm
a 2 cm b 3 cm
c 4 cm d 5 cm X 15 cm Y

12.1 Similar triangles 349

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More complicated problems

The information given in a similar triangle situation can be complicated, and you will need to have
good algebraic skills to deal with it. Example 4 is typical of the more complicated problem you could
be asked to solve, so follow it through carefully.

Work out the value of x in this triangle. D

Example 4

B
30 cm
20 cm

A x C 15 cm E

You know that triangle ABC is similar to triangle ADE.

Splitting up the triangles may help you to see what you will need.
So your equation will be: D
x + 15 = 30
20 B
x
Multiplying both sides by x and both sides 30 cm
20 cm
by 20 gives:
A C A E
20x + 300 = 30x x x + 15
⇒ 300 = 10x
⇒ x = 30 cm

Exercise 12C
1 Calculate
x the lengths x or x and y in the diagrams a to f. x

a b 7.5 cm c 6 cm
3 cm
x 5 cm 5 cm x
10 cm
7.5 cm 6 cm
3 cm x 35cm
cm 85 cm
cm
10 cm
9 cm x 3 cm 8 cm

9 cm

d e f
20 cm 5 cm
x 1 cm
7.5 cm 12 cm
10
20cm
cm 95cm
cm
yx x 1 cm 2 cm
7.5 cm y 12 cm
10 cm
x 7 cm
9 cm 1.5 cm
6 cm y x 2 cm
y y 0.8 cm
x 7 cm 1.5 cm
6 cm
MR 2 y 0.8 cm
Brad is 1.7 m tall. He is looking at a building that he knows is 180 m tall.
There is a 2 m tall wall between him and the building. When he is standing 12 m away
from the wall, the top of the building is just hidden by the wall.
a Show that the building is just over 7 km from the other side of the wall.
b What assumptions have you made to calculate the distance?

350 12 Geometry and measures: Similarity

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12.2 Areas and volumes of

similar shapes
This section will show you how to:
• solve problems involving the area and volume of similar
shapes. Key terms
area scale factor
There are relationships between the lengths, areas and
linear scale factor
volumes of similar shapes.
You have already seen that when you enlarge a 2D shape volume scale factor
by a given scale factor to form a new, similar shape, the
corresponding lengths of the original shape and the new shape are all in the same ratio, which is
equal to the scale factor. This scale factor of the lengths is called the length ratio or linear scale factor.
Two similar shapes also have an area ratio, which is equal to the ratio of the squares of their
corresponding lengths. The area ratio, or area scale factor, is the square of the length ratio.
Likewise, two 3D shapes are similar if their corresponding lengths are in the same ratio. Their volume
ratio is equal to the ratio of the cubes of their corresponding lengths. The volume ratio, or volume
scale factor, is the cube of the length ratio.
You can verify this with the following investigation.

1. Draw or build one cube.

2. Draw or build another cube twice as long as the first.

3. Count how many faces of the small cube can fit in one face of the larger cube.

4. Count how many smaller cubes can fit in the larger cube.

B
5. Draw or build another cube that is three times as long as the first one.

6. Count how many faces of the small cube can fit in one face of this new cube.

7. Count how many cubes can fit in this new cube.

8. Comment on the following results.

Cubes Length ratio Area ratio Volume ratio
A:B 1:2 1:4 1:8 C
A:C 1:3 1:9 1 : 27
B:C 2:3 4:9 8 : 27

You will notice that you can express the relationship between similar shapes as:
Length ratio: x:y Area ratio: x2 : y2 Volume ratio: x3 : y3

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1
Example 5 A model yacht is made to a scale of 20 of the size of the real yacht. The area of the sail of the
model is 150 cm . What is the area of the sail of the real yacht?
2

Linear scale factor = 1 : 20

Area scale factor = 12 : 202
= 1 : 400 (square of the linear scale factor)
Area of real sail = 400 × area of model sail
= 400 × 150 cm2
= 60 000 cm2
= 6 m2

A bottle has a base radius of 4 cm, a height of 15 cm and a capacity of 650 cm3. A similar bottle
Example 6

has a base radius of 3 cm.

a What is the length ratio?
b What is the volume ratio?
c What is the volume of the smaller bottle?
a The length ratio is given by the ratio of the two radii, that is, 4 : 3.
b The volume ratio is therefore 43 : 33 = 64 : 27.
c Let v be the volume of the smaller bottle. Then the volume ratio is:
volume of smaller bottle v
volume of larger bottl
ttle = 650
v 27
Therefore 650 = 64
⇒v= 27 × 650
64
= 274 cm3 (3 significant figures)

The cost of a tin of paint, with height 12 cm, is £3.20 and its label has an area of 24 cm2.
Example 7

a If the cost is based on the amount of paint in the tin, what is the cost of a similar tin,
18 cm high?
b Assuming the labels are similar, what is the area of the label on the larger tin?

a The cost of the paint is proportional to b Area ratio = 22 : 32

the volume of the tin. =4:9
Length ratio = 12 : 18 Let A be the area of the larger label.
=2:3 Then the area ratio is:
Volume ratio = 23 : 33 larger label area A
= 24
smaller label area
= 8 : 27
Let P be the cost of the larger tin. Then the Therefore:
A 9
cost ratio is: 24
=
4
cost of larger tin 9 × 224
= P
3.2
⇒A= 4
cost of smaller tin
= 54 cm2
Therefore:
P 27
=
3.2 8
⇒P= 27 × 3.2
8
= £10.80.

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Exercise 12D
1 a What is the area ratio between two solids whose length ratio is:
i 1:3 ii 2 : 5 iii 4 : 7?
b What is the volume ratio between two solids whose length ratio is:
i 1:3 ii 2 : 5 iii 4 : 7?

2 Copy and complete this table.

Linear scale factor Linear ratio Linear fraction Area scale factor Volume scale factor
2
2 1:2 1

3
1 1 1
4 4:1 4 64
25
1
1000

3 A shape has an area of 15 cm2. What is the area of a similar shape with lengths that are
three times the corresponding lengths of the first shape?
PS 4 A toy brick has a surface area of 14 cm2. What would be the surface area of a similar
toy brick with lengths that are:
a twice the corresponding lengths of the first brick
b three times the corresponding lengths of the first brick?
5 A rug has an area of 12 m2. What area would be covered by rugs with lengths that are:
a twice the corresponding lengths of the first rug
b half the corresponding lengths of the first rug?
6 A brick has a volume of 300 cm3. What would be the volume of a similar brick whose
lengths are:
a twice the corresponding lengths of the first brick
b three times the corresponding lengths of the first brick?
MR 7 A tin of paint, 6 cm high, holds half a litre of paint. Show that a similar tin 12 cm high
would hold 4 litres of paint.
PS 8 A model statue is 10 cm high and has a volume of 100 cm3. The real statue is 2.4 m
high. What is the volume of the real statue? Give your answer in m3.
CM 9 A small tin of paint costs 75p.
a What is the cost of a larger similar tin with height twice that of the smaller tin?
b What assumption have you had to make?
10 A small trinket box of width 2 cm has a volume of 10 cm3. What is the width of a
similar trinket box with a volume of 80 cm3?

12.2 Areas and volumes of similar shapes 353

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EV 11 A cinema sells popcorn in two different-sized Popcorn

tubs that are similar in shape.
Show that it is true that the big tub is better value. 20 cm
10 cm

Small tub Large tub

60p £4.00
Better value if you buy the Big tub

PS 12 The diameters of two ball bearings are as shown.

Work out the ratio of:
a their radii 6 mm 8 mm
b their surface areas
c their volumes.
CM 13 Cuboid A is similar to cuboid B.
The length of cuboid A is 10 cm and the length of cuboid B is 5 cm.
The volume of cuboid A is 720 cm3.
Shona says that the volume of cuboid B must be 360 cm3.
Explain why she is wrong.

More complex problems using area and volume ratios

In some problems involving similar shapes, the length ratio is not given, so you have to start with the
area ratio or the volume ratio. Then you may need to find the length ratio in order to find the solution.

A manufacturer makes a range of clown hats that are all similar in shape. The smallest hat is
Example 8

8 cm tall and uses 180 cm2 of card. What will be the height of a hat made from 300 cm2 of card?
The area ratio is 180 : 300.
Therefore, the length ratio is 180 : 300 (do not calculate these yet).
Let the height of the larger hat be H; then:
H
= 300
8 180

⇒H=8× 300
180
= 10.3 cm (1 decimal place)

A supermarket stocks similar small and large tins of soup. The areas of their labels are 110 cm2 and
Example 9

190 cm2 respectively. The mass of a small tin is 450 g. What is the mass of a large tin?

The area ratio is 110 : 190.

Therefore, the length ratio is 110 : 190 (do not calculate these yet).
So the volume (mass) ratio is ( 110 )3 : ( 190 )3.
Let the mass of a large tin be M; then:
M ( 190 )3
=
450 ( 110 )3

⇒ M = 450 × ( 190 )3
( 110 )3

= 1020 g (3 significant figures)

354 12 Geometry and measures: Similarity

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Two similar tins hold 1.5 litres and 2.5 litres of paint. The area of the label on the smaller tin is
Example 10
85 cm2. What is the area of the label on the larger tin?
The volume ratio is 1.5 : 2.5.
Therefore, the length ratio is 3 1.5 : 3 2.5 (do not calculate these yet).
So the area ratio is ( 3 1.5 )2 : ( 3 2.5 )2.
Let the area of the label on the larger tin be A; then
A ( 3 2.5 )2
85
=
( 3 1.5 )2
( 3 2.5 )2
⇒ A = 85 ×
( 3 1.5 )2
= 119 cm2 (3 significant figures)

Exercise 12E
PS 1 Look at these pairs of similar solids. Work out the missing volume in each pair. Give
your answers correct to 3 sf.

a b 10 cm
5 cm
7 cm
3 cm

Volume = 24 cm3 Volume = V Volume = 220 cm3 Volume = V

c d
11 cm

5 cm
15 cm
10 cm

Volume = V Volume = 900 cm3 Volume = V Volume = 40 cm3

12.2 Areas and volumes of similar shapes 355

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2 Find the volumes and lengths as indicated. Give your answers to the nearest
whole number.
Height 5 cm Height 11 cm
Surface area 22 cm 2
32 cm 2
Surface area 160 cm 2
300 cm2
Volume 14 cm3 Volume 130 cm3

a b

Height 3 cm Height 2.5 cm

Surface area 45 cm 2
80 cm 2
Surface area 30 cm2 50 cm2
Mass 250 g Volume 280 cm3

c d

3 A firm produces three sizes of similar-shaped labels for its cans. Their areas are
150 cm2, 250 cm2 and 400 cm2. The 250 cm2 label just fits around a can of height 8 cm.
Calculate the heights of similar cans which the other two labels would just fit around.

8 cm

4 A firm makes similar gift boxes in three different sizes: small, medium and large. The
areas of their lids are as follows.
Small: 30 cm2 Medium: 50 cm2 Large: 75 cm2
The medium box is 5.5 cm high. Work out the heights of the other two sizes.
MR 5 A cone of height 8 cm can be made from a piece of card with an area of 140 cm2.
Show that the height of a similar cone made from a similar piece of card with an area
of 200 cm2 is 9.56 cm.

6 It takes 5.6 litres of paint to paint a chimney that is 3 m high. What is the tallest similar
chimney that can be painted with 8 litres of paint?

7 A piece of card, 1200 cm2 in area, will make a tube 13 cm long. How long is a similar
tube made from a similar piece of card with an area of 500 cm2?

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PS 8 If a TV screen with area 220 cm2 has a diagonal length

of 21 cm, what will be the diagonal length of a similar
TV screen with area 350 cm2? 21 cm

9 Two similar statues, made from the same bronze, are placed in a school. One has a
mass of 300 g, the other a mass of 2 kg. The height of the smaller statue is 9 cm. What
is the height of the larger statue?

10 A supermarket sells similar cans of pasta rings in three different sizes: small, medium
and large. The sizes of the labels around the cans are as follows.
Small can: 24 cm2 Medium can: 46 cm2 Large can: 78 cm2
The medium size can is 6 cm tall with a mass of 380 g. Calculate these quantities.
a The heights of the other two sizes.
b The masses of the other two sizes.
11 A statue has a mass of 840 kg. A similar statue was made out of the same material but
two-fifths the height of the first one. What was the mass of the smaller statue?

12 A model stands on a base of area 12 cm2. A smaller but similar model, made of the
same material, stands on a base of area 7.5 cm2. Calculate the mass of the smaller
model if the larger one is 3.5 kg.
PS 13 Steve fills two similar jugs with orange juice.
The first jug holds 1.5 litres of juice and has a base diameter of 8 cm.
The second jug holds 2 litres of juice. Work out the base diameter of the second jug.
CM 14 The surface areas of two similar cuboids are 500 cm2 and 800 cm2.
MR If the width of one of the cuboids is 10 cm, calculate the two possible widths for the
other cuboid.
EV 15 The volumes of two similar cylinders are 256 cm3 and 864 cm3.
Which of the following gives the ratio of their surface areas?
a 2:3 b 4:9 c 8 : 27

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 A golden figure is melted down to create a million similar miniature figures that are
all 3.5 cm tall. How tall was the golden figure in the first place?

Ratio of volume = 1 : 1 000 000 This is a problem-solving question. You

Ratio of length = 3 1 : 3 1 000 000 need to recognise that you know the
= 1 : 100 ratio of volumes of similar shapes and
can therefore work out what the ratio of
So original statue = 3.5 cm × 100
lengths is.
= 350 cm
Show clearly how you work out the length
ratio by finding cube roots. Then show
how you use that ratio to calculate the
original statue height.

CM 2 A camping gas container is in the shape of a cylinder with a

hemispherical top. The dimensions of the container are shown
in the diagram.
A new design for the container increases the surface area by 15%,
keeping the new container mathematically similar to the old one.
8 cm
It is suggested that this new design makes the container contain
1000 cm3. Is this claim correct?

8 cm

Old area : New area = 100% : 115% = 1 : 1.15 This is a communicating mathematics
question where you are assessing the
Length ratio = 1 : 1.15
validity of a statement.
= 1 : 1.0723805
You need to recognise that you have to
Volume ratio = 13 : 1.07238053
use the area scale factor to get the length
= 1 : 1.2332376
scale factor in order to work out the
1 4
Volume of = πr h + 2 × 3 πr
2 3 volume scale factor.
container You could calculate the new dimensions
of the larger container and then calculate
Volume of old = π × 16 × 8 + 64 × π × 64 the volume, but the numbers would be
container awkward. It is simplest to work out the
= 536.165 15 cm3 volume of the old container and then
Volume of new = 536.165 15 × 1.233 237 6 increase that volume by the found scale
container factor as here.
= 661 cm3 (3 sf) You then have to evaluate the claim
This is much less than 1000 cm3. The claim made. It is incorrect but it is good to
would only be correct if rounded to the recognise what could have made the
nearest thousand. claim correct.

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EV 3 A supermarket sold beans in similar tins: small, with a paper label of area 23 cm2;
medium, with a paper label of area 45 cm2; large, with a paper label of area 75 cm2.
The medium tin is 7 cm tall with a mass of 350 g.
a Calculate the heights of the other two tins.
b Maisie suggested that the mass of the small tin will be 130 g and the mass of the
larger tin will be 740 g. Comment on Maisie’s suggestion.

Part a requires you to work with ratios but part b is an evaluating question in which
you must explain how Maisie’s suggestion ties in with the actual answers.
a Let the height of the small tin be h. Using h and H to represent the respective
Then the ratio of (lengths) is the ratio of
2 heights makes the working clear.
the areas. You need to show clearly where the
Hence: ratios used have come from.

( 7h ) = 2345
2

⇒ h2 = 49 × 23
45

h = 5.004 442 5
= 5.0 cm (2 sf)
Let the height of the large tin be H. You need to be able to use the accurate
Again, the ratio of (lengths) is the ratio
2 heights later in your solution to part b. so
of the areas. keep a note of them but round suitably
for the heights in this part.
( H7 )
2
75
= 45
⇒ H 2 = 49 × 75
45

H = 9.036 961 1
= 9.0 cm (2sf)

12 Worked exemplars 359

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b Let the mass of the small tin be m. Again, using m and M to represent the
Then the ratio of (lengths) is the ratio of respective mass’s makes the working
3

the volumes and the ratio of the masses clear. You need to calculate the actual
is the same as the ratio of the volumes. accurate answer in order to be able to
evaluate Maisie’s comments.
Hence:
3
Use the most accurate data you can
 
m
=  5.004 425  for the calculations. Note down the
350  7 
intermediary answers in case you need
 332 17 
⇒ m = 350 ×  125.343  to check the answers later.
 
Show clearly where each ratio has come
= 127.889 97 from and use the accurate figures from
= 130 g (2 sf) part a in order to be as accurate as
Maisie is correct to 2 sf. possible in this last part.

Let the mass of the large tin be M. Once you have found the accurate
answers you can comment on
Then, as above: Maisie’s answers.
3
 
M
=  9.036 961 The small mass is a good answer but the
350  7 
large mass is incorrect. Try to suggest
 
⇒ M = 350 ×  738.343
018 48
 why the wrong answer was calculated.
 
Here, it is likely that Maisie used the
= 753.080 08 rounded figure of 9.0. Checking gives the
same answer as Maisie had.
= 750 g (2 sf)
This is a reminder not to use rounded
Maisie has either rounded incorrectly
figures in the final calculation.
or she used the rounded figure of 9.0 in
the calculation.
Check: using 9.0 gives:
M = 350 × 729
343

= 743.877 55
= 740g (2 sf)
So It looks as though Maisie used the
rounded earlier figures in this last
calculation.

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Ready to progress?
I can work out the ratios between two similar shapes.
I can work out unknown lengths, areas and volumes of similar 3D shapes.
I can solve practical problems using similar shapes.
I can solve problems using area and volume ratios.

Review questions
CM 1 SQT and RQP are straight lines. 30 cm
S R
Show that the vertical height of the larger
triangle is 5 cm longer than the smaller
triangle.
Q
2 a Explain why the volume of a solid shape 35 cm
increases by a factor of 27 when the side
lengths are tripled.
b When Alun bought a plant he was told
that when it was watered, within 24 hours T
P 40 cm
it would be 27 times larger than it was
then It was 4 cm tall when he brought
it home.
After he watered it, within 24 hours it grew
to a similarly shaped plant that was 12 cm tall. Not drawn
A
accurately
Was the claim about the plant justified?
9 cm
EV 3 Andrew calculated BE as 5.25 cm. 6 cm
Eve said that ED is 8 cm.
3 cm B E
Evaluate both statements.
PS 4 Two cones, A and B, are mathematically similar. C D
7 cm
The curved surface area of cone A is 36 cm . 2

Not drawn
The curved surface area of cone B is 81 cm2. accurately
The height of cone A is 4 cm.
a What is the height of cone B? B
4 cm
The volume of cone B is 54 cm . 3 A

b Calculate the volume of cone A.

MR 5 The cylinders A and B are mathematically similar.
The curved surface area of cylinder A is 100 cm2.
The curved surface area of cylinder B is
324 cm2.
Not drawn
The length of cylinder A is 5 cm. B accurately
A
a Show that the length of cylinder B is 9 cm.
5 cm
The volume of cylinder A is 160 cm3.
b Work out the volume of cylinder B. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.

12 Review questions 361

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13
Probability: Exploring
and applying
probability

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out the probabilities of outcomes of events, using
theoretical or experimental models
• how to recognise mutually exclusive, exhaustive and
complementary outcomes
• how to predict the likely number of successful outcomes, given the
number of trials and the probability of any one outcome
• how to use two-way tables to solve probability problems
• how to use Venn diagrams to solve probability problems.

You should already know:

• that the probability scale goes from 0 to 1
• how to use the probability scale to assess the likelihood of
outcomes, depending on their position on the scale
• how to cancel, add and subtract fractions.

About this chapter

Probability theory originated from the study of games of chance,
such as throwing a dice or spinning a roulette wheel, in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. Probability theory developed as a branch of
mathematics in the seventeenth century when French gamblers asked
mathematicians Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat for help in their
gambling.
In the twenty-first century, probability has many everyday applications
from controlling the flow of traffic through road systems to running
telephone exchanges and studying the spread of infections.

362
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13.1 Experimental probability

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• calculate experimental probabilities and relative
event
frequencies
• estimate probabilities from experiments experimental probability

• use different methods to estimate probabilities. outcome

Terminology random

The topic of probability has its own special vocabulary. For relative frequency
example, a trial is one attempt at performing something that
theoretical probability
may have one or more results, such as throwing a dice or
tossing a coin. If you throw a dice 10 times, you perform 10 trials. trial
An event is an activity that may have several possible results.
An outcome is one of the results of an event. An event is also described as a set of outcomes. You will
usually be interested in the probability of one or more outcomes occurring.
At random means ‘without knowing what the outcome is in advance’.

Probability facts
Probability is defined as:
number of ways the outcome can happen
P(outcome) = .
er of all possible outcomes
total numbe
This always leads to a fraction, which you should cancel to its simplest form. Make sure that you know
how to cancel fractions, with or without a calculator. It is acceptable to give a probability as a decimal
or a percentage, but fractions are most commonly used.
The probability of a certain outcome is 1 and the probability of an impossible outcome is 0.
Probability is never greater than 1 or less than 0.
Many probability trials involve coins, dice and packs of cards.
• Throwing a coin has two possible outcomes: head or tail.
• Throwing an ordinary six-sided dice has six possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
• A pack of cards consists of 52 cards divided into four suits: hearts (red), spades (black), diamonds
(red) and clubs (black). Each suit consists of 13 cards bearing the following values: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10, jack, queen, king and ace – the jack, queen and king being called ‘picture cards’. So the total
number of outcomes is 52.

A card is drawn from a normal pack of cards. Count the value of an ace as 1. What is the
Example 1

probability that it is:

a a red card b a spade c a seven
d a picture card e a number less than 5 f a red king?
26 1
a There are 26 red cards, so P(red card) = 52
, which cancels to 2 .
13 1
b There are 13 spades, so P(spade) = 52
, which cancels to 4 .
4 1
c There are 4 sevens, so P(seven) = 52
, which cancels to 13
.
12 3
d There are 12 picture cards, so P(picture card) = 52
, which cancels to 13
.
e If you count the value of an ace as 1, there are 16 cards with a value less than 5. So,
16 4
P(number less than 5) = 52 , which cancels to 13 .
2 1
f There are 2 red kings, so P(red king) = 52
, which cancels to 26
.

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number of successful outcomes

The value calculated as is the experimental probability of the
number of trials
desired outcome. As the number of trials or experiments increases, the value of the experimental
probability gets closer to the true or theoretical probability.
The experimental probability is also known as the relative frequency of an outcome. The relative
frequency of an outcome is an estimate for the theoretical probability.
frequency of the desired outcome
Relative frequency of an outcome =
total number of trials

The frequency table shows the speeds of 160 vehicles that pass a radar speed check on a
Example 2

dual carriageway.
Speed (mph) 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69 70+
Frequency 14 23 28 35 52 8
a What is the relative frequency that a vehicle is travelling faster than 70 mph?
b 500 vehicles pass the speed check. Estimate how many will be travelling faster than 70 mph.
8 1
a The relative frequency is 160
= 20
.
1
b The number of vehicles travelling faster than 70 mph will be 20
of 500.
This is 500 ÷ 20 = 25 vehicles.

Finding probabilities
You can find the probability of an outcome in one of three ways.
• If you can work out the theoretical probability of an outcome – for example, drawing a king from a
pack of cards – you are using equally likely outcomes.
• Some events, such as people buying dog food, cannot be investigated by using equally likely
outcomes. To find the probability of each possible outcome, you can perform an experiment or
conduct a survey. This is called ‘collecting experimental data’. The more data you collect, the better
the estimate is.
• You cannot find the probability of an event such as an earthquake occurring in Japan by either of
the above methods. However, you can look at data collected over a long period of time and make
an estimate (sometimes called a ‘best guess’) at the chance of something happening. This is called
‘looking at historical data’.

Which method (A, B or C) would you use to estimate the probabilities for a to e?
Example 3

A: Use equally likely outcomes.

B: Conduct a survey/Collect data.
C: Look at historical data.
a Someone in your class will go abroad for a holiday this year.
b You will score a head when you toss a coin.
c Your bus home will be late.
d It will snow on Christmas Day.
e You will pick a red 7 from a pack of cards.
a You would have to ask all the members of your class what they intended to do for their
holidays this year. You would therefore conduct a survey – method B.

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b There are two possibilities – head or tail – so P(head) = 21 . This is an equally likely
outcome – so method A.
c If you catch the bus every day, you can collect data over several weeks. This would be
method C.
d If you check whether it snowed on Christmas Day for the last few years, you would be able
to make a good estimate of the probability. This would be method C.
e There are 2 red 7s out of 52 cards, so you can calculate the probability of picking one of
2 1
them: P(red seven) = 52
, which cancels to 26
. This is method A.

Exercise 13A
1 Naseer throws a fair, six-sided dice and records the number of sixes that he gets after
various numbers of throws. The table shows his results.
Number of throws 10 50 100 200 500 1000 2000
Number of sixes 2 4 10 21 74 163 329
a Calculate the experimental probability of throwing a six at each stage that Naseer
recorded his results.
b How many ways can a normal dice land?
c How many of these ways give a six?
d What is the theoretical probability of throwing a six with a dice?
e If Naseer threw the dice a total of 6000 times, how many sixes
would you expect him to get? 3 2
2 Marie made a five-sided spinner, like the one shown here.

1
She used it to play a board game with her friend Sarah. The girls

4
thought that the spinner wasn’t very fair, as it seemed to land on 5
some numbers more often than on others. They spun the spinner
200 times and recorded the results, as shown in the table.
Side spinner lands on 1 2 3 4 5
Number of times 19 27 32 53 69
a Work out the relative frequency of the spinner landing on each number.
b How many times would you expect each number to occur if the spinner is fair?
c Do you think that the spinner is fair? Give a reason for your answer.
3 Sarah thought that she could make a much more accurate spinner. After she had
made it, she tested it and recorded how many times she scored a 5. Her results are
shown in the table.
Number of spins 10 50 100 500
Number of 5s 3 12 32 107
a Sarah made a mistake in recording the number of 5s. Which number in the second
row of her table is wrong? Give a reason for your answer.
b These are the full results for 500 spins.
Side spinner lands on 1 2 3 4 5
Number of times 96 112 87 98 107
Do you think Sarah’s spinner is fair? Give a reason for your answer.

13.1 Experimental probability 365

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4 Which method, A, B or C, would you use to estimate or state the probabilities of a to h?

A: Use equally likely outcomes.
B: Conduct a survey or experiment.
C: Look at historical data.
a How people will vote in the next election.
b A drawing pin dropped on a desk will land point up.
c A premiership football team will win the FA Cup.
d You will win a school raffle.
e The next car to come down the road will be red.
f You will throw a double six with two dice.
g Someone in your class likes classical music.
h A person picked at random from your school will be a vegetarian.
MR 5 A sampling bottle is a sealed bottle with a clear plastic tube at one end. When
the bottle is tipped up, one of the balls inside will fall into the tube. Kenny’s
sampling bottle contains 200 balls, which are either black or white. Kenny
conducts an experiment to see how many black balls there are in the bottle.
He takes various numbers of samples and records how many of them
revealed a black ball. The results are shown in the table.

Number of samples Number of black balls Experimental probability

10 2
100 25
200 76
500 210
1000 385
5000 1987
a Copy the table and calculate the experimental probability of getting a black ball at
each stage.
b Using this information, how many black balls do you think there are in the bottle?
MR 6 A four-sided dice has faces numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4. The score is the face on which it
lands. Five students decide to throw the dice to see if it is biased. They each throw it a
different number of times. Their results are shown in the table.
Student Total number of throws Score
1 2 3 4
Ayesha 20 7 6 3 4
Brian 50 19 16 8 7
Caryl 250 102 76 42 30
Deema 80 25 25 12 18
Evan 150 61 46 26 17
a Which student will have the most reliable set of results? Why?
b Add up all the score columns and work out the relative frequency of each score.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places (2 dp).
c Is the dice biased? Explain your answer.

366 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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CM 7 At a computer factory, tests were carried out to see how many faulty computer chips
were produced in one week.
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Sample 850 630 1055 896 450
Number faulty 10 7 12 11 4
On which day was the number of faulty chips produced the highest? Use what you
know about probability to explain your answer.

PS 8 Andrew made an eight-sided spinner. He tested it out to see if it was fair.

1
8 2

7 3

6 4
5

He spun the spinner and recorded the results.

He spilt coffee over his results table, so he could not see the middle part.

Number spinner lands on 1 2 3 6 7 8

Frequency 18 19 22 23 17 19 20 22

Copy and complete the table for Andrew. Assume the spinner was fair.

EV 9 Steve threw a coin 1000 times to see how many heads he scored.
He said: ‘‘If this is a fair coin, I should get exactly 500 heads.’’
Explain why he is wrong.

MR 10 Roxy has an eight-sided spinner, marked like this.

She tests it by spinning it 100 times and records the results, as

shown in the table.
Colour Red Blue Black Green
Frequency 48 13 28 11
Roxy says the spinner is fair, as the frequencies are close to what may
be expected.
Sam says the spinner is unfair, as there are far more reds than any other colour.
Who is correct? Give reasons for your answer.

13.1 Experimental probability 367

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13.2 Mutually exclusive and

exhaustive outcomes
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise mutually exclusive, exhaustive and
complementary
complementary outcomes.
exhaustive
Suppose a bag contains three black, two yellow and five white mutually exclusive
balls and only one ball is allowed to be taken at random from
the bag. Then, by the basic definition of probability:
3
P(black ball) = 10
2 1
P(yellow ball) = 10
, which cancels to 5
5 1
P(white ball) = 10
, which cancels to 2
.
5 1
The probability of choosing a black ball or a yellow ball = 10 , which cancels to 2 .
When only one ball is taken out, the outcomes ‘picking a yellow ball’ and ‘picking a black ball’ can
never happen at the same time: a ball can only be either black or yellow. Such outcomes are mutually
exclusive. Other examples of mutually exclusive outcomes are ‘throwing a head’ and ‘throwing a tail’
with a coin and ‘throwing an even number’ and ‘throwing an odd number’ with a dice.
An example of outcomes that are not mutually exclusive would be ‘drawing a red card’ and ‘drawing a
king’ from a pack of cards. There are two red kings, so both outcomes could occur at the same time.

Trevor throws an ordinary dice.

Example 4

a What is the probability that he throws: i an even number ii an odd number?

b What is the total of the answers to part a?
c Is it possible to get a score on a dice that is both odd and even?
a i P(even) = 1 ii P(odd) = 1 b 1 + 1 =1 c No
2 2 2 2

Outcomes such as those in Example 4 are mutually exclusive because they can never happen at
the same time. Because there are no other possibilities, they are also exhaustive outcomes. The
probabilities of exhaustive outcomes add up to 1.

A bag contains only black and white balls. The probability of picking at random a black ball
Example 5

7
from the bag is 10 .
a What is the probability of picking a white ball from the bag?
b Can you say how many black balls and white balls there are in the bag?
a As ‘picking a white ball’ and ‘picking a black ball’ are mutually exclusive and exhaustive then:
P(white) = 1 – P(black)
=1– 7
10
3
= 10 .
b You cannot say precisely what the numbers of balls are, although you can say that there
could be seven black and three white, fourteen black and six white, or any combination of
black and white balls in the ratio 7 : 3.

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Complementary outcomes
If there is an outcome A, the complementary outcome of A is outcome A not happening.
Any outcome is mutually exclusive and exhaustive to its complementary outcome.
P(outcome A not happening) = 1 – P(outcome A happening)
that can be stated as:
P(outcome) + P(complementary outcome) = 1
4 1
For example, the probability of getting a king from a pack of cards is 52
= 13
, so the probability of not
1 12
getting a king is 1 – 13 = 13 .

Exercise 13B
1 Say whether these pairs of outcomes are mutually exclusive.
a Throwing a head with a coin and throwing a tail with a coin
b Throwing a number less than 3 with a dice and throwing a number greater than
3 with a dice
c Drawing a spade from a pack of cards and drawing an ace from a pack of cards
d Drawing a heart from a pack of cards and drawing a picture card from a pack of cards
e Choosing two girls and choosing two boys, when two people are to be chosen
from three girls and two boys
f Drawing a red card from a pack of cards and drawing a black card from the same
pack of cards

2 Which of the pairs of mutually exclusive events in question 1 are also exhaustive?
2
3 Each morning I run to work or get a lift. The probability that I run to work is 5 . What
is the probability that I get a lift?

4 A letter is to be chosen at random from this set of letter cards.

S T A T I S T I C S
a What is the probability that the letter is:
i an S ii a T iii a vowel
v not an A v not an I?
b Which of these pairs of outcomes are mutually exclusive?
i Picking an S and picking a T
ii Picking an S and picking a vowel
iii Picking an S and picking another consonant
iv Picking a vowel and picking a consonant
c Which pair of mutually exclusive outcomes in part b is also exhaustive?

13.2 Mutually exclusive and exhaustive outcomes 369

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5 Two of these five people are to be chosen for a job.

a List all ten possible pairs.
b What is the probability that the pair of people
chosen will:
i both be female ii both be male
iii both have the same initial iv have different Jane Dave Anne Jack John
initials?
c Which of these pairs of outcomes are mutually exclusive?
i Picking two women and picking two men
ii Picking two people of the same sex and picking two people of opposite sexes
iii Picking two people with the same initial and picking two men
iv Picking two people with the same initial and picking two women
d Which pair of mutually exclusive outcomes in part c is also exhaustive?
6 A spinner consists of an outer ring of coloured sectors and an inner circle of
numbered sectors, as shown.

1
2
3

a The probability of scoring 2 is 41 . The probabilities of scoring 1 or 3 are equal.

What is the probability of scoring 3?
b The probability of scoring blue is 41 . The probability of scoring white is 41 .
3
The probability of scoring green is 8 . What is the probability of scoring red?
c Which of these pairs of outcomes are mutually exclusive?
i Scoring 3 and scoring 2 ii Scoring 3 and scoring green
iii Scoring 3 and scoring blue iv Scoring blue and scoring red
d Explain why it is not possible to score a colour that is mutually exclusive to the
outcome ‘scoring an odd number’.

7 During morning break, I have the choice of coffee, tea or hot chocolate. The
3 1
probability I choose coffee is 5 and the probability I choose tea is 4 . What is the
probability I choose hot chocolate?

CM 8 Four friends, Kath, Ann, Sandra and Padmini, regularly ran races against one another
in the park. The chance of:
• Kath winning the race is 0.7
1
• Ann winning the race is 6
• Sandra winning the race is 12%.
What is the chance of Padmini winning the race?

370 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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MR 9 Assemblies at school are always taken by the head, the deputy head or the senior
teacher. When the head takes the assembly, the probability that she goes over time is
1
2
. When the deputy head takes the assembly, the probability that he goes over time
1
is 4 . Explain why it is not necessarily true to say that the probability that the senior
1
teacher goes over time is 4 .

PS 10 A hotelier conducted a survey of guests staying at her hotel. The table shows some of
the results of her survey.
Type of guest Probability
Man 0.7
Woman 0.3
American man 0.2
American woman 0.05
Vegetarian 0.3
Married 0.6
a A guest was chosen at random. From the table, work out these probabilities.
i The guest was American. ii The guest was single.
iii The guest was not a vegetarian.
b Explain why it is not possible to work out from the table the probability of a guest
being a married vegetarian.
c From the table, give two examples of pairs of types of guest that would form a
mutually exclusive pair.
d From the table, give one example of a pair of types of guest that would form an
exhaustive pair.

PS 11 In a restaurant, the head waiter has worked out the

A starter 0.7
probability of customers choosing certain dishes.
A dessert 0.4
a What is the probability that the first person
Beef 0.3
entering the restaurant:
Pork 0.2
i chooses a meat dish
Chicken 0.45
ii chooses wine
Vegetarian 0.08
iii does not have a starter?
Vegetables 0.8
b Explain why it is not possible to work out from Red wine 0.4
the table the probability of someone having
either a starter or a dessert. White wine 0.5

c Give an example of a choice from the table that

would form a mutually exclusive pair.

MR 12 iq always walks, goes by bus or is given a lift by his dad to school.

If he walks, the probability that he is late for school is 0.3.
If he goes by bus, the probability that he is late for school is 0.1.
Explain why it is not necessarily true that if his dad gives him a lift, the chance of his
being late for school is 0.6.

13.2 Mutually exclusive and exhaustive outcomes 371

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13.3 Expectation
This section will show you how to: Key term
• predict the likely number of successful outcomes, given
expectation
the number of trials and the probability of any one outcome.

When you know the probability of an outcome, you can predict how many times you would expect
that outcome to occur in a certain number of trials. This is called expectation.
Note that this is what you expect. It is not what is going to happen. If what you expected always
happened, life would be very dull and boring and playing computer games would be a waste of time.

A bag contains 20 balls, nine of which are black, six are white and five are yellow. Petre draws
Example 6

a ball at random from the bag, notes its colour and then puts it back in the bag. He does this
500 times.
a How many times would you expect him to draw a black ball?
b How many times would you expect him to draw a yellow ball?
c How many times would you expect him to draw a black ball or a yellow ball?

a P(black ball) = 9 So, expected number of black balls is 9 × 500 = 225.

20 20
5, 1
b P(yellow ball) = 20 which cancels to 4 So, expected number of yellow balls is 41 × 500 = 125.
c The expected number of black or yellow balls is 225 + 125 = 350.

Four in ten cars sold in Britain are made by Japanese companies.

Example 7

a What is the probability that the next car to be driven down your road will be Japanese?
b If there are 2000 cars in a multistorey car park, how many of them would you expect to
be Japanese?
4 2
a P(Japanese car) = 10
, which cancels to 5
2
b The expected number of Japanese cars in 2000 cars is 5
× 2000 = 800 cars.

Exercise 13C
1 I throw an ordinary dice 150 times. How many times can I expect to score a 6?

2 I throw a coin 2000 times. How many times can I expect to score a head?

3 I draw a card from a pack of cards and replace it. I do this 520 times. How many times
would I expect to get:
a a black card b a king c a heart d the king of hearts?
4 The ball in a roulette wheel can land in 37 spaces, which are numbered from 0 to
36 inclusive. I always choose the same number, 13. If I play all evening and there are
altogether 185 spins of the wheel in that time, how many times could I expect to win?

5 In a bag there are 30 balls, 15 of which are red, 5 yellow, 5 green and 5 blue. I take out
a ball at random, note its colour and then replace it. I do this 300 times. How many
times would I expect to get:
a a red ball b a yellow or blue ball
c a ball that is not blue d a pink ball?

372 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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6 A class does the experiment described in question 5 1000 times. Approximately how
many times would they expect to get:
a a green ball b a ball that is not blue?
7 A sampling bottle contains red and white balls. Jared knows that the probability of
getting a red ball is 0.3. He takes 1500 samples. How many of them would he expect to
give a white ball?

MR 8 Josie said: “When I throw a dice, I expect to get a score of 3.5.”

“Impossible,” said Paul, “you can’t score 3.5 with a dice.”
“Do this and I’ll prove it,” said Josie.
a Josie throws an ordinary dice 60 times. Copy and complete the table for the
expected number of times each score will occur.
Score
Expected occurrences
b Now work out the average score that she can expect over 60 throws.
c There is an easy way to get an answer of 3.5 for the expected average score. Can
you see what it is?

9 The table shows the probabilities of some cloud types being seen on any day.
Cumulus 0.3
Stratocumulus 0.25
Stratus 0.15
Altocumulus 0.11
Cirrus 0.05
Cirrocumulus 0.02
Nimbostratus 0.005
Cumulonimbus 0.004
a What is the probability of not seeing one of the above clouds in the sky?
b On how many days of the year would you expect to see altocumulus clouds in the
sky?

PS 10 Every evening Tamara and Chris cut a pack of cards to see who washes up.
If they cut a king or a jack, Chris washes up.
If they cut a queen, Tamara washes up.
Otherwise they wash up together.
In a year of 365 days, how many days would you expect them to wash up together?

MR 11 A market gardener is supplied with tomato plant seedlings. She knows that the
probability that any plant will develop a disease is 0.003.
How will she calculate the number of tomato plants that are likely not to develop
a disease?

PS 12 I have 20 tickets for a raffle and I know that the probability of my winning the prize is
0.05. How many tickets were sold altogether in the raffle?

13.3 Expectation 373

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13.4 Probability and two-way tables

This section will show you how to: Key term
• read two-way tables and use them to work out probabilities.
two-way table

A two-way table is a table that links together two variables.

This two-way table shows the colours and makes of cars in
the school car park.
Red Blue White
Ford 2 4 1
Vauxhall 0 1 2
Toyota 3 3 4
Peugeot 2 0 3
One variable is written in the rows of the table and the other variable is written in the columns of
the table.

This two-way table shows the numbers of boys and girls in a class and whether they are left-
Example 8

handed or right-handed.
Boys Girls
Left-handed 2 4
Right-handed 10 13
a If a student is selected at random, what is the probability that it will be a left-handed boy?
b It is known that a student selected at random is a girl. What is the probability that she is
right-handed?
2
a The total number of students is 29. So, P(left-handed boy) = 29
.
13
b The total number of girls is 17. So, P(right-handed girl) = 17 .

Exercise 13D
1 This two-way table shows the ages and genders of a sample of 50 students in a school.
Age (years)
11 12 13 14 15 16
Number of boys 4 3 6 2 5 4
Number of girls 2 5 3 6 4 6
a How many students are aged 13 years or younger?
b What percentage of the students in the table are aged 16?
c A student from the table is selected at random. What is the probability that the
student will be 14 years of age? Give your answer as a fraction in its simplest form.
d There are 1000 students in the school. Use the table to estimate how many boys
there are in the school altogether.

374 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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2 This two-way table shows the numbers of adults and the numbers of cars they
owned, in 50 houses in one street.
Number of adults
1 2 3 4
0 2 1 0 0
1 3 13 3 1
Number of cars
2 0 10 6 4
3 0 1 4 2
a How many houses have exactly two adults and two cars?
b How many houses altogether have three cars?
c What percentage of the houses have three cars?
d What percentage of the houses with just one car have three adults living in the
house?

3 Jenna has two spinners. One has the numbers 1 to 4 on it and the other has the
numbers 5 to 8. Jenna spins the arrows on both spinners at the same time.

1 2 5 6

4 3 8 7

Spinner A Spinner B

This two-way table shows all the ways the two arrows can land.
Some of the total scores are filled in.
Score on spinner A
1 2 3 4
5 6 7
6 7
Score on spinner B
7
8
a Copy and complete the table to show all the possible total scores.
b How many of the total scores are 9?
c When the arrows on the two spinners are spun together, what is the probability
that the total score will be:
i 9 ii 8 iii a prime number?

13.4 Probability and two-way tables 375

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4 This table gives information about the numbers of items in Granny’s music collection.
Type of music
Pop Folk Classical
Tape 16 5 2
Format CD 51 9 13
Vinyl 9 2 0
a How many pop tapes does Granny have?
b How many items of folk music does Granny have?
c How many CDs does Granny have?
d If Granny chooses a CD at random from all her CDs, what is the probability that it
will be a pop CD?

5 oe throws a fair coin and rolls a fair dice.

If the coin shows a head she records the score on the dice.
If the coin shows tails she doubles the number on the dice.
a Copy and complete the two-way table to show oe’s possible scores.
Number on dice
1 2 3 4 5 6
Head 1 2
Coin
Tail 2 4
b How many of the scores are square numbers?
c What is the probability of getting a score that is a square number?
MR 6 The two-way table shows the wages for the men and women in a factory.
Wage, per week (£w) Men Women
£100 < w ⩽ £150 3 4
£150 < w ⩽ £200 7 5
£200 < w ⩽ £250 23 12
£250 < w ⩽ £300 48 27
£300 < w ⩽ £350 32 11
More than £350 7 1
a Work out the probability that a person chosen at random will earn more than
£350 per week.
b What percentage of the men earn from £250 to £300 per week?
c What percentage of the women earn from £250 to £300 per week?
d Is it possible to work out the mean wage of the men and women? Explain your answer.
PS 7 Hassan has two hexagonal spinners.
Spinner A is numbered 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13.
Spinner B is numbered 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
What is the probability that when Hassan spins the two spinners, the product of the
two numbers he scores will be a number greater than 40?

376 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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8 Jenica spins two fair spinners and adds the numbers scored together.

1 2
0 3 0 4

9 5 10 6
7 8

a Draw a two-way diagram showing all the possible totals.

b What is the most likely score?
c What is the probability of Jenica getting a total of 12?
d What is the probability of her getting a total of 11 or more?
e What is the probability of her getting a total that is an odd number?

13.5 Probability and Venn diagrams

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• use Venn diagrams to solve probability questions.
element intersection

A set is a collection of objects or elements. Capital letters are set union

often used to represent a set. For example, the set of odd universal set Venn diagram
numbers less than 10 could be represented by A.
A = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
You already know that the probability of outcome A occurring is written P(A).
Suppose outcome A does not happen. This is written as A’. This is the complement of A and you read
it as ‘A dash’.
The probability of A not happening is written P(A’).
The universal set is a set that contains all elements used and is represented as ξ.

Given that P(A) = 0.6, write down P(A’).

Example 9

P(A’) = 1 – P(A)
= 1 – 0.6
= 0.4

Diagrams that represent connections between different sets are called Venn diagrams. They are
named after John Venn who introduced them in about 1880.
All the elements of A are in the shaded area.

A

A is shaded.

13.5 Probability and Venn diagrams 377

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All the elements that are in the complement of A, which means that they are not in A, are in the
shaded area.

A A'

A’ is shaded.
This is a Venn diagram for two sets A and B.

A B

The region where the sets overlap represents the elements that are in both sets. It is called the
intersection and is written as A∩B.

A B

A∩B is shaded.
The combined set that contains all of A and all of B is called the union and is written A∪B.

A B

A∪B is shaded.
This Venn diagram shows the numbers of students who study French (F) and Spanish (S).


F S

12 4 15

12 students study French only. 16 students study French.

15 students study Spanish only. 19 students study Spanish.
4 students study both French and Spanish. All students study at least one language.

378 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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Example 10 The Venn diagram shows the number of people with fair hair (A) and the number of people
with blue eyes (B) at a party.

A B

7 4 9

12

a How many people are there altogether at the party?

b What is the probability that a person chosen at random has blue eyes?
c Work out P(A’).
d Work out P(A∩B).
e Work out P(A∪B).
f Work out the probability that a person chosen at random has fair hair but does not have
blue eyes.

a 7 + 4 + 9 + 12 = 32
13
b There are 4 + 9 = 13, with blue eyes, so P(B) = 32 .
c A’ means not in A or does not have fair hair.
21
9 + 12 = 21 do not have fair hair, so P(A’) = 32
.
4
d A∩B means has fair hair and has blue eyes. There are only four of these, so P(A∩B) = 32 ,
which cancels to 81 .
20
e A∪B means has fair hair or blue eyes or both. There are 20 of these, so P(A∪B) = 32 , which
cancels to 85 .
7
f P(fair hair but not blue eyes) = 32 .

Exercise 13E
1 P(A) = 0.1 and P(B) = 0.3. Write down:
a P(A’) b P(B’).
2 P(A) = 0.25 and P(B) = 0.55. Write down:
a P(A’) b P(B’).
3 ξ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 A = 1, 2, 4, 8 B = 1, 3, 4, 9, 10
a Show this information in a Venn diagram.
b Use your Venn diagram to work out:
i P(A) ii P(A’) iii P(B)
iv P(B’) v P(A∪B) vi P(A∩B).

13.5 Probability and Venn diagrams 379

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4 In a survey, Polly asked 100 people if they liked cats (C ) and dogs (D).
The results are shown in the Venn diagram.

C D

17 35 30

18

A person is chosen at random.

a Work out:
i P(C) ii P(C’) iii P(D)
iv P(D’) v P(C∪D) vi P(C∩D).
b Work out the probability that a person likes dogs but does not like cats.
5 The Venn diagram shows some probabilities.

A B

0.1 0.3

0.4

a Copy and complete the Venn diagram.

b Work out:
i P(B) ii P(A∪B) iii P(A∩B).
6 A snack bar kept a record of the 100 sandwiches it sold one lunch-time.
20 had only meat in them.
25 had only cheese in them.
10 had neither meat nor cheese in them.
How many sandwiches had:
a some meat in them
b some cheese in them
c either meat or cheese in them?
PS 7 ξ = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
A = even numbers B = numbers greater than 6
Work out:
a P(A) b P(B) c P(A∪B) d P(A∩B).

380 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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MR 8 The Venn diagram shows the numbers of students who walk to school (S) and the
number of students who walk home from school (H).

S H

15 80 10

25

a How many students are there altogether?

b i Work out P(S∩H). ii Describe in words what P(S∩H) represents.
c What is the probability that a student chosen at random only walks one way, either
to or from school?

PS 9 P(A) = 0.7 P(B) = 0.6 P(A∪B) = 0.9

Work out P(A∩B).

PS 10 The probability of Tim selecting a blue bead Is 0.12.

The probability that he chooses a bead with a hole through it is 0.45.
The probability that he chooses a blue bead with a hole through it is 0.07.
What is the probability that he chooses a bead that is either blue or has a hole
through it, (or both)?

CM 11 Use set notation to describe the shaded area in each Venn diagram.
a b
 
A B A B

12 In a car park there are 80 cars.

24 are black and have traction control.
43 have traction control.
31 are black.
Work out the probability that the first car to leave the car park does not have
traction control.

CM 13 For each part, copy the Venn diagram and shade the appropriate area.

A B

a A’∪B b (A’∩B)’ c (A’∪B)’

13.5 Probability and Venn diagrams 381

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 In a raffle 400 tickets have been sold. There is only one prize.
Mr Raza buys 5 tickets for himself and sells another 40.
Mrs Raza buys 10 tickets for herself and sells another 50.
Mrs Hewes just sells 52 tickets.
a What is the probability of:
i Mr Raza winning the raffle
ii Mr Raza selling the winning ticket?
b What is the probability of either Mr or Mrs Raza selling the winning ticket?
c What is the probability of Mrs Hewes not selling a winning ticket?
d Which person has the greatest chance of either winning the raffle or selling the
winning ticket? Explain your answer.
Give your answers as fractions in their simplest form.

This is a problem-solving question and so you must communicate your method

clearly. Do not just write down probabilities without some explanation.

5 1 Remember to cancel the fractions

a i =
400 80 and make sure you read the
40 1
information given in the question.
ii =
400 10

40 50 90 Remember to show how you obtain

b + =
400 400 400 the answer. It is usual to give it in its
9
=
40
lowest terms.

52 348 Remember that these are

c 1− =
400 400 complementary outcomes.
87
=
100

d P(Mr Raza either winning the raffle or As you will need to compare
selling the winning ticket) = 45 fractions to solve the problem, there
400
is no need to cancel down the three
P(Mrs Raza either winning the raffle or probability fractions.
60
selling the winning ticket) = 400
Make sure you state your conclusion
P(Mrs Hewes either winning the raffle or clearly and give a reason.
52
selling the winning ticket) = 400
60
Mrs Raza has the greatest chance, as 400
is the largest fraction.

382 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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CM 2 The Venn diagram shows the number of students who study geography (G) and the
number who study history (H).

G H

29 16 25

30

a Explain how you would work out P(a student chosen at random studies history).
b Describe in words what P(GH) represents.
c Describe in words what P(GH) represents.

This question assesses your skills in written communication.

a There are 29 + 16 + 25 + 30 = 100 Do not just write down a probability.

students altogether. You must explain in words how you
41 study history. arrived at your answer.
16 + 25 41
So P(H) is = .
100 100
b G∩H represents those students who study Make sure you interpret
both geography and history. the questions carefully. You
need to explain what each
P(G∩H) is the probability that a student
probability represents.
chosen at random studies both geography
and history. It is important to remember that the
students are chosen at random.
c GH represents those students who study
geography, history or both.
P(GH) is the probability that a student
chosen at random studies geography,
history or both.

13 Worked exemplars 383

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Ready to progress?
I can work out experimental probabilities and relative frequencies.
I can use different methods to estimate probabilities.
I can recognise mutually exclusive, exhaustive and complementary events.
I know how to predict the likely number of successful outcomes, given the number of trials
and the probability of any one outcome.
I can read two-way tables and use them to work out probabilities.
I can understand set notation.

I can use Venn diagrams to work out probabilities.

Review questions
1 There are two red pens, three blue pens and five black pens in a box.
Harry takes a pen, at random, from the box.
a Write down the probability that he takes a black pen.
b Write down the probability that he takes a pen that is not blue.
MR 2 Rhodd spins a four-sided spinner 100 times.
4
His results are shown in the table.

3
Number 1 2 3 4
2
1

Frequency 13 20 39 28

a What is the relative frequency of scoring a 4?

b How can you tell that the spinner is biased?
MR 3 a Joe has a bag containing 20 discs. Each disc is red, green or blue. He takes a disc at
random from the bag and notes its colour. He then replaces the disc in the bag. He
does the experiment 50 times. The table shows his results.
Colour Red Green Blue
Frequency 25 15 10

i What is the relative frequency of picking a green disc?

ii How many of each coloured disc are there likely to be in the bag?
b Susie takes a disc at random from another bag and replaces it. She does this 10 times
and gets six reds and four greens. She claims that there are no blue discs in the bag.
Explain why she could be wrong.

PS 4 Here is some information about a group of 50 teenagers.

• There are four more boys than girls. Boys Girls Total
• One-third of the boys walk to school. Walk to school 30
Use this information to copy and complete
Do not walk to school 20
this two-way table.
Total 50

384 13 Probability: Exploring and applying probability

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5 This Venn diagram shows the number of students 

who like football (F) and the number who like hockey (H). F H

a How many students are there altogether? 23 15 52

b Work out P(F).
c Work out P(F∩H). 20
d What is the probability that a student chosen at random
does not like football?

EV 6 Henri has a five-sided spinner, with the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 on it.

2
3
1

5 4

The table shows some of the probabilities of the spinner Number Probability
landing on the numbers. 1 0.24
The probability that the spinner lands on 3 is equal to the 2 0.25
probability that it lands on 4.
3
a Calculate the probability that the spinner lands on 3.
4
b Calculate the probability that the spinner lands on
5 0.15
either 1 or 2.
c Do you think that the spinner is biased? Give a reason for
your answer.

7 Sam and Tomas are playing a game with dice.

a Sam uses a biased dice. The probability that he throws a 6 is 0.2.
i Write down the probability that he does not throw a 6.
ii Sam throws this biased dice 60 times. Work out an estimate for the number of
times he will throw a 6.
b Tomas uses a fair dice. He throws this fair dice 60 times. Is he likely to throw more
6s than Sam?
Give a reason for your answer.

CM 8 A bag contains five discs numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Sanna is playing a game. She takes a disc at random from the
bag, writes down the number and replaces the disc. She then
takes another disc at random from the bag and writes down 1
this number. She then adds the two numbers together to obtain 4
a total score. 2
Sanna wins the game if her total score is greater than 6. 3 5
Is she more likely to win or lose this game?
Show your working to explain your answer.

PS 9 This Venn diagram shows some probabilities. A B
Work out:
x 2x 3x
a P(A) b P(B′)
c P(AB) d P(A′∩B). 4x

13 Review questions 385

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14
Number: Powers and
standard form

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to calculate using powers (indices)
• how to write numbers in standard form
• how to calculate with standard form.

You should already know:

• how to multiply and divide by 10, 100, 1000, …
• the meaning of square root and cube root.

About this chapter

It can be very difficult to read – and understand – very large and very small
numbers. Scientists use standard form as a short way of representing such
numbers.
For example, the planets and the Sun are huge distances away from Earth.
The furthest known galaxy is about 110 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 km
from Earth. Writing this out every time you want to do a calculation takes
time and, more than likely, you will miscount the zeros and be out by a factor
of 10. Being out by a factor of 10 when sending astronauts to the Moon
would be disastrous. Therefore, using standard form not only makes it easier
to write large and small numbers, it also means you are less likely to make
errors in calculations. The standard form version of the distance is 1.1 × 1026,
which is much neater.
Electrons, unlike the planets, are very small. The mass of an electron is about
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 91 kg. Again, this is not an easy
number to work with. It can be written as 9.1 × 10–31 kg. This chapter will show
you how to do calculations with numbers written in this notation.

386
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14.1 Powers (indices)

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• use powers (also known as indices)
index (indices) power
• multiply and divide by powers of 10.

Powers are a convenient way of writing repeated multiplications. Powers are also called indices,
singular index.
The power tells you how many ‘lots’ of a number to multiply together. For example:
46 = 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 × 4 six lots of 4 multiplied together
64 = 6 × 6 × 6 × 6 four lots of 6 multiplied together
73 = 7 × 7 × 7
122 = 12 × 12
You can write a million as 1 000 000 = 106.
You need to know the square numbers (power 2) up to 152 = 225.
You should also know the cubes of numbers (power 3).
13 = 1, 23 = 8, 33 = 27, 43 = 64, 53 = 125 and 103 = 1000

a What is the value of: i 7 squared ii 5 cubed?

Example 1

b Write each of these out in full.

i 25 ii 84 iii 73 iv 122
c Use powers to write these multiplications.
i 3×3×3×3×3×3×3×3 ii 13 × 13 × 13 × 13 × 13
iii 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 iv 5×5×5×5×5×5×5
a i 7 squared = 72 = 7 × 7 = 49 ii 5 cubed = 53 = 5 × 5 × 5 = 125
b i 25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 ii 84 = 8 × 8 × 8 × 8
iii 73 = 7 × 7 × 7 iv 122 = 12 × 12
c i 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 38 ii 13 × 13 × 13 × 13 × 13 = 135
iii 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 = 74 iv 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 × 5 = 57

Working out powers on your calculator

The power button on your calculator will probably look like this x . You can use the power
button to work out 57 on your calculator.
57 = 5 x 7 = 78 125

Two special powers

Power 1 Power 0 (zero)

Any number to the power 1 is the same as the Any number to the power 0 is equal to 1.
number itself. This is always true so normally For example: 50 = 1 320 = 1 (–8)0 = 1
you do not write the power 1.
For example: 51 = 5 321 = 32 (–8)1 = –8

You can use your calculator to check these results.

14.1 Powers (indices) 387

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Exercise 14A
1 Write these expressions in index notation. Do not work them out yet.
a 2×2×2×2 b 3×3×3×3×3
c 7×7 d 5×5×5
e 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 f 6×6×6×6
g 4 h 1×1×1×1×1×1×1
i 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 × 0.5 j 100 × 100 × 100
2 Write each of these power terms out in full. Do not work them out yet.
a 34 b 93 c 62 d 105 e 210
f 81 g 0.13 h 2.52 i 0.73 j 10002
3 Use the power key on your calculator (or any method you prefer) to work out the
value of each power term in question 1.

4 Use the power key on your calculator (or any method you prefer) to work out the
value of each power term in question 2.

5 A storage container is in the shape of a cube. The length of the container is 5 m.

Work out the total storage space in the container. Use the formula for the volume
of a cube.
volume = (length of edge)3

6 Write each number as a power of a different number. The first one has been done
for you.
a 32 = 25 b 100 c 8 d 25
CM 7 The powers of 2 are 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, ... The units’ digits form a pattern 2, 4, 8, 6, 2, 4, 8, ...
Write out the first six powers of 3, 4 and 5 and describe the patterns formed by their
units’ digits.

8 Work out the value of each power term. Do not use a calculator.
a 20 b 41 c 50 d 19 e 1235

EV 9 What do the answers to question 8 d and e tell you about powers of 1?

10 Write the answer to question 1, part j as a power of 10.

11 Write the answer to question 2, part j as a power of 10.

12 Using your calculator, or otherwise, work out the value of each power term.
a (–1)0 b (–1)1 c (–1)2 d (–1)4 e (–1)5
MR 13 Using your answers to question 12, write down the value of each power term.
a (–1)8 b (–1)11 c (–1)99 d (–1)80 e (–1)126
MR 14 The number 16 777 216 is a power of 2. It is also a power of 4, a power of 8 and a
power of 16.
Write the number 16 777 216 in terms of each of the powers.

PS 15 Solve this equation. 2x + 3 = 512

388 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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14.2 Rules for multiplying and

dividing powers
This section will show you how to:
• use rules for multiplying and dividing powers.

What happens when you multiply numbers that are written as powers of the same number or variable
(letter)?
33 × 35 = (3 × 3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3) a2 × a3 = (a × a) × (a × a × a)
= 38 = a5
Can you see the rule? You can find these products just by adding the powers.
23 × 24 × 25 = 23 + 4 + 5 a3 × a4 = a3 + 4
= 212 = a7
What happens when you divide numbers that are written as powers of the same number or letter
(variable)?
76 ÷ 7 = (7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7 × 7) ÷ (7) a5 ÷ a2 = (a × a × a × a × a) ÷ (a × a)
=7×7×7×7×7 =a×a×a
= 75 = a3
Can you see the rule? You can complete these divisions just by subtracting the powers.
a4 ÷ a3 = a4 – 3 b7 ÷ b4 = b7 – 1
= a1 = b3
=a
What happens when you are dividing numbers that are written as powers, and the power of the
second number is higher than the power of the first?
c×c×c×c×c
c 5 ÷ c7 =
c×c×c×c×c×c×c
1
=
c×c
1
= 2
c
1
You can write 2 as c –2. The negative power is a short way of writing the reciprocal of the
c
positive power.
When you multiply powers of the same number or variable, you add the indices, even if you are
working with negative indices.
34 × 35 = 3(4 + 5) = 39 23 × 24 × 25 = 212 104 × 10–2 = 102 10–3 × 10–1 = 10– 4 ax × ay = a(x + y)
When you divide powers of the same number or variable, you subtract the indices.
a4 ÷ a3 = a(4 – 3) = a1 = a b4 ÷ b7 = b–3 104 ÷ 10–2 = 106 10–2 ÷ 10– 4 = 102 ax ÷ ay = a(x – y)
When you raise a power to a further power, you multiply the indices.
(a2)3 = (a × a)3
(a × a)3 = (a × a) × (a × a) × (a × a)
and a × a × a × a × a × a = a6
So (a2)3 = a2 × 3 or a6
Similarly: (a–2)4 = a–8 (a2)6 = a12 (ax)y = axy

14.2 Rules for multiplying and dividing powers 389

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Here are some examples of different kinds of expressions that include numbers and powers. To
reduce the chance of making mistakes, separate the numbers and powers.

2a2 × 3a4 = (2 × 3) × (a2 × a4) 4a2b3 × 2ab2 = (4 × 2) × (a2 × a) × (b3 × b2)

= 6 × a6 = 8a3b5
= 6a6
12a5 ÷ 3a2 = (12 ÷ 3) × (a5 ÷ a2) (2a2)3 = (2)3 × (a2)3
= 4a3 = 8 × a6
= 8a6

Exercise 14B
1 Write each of these as a single power of 5.
a 52 × 52 b 5 × 52 c 5–2 × 54 d 56 × 5–3 e 5–2 × 5–3
2 Write each of these as a single power of 6.
a 65 ÷ 62 b 64 ÷ 64 c 64 ÷ 6–2 d 6–3 ÷ 64 e 6–3 ÷ 6–5
3 Simplify these and write each of them as a single power of a.
a a2 × a b a3 × a2 c a4 × a3
d a6 ÷ a2 e a3 ÷ a f a5 ÷ a4
MR 4 a ax × ay = a10 Write down a possible pair of values for x and y.
b ax ÷ ay = a10 Write down a possible pair of values for x and y.

5 Write each of these as a single power of 4.

a (42)3 b (43)5 c (41)6
d (43)–2 e (4–2)–3 f (47)0
6 Simplify each of these expressions.
a 2a2 × 3a3 b 3a4 × 3a–2 c (2a2)3
d –2a2 × 3a2 e – 4a3 × –2a5 f –2a4 × 5a–7
7 Simplify these expressions.
a 6a3 ÷ 2a2 b 12a5 ÷ 3a2 c 15a5 ÷ 5a
d 18a–2 ÷ 3a–1 e 24a5 ÷ 6a–2 f 30a ÷ 6a5

Hints and tips Deal with numbers and indices separately and do not confuse
the rules. For example: 12a5 ÷ 4a2 = (12 ÷ 4) × (a5 ÷ a2).

8 Simplify these expressions.

a 2a2b3 × 4a3b b 5a2b4 × 2ab–3 c 6a2b3 × 5a– 4b–5
d 12a2b4 ÷ 6ab e 24a–3b4 ÷ 3a2b–3 f 16a7b–2 ÷ 4a2b3
9 Simplify these expressions.

a 6a b b 2a bc ×2 6 abc c 3abc × 4 a2 b c × 6c
4 3 2 2 3 3 2 2

2ab 4 ab c 9a bc

390 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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MR 10 Write down two possible:

a multiplication questions with an answer of 12x2y5
b division questions with an answer of 12x2y5.
PS 11 a, b and c are three different positive integers.
What is the smallest possible value of a2b3c?
x
12 Use the general rule for dividing powers of the same number, a y = a x − y , to prove that
a
any number raised to the power zero is 1.

14.3 Standard form

This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• change a number into standard form
standard form
• calculate using numbers in standard form.
standard index form
Multiplying and dividing by powers of 10
When you write a million in figures, how many zeros does it have? What is a million as a power of 10?
This table shows some of the pattern of the powers of 10.

Number 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000 1 000 000
Power of 10 10 –3
10–2
10 –1
10 0
10 1
10 2
103
104
105
106
What is the pattern in the top row? What is the pattern in the powers in the bottom row?
Note that the negative indices give decimal values. A negative index means ‘divide that power of 10 into 1’.
10–1 = 1 and 10–2 = 1 1
10 1 10 2 100
= 1 1 = 1
10 10 2 100
= 0.1 = 0.01

Multiplication by powers of 10
Remember:
• multiplying any number by zero gives zero
• multiplying any number by one gives the original number.
Try these on your calculator.
a 7.34 × 10 b 0.678 × 10 c 0.007 × 10
Can you see the rule for multiplying by 10? You may have learned that when you multiply a number
by 10, you ‘add a zero’ to the end of the number. This is only true when you start with a whole
number. It is not true for a decimal. You need to know the rules.
When you multiply a number by 10, the place value of each digit is increased. For example,
0.07 becomes 0.7, 0.3 becomes 3, and so on. All the digits move one place to the left.
Now see what happens when you multiply by 100. Try these on your calculator.
a 7.34 × 100 b 0.678 × 100 c 0.007 × 100
This time you should find that the digits move two places to the left. When you multiply by 100 the
place value of each digit increases by 2 places, so 0.07 becomes 7, and 0.3 becomes 30, and so on.
Similar rules will apply to multiplying by 1000, 10 000 …, which you will see in the examples below.
You can write 100, 1000, 10 000 as powers of 10. For example:
100 = 10 × 10 1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 10 000 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
= 10 2
= 10 3
= 104
14.3 Standard form 391
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So to multiply by any power of 10, you must move the digits according to these two rules.
• When the index is positive, move the digits to the left by the same number of places as the value of
the index.
• When the index is negative, move the digits to the right by the same number of places as the value
of the index.

Write these as ordinary numbers.

Example 2

a 12.356 × 102 b 3.45 × 101 c 753.4 × 10–2 d 6789 × 10–1

a 12.356 × 102 = 1235.6 b 3.45 × 101 = 34.5
c 753.4 × 10–2 = 7.534 d 6789 × 10–1 = 678.9

Sometimes, you have to insert zeros to make up the required number of digits.

Write these as ordinary numbers.

Example 3

a 75 × 104 b 2.04 × 105 c 6.78 × 10–3 d 0.897 × 10– 4

a 75 × 104 = 750 000 b 2.04 × 105 = 204 000
c 6.78 × 10–3 = 0.006 78 d 0.897 × 10– 4 = 0.000 089 7

Division by powers of 10
Try these on your calculator. Look for the connection between the calculation and the answer.
a 12.3 ÷ 10 b 3.45 ÷ 1000 c 3.45 ÷ 103
d 0.075 ÷ 100 e 2.045 ÷ 102 f 6.78 ÷ 1000

Working with multiples of powers of 10

You can use this principle to multiply multiples of 10, 100, … You also use this method in estimation.
You should have the skill to do this mentally so that you can check that your answers to calculations
are about right. Use a calculator to work out these multiplications.
a 200 × 300 = b 100 × 40 = c 2000 × 3000 =
Is there a way of doing them without using a calculator or pencil and paper?
Use a calculator to do these divisions.
a 400 ÷ 20 = b 250 ÷ 50 = c 30 000 ÷ 600 =
Once again, can you see an easy way of doing these ‘in your head’? Look at these examples.
300 × 4000 = 1 200 000 5000 ÷ 200 = 25 200 × 50 = 10 000
60 × 5000 = 300 000 400 ÷ 20 = 20 30 000 ÷ 600 = 50
To multiply 200 × 3000, for example, you multiply the non-zero digits (2 × 3 = 6) and then write the
total number of zeros in both numbers at the end, to give 600 000.
200 × 3000 = 2 × 100 × 3 × 1000 = 6 × 100 000 = 600 000
For division, you divide the non-zero digits and then cancel the zeros. For example:
400 000
400 000 ÷ 80 =
80
5
400 000
=
80 1
= 5000

392 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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Write these as ordinary numbers.

Example 4
a 712.35 ÷ 102 b 38.45 ÷ 101 c 3.463 ÷ 10–2 d 6.789 ÷ 10–1
• To divide by any power of 10, you must move the digits according to these two rules.
• When the index is positive, move the digits to the right by the same number of places as the
value of the index. You are actually decreasing the place value of the digits.
• When the index is negative, move the digits to the left by the same number of places as the
value of the index. You are actually increasing the place value of the digits.
a 712.35 ÷ 102 = 7.1235 b 38.45 ÷ 101 = 3.845
c 3.463 ÷ 10–2 = 346.3 d 6.789 ÷ 10–1 = 67.89

Sometimes, you have to insert zeros to make up the required number of digits.

Write these as ordinary numbers.

Example 5

a 75 ÷ 104 b 2.04 ÷ 105 c 6.78 ÷ 10–3 d 0.08 ÷ 10– 4

a 75 ÷ 104 = 0.0075 b 2.04 ÷ 105 = 0.000 0204
c 6.78 ÷ 10–3 = 6780 d 0.08 ÷ 10– 4 = 800

When you work through the next exercise, remember:

10 000 = 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 104 1 = 100
1000 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 103 0.1 = 1 ÷ 10 = 10–1
100 = 10 × 10 = 102 0.01 = 1 ÷ 100 = 10–2
10 = 10 = 101 0.001 = 1 ÷ 1000 = 10–3

Exercise 14C
1 Write down the answers without using a calculator.
a 200 × 300 b 30 × 4000 c 3 × 50 d 60 × 700
e 200 × 7 f 10 × 30 g (20)2 h (20)3
i (400)2 j 30 × 150 k 40 × 200 l 50 × 5000
2 Write down the answers without using a calculator.
a 2000 ÷ 400 b 3000 ÷ 60 c 5000 ÷ 200
d 6000 ÷ 200 e 2100 ÷ 300 f 9000 ÷ 30
g 300 ÷ 50 h 2100 ÷ 70 i 5000 ÷ 5000
j 30 000 ÷ 2000 k 2000 × 40 ÷ 2000 l 200 × 20 ÷ 800
m 200 × 6000 ÷ 30 000 n 20 × 80 × 600 ÷ 3000
MR 3 You are given that 16 × 34 = 544.
a Write down the value of 160 × 340. b What is 544 000 ÷ 34?
PS 4 Write these calculations in order, starting with the one that gives the smallest answer.
5000 × 4000 600 × 8000 200 000 × 700 30 × 90 000

PS 5 One year there were £20 notes to the value of £28 000 million in circulation. How
many £20 notes is this?

14.3 Standard form 393

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6 Write down the value of each expression.

a 3.1 × 10 b 3.1 × 100 c 3.1 × 1000 d 3.1 × 10 000
7 Write down the value of each expression.
a 6.5 × 10 b 6.5 × 102 c 6.5 × 103 d 6.5 × 104
8 Write down the value of each expression.
a 3.1 ÷ 10 b 3.1 ÷ 100 c 3.1 ÷ 1000 d 3.1 ÷ 10 000
9 Write down the value of each expression.
a 6.5 ÷ 10 b 6.5 ÷ 102 c 6.5 ÷ 103 d 6.5 ÷ 104
10 Evaluate each expression.
a 2.5 × 100 b 3.45 × 10 c 4.67 × 1000 d 34.6 × 10
e 20.789 × 10 f 56.78 × 1000 g 2.46 × 10 2
h 0.076 × 10
i 0.999 × 10 6
j 234.56 × 10 2
k 98.7654 × 10 3
l 43.23 × 106
m 0.0034578 × 105 n 0.0006 × 107 o 0.005 67 × 104 p 56.0045 × 104
11 Evaluate each expression.
a 2.5 ÷ 100 b 3.45 ÷ 10 c 4.67 ÷ 1000 d 34.6 ÷ 10
e 20.789 ÷ 100 f 56.78 ÷ 1000 g 2.46 ÷ 10 2
h 0.076 ÷ 10
i 0.999 ÷ 10 6
j 234.56 ÷ 10 2
k 98.7654 ÷ 10 3
l 43.23 ÷ 106
m 0.003 4578 ÷ 105 n 0.0006 ÷ 107 o 0.005 67 ÷ 104 p 56.0045 ÷ 104
12 Work these out without using a calculator.
a 2.3 × 102 b 5.789 × 105 c 4.79 × 103 d 5.7 × 107
e 2.16 × 102 f 1.05 × 104 g 3.2 × 10– 4 h 9.87 × 103
MR 13 Which of these statements is true about the numbers in question 12?
a The first part is always a number from 1 to 10.
b There is always a multiplication sign in the middle of the expression.
c There is always a power of 10 at the end.
d Calculator displays sometimes show numbers in this form.
CM 14 The mass of Mars is 6.4 × 1023 kg. The mass of Venus is 4.9 × 1024 kg.
Without working out the answers, explain how you can tell which planet is
the heavier.

PS 15 A number is between one million and 10 million. It is written in the form 4.7 × 10n.
What is the value of n?

Hints and tips Even though you are really moving digits left or right, you may
think of it as the decimal point moving right or left.

394 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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Standard form
Standard form is also known as standard index form. It is a way of writing very large and very small
numbers, using powers of 10. Any number can be written as a value from 1 to 10 multiplied by a
power of 10. This is the definition of a number written in standard form.
A × 10n where 1  A < 10, and n is a whole number.
In these examples, to see how to write numbers, the bold numbers are in standard form.
73 = 7.3 × 10 ⇒ 7.3 × 101
389 = 3.89 × 100 ⇒ 3.89 × 102
3147 = 3.147 × 1000 ⇒ 3.147 × 103
When you are writing a number in this way, you must always follow two rules.
• The first part must be a number between 1 and 10 (1 is allowed but 10 isn’t).
• The second part must be a whole-number (negative or positive) power of 10. Note that you would
not normally write the power 1.

Standard form on a calculator

It is difficult to key a number such as 123 000 000 000 into a calculator. Instead, you can enter it in
standard form (assuming you are using a scientific calculator).
123 000 000 000 = 1.23 × 1011
These are the keystrokes to enter this number into a typical calculator.

Your calculator display will display the number either as an ordinary number, if there is enough space
in the display, or in standard form if there is not.

Standard form for numbers less than 1

These numbers are written in standard form. Make sure that you understand how they are formed.
a 0.4 = 4 × 10–1 b 0.05 = 5 × 10–2 c 0.007 = 7 × 10–3 d 0.123 = 1.23 × 10–1
e 0.007 65 = 7.65 × 10–3 f 0.9804 = 9.804 × 10–1 g 0.0098 = 9.8 × 10–3 h 0.000 0078 = 7.8 × 10–6
On a typical calculator you would enter 1.23 × 10–6, for example, as:

Exercise 14D
1 Write down the value of each expression.
a 3.1 × 0.1 b 3.1 × 0.01 c 3.1 × 0.001 d 3.1 × 0.0001
2 Write down the value of each expression.
a 6.5 × 10–1 b 6.5 × 10–2 c 6.5 × 10–3 d 6.5 × 10– 4
PS 3 a What is the largest number you can enter into your calculator?
b What is the smallest number you can enter into your calculator?
4 Work out the value of each expression.
a 3.1 ÷ 0.1 b 3.1 ÷ 0.01 c 3.1 ÷ 0.001 d 3.1 ÷ 0.0001
5 Work out the value of each expression.
a 6.5 ÷ 10–1 b 6.5 ÷ 10–2 c 6.5 ÷ 10–3 d 6.5 ÷ 10– 4

14.3 Standard form 395

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6 Write these numbers out in full.

a 2.5 × 102 b 3.45 × 10 c 4.67 × 10–3 d 3.46 × 10
e 8.97 × 105 f 8.65 × 10–3 g 6 × 107 h 5.67 × 10– 4
7 Write these numbers in standard form.
a 250 b 0.345 c 46 700
d 3 400 000 000 e 20 780 000 000 f 0.000 567 8
g 0.0006 h 0.005 67 i 56.0045
For questions 8 to 9, write each of the given numbers in standard form.

CM 8 The largest number of dominoes ever toppled by one person is 281 581, although 30
people set up and toppled 1 382 101.

CM 9 The asteroid Phaethon comes within 12 980 000 miles of the Sun, whilst the asteroid
Pholus, at its furthest point, is a distance of 2997 million miles from Earth. The closest
an asteroid ever came to Earth was 93 000 miles from the planet.

MR 10 How many times bigger is 3.2 × 106 than 3.2 × 104?

Calculating with standard form

Calculations involving very large or very small numbers can be done more easily if you use standard
form. These examples show you how to work out the area of a pixel on a computer screen, and how
long it takes light to reach Earth from a distant star.

Work out a 2.3 × 105 + 1.7 ×106 b 3.89 × 1018 – 2.9 × 1017
Example 6

a You can change these to ordinary numbers but this is not easy if the powers are very big, so
it is better to change the numbers so they have the same power of 10. Always change to the
biggest power of 10.
So, 2.3 × 105 = 0.23 × 106
0.23 × 106 + 1.7 × 106 = 1.93 × 106
b 3.89 × 1018 – 2.9 × 1017 = 3.89 × 1018 – 0.29 × 1018
3.89 × 1018 – 0.29 × 1018 = 3.6 × 1018

A pixel on a computer screen is 2 × 10–2 cm long by 7 × 10–3 cm wide.

Example 7

What is the area of the pixel?

The area is given by ‘length × width’.
Area = (2 × 10–2) × (7 × 10–3) cm2
= (2 × 7) × (10–2 × 10–3) cm2
= 14 × 10–5 cm2
Note that you multiply the numbers and add the powers of 10. (You should not need to use
a calculator to do this calculation.) The answer is not in standard form as the first part is not
between 1 and 10, so now you have to change it to standard form.
14 = 1.4 × 101
So the area is 14 × 10–5 cm2 = 1.4 × 101 × 10–5 cm2
= 1.4 × 10– 4 cm2

396 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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The star Betelgeuse is 1.8 × 1015 miles from Earth. Light travels at 1.86 × 105 miles per second.
Example 8
a How many seconds does it take light to travel from Betelgeuse to Earth? Give your answer in
standard form.
b How many years does it take light to travel from Betelgeuse to Earth?
a Time = distance ÷ speed
= (1.8 × 1015 miles) ÷ (1.86 × 105 miles per second)
= (1.8 ÷ 1.86) × (1015 ÷ 105) seconds
= 0.967 741 935 × 1010 seconds
Note that you divide the numbers and subtract the powers of 10. To change the answer to
standard form, first round it, which gives:
0.97 × 1010 = 9.7 × 109 seconds
b To convert from seconds to years, you have to divide first by 3600 to change seconds to
hours, then by 24 to change hours to days, and finally by 365 to change days to years.
9.7 × 109 ÷ (3600 × 24 × 365) = 307.6 years

Exercise 14E
1 These numbers are not in standard form. Write them in standard form.
a 56.7 × 102 b 0.06 × 104 c 34.6 × 10–2
d 2 × 102 × 35 e 160 × 10–2 f 23 million
g 0.0003 × 10 –2
h 25.6 × 10 5
i 16 × 102 × 3 × 10–1
j 2 × 104 × 56 × 10– 4 k (18 × 102) ÷ (3 × 103) l (56 × 103) ÷ (2 × 10–2)
2 Work these out. Give your answers in standard form.
a 4.5 × 108 + 3.1 × 107 b 9.3 × 1012 1.5 × 1011 c 5.65 × 109 + 2 × 107
d 2 × 1014 5.4 × 1013 e 1.6 × 1022 + 3 × 1020 f 2 × 104 × 6 × 104
g 2 × 10– 4 × 5.4 × 103 h 1.6 × 10–2 × 4 × 104 i 2 × 104 × 6 × 10– 4
j 7.2 × 10–3 × 4 × 102 k (5 × 103)2 l (2 × 10–2)3
3 Work these out. Give your answers in standard form, rounding to an appropriate
degree of accuracy where necessary.
a 2.1 × 1014 + 5.4 × 1013 b 1.6 × 108 3.8 × 107 c 2.4 × 104 × 6.6 × 104
d 7.3 × 10–6 × 5.4 × 103 e (3.1 × 104)2 f (6.8 × 10– 4)2
g 5.7 × 10 × 3.7 × 10 h 1.9 × 10–2 × 1.9 × 109 i 5.9 × 103 × 2.5 × 10–2
j 5.2 × 103 × 2.2 × 102 × 3.1 × 103 k 1.8 × 102 × 3.6 × 103 × 2.4 × 10–2
l 3.4 × 108 + 4.27 × 107 1.7 × 106 m 7.8 × 1012 6.35 × 1011 + 1.5 × 1010
4 Work these out. Give your answers in standard form.
a (5.4 × 104) ÷ (2 × 103) b (4.8 × 102) ÷ (3 × 104) c (1.2 × 104) ÷ (6 × 104)
d (2 × 10– 4) ÷ (5 × 103) e (1.8 × 104) ÷ (9 × 10–2) f 36 × 10 −4
g (5.4 × 10–3) ÷ (2.7 × 102) h (1.8 × 106) ÷ (3.6 × 103) i (5.6 × 103) ÷ (2.8 × 102)

14.3 Standard form 397

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5 Work these out. Give your answers in standard form, rounding to an appropriate
degree of accuracy where necessary.
a (2.7 × 104) ÷ (5 × 102) b (2.3 × 104) ÷ (8 × 106) c (3.2 × 10–1) ÷ (2.8 × 10–1)
d (2.6 × 10–6) ÷ (4.1 × 103) e 8 × 10 4 f 30 × 10 −4
g 5.3 × 103 × 2.3 × 102 ÷ (2.5 × 103) h 1.8 × 102 × 3.1 × 103 ÷ (6.5 × 10–2)
6 A typical adult has about 20 000 000 000 000 red corpuscles. Each red corpuscle has a
mass of about 0.000 000 000 1 g. Write both of these numbers in standard form and
work out the total mass of red corpuscles in a typical adult.

PS 7 A man puts one grain of rice on the first square of a chess board, two on the second
square, four on the third, eight on the fourth and so on.
a How many grains of rice will he put on the 64th square of the board?
b How many grains of rice will there be altogether?
Give your answers in standard form.

Hints and tips Compare powers of 2 with the running totals.

By the fourth square you have 15 grains altogether, and 24 = 16.

8 The surface area of the Earth is approximately 2 × 108 square miles. The area of Earth’s
surface that is covered by water is approximately 1.4 × 108 square miles.
a Calculate the area of the Earth’s surface not covered by water. Give your answer in
standard form.
b What percentage of the Earth’s surface is not covered by water?
9 Evaluate the value of E when E = 1.5 × 103 and M = 3 × 10–2, giving your answer in
M
standard form.

Work out the value of 3.2 × 10 2 , giving your answer in standard form, correct to
7
10
1.4 × 10
2 significant figures.

11 In one year, British Airways carried 33 million passengers. Of these, 70% passed
through London Heathrow Airport. On average, each passenger carried 19.7 kg of
luggage. Calculate the total mass of the luggage carried by these passengers.

PS 12 These four numbers are written in standard form.

1.6 × 104 4.8 × 106 3.2 × 102 6.4 × 103
a Work out the smallest answer you can have by multiplying two of these numbers
together.
b Work out the largest answer you can have by adding two of these numbers
together.
Give your answers in standard form.

MR 13 Many people withdraw money from their banks by using ‘hole-in-the-wall’ machines.
Each day there are eight million withdrawals from 32 000 machines. What is the
average number of withdrawals per machine?

PS 14 The mass of Saturn is 5.686 × 1026 tonnes. The mass of Earth is 6.04 × 1021 tonnes. How
many times heavier is Saturn than Earth? Give your answer in standard form to a
suitable degree of accuracy.

398 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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Worked exemplars
MR 1 This is a table of powers of 3.

31 32 33 34 35 36 37
3 9 27 81 243 729 2187

a Use your calculator to work out 27 ÷ 243. Give the answer as a fraction.
b Use the rules of indices to write 33 ÷ 35 as a single power of 3.
c Deduce the value, as a fraction, of 3–3.
This is a mathematical reasoning question. The first two parts set up the information
you will need.
27 1 Write 27 ÷ 243 as a fraction, then cancel to the simplest form.
a 243 9
Make sure you know how to change an answer into a
fraction if the display shows a decimal, in this case 0.111…
b 33 ÷ 35 = 33 – 5 = 3–2 Apply the rules of indices. When dividing powers with the
same base, subtract them.
This is where the mathematical reasoning comes in.
c (a) and (b) ⇒ 1 = 3–2 Parts (a) and (b) are linked in that they are the same
9
1 calculation in different forms, so the answers must be the
∴ 3–3 = 1
27 same. So if 91 = 3–2, then 3–3 must be 27 .
Remember that the symbol ⇒ means ‘implies’ and ∴ means
‘therefore’.

PS 2 The population of the world is approximately 7 billion.

One grain of sand has a mass of 0.0026 grams.
2.6 grams of sand have a total volume of 1 cm3.
Work out the size of a cube that would be big enough to hold as many grains of sand
as the population of the world.

This problem-solving question requires you to translate a real-life problem into a

series of mathematical processes.
Number of grains of sand in First work out how many grains of sand there
1 cm3 = 2.6 ÷ 0.0026 = 1000 or 103 are in 1 cm3. Don’t forget to write down what
you are working out.
Number of cubic centimetres that Next work out how many cubic centimetres
would hold 7 billion grains would hold 7 billion grains.
= 7 × 109 ÷ 103
= 7 × 106

Side of cube = 3 7 × 10 6 Now work out the side of the cube by finding
the cube root of the answer. You can leave the
= 191 cm ≈ 2 m answer in centimetres or convert to metres. The
answer is surprisingly small. Remember that ≈
means ‘approximately’. Rounding the answer is
acceptable, as long as you show working, as all
values are approximations.

14 Worked exemplars 399

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Ready to progress?
I can write and calculate with numbers written in index form.
I can multiply and divide numbers written in index form.

I can write ordinary numbers in standard form and vice versa.

I can use standard form to calculate in various problems.

Review questions
1 a Write these numbers as powers of 2.
i 16 ii 256
b Write these numbers as powers of 10.
i 1000 ii a billion (one thousand million)
2 Work these out.
a 300 × 5000 b 3 thousand × 2 million
3 a Write down the value of 142.
b Explain how you know that 352 is not equal to 1220.
4 Simplify each expression.
a 74 × 75 b x8 ÷ x4
EV c Sammi writes: 3x2 × 5x7 = 8x14
Explain the mistakes he has made.
Write down the correct answer to 3x2 × 5x7.

5 Simplify each expression.

m8
a t5 × t3 b m3 c (3x3)2 d 2a2h × 5a5h4

6 Simplify each expression.

a x5 × x6 b m6 c (2k3m2) × (4k2m)
m
7 a Write the number 75 000 in standard form.
b Write 9 × 10–3 as an ordinary number.
4 x 3 y 2 × 3 xy 2
8 Simplify each expression. a b (2m3p4)3
6 x 4 y3
9 p q
x=
pq
Given that p = 5 × 108 and q = 4 × 106, find the value of x. Give your answer in
standard form.

400 14 Number: Powers and standard form

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PS 10 There are approximately 5.3 × 1024 molecules of oxygen in a cubic metre of air.
A typical human takes in approximately 1 litre of air with each breath.
2
How many molecules are taken in with each breath?

11 Is this triangle right-angled? All lengths are in centimetres.

6.5 × 104 cm
2.5 × 104 cm

6 × 104 cm

PS 12 The perimeter of this rectangle is 2.6 × 107 cm.

8 × 106 cm

Work out the area of the rectangle.

13 The Moon is a sphere with a radius of 1.080 × 103 miles. Use the formula for the
surface area of a sphere.
surface area = 4πr2
Calculate the surface area of the Moon.

MR 14 In 1600 the world population was approximately 5.5 × 108. In 2000 it was approximately
6.1 × 109.
By how much did the population rise on average every year between 1600 and 2000?

CM 15 Olivia writes down a number in standard form. It is greater than 100 million and less
than 1000 million.
Write down a possible value of Olivia’s number, in standard form.

CM 16 The speed of sound (Mach 1) is 1236 kilometres per hour.

8 km is approximately 10 miles.
An aircraft travelling at Mach 3 would be travelling at three times the speed of
sound.
How many miles would an aircraft travelling at Mach 3 cover in 1 minute?

CM 17 a Work out the perimeter of the rectangle 1.2 × 107 cm

b Work out the area of the rectangle.

8.8 × 106 cm

14 Review questions 401

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15
Algebra: Equations
and inequalities

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to set up and solve linear equations with fractions, brackets
and variables on both sides
• how to solve linear simultaneous equations
• how to solve a linear inequality and represent the solution on a
number line
• how to find a region on a graph that obeys a linear inequality in two
variables
• how to use trial and improvement to solve non-linear equations.

You should already know:

• the basic language of algebra
• how to collect together like terms
• how to solve basic linear equations.

About this chapter

The theory of linear programming, which uses inequalities in two
dimensions, was developed at the start of the Second World War in 1939.
It was used to work out ways to get armaments as efficiently as possible
and to increase the effectiveness of resources. It was such a powerful
analytical tool that the Allies did not want the Germans to know about it,
so it was not made public until 1947.
George Dantzig, one of the inventors of linear programming, came
late to a lecture at university one day and saw two problems written on
the blackboard. He copied them, thinking they were the homework
assignment. He solved both problems, but had to apologise to the
lecturer because, as
he found them a little
harder than usual, it
took him a few days to
solve them.
The lecturer was
astonished. The
problems written
on the board were
not homework
but examples of
‘impossible problems’.
Not after that
402
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15.1 Linear equations

This section will show you how to:
• solve equations in which the variable (the letter) appears as part of the numerator of a fraction
• solve equations where you have to expand brackets first
• solve equations where the variable appears on both sides of the equals sign
• set up equations from given information and then solve them.

Fractional equations
To solve equations with fractions you will need to multiply both sides of the equation by the
denominator at some stage. It is important to do the inverse operations in the right order.
Sometimes you need to eliminate the constant term first before multiplying by the denominator of
the fraction. However, if all of the left-hand side is part of the fraction, you need to multiply both
sides by the denominator first. It is essential to check your answer in the original equation.

Solve the equation x + 1 = 5.

3
x
Subtract 1 from both sides: =4
3
Now multiply both sides by 3: x = 12
12
Check the answer is correct by substituting it into the equation: +1=4+1
3
=5

Solve this equation and check your answer. 3x – 3 = 1

Example 1

3x
Add 3 to both sides: =4
4
Now multiply both sides by 4: 3x = 16
16
Now divide both sides by 3: x=
3
= 5 31
3 × 5 31 16
Check: –3= –3
4 4
=4–3
=1

Adam opened a packet of biscuits and ate two of them before sharing the rest with his four
Example 2

friends. As a result, they each received three biscuits.

How many biscuits were in the packet originally?
Set up the equation. If there were x biscuits, he took away 2 and then shared (x – 2) biscuits
among 5 people.
x−2
=3
5
Multiply both sides by 5: x – 2 = 15
Now add 2 to both sides: x = 17
There were 17 biscuits in the packet originally.
17 − 2 15
Check: =
5 5
=3

15.1 Linear equations 403

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Exercise 15A
1 Solve these equations.
3y
a f +2=8 b w –5=2 c x + 3 = 12 d 5t + 3 = 18 e –1=8
5 3 8 4 2
t−5
f 2 x + 5 = 12 g t +3=1 h x +3 =5 i =3 j 3 x + 10 = 8
3 5 2 2 2
5y − 2 6y + 3
k 2x + 1 = 5 l =3 m =1 n 2x − 3 = 4 o 5t + 3 = 1
3 4 9 5 4
MR 2 The solution to the equation 2 x − 3 = 3 is x = 9.
5
Make up two more different equations of the form ax ± b = 3 for which x is also 9,
c
where a, b and c are positive whole numbers.

EV 3 2x + 4
A teacher asked her class to solve the equation = 6.
5
Amanda wrote: Betsy wrote:
2x + 4 = 6 × 5 2x = 6 + 4
5
2x + 4 – 4 = 30 – 4 2x = 6 + 4 + 5
2x = 26 2x = 15
2x ÷ 2 = 26 ÷ 2 2x – 2 = 15 – 2
x = 13 x = 13
The teacher gave the correct answer of 13. Both students ticked their work as correct.
a Which student used the correct method?
b Explain the mistakes the other student made.
PS 4 Five friends went for a meal in a cafeteria. The bill was £x. They decided to add a
£10 tip and shared the bill equally between them. Each person paid £9.50.
a Set this problem up as an equation.
b Solve the equation and find the cost of the bill before the tip was added.
PS 5 The mean of the expressions (3x + 7), (x – 9), (5x + 11) and (6x – 5) is 11.
a Find the value of x.
b Check that your answer is correct. Show all your working.

Brackets
When you have an equation that contains brackets, multiply out the brackets and then solve the
equation (as before).
Solve the equation 5(x + 3) = 25.
First multiply out the brackets: 5x + 15 = 25
Subtract 15 from both sides: 5x = 25 – 15
= 10

Divide by 5: x = 10
5
=2
Check your answer: 5(2 + 3) = 5 × 5
= 25

404 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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Example 3 A trapezium has parallel sides of (x + 1) and (2x – 9) cm and a perpendicular height of 6 cm. Its
area is 21 cm2. Find the value of x.
Write down the formula for the area of a trapezium: A = 21(a + b)h
Substitute the information: 21 = 21(x + 1 + 2x – 9) × 6
Simplify: 21 = 3(3x – 8)
Multiply out the brackets: 21 = 9x – 24
Add 24 to both sides: 45 = 9x
Divide both sides by 9: x=5

Exercise 15B
1 Solve each of these equations. Some of the answers may be decimals or negative
numbers. Remember to check that each answer works for its original equation. Use
your calculator if necessary.
a 6(3k + 5) = 39 b 5(2x + 3) = 27 c 9(3x – 5) = 9
d 2(x + 5) = 6 e 5(x – 4) = –25 f 3(t + 7) = 15
g 2(3x + 11) = 10 h 4(5t + 8) = 12

Hints and tips When you expand brackets, remember to multiply everything
inside the brackets by what is outside.

MR 2 Fill in values for a, b and c so that the answer to this equation is x = 4.

a(bx + 3) = c

PS 3 My son is x years old. In five years’ time, I will be twice his age and both our ages will
be multiples of 10. The sum of our ages will be between 50 and 100. How old am
I now?

Hints and tips Set up an equation and put it equal to 60, 70, 80, … Solve the
equation and see if the answer fits the conditions.

PS 4 The diagram shows a square. (4x – 1)

Find x if the perimeter is 44 cm.

PS 5 Max thought of a number. He then multiplied his number by 3. He added 4 to the

answer. He then doubled that answer to get a final value of 38. What number did he
start with?

CM 6 Show that the answer to this equation is 6.

8(x – 7) – 5(x + 4) – (19 – x) + 71 = 0

PS 7 A heptagon has two angles of (3x – 17)° and one angle of (4x – 36)°. The remaining
angles are all (2x + 13)°. Find the size of the largest angle in the heptagon.

Hints and tips A heptagon has seven sides.

15.1 Linear equations 405

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Equations with the variable on both sides

When a variable appears on both sides of an equation, it is best to use the ‘do the same to both sides’
method, and collect all the terms containing the variable on the left-hand side of the equation.
Solve the equation 5x + 4 = 3x + 10.
There are more xs on the left-hand side, so don’t turn the equation round.
Subtract 3x from both sides: 2x + 4 = 10
Subtract 4 from both sides: 2x = 6
Divide both sides by 2: x=3

Solve the equation 3(2x + 5) + x = 2(2 – x) + 2.

Example 4

3(2x + 5) + x = 2(2 – x) + 2
Multiply out both brackets: 6x + 15 + x = 4 – 2x + 2
Simplify both sides: 7x + 15 = 6 – 2x
There are more xs on the left-hand side, so don’t turn the equation round.
Add 2x to both sides: 9x + 15 = 6
Subtract 15 from both sides: 9x = –9
Divide both sides by 9: x = –1

Alfie bought 2 multipacks of soap to add to the 3 bottles he already had at home. Jamie bought
Example 5

6 identical multipacks of soap but then used 13 of the bottles for his art project. They found
then that they each had exactly the same number of bottles of soap. How many bottles did
each of them have?
Let x be the number of bottles of soap in a multipack.
Alfie ended up with (2x + 3) bottles.
Jamie ended up with (6x – 13) bottles.
Solve the equation: 2x + 3 = 6x – 13
There are more xs on the right-hand side, so turn the equation round:
6x – 13 = 2x + 3
Subtract 2x from both sides: 4x – 13 = 3
Add 13 to both sides: 4x = 16
Divide both sides by 4: x=4
So Alfie (and therefore Jamie) ended up with 2 × 4 + 3 = 8 + 3 = 11 bottles.
Check: Jamie ended up with 6 × 4 – 13 = 24 – 13 = 11 bottles.

406 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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Exercise 15C
1 Solve each of the following equations.
a 2x + 3 = x + 5 b 5y + 4 = 3y + 6 c 4a – 3 = 3a + 4
d 5t + 3 = 2 t + 15 e 7p – 5 = 3p + 3 f 6k + 5 = 2k + 1
g 4m + 1 = m + 10 h 8s – 1 = 6s – 5

Hints and tips Remember: ‘Always do the same to both sides’. Show all your
working. Rearrange before you simplify. If you try to do these at
the same time you could get it wrong.

PS 2 Terry says: “I am thinking of a number. I multiply it by 3 and subtract 2.”

June says: “I am thinking of a number. I multiply it by 2 and add 5.”
Terry and June find that they both thought of the same number and both got the
same final answer.
What number did they think of?

Hints and tips Set up equations, make them equal and solve.

3 Solve each of the following equations.

a 2(d + 3) = d + 12 b 5(x – 2) = 3(x + 4) c 3(2y + 3) = 5(2y + 1)
d 3(h – 6) = 2(5 – 2h) e 4(3b – 1) + 6 = 5(2b + 4) f 2(5c + 2) – 2c = 3(2c + 3) + 7
CM 4 a Explain why the equation 3(2x + 1) = 2(3x + 5) cannot be solved.
b Explain why there are an infinite number of solutions to the equation:
2(6x + 9) = 3(4x + 6).

PS 5 Wilson has eight coins of the same value and seven pennies.
Chloe has eleven coins of the same value as those that Wilson has and she also has
five pennies.
Wilson says: “If you give me one of your coins and four pennies, we will have the
same amount of money.”
What is the value of the coins that Wilson and Chloe have?

Hints and tips Call the value of the coin x and set up the equations, for example,
Wilson has 8x + 7, and then take one x and 4 from Chloe and add
one x and 4 to Wilson. Then put the equations equal and solve.

PS 6 a Explain why 5x + 29 = x + 17.

(x + 17) cm

(x + 8) cm

(5x + 29) cm

b Find the area of the rectangle.

15.1 Linear equations 407

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MR 7 The diagram shows two number machines that

Input n
perform the same operations.
a Starting with an input value of 7, work through
the left-hand machine to get the output. Add 3 n+3

b Find an input value that gives the same value

for the output.
Multiply by 2
c Write down the algebraic expressions in the
right-hand machine for an input of n. (The first
operation has been filled in for you.) Subtract 5

d Set up an equation for the same input and

output and show each step in solving the Output Output
equation to get the answer in part b.

PS 8 Mary has a large and a small bottle of cola. The large bottle holds 50 cl more than the
small bottle.
From the large bottle she fills four cups and has 18 cl left over.
From the small bottle she fills three cups and has 1 cl left over.
How much cola does each bottle hold?

Hints and tips Set up equations for both, using x as the amount of cola in a cup.
Make them equal but remember to add 50 to the small bottle
equation to allow for the difference. Solve for x, and then work out
how much is in each bottle.

PS 9 Solve the equation.

(x – 1)(x + 4) = (x + 13)(x – 4)

15.2 Elimination method for

simultaneous equations
This section will show you how to:
Key term
• solve simultaneous linear equations in two variables
using the elimination method. eliminate

A pair of simultaneous equations is exactly that – two

equations, usually linear, for which you want the same
solution and must therefore solve together.
For example, x + y = 10 has many solutions: x = 2, y = 8 x = 4, y = 6 x = 5, y = 5 …
and 2x + y = 14 has many solutions: x = 2, y = 10 x = 3, y = 8 x = 4, y = 6 …
But only one solution, x = 4 and y = 6, satisfies both equations at the same time.

408 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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Elimination method
One way to solve simultaneous equations is by the elimination method. There are six steps in this method.
Step 1: Balance the coefficients of one of the variables.
Step 2: Eliminate this variable by adding or subtracting the equations.
Step 3: Solve the resulting linear equation in the other variable.
Step 4: Substitute the value found back into one of the previous equations.
Step 5: Solve the resulting equation.
Step 6: Check that the two values found satisfy the original equations.
Example 6

Solve this pair of simultaneous equations. 6x + y = 15 and 4x + y = 11

First label the equations so that you can clearly explain the method:
6x + y = 15 (1)
4x + y = 11 (2)
Step 1: Since the y-term in both equations has the same coefficient there is no need to balance
them. (You will learn how to do this later in the chapter.)
Step 2: Subtract one equation from the other. (Equation (1) minus equation (2) will give
positive values.)
6x + y = 15 (1)
4x + y = 11 (2)
6x – 4x + y – y = 15 – 11 (1) – (2)
2x = 4
Step 3: Solve this equation: x=2
Step 4: Substitute x = 2 into one of the original equations, usually the one with the smallest
numbers involved.
Substitute x = 2 into: 4x + y = 11
which gives: 8 + y = 11
Step 5: Solve this equation: y=3
Step 6: Test the solution in the original equations. So substitute x = 2 and y = 3 into 6x + y which
gives 12 + 3 = 15, and into 4x + y which gives 8 + 3 = 11. These are correct, so you can
confidently say the solution is x = 2 and y = 3.

Solve this pair of simultaneous equations. 3p + 2q = 29 and 5p – 2q = 27

Example 7

Add the equations:

3p + 2q = 29 (1)
5p – 2q = 27 (2)
8p = 56 (1) + (2)
p=7
Substitute p = 7 into equation (1):
21 + 2q = 29
2q = 8
q=4

15.2 Elimination method for simultaneous equations 409

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Exercise 15D
1 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations by the elimination method.
a x + 3y = 9 b 2x + 5y = 16 c 3x – y = 9
x+y=6 2x + 3y = 8 5x + y = 11

2 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations by the elimination method.

a 3a + b = 31 b 7c + d = 39 c 5e – 2f = 19
3a + 5b = 71 7c – d = 17 e + 2f = 11

3 Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.

19x – 15y = 198
8x – 15y = 66

15.3 Substitution method for

simultaneous equations
This section will show you how to:
• solve simultaneous linear equations in two variables using the substitution method.

This is an alternative method. The method you use depends on the coefficients of the variables
and the way that the equations are written in the first place. There are five steps in the
substitution method.
Step 1: Rearrange one of the equations into the form y = … or x = …
Step 2: Substitute the right-hand side of this equation into the other equation in place of the variable
on the left-hand side.
Step 3: Expand and solve this equation.
Step 4: Substitute the value into the y = … or x = … equation.
Step 5: Check that the values work in both original equations.

Solve this pair of simultaneous equations. y = 2x + 3 and 3x + 4y = 1

Example 8

Because the first equation is in the form y = … it suggests that the substitution method should
be used.
Again label the equations to help with explaining the method:
y = 2x + 3 (1)
3x + 4y = 1 (2)
Step 1: As equation (1) is in the form y = … there is no need to rearrange an equation.
Step 2: Substitute the right-hand side of equation (1) into equation (2) for the variable y:
3x + 4(2x + 3) = 1
Step 3: Expand and solve the equation: 3x + 8x + 12 = 1
11x = –11
x = –1

410 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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Step 4: Substitute x = –1 into (1): y = –2 + 3

=1
Step 5: Test the solutions by substituting x = –1 and x = –1 into the original equations: (1) gives
1 = –2 + 3 and (2) gives –3 + 4 = 1. These are correct so the solution is x = –1 and y = 1.

Exercise 15E
1 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations by the substitution method.
a 3x + 7y = 13 b 2x + y = 6 c 4x – 3y = 18
y = x – 11 y = 4x + 3 y=x–7

2 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations by the substitution method.

a 2x + 5y = 37 b 4x – 3y = 7 c 4x – y = 17
y = 11 – 2x x = 13 – 3y x=2+y

3 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations by either elimination or substitution.

a 3x + 11y = 36 b 8x + y = 49
y = 5 – 2x 8x – 3y = 13

15.4 Balancing coefficients to solve

simultaneous equations
This section will show you how to:
• solve simultaneous linear equations by balancing coefficients.

Balancing coefficients in one equation only

You were able to solve the pairs of equations in Examples 6, 7 and 8 simply by adding or subtracting
the equations in each pair, or by substituting without rearranging. This does not always happen. The
next examples show what to do when there are no identical terms to begin with, or when you need
to rearrange.
Here, you solve simultaneous equations by balancing coefficients. You start by balancing the
coefficients of one of the variables, then you use the elimination method as before.
Solve this pair of simultaneous equations.
5x + 2y = 24 (1)
2x – y = 6 (2)
Step 1: The equations have different y-coefficients, so they need to be balanced. Multiply the second
equation by 2 and label it with a new equation number:
5x + 2y = 24 (1)
4x – 2y = 12 (3)
Step 2: As the signs in the equations are different, add the two equations to eliminate the y-terms.
(1) + (3) 9x = 36
Step 3: Solve this equation: x=4

15.4 Balancing coefficients to solve simultaneous equations 411

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Step 4: Substitute x = 4 into one of the original equations (1):

20 + 2y = 24
Step 5: Solve this equation: y=2
Step 6: Test the solution by putting x = 4 and y = 2 into the original equations: (1) gives 20 + 4 = 24 and
(2) gives 8 – 2 = 6. These are correct, so the solution is x = 4 and y = 2.

Balancing coefficients in both equations

There are also cases where both equations have to be changed to obtain identical terms. This is
necessary when neither coefficient is a factor of the other. In this case, you find the lowest common
multiple and multiply both equations. The next example shows you how to do this.
Note: The substitution method is not suitable for these types of equations as you end up with
fractional terms.

Solve this pair of simultaneous equations. 4x + 3y = 27 (1)

Example 9

5x + 2y = 25 (2)
Both equations have to be changed to obtain identical terms in either x or y.
You can make either the x- or y-coefficients the same. Since the y-coefficients are smaller, it will
be easier to solve the equations if you make them the same.
Step 1: Multiply the first equation (1) by 2 (the y-coefficient of the other equation):
(1) × 2 or 2 × (4x + 3y = 27) → 8x + 6y = 54 (3)
Multiply the second equation (2) by 3 (the y-coefficient of the other equation):
(2) × 3 or 3 × (5x + 2y = 25) → 15x + 6y = 75 (4)
Label the new equations (3) and (4).
Step 2: Eliminate one of the variables: (4) – (3) 7x = 21
Step 3: Solve the equation: x=3
Step 4: Substitute into equation (1): 12 + 3y = 27
Step 5: Solve the equation: y=5
Step 6: Check: (1): 4 × 3 + 3 × 5 = 12 + 15 = 27
(2): 5 × 3 + 2 × 5 = 15 + 10 = 25
These are correct so the solution is x = 3 and y = 5.

Exercise 15F
1 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations.
a 2x + 3y = 19 b 5x – 2y = 26 c 10x – y = 3
6x + 2y = 22 3x – y = 15 3x + 2y = 17
d 5x – 2y = 4 e 2x + 3y = 13 f 3x – 2y = 3
3x – 6y = 6 4x + 7y = 31 5x + 6y = 12

2 Solve each pair of simultaneous equations.

a 2x + 5y = 15 b 2x + 3y = 30 c 2x – 3y = 15
3x – 2y = 13 5x + 7y = 71 5x + 7y = 52
d 3x – 2y = 15 e 5x – 3y = 14 f 3x + 2y = 28
2x – 3y = 5 4x – 5y = 6 2x + 7y = 47

412 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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15.5 Using simultaneous equations

to solve problems
This section will show you how to:
• solve problems using simultaneous linear equations.

You are now going to meet a type of problem that you need to express as a pair of simultaneous
equations in order to solve it. The next example shows you how to tackle such a problem.

Two families went to the theatre together but couldn’t remember how much they paid for
Example 10

each adult ticket or each child ticket. They could, however, both remember what they had
paid altogether.
Mr and Mrs Advani and their daughter Rupa paid £42.
Mrs Shaw and her two children, Len and Sue, paid £39.
How much would I have to pay for my wife, my four children and myself?
Write a pair of simultaneous equations from the information given:
Let x be the cost of an adult ticket, and y be the cost of a child ticket. Then:
2x + y = 42 for the Advani family
and x + 2y = 39 for the Shaw family.
Now solve these equations just as you have done in the previous examples, to obtain:
x = £15 and y = £12.
You can now find your cost, which will be (2 × £15) + (4 × £12) = £78.

Exercise 15G
PS 1 In this sequence, the next term is found by multiplying the previous term by a and
then adding b, where a and b are positive whole numbers.
3 14 47 … …
a Explain why 3a + b = 14.
b Set up another equation in a and b.
c Solve the equations to find a and b.
d Work out the next two terms in the sequence after 47.
PS 2 Amul and Kim have £10.70 between them. Amul has £3.70 more than Kim. Let x be the
amount Amul has and y be the amount Kim has. Set up a pair of simultaneous
equations. How much does each have?

3 In a tea shop it costs £8.10 for three teas and five buns.
In the same tea shop it costs £6.30 for three teas and three buns.
a Using t to represent the cost of a tea and b to represent the cost of a bun, write a
pair of simultaneous equations to represent the above information.
b How much will I pay for four teas and six buns?

15.5 Using simultaneous equations to solve problems 413

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CM 4 a Mary is solving the simultaneous equations 4x – 2y = 8 and 2x – y = 4.

She finds a solution of x = 5, y = 6 that works for both equations.
Explain why this is not a unique solution.
b Max is solving the simultaneous equations 6x + 2y = 9 and 3x + y = 7.
Why is it impossible to find a solution that works for both equations?

PS 5 Two people bought stamps at the Post Office. One person bought 10 second-class
and 5 first-class stamps at a total cost of £8.40. The other bought 8 second-class and
10 first-class stamps at a total cost of £10.44.
a Let x be the cost of a second-class stamp and y be the cost of a first-class stamp. Set
up two simultaneous equations to represent the information given.
b How much did I pay for three second-class and four first-class stamps?
PS 6 The sum of my son’s age and my age this year is 72.
Six years ago my age was double that of my son.
Let my age now be x and my son’s age now be y.
a Explain why x – 6 = 2(y – 6).
b Find the values of x and y.
PS 7 Here are four equations.
A: 5x + 2y = 1
B: 4x + y = 9
C: 3x – y = 5
D: 3x + 2y = 3
Here are four sets of (x, y) values.
(1, –2), (–1, 3), (2, 1), (3, –3)
Match each pair of (x, y) values to a pair of equations.

Hints and tips You could solve each possible set of pairs but there are six to work
out. Alternatively, you can substitute values into the equations to
see which work.

PS 8 Three chews and four bubblies cost 72p. Five chews and two bubblies cost 64p. What
would three chews and five bubblies cost?

PS 9 On a nut-and-bolt production line, all the nuts had the same mass and all the bolts
had the same mass. An order of 50 nuts and 60 bolts had a mass of 10.6 kg. An order
of 40 nuts and 30 bolts had a mass of 6.5 kg. What should the mass of an order of
60 nuts and 50 bolts be?

PS 10 My local taxi company charges a fixed amount plus a certain amount for each mile.
When I took a six-mile journey the cost was £3.70. When I took a ten-mile journey the
cost was £5.10. My next journey is going to be eight miles. How much will this cost?

414 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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PS 11 Four sacks of potatoes and two sacks of carrots weigh 188 pounds.
Five sacks of potatoes and one sack of carrots weigh 202 pounds.
Baz buys seven sacks of potatoes and eight sacks of carrots.
Will he be able to carry them in his trailer, which has a safe working load of
450 pounds?

Hints and tips Set up two simultaneous equations using p and c for the weight of a
sack of potatoes and carrots respectively.

PS 12 Five bags of bark chipping and four trays of pansies cost £24.50.
Three bags of bark chippings and five trays of pansies cost £19.25.
Camilla wants six bags of bark chippings and eight trays of pansies.
She has £30. Will she have enough money?

PS 13 a Find the area of the triangle enclosed by these three equations.

y–x=2 x+y=6 3x + y = 6
b Find the area of the triangle enclosed by these three equations.
x – 2y = 6 x + 2y = 6 x+y=3

Hints and tips Find the point of intersection of each pair of equations, plot the
points on a grid and use any method to work out the area of the
resulting triangle.

EV 14 A teacher asks her class to solve this pair of simultaneous equations.

y=x+4 (1)
2y – x = 10 (2)
Carmen says to Jeff, “To save time, you work out the x-value and I’ll work out the
y-value.”
Jeff says: “Great idea.”
This is Carmen’s work. This is Jeff’s work.
y–x=4 (3) Substitute (1) into (2)
2y – x = 10 (2) 2(x + 4) – x = 10
(2) – (3) 3y = 6 2x + 8 – x = 10
y=2 3x = 18
x=6
When the teacher reads out the answer as “two, six” the students mark their work as
being correct.
Explain all the mistakes that Carmen and Jeff have made.

15.5 Using simultaneous equations to solve problems 415

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15.6 Linear inequalities

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve a simple linear inequality and represent it on a
inequality
number line.
inclusive inequality
Inequalities behave similarly to equations: you use the same strict inequality
rules to solve linear inequalities as you use to solve linear
equations. There are four inequality signs:
• < means ‘less than’
• > means ‘greater than’
•  means ‘less than or equal to’
•  means ‘greater than or equal to’.
Be careful: never replace the inequality sign with an equals sign.
Solve the inequality 2x + 3 < 14.
Subtract 3 from both sides: 2x < 11
11
Divide both sides by 2: x<
2
⇒ x < 5.5
This means that x can take any value below 5.5 but not the value 5.5.
< and > are called strict inequalities.
Note: Use the inequality sign given in the problem in the answer.

Janet said: “If I were four years older than half my age, I’d still be at least 13 years old.” How old
Example 11

must Janet be?

x
Write this information as an inequality, using x for Janet’s current age: + 4 ⩾ 13
2
Solve this inequality just like an equation but leave the inequality sign in place of the
equals sign.
x
Subtract 4 from both sides: 2 ⩾9
Multiply both sides by 2: x ⩾ 18
This means that x can take any value above and including 18.
Janet is at least 18 years old but could be older.
⩽ and ⩾ are called inclusive inequalities.

Show that if 14 > 3 x + 7 , then x must be below 7.

Example 12

2
3x + 7
Rewrite this as < 14
2
Multiply both sides by 2: 3x + 7 < 28
Subtract 7 from both sides: 3x < 21
Divide both sides by 3: x<7

416 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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a Solve –5 < 3x + 4 ⩽ 13.

Example 13
b State all the integers that solve the inequality.
a Divide the inequality into two parts, and treat each part separately.
–5 < 3x + 4 3x + 4 ⩽ 13
⇒ –9 < 3x ⇒ 3x ⩽ 9
⇒ –3 < x ⇒ x⩽3
So –3 < x ⩽ 3
b x can be any integer between –3 and 3 but not –3 itself.
You can write the answer in brackets using set notation: –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3

Exercise 15H
1 Solve the following linear inequalities.

a 4y + 5 ⩽ 17 b x+4<7 c t –2⩾4
2 3
d 3(x – 2) < 15 e 5(2x + 1) ⩽ 35 f 2(4t – 3) ⩾ 34
MR 2 Write down the largest integer value of x that satisfies each of the following.
a 3x – 11 < 40, where x is a square number
b 5x – 8 ⩽ 15, where x is positive and odd
c 2x + 1 < 19, where x is positive and prime
PS 3 Ahmed went to town with £20 to buy two CDs. His bus fare was £3. The CDs were
both the same price. When he reached home he still had some money in his pocket.
What was the most each CD could cost?

Hints and tips Set up an inequality and solve it.

CM 4 a Explain why you cannot make a triangle with three sticks of length 3 cm, 4 cm
and 8 cm.
b Three sides of a triangle are x, x + 2 and 10 cm.
x is a whole number.
What is the smallest value x can take?
x+2
x

10

15.6 Linear inequalities 417

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MR 5 Five cards have inequalities and equations marked on them.

x0 x3 x4 x2 x6

The cards are shuffled and then turned over, one at a time.
If two consecutive cards have any numbers in common, then a point is scored.
If they do not have any numbers in common, then a point is deducted.

a The first two cards below score –1 because x = 6 and x < 3 have no numbers in
common.
Explain why the total for this combination scores 0.

x6 x3 x0 x2 x4

b What does this combination score?

x0 x6 x4 x2 x3

c Arrange the cards to give a maximum score of 4.

6 Solve the following linear inequalities.
a 3y – 12 ⩽ y – 4 b 2x + 3 ⩾ x + 1 c 2(4x – 1) ⩽ 3(x + 4)
x−3 5y + 3
d 5
>7 e 2x + 5 < 6 f 5
⩽2
3

7 Solve the following linear inequalities.

a 7 < 2x + 1 < 13 b 5 < 3x – 1 < 14 c –1 < 5x + 4 ⩽ 19
d 1 ⩽ 4x – 3 < 13 e 11 ⩽ 3x + 5 < 17 f –3 ⩽ 2x – 3 ⩽ 7

8 Write the integers for each part of question 7 using set notation.

PS 9 Meg bought seven crates of pineapple juice and Arthur bought four crates of
pineapple juice.
Each crate contained the same number of bottles of pineapple juice.
When Meg gave ten bottles of juice to Arthur, Arthur then had more bottles of juice
than Meg.
Find the maximum number of bottles of pineapple juice in a crate.

The number line

You can show the solution to a linear inequality on a number line using the following conventions.

x x

x
The solid circle xmeans x
that the value is included.
 x

x x

The open circle means that the value is not included.

418 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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A strict inequality does not include the boundary point but an inclusive inequality does include the
boundary point.

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

represents x  3 represents x  1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

represents x  –2 represents x  4

–2 –1 0 1 2 3

represents –1  x  2
The last example is a ‘between’ inequality. It can be written as x ⩾ –1 and x < 2, but the notation –1 ⩽ x < 2
is neater.

a Write down the inequality shown by this diagram.

Example 14

0 1 2 3 4

b i Solve the inequality 2x + 3 < 11.

ii Mark the solution on a number line.
c Write down the integers that satisfy both the inequalities in a and b.
a The inequality shown is x ⩾ 1.
b i 2x + 3 < 11
⇒ 2x < 8
⇒x<4
ii

0 1 2 3 4

c The integers that satisfy both inequalities are 1, 2 and 3.

15.6 Linear inequalities 419

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Example 15 A rectangle has sides of x cm and (x – 2) cm.

If its perimeter is no longer than 16 cm, explain why x can be represented like this:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Set up an inequality: x + x + x – 2 + x – 2 ⩽ 16
Simplify: 4x – 4 ⩽ 16
Add 4 to both sides: 4x ⩽ 20
Divide by 4: x⩽5
Also, since (x – 2) cm is the length of one side of the rectangle, x – 2 > 0.
So x > 2.
Putting these inequalities together: 2<x⩽5
This is the inequality represented on the number line.

Exercise 15I
1 Write
a down the inequality thatb is represented by each diagram below.
a

0 1 2 3 –2 –1 0 1 2
a b
b

0 1 2 3 –2 –1 0 1 2
c
c

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 Draw diagrams to illustrate these inequalities.

a x<5 b x ⩾ –1 c 2<x⩽5 d –1 ⩽ x ⩽ 3
3 Solve the following inequalities and illustrate their solutions on number lines.
x
a 2(4x + 3) < 18 b +3⩽2 c x –2>8 d x +5⩾3
2 5 3
PS 4 Max went to the supermarket with £1.20. He bought three apples costing x pence
each and a chocolate bar costing 54p. When he got to the till, he found he didn’t have
enough money.
Max took one of the apples back and paid for two apples and the chocolate bar. He
counted his change and found he had enough money to buy a 16p sweet.
a Explain why 3x + 54 > 120 and solve the inequality.
b Explain why 2x + 54 ⩽ 104 and solve the inequality.
c Show the solution to both of these inequalities on a number line.
d If the price is an integer, what possible prices could the apple be?

420 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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MR 5 On copies of the number lines below, draw two inequalities so that only the integers
–1, 0, 1, 2 are common to both inequalities.

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

PS 6 What numbers are being described?

x is a square number.
2x + 3  5

x
0 1 2 3 4 5

CM 7 A square has sides of (35 – 7x) cm. If its perimeter is at most 84 cm, show that x can be
represented by the diagram below.

–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

8 Solve the following inequalities and illustrate their solutions on number lines.
2x + 5 3x + 4 2x + 8 2x − 1
a 3
>3 b 2
⩾ 11 c 3
⩽2 d 3
⩾ –3

15.7 Graphical inequalities

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• show a graphical inequality
boundary origin
• find regions that satisfy more than one graphical inequality.
region
You can plot a linear inequality on a graph. The result is a
region that lies on one side or the other of a straight line. You will recognise an inequality by the fact
that it looks like an equation but instead of the equals sign it has an inequality sign: <, >, ⩽ or ⩾.
The following are examples of linear inequalities that can be represented on a graph.
y<3 x>7 –3 ⩽ y < 5 y ⩾ 2x + 3 2x + 3y < 6 y⩽x
To draw the graph of an inequality, draw the boundary line that defines the inequality. To find this,
replace the inequality sign with an equals sign.
When it is a strict inequality (< or >), draw the boundary line as a dashed line to show that it is not
included in the range of values. When ⩽ or ⩾ is used to state the inequality, draw the boundary line
as a solid line to show that the boundary is included.
After drawing the boundary line, shade the required region.
To check which side of the line the region lies on, choose any point that is not on the boundary line
and test it in the inequality. If it satisfies the inequality, that is the side required. If it doesn’t, the other
side is required.
Work through the six inequalities in the following example to see how to apply the procedure.

15.7 Graphical inequalities 421

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Example 16 Show each of the following inequalities on a graph.

a y⩽3 b x>7 c –3 ⩽ y < 5
d y ⩽ 2x + 3 e 2x + 3y < 6 f y⩽x
a Draw the line y = 3. Since the inequality is stated as ⩽, the line is solid.
Test a point that is not on the line. The origin is always a good choice if possible, as 0 is
easiest to test.
Putting 0 into the inequality gives 0 ⩽ 3. The inequality is satisfied and so the region
containing the origin is the side you want. Shade it in.
y
3 y3

0 x

b Since the inequality is stated as >, the line is dashed. Draw the line x = 7.
Test a point that is not on the line. Testing the origin gives 0 > 7. This is not true, so you want
the other side of the line from the origin. Shade it in.
x7
y

0
7 x

c Draw the lines y = –3 (solid for ⩽) and y = 5 (dashed for <).

Test a point that is not on either line, say (0, 0). Zero is between –3 and 5, so the required
region lies between the lines. Shade it in.
y
5

–3  y  5
0 x

–3

d Draw the line y = 2x + 3. Since the inequality is stated as ⩽, the line is solid.
Test a point that is not on the line, such as (0, 0). Putting these x- and y-values in the inequality
gives 0 ⩽ 2(0) + 3, which is true. So the required region includes the origin. Shade it in.
y

0 x

y  2x + 3

422 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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e Draw the line 2x + 3y = 6. Since the inequality is stated y

as <, the line is dashed.
2
Test a point that is not on the line, say (0, 0). Is it true
that 2(0) + 3(0) < 6? The answer is yes, so the origin is in 0 3 x
the region that you want. Shade it in. 2x + 3y  6
f Draw the line y = x. Since the inequality is stated
as ⩽, the line is solid.
This time the origin is on the line, so pick any other point, y
say (1, 3). Putting x = 1 and y = 3 in the inequality gives 3 ⩽ 1.
This is not true, so the point (1, 3) is not in the region
you want. 0 yx
x
Shade in the other side to (1, 3).

More than one inequality

a On the same grid, shade the regions that represent the following inequalities.
Example 17

i x>2 ii y ⩾ x iii x + y < 8

b Are these points in the region that satisfies all three inequalities?
i (3, 4) ii (2, 6) iii (3, 3)
a
i y ii y iii y
10 10 10
8 8 8
6 6 6
4 4 4
2 2 2

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 x
i The region x > 2 is shown in diagram i.
The boundary line is x = 2 (dashed).
ii The region y ⩾ x is shown in diagram ii.
The boundary line is y = x (solid).
iii The region x + y < 8 is shown in diagram iii. y
10
The boundary line is x + y = 8 (dashed). The regions have
9
first been drawn separately so that each one is clear.
8
This diagram shows all three regions on the same grid. 7
The green triangular area defines the region that satisfies 6
all three inequalities. 5
b i The point (3, 4) is clearly within the region that satisfies 4
all three inequalities. 3
2
ii The point (2, 6) is on the boundary lines x = 2 and x + y = 8. 1
As these are dashed lines, they are not included in the
region defined by all three inequalities. So, the point (2, 6) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
is not in this region.
iii The point (3, 3) is on the boundary line y = x. As this is a solid line, it is included in the
region defined by all three inequalities. So, the point (3, 3) is included in this region.

15.7 Graphical inequalities 423

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Exercise 15J
1 a Draw the line x = 2 (as a solid line). b Shade the region defined by x ⩽ 2.
2 a Draw the line y = –3 (as a dashed line). b Shade the region defined by y > –3.
3 a Draw the line y = –1 (as a dashed line).
b Draw the line y = 4 (as a solid line) on the same grid.
c Shade the region defined by –1 < y ⩽ 4.
4 a On the same grid, draw the regions defined by these inequalities.
i –3 ⩽ x ⩽ 6 ii – 4 < y ⩽ 5
b Are the following points in the region defined by both inequalities?
i (2, 2) ii (1, 5) iii (–2, – 4)

Hints and tips Always make it clear which region you are labelling or shading.

5 a Draw the line y = 2x – 1 (as a dashed line).

b Shade the region defined by y < 2x – 1.
6 On separate axes, shade the region defined by each inequality.
a 3x – 4y ⩽ 12 b y ⩾ 21x + 3 c y < –3
7 a Draw the line y = 3x – 4 (as a solid line).
b Draw the line x + y = 10 (as a solid line) on the same diagram.
c Shade the diagram to show the region defined by both y ⩾ 3x – 4 and x + y ⩽ 10.
d Are the following points in the region defined by both inequalities?
i (2, 1) ii (2, 2) iii (2, 3)
8 a Draw the line y = x (as a solid line).
b Draw the line 2x + 5y = 10 (as a solid line) on the same diagram.
c Draw the line 2x + y = 6 (as a dashed line) on the same diagram.
d Shade the diagram to show the region defined by y ⩾ x, 2x + 5y ⩾ 10 and 2x + y < 6.
e Are the following points in the region defined by these inequalities?
i (1, 1) ii (2, 2) iii (1, 3)
9 a On the same grid, draw the regions defined by the following inequalities.
i y>x–3 ii 3y + 4x ⩽ 24 iii x ⩾ 2
b Are the following points in the region defined by all three inequalities?
i (1, 1) ii (2, 2) iii (3, 3) iv (4, 4)

424 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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MR 10 The graph shows three points (1, 2), (1, 3) and (2, 3).
Write down three inequalities that between them surround these three grid
intersection points and no others.
y

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x

MR 11 If x + y > 40, which of the following may be true (M), must be false (F) or must be true (T)?
a x > 40 b x + y ⩽ 20 c x – y = 10
d x⩽5 e x + y = 40 f y > 40 – x
g y = 2x h x + y ⩾ 39
CM 12 Explain how you would find which side of the line represents the inequality y < x + 2.
y

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x

PS 13 The region marked R is the overlap of the inequalities:

y

3
R
2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 x

x+y⩾3 y ⩽ 21 x + 3 y ⩾ 5x – 15
a For which point in the region R is the value of the expression 2x – y the greatest?
b For which point in the region R is the value of the expression x – 3y the smallest?

15.7 Graphical inequalities 425

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PS 14 Varsha is making cakes for a charity cake sale. She has 1800 g of flour and 22 eggs.
She has the recipes for lemon cakes and ginger cakes.
Each lemon cake requires 150 g of flour and 1 egg.
Each ginger cake requires 90 g of flour and 2 eggs.
The charity will receive £3.50 for each lemon cake sold and £5 for each ginger
cake sold.
What is the maximum amount of money that Varsha will be able to raise for
the charity?

15.8 Trial and improvement

This section will show you how to: Key term
• estimate the answers to some questions that do not have
trial and improvement
exact solutions, using the method of trial and improvement.

Certain equations cannot be solved exactly. However, you can find a close enough solution to these
equations by the trial-and-improvement method. (Sometimes this is wrongly called the trial-and-
error method.)
This method involves trying different values in the equation to take it closer and closer to the ‘true’
solution. Continue this step-by-step process until you find a value that gives a solution close enough
to the accuracy required.
The trial-and-improvement method is used by computer programmes to solve equations.
Solve the equation x3 + x = 105, giving the solution correct to one decimal place.
Step 1: To start, you must find the two consecutive whole numbers that x lies between. You do this by
intelligent guessing.
Try x = 4: 64 + 4 = 68 Too low – next trial needs to be larger Guess x3 + x Comment
Try x = 5: 125 + 5 = 130 Too high 4 68 Too low
5 130 Too high

So now you know that the solution lies between x = 4 and x = 5.

Step 2: Next you must find the two consecutive 1-decimal-place numbers between which x lies.
Try 4.5, which is halfway between 4 and 5.
x = 4.5 → 91.125 + 4.5 = 95.625 Too small Guess x3 + x Comment
Now attempt to improve this: 4 68 Too low
x = 4.6 → 97.336 + 4.6 = 101.936 Still too small 5 130 Too high
x = 4.7 → 108.523 Too high 4.5 95.625 Too low
So the solution is between 4.6 and 4.7. 4.6 101.936 Too low
4.7 108.523 Too high

It looks as though 4.7 is closer but there is a very important final step.

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Step 3: Finally, test the value that is halfway between the two 1-decimal-place values.
x = 4.65 → 105.194 625 Guess x3 + x Comment
This means that 4.6 is nearer the actual solution than 4.7. 4 68 Too low
Never assume that the 1-decimal-place number that gives 5 130 Too high
the closest value to the solution is the answer.
4.5 95.625 Too low
The approximate answer is x = 4.6 to 1 decimal place.
4.6 101.936 Too low
4.7 108.523 Too high
4.65 105.194 625 Too high

In Chapter 24 you will meet iteration, which is another way of solving equations like these and does
not require guesswork.

Brendan says that one answer for the equation 5x2 – x3 = 14 is 4.2 correct to 1 decimal place.
Example 18

Show that Brendan is correct.

x 5x2 – x3 Comment
4.2 5 × 4.2 – 4.2 = 14.112
2 3
Too high
4.15 5 × 4.15 – 4.15 = 14.639125
2 3
Too high
4.25 5 × 4.152 – 4.153 = 13.546875 Too low
Since the answer lies between 4.2 and 4.25, it will round to 4.2 when rounded correct to
1 decimal place. So Brendan is correct.

A cuboid has sides of x cm, (x + 1) cm and (x – 2) cm. Its volume is 300 cm3.
Example 19

Find the value of x correct to 1 decimal place.

Set up an equation: x(x + 1)(x – 2) = 300
Expand the brackets: x3 – x2 – 2x = 300
Guess x3 – x2 – 2x Comment
7 280 Too low
8 432 Too high
7.5 350.625 Too high
7.2 307.008 Too high
7.1 293.301 Too low
7.15 300.103 375 Too high
This means that 7.1 is nearer the actual solution than 7.2.
The approximate answer is x = 7.1 to 1 decimal place.

15.8 Trial and improvement 427

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Exercise 15K
1 Find the two consecutive whole numbers between which the solution to each of the
following equations lies.
a x2 + x = 24 b x3 + 2x = 80 c x3 – x = 20
2 Copy and complete the table by using trial and improvement to find an approximate
solution to this equation. x 3 + 2x = 50
Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

Guess x3 + 2x Comment
3 33 Too low
4 72 Too high

3 a Use trial and improvement to find an approximate solution to this equation.

x3 – 3x = 40
Use a first guess of 4. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
b Find a solution to each of the following equations, correct to 1 decimal place.
i 2x3 + 3x = 35 ii 3x3 – 4x = 52 iii 2x3 + 5x = 79
c Use trial and improvement to find a solution to the equation x2 + x = 40.

Hints and tips Set up tables to show your working. This makes it easier for you
to show the method and follow your process.

CM 4 Use trial and improvement to show that 2.53 is a solution of the equation
2x3 + x = 35 correct to 2 decimal places.

5 Use trial and improvement to find an exact solution to 4x2 + 2x = 12.

6 Anisa is using trial and improvement to solve the equation 3x3 + 2x = 900, correct to
1 decimal place.
Complete the gaps in the table.

Guess 3x3 + 2x Comment

660
1043
836.875
956.896
915.689
875.688
895.538875

PS 7 A rectangle has an area of 100 cm2. Its length is 5 cm longer than its width.
a Show that, if x represents the width, x2 + 5x = 100.
b Find, correct to 1 decimal place, the dimensions of the rectangle.

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PS 8 1
Rob is designing a juice carton to hold 2 litre (500 cm3).
He wants the sides of the base in the ratio 1 : 2.
He wants the height to be 8 cm more than the shorter side of the base.
Use trial and improvement to find the dimensions of the carton.

Hints and tips Call the length of the side with ‘ratio 1’, x. Write down the other
two sides in terms of x and then write down an equation for the
volume = 500.

EV 9 Steph and Lilly are solving the equation x3 – 2x2 = 251 by trial and improvement.
Steph’s solution finishes as follows: Lilly’s solution finishes as follows:
Guess x3 – 2x2 Comment Guess x3 – 2x2 Comment
7.0 245 Too low 7.0 245 Too low
7.1 257.091 Too high 7.1 257.091 Too high
7.05 250.9976 Too low
Answer is 7.1 correct to 1 decimal place. 251 – 245 = 6
257.091 – 251 = 6.091
Since 245 is closer, answer is 7.0 correct to
1 decimal place.
a Who is correct? Explain your answer.
b Evaluate each student’s approach.
CM 10 A cube of side x cm has a square hole of side x and depth 8 cm cut from it.
2
The volume of the remaining solid is 1500 cm3.
a Explain why x3 – 2x2 = 1500.
b Use trial and improvement to find the value of x to 1 decimal place.
x
–
2

Hints and tips Work out the volume of the cube and the hole and subtract
them. The resulting expression is the volume of 1500.

PS 11 Two numbers a and b are such that ab = 20 and a + b = 10.

Use trial and improvement to find the two numbers to 2 decimal places.

15.8 Trial and improvement 429

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 A bookshelf holds P paperback and H hardback books. The bookshelf can hold a
total of 400 books. Explain which of the following may be true.
a P + H < 300
b P⩾H
c P + H > 500
This is a question on communicating mathematics so you need to make sure you
communicate information accurately and articulately.

a The first inequality (P + H < 300) could Although it is important to state correctly
be true. The bookshelf doesn’t have to whether or not a given statement is true,
be full. the emphasis is on the quality of your
explanation.
b The second inequality (P ⩾ H) could be
true. There could be more paperbacks
than hardbacks.
c The third inequality (P + H > 500)
cannot be true. There can only be a
maximum of 400 books.

PS 2 Nicky did a 22 km hill race. She ran x km to the top of the hill at an average speed of
8 km/h. She then ran y km down the hill at an average speed of 15 km/h. She finished
the race in 2 hours and 10 minutes.
Find out how long it took Nicky to get to the top of the hill.

This is a problem-solving question so you need to make connections between

different part of mathematics (in this case speed, distance and time and simultaneous
equations) and show your strategy clearly.

x + y = 22 (1) First, set up two simultaneous equations

x + y = 21 using the information given.
6
(2)
8 15
15x + 8y = 260 (3) Multiply equation (2) by 120 (the lowest
common multiple of 15, 8 and 6).

8x + 8y = 176 (4) Balance the coefficients (multiply (1) by

(3) – (4) 7x = 84 8) and subtract to eliminate y.

x = 12 Solve the equation.

Time = 12 ÷ 8 = 1 hour 30 minutes Work out the time taken, using
distance ÷ speed.

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PS 3 Given that 33x + 4y = 9 and 34x + 5y = 27, show that 3x + 2y = 1.

This is a problem-solving question connecting two different parts of mathematics

(in this case, indices and simultaneous equations) so you will need to show every
step of your strategy.

33x + 4y = 32 Deduce that 9 and 27 also need to be

34x + 5y
=3
3 written as powers of 3.

3x + 4y = 2 Remove the base numbers and write the

4x + 5y = 3 indices as simultaneous equations.

12x + 16y = 8 (1) Balance coefficients (could balance x or y)

12x + 15y = 9 (2) and subtract to eliminate one variable.

(1) – (2) y = –1
3x + 4(–1) = 2 Find x (or y) by substituting.
3x – 4 = 2
3x = 6
x=2
3x + 2y = 32 + 2(–1) = 32 – 2 = 30 Complete the proof by showing that
30 = 1 3x + 2y = 1.

15 Worked exemplars 431

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Ready to progress?
I can solve linear equations containing brackets and fractions.

I can solve linear equations where the variable appears on both sides.
I can set up and solve linear equations from practical and real-life situations.
I can solve inequalities such as 3x + 2 < 5 and represent the solution on a number line.
I can solve linear simultaneous equations by balancing, substituting and elimination.
I can use trial and improvement to solve non-linear equations.

I can represent a region that satisfies a linear inequality graphically, and solve more complex
linear inequalities.
I can represent a region that simultaneously satisfies more than one linear
inequality graphically.

Review questions
PS 1 A carpet costs £12.75 per square metre.
The shop charges £35 for fitting. The final bill was £137.
How many square metres of carpet were fitted?

PS 2 A boy is Y years old. His father is 25 years older than he is. The sum of their ages is 31.
How old is the boy?

PS 3 A rectangular room is 3 m longer than it is wide. The perimeter is 16 m.

Carpet costs £9.00 per square metre.
Show that it will cost just under £125 to carpet the room.

PS 4 This diagram shows the traffic flow through a one-way system in a town centre.
Cars enter at A and at each junction the fractions show the proportion of cars that
take each route.
1
– B
2

3
– 1
4 –
2 C
A
1
–
4
D

a x cars enter at A. How many come out of each of the exits, B, C and D?
b If 300 cars exit at B, set up and solve an equation to find how many cars entered at A.
c If 500 cars exit at D, set up and solve an equation to find how many exit at B.

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CM 5 A teacher asked his class to find three angles of a triangle that were consecutive
even numbers.
Tammy wrote: x + x + 2 + x + 4 = 180
3x + 6 = 180
3x = 174
x = 58
So the angles are 58°, 60° and 62°.
The teacher then asked the class to find four angles of a quadrilateral that are
consecutive even numbers.
Can this be done? Explain your answer.

PS 6 My mother-in-law uses this formula to cook a turkey: T = a + bW

where T is the cooking time (minutes), W is the mass of the turkey (kg) and a and b
are constants. She says it takes 4 hours 30 minutes to cook a 12 kg turkey, and 3 hours
10 minutes to cook an 8 kg turkey. How long will it take to cook a 5 kg turkey?

7 –5 < x ⩽ 8
x is an integer.
Write down all the possible values of x.

8 5x + 9
a Solve the equation = 18 − x .
4

b Solve the inequality 5 x + 9 < 18 − x and represent the answer on a number line.
4
9 a Use trial and improvement to solve the equation 7(x – 2) = 30, correct to
1 decimal place.
EV b Describe a more efficient method for solving this equation.
10 a Solve these inequalities.
i –11 < 2x – 5 < –3 ii –3 < x − 4 < 0
iii 21 < 3(x + 8) < 30
2
b Match two of your answers with the two representations shown below, then draw a
number line to represent the other solution.
a

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

11 Use trial and improvement to find the solution of the equation x3 + 2x = 27, giving the
answer correct to 2 decimal places. Show all your working.

PS 12 Two members of the same church went to the same shop to buy material to make
Christingles. One bought 200 oranges and 220 candles at a cost of £65.60. The other
bought 210 oranges and 200 candles at a cost of £63.30. They only needed 200 of each.
How much should it have cost them?

15 Review questions 433

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PS 13 When you book Bingham Hall for a conference you pay a fixed booking fee plus a
charge for each delegate. Jathika booked a conference for 65 delegates and was
charged £192.50. Jasmine booked a conference for 40 delegates and was charged
£180. James wants to book for 70 delegates. How much will he be charged?

MR 14 a Solve the simultaneous equations by balancing the coefficients of x

and subtracting.
992x + 8y = 3992
8x + 992y = 3008
b i Add together the equations 992x + 8y = 3992 and 8x + 992y = 3008. Divide the
resulting equation by its common factor.
ii Subtract the equation 8x + 992y = 3008 from the equation 992x + 8y = 3992.
Divide the resulting equation by its common factor.
iii Show that the answers you get when you solve the simultaneous equations you
obtained from parts i and ii are the same as those you obtained in a.
c Solve these simultaneous equations without using a calculator:
4576a + 10 848b = 95 424
5424a + 9152b = 94 576

PS 15 The racetrack shown is to be made with semicircles at each end, with an inner
perimeter of 300 m and an outer perimeter of 320 m. How wide is the track?

PS 16 The region R satisfies the inequalities x < 6, y ⩽ 5, x + y > 8.

a On a copy of the grid below, draw straight lines and use shading to show the
region R.
y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

b Find the area of the region R.

c The region S satisfies the inequalities x < 6, y < 5 and x + y < 8.
Explain why you cannot find the area of the region S.

434 15 Algebra: Equations and inequalities

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17 50
a is an integer that satisfies the inequality > 2.
a2
List all the possible values of a.

PS 18 Find the inequalities that define each of the shaded regions.

a y b y
9 9
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4

b y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x
–1
–2
–3
–4

15 Review questions 435

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16
Number: Counting,
accuracy, powers
and surds

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out a reciprocal
• how to convert fractions to terminating or recurring decimals, and
vice versa
• how to estimate powers and roots of positive numbers
• how to work with negative and fractional powers
• how to calculate with surds
• how to work out the error interval for rounded numbers
• how to use limits of accuracy in calculations
• how to use the product rule for counting.

You should already know:

• how to round numbers to the nearest 10, 100 or 1000
• how to round numbers to a given number of decimal places
• how to round numbers to a given number of significant figures
• squares of integers up to 15 × 15 = 225 and corresponding roots
• cubes of integers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 and corresponding roots
• what indices, square roots and cube roots are
• how to divide by a fraction
• what terminating and recurring fractions are.

About this chapter

In everyday life most numbers that you use are whole numbers, simple
fractions or decimal values written with, at most, three decimal places.
Nobody could possibly cut a plank of wood to a length of 163.2647 cm. You
may buy a ‘quarter of a kilogram of potatoes’, but you would never ask for
‘five-elevenths of a kilogram of potatoes’. In daily life, you round numbers to
something sensible.
However, engineers and scientists need to work to a much greater accuracy.
That is why the area of a circle with a radius of 10 cm has an approximate area
of 314 cm2 but an accurate area of 100π cm2. This chapter will show you some
ways of writing numbers accurately and how to manipulate numbers written
this way.

436
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16.1 Rational numbers, reciprocals,

terminating and recurring
decimals
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise rational numbers, reciprocals, terminating
rational number
decimals and recurring decimals
recurring decimal
• convert terminal decimals to fractions
• convert fractions to recurring decimals terminating decimal

• find reciprocals of numbers or fractions.

Rational numbers
1 10
A rational number is a number that can be written as a fraction, for example, 4
or 3
.
When a fraction is converted to a decimal it will either be:
• a terminating decimal or
• a recurring decimal.
1 1
A terminating decimal has a finite number of digits. For example, 4 = 0.25, 8 = 0.125.
1
A recurring decimal has a digit, or block of digits, that repeats. For example, 3
= 0.3333…,
2
11
= 0.181 818…
You can write recurring digits by putting a dot over the first and last digit of the group that repeats.
• • • • •
0.3333… becomes 0. 3 0.181 818… becomes 0. 18 0.123 123 123… becomes 0. 12 3
• • • • •
0.583 33… becomes 0.58 3 0.618 181 8… becomes 0.6 18 0.412 312 312 3… becomes 0.4 12 3

Converting fractions into decimals

A fraction will convert to a terminating decimal or a recurring decimal. You may already know that
•
1
3 = 0.333… = 0. 3 . This means that the 3s go on forever and the decimal never ends.
To convert a fraction, you divide the numerator by the denominator. If the denominator only has
2 and/or 5 in its prime factorisation, then the decimal will terminate; otherwise it will recur. You can
use a calculator to divide the numerator by the denominator if you need to. Note that calculators
round the last digit so it may not appear as a true recurring decimal in the display.
Use a calculator to check these terminating decimals.
9 7 96
16
= 0.5625 40
= 0.175 125
= 0.768

Use a calculator to check these recurring decimals.

• • • • •
2 4 8
11
= 0.181 818… = 0. 18 15
= 0.2666… = 0.26 13
= 0.615 384 615 384 6… = 0. 6 15 38 4

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Converting terminal decimals into fractions

To convert a terminating decimal to a fraction, take the decimal part of the number as the numerator.
Then the denominator is 10, 100, 1000, … depending on the number of decimal places. Because a
terminating decimal has a specific number of decimal places, you can use place value to work out
exactly where the numerator and the denominator end. For example:

7 45
0.7 = 10
0.045 = 1000
23 9
0.23 = 100
= 200
234 625
2.34 = 100
0.625 = 1000
117 5
= 50
= 8

= 2 17
50

Converting recurring decimals into fractions

You need to use an algebraic method to convert a recurring decimal to a fraction, as shown in the
next two examples.

•
Example 1

Convert 0. 7 to a fraction.
Let x be the fraction. Then:
x = 0.777 777 777… (1)
Multiply (1) by 10: 10x = 7.777 777 777… (2)
Subtract (2) – (1): 9x = 7
7
⇒x= 9

• •
Example 2

Convert 0. 5 6 4 to a fraction.
Let x be the fraction. Then:
x = 0.564 564 564… (1)
Multiply (1) by 1000: 1000x = 564.564 564 564… (2)
Subtract (2) – (1): 999x = 564
564 188
⇒x= 999
= 333

As a general rule, multiply by 10 if one digit recurs, multiply by 100 if two digits recur, multiply by
1000 if three digits recur, and so on.

Finding reciprocals of numbers or fractions

You know that the reciprocal of any number is 1 divided by the number, so:
1
• the reciprocal of 2 is 1 ÷ 2 = 2
= 0.5
• the reciprocal of 0.25 is 1 ÷ 0.25 = 4.
You can find the reciprocal of a fraction by inverting it. For example:
2 3
• the reciprocal of 3
is 2

• the reciprocal of 7
is 74 .
4

438 16 Number: Counting, accuracy, powers and surds

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Exercise 16A
1 Work out each fraction as a terminating decimal or recurring decimal, as appropriate.
1 1 1 1 1
a 2
b 3
c 4
d 5
e 6

1 1 1 1 1
f 7 g 8 h 9 i 10 j 13

MR 2 There are several patterns to be found in recurring decimals. For example:

1 = 0.142 857 142 857 142 857 142 857…
7
2 = 0.285 714 285 714 285 714 285 714…
7
3 = 0.428 571 428 571 428 571 428 571…
7
a Write down the decimals for 74 , 75 , 6
7
to 24 decimal places.
b What do you notice?
3 Work out the ninths, 91 , 29 , 3
9
and so on, up to 89 , as recurring decimals.
Describe any patterns that you notice.

4 1 2 3 10
Work out the elevenths, , ,
11 11 11
and so on, up to 11
, as recurring decimals.
Describe any patterns that you notice.

5 Write each fraction as a decimal. Use your results to write the list in order of size,
smallest first.
4 5 3 9 16 6
9 11 7 22 37 13

6 Convert each terminating decimal to a fraction.

a 0.125 b 0.34 c 0.725 d 0.3125
e 0.89 f 0.05 g 2.35 h 0.218 75
7 Use a calculator to work out the reciprocal of each number in decimal form.
a 12 b 16 c 20 d 25 e 50

8 Write down the reciprocal of each fraction.

3 5 2
a b 6
c 5
4

7 11 4
d 10
e 20
f 15
MR 9 a Write the fractions and their reciprocals from question 8 as terminating decimals
or recurring decimals as appropriate.
b Is it always true that a terminating decimal has a reciprocal that is a recurring
decimal?

CM 10 Explain why zero has no reciprocal.

MR 11 a Work out the reciprocal of the reciprocal of 10.

b Work out the reciprocal of the reciprocal of 2.
c What do you notice?

16.1 Rational numbers, reciprocals, terminating and recurring decimals 439

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EV 12 x and y are two positive numbers. Given that x is less than y, which statement is true?
A: The reciprocal of x is less than the reciprocal of y.
B: The reciprocal of x is greater than the reciprocal of y.
C: It is impossible to tell.
Give an example to support your answer.

EV 13 Explain why a number multiplied by its reciprocal is equal to 1. Use examples to show
that this is true for negative numbers.

14 x = 0.242 424…
a What is 100x?
b By subtracting the original value from your answer to part a, work out the value
of 99x.
c What is x as a fraction?
15 Convert each recurring decimal to a fraction.
• • • • • • • • •
a 0. 8 b 0. 3 4 c 0. 4 5 d 0. 56 7 e 0. 4 f 0.0 4
• • • • • • • • •
g 0.14 h 0.0 4 5 i 2. 7 j 7. 6 3 k 3. 3 l 2. 0 6
1 1
EV 16 a 7
is a recurring decimal. ( 71)2 = 49
is also a recurring decimal.
Is it true that when you square any fraction that is a recurring decimal, the answer
is another fraction that is also a recurring decimal? Try this with at least four
numerical examples before you make a decision.
1 1
b 4
is a terminating decimal. ( 41 )2 = 16
is also a terminating decimal.
Is it true that when you square any fraction that is a terminating decimal, you get
another fraction that is also a terminating decimal? Try this with at least four
numerical examples before you make a decision.
c What type of fraction do you get when you multiply a fraction that gives a recurring
decimal by another fraction that gives a terminating decimal? Try this with at least
four numerical examples before you make a decision.
•
CM 17 a Convert the recurring decimal 0. 9 to a fraction.
•
b Prove that 0.4 9 is equal to 0.5.

16.2 Estimating powers and roots

This section will show you:
• how to estimate powers and roots of any given positive number.

You know how to estimate the value of a calculation by rounding the numbers to one significant
figure. For example:

112 × 39 100 × 40
78 − 57 ≈ 80 − 60
2
100 × 40
=
20 1
= 200

440 16 Number: Counting, accuracy, powers and surds

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You can apply the same method to estimate powers and roots but, as powers above three usually lead
to very large numbers, you may need to adjust your answer depending on whether the estimate is
above or below the real answer.
You should know that the square root of 225 is 15, but what about the square root of 2250? A common
error is to give the answer as 150, but it is actually about 47.4 – check on your calculator. The square
root of 22 500 is 150, as 22 500 is 225 × 10 × 10, so the square root is 15 × 10.
You will never need to estimate a root very accurately but you should be able to find the integers
between which a root lies.
These two number lines show some square roots and cube roots.
Square 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121

Square root 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Cube 1 8 27 64 125

Cube root 1 2 3 4 5

As you can see the gap between the cube roots increases rapidly.

a Write these down. i 225 ii 3

27
Example 3

b Work these out. i 28 ii 3 25 + 25

a i You should know the squares up to 15 × 15 and the corresponding roots.
225 = 15
ii You should know the cubes of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 10 and the corresponding roots.
3
27 = 3
b i To work out powers of 2, start with 2 and double each time: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64,
128, 256. 28 = 256
ii 25 = 32, so 3 25 + 25
= 3 32 + 32 =
+ = 3
64
=4

a Estimate the value of 820 000 .

Example 4

b Estimate the value of 8.24.

c Estimate the cube root of 3250.
a Split 820 000 into a product of a number and b 8.24 = 8.2 × 8.2 × 8.2 × 8.2
an even power of 10. ≈8×8×8×8
820 000 = 82 × 10 000 = 64 × 64
≈ 60 × 70
Therefore 820 000 = 82 × 10 000
= 4200
≈ 9.1 × 100 (The actual answer is 4521 to 4 sf.)
= 910.
(The actual answer is 905.5 to 4 sf.)

Hints and tips Note that one value of 64 was rounded down and the other was
rounded up, which gave a better estimate. Sometimes you have
to make sensible choices about rounding.

16.2 Estimating powers and roots 441

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c Write 3250 as 3.25 × 1000. You should know that the cube root of 1000 is 10.
Sketch a number line showing the cube roots of 1 and 8. Estimate that the cube root of
3.25 is about 1.4.
Cube 1 3.25 8

Cube root 1 1.4 2

So the answer is 1.4 × 10 = 14. (The actual answer is 14.8 to 3 sf.)

Exercise 16B
1 Write down the answers to these.
a 196 b 3 1 000 000 c 3 10 2 + 52 d 2 × 53 − 9 2

PS 2 A square number and two cube numbers have a sum of 60. What are the numbers?

3 Between which two integers does the square root of 180 lie?

4 Between which two integers does the cube root of 200 lie?

5 a Estimate the value of each number.

i 6600 ii 45 iii 3
40
iv 5.84 v 3 45 000
b Use a calculator to check your answers.

16.3 Negative and fractional powers

This section will show you how to:
• apply the rules of powers to negative and fractional powers
• find and use the relationship between negative powers and roots.

You learned about positive powers and the rules of indices in an earlier chapter. How do these rules
apply to negative and fractional powers?
A negative power is a convenient way of writing the reciprocal of a number or term.
The reciprocal of the integer 5 is 51 . You can write this as 5–1.
1
In general, the reciprocal of x–a = xa
.
Look at some more examples.
1
• 5–2 = 52
1
• 3–1 = 3
5
• 5x–2 = x2

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Rewrite each number in the form 2n.

Example 5
a 8 b 1 c –32 1
d – 64
4

1 1
a 8=2×2×2 b 4 = 22
= 23
= 2–2
1
c –32 = –25 d – 64 = – 16
2
= –2–6

Exercise 16C
1 Write down each number in fraction form.
a 5–3 b 6–1 c 10–5 d 3–2 e 8–2
f 9–1 g w–2 h t –1 i x–m j 4m–3

Hints and tips One of the most common errors is to assume that a negative index
means the answer must be negative. Do not make this mistake.

2 Write down each number in negative index form.

1 1 1 1 1
a 32
b 5
c 10 3
d m
e tn

Hints and tips If you move a power from top to bottom, or vice versa, the sign
changes. Negative power means the reciprocal: it does not mean the
answer is negative.

3 Change each expression into an index form of the type shown.

a All of the form 2n
1 1
i 16 ii 2 iii 16 iv – 8
b All of the form 10n
1 1
i 1000 ii 10 iii 100 iv 1 million

c All of the form 5n

1 1 1
i 125 ii 5
iii 25
iv 625

d All of the form 3n

1 1
i 9 ii 27
iii 81
iv –243

16.3 Negative and fractional powers 443

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4 Rewrite each expression in fraction form.

a 5x–3 b 6t–1 c 7m–2 d 4q–4 e 10y–5
1 –3 1 –1 3 –4 4 –3 7 –5
f 2x g 2m h 4t i 5y j 8x

5 Write each fraction in index form.

7 10 5 8 3
a x3
b p
c t2
d m5
e y

6 Find the value of each number.

a x=5 i x2 ii x–3 iii 4x–1
b t=4 i t3 ii t –2 iii 5t –4
c m=2 i m3 ii m–5 iii 9m–1
d w = 10 i w6 ii w–3 iii 25w–2

PS 7 Two different numbers can be written in the form 2n.

The sum of the numbers is 40.
What is the difference between the numbers?

MR 8 x and y are integers.

x2 – y3 = 0
Work out possible values of x and y.

MR 9 You are given that 87 = 2 097 152.

Write down the value of 8–7.

PS 10 Put the numbers:

x5 x–5 x0
in order, from smallest to largest, when:
a x is greater than 1 b x is between 0 and 1 c x = –10.
1
Indices of the form n
Consider the problem 7x × 7x = 7. You can write this as:
7(x + x) = 7
72x = 71 ⇒ 2x = 1
1
⇒x= 2
1
If you now substitute x = 2
in the original equation, you can see that:
1 1
7 ×7 = 7
2 2

1
This makes 7 2 the same as 7 .

1
Similarly, you can show that 7 3 is the same as 3 7 .
1
In general, x n = n x (nth root of x).

444 16 Number: Counting, accuracy, powers and surds

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So, in summary:
• the power 1 is the same as the positive square root
2

• the power 1 is the same as the cube root

3

• the power 1 is the same as the nth root.

n

1 1 1 1
− 1 1
49 2 = 49 = 7 83 = 3 8 = 2 10 000 4 = 4 10 000 = 10 36 2 = =
36 6

Exercise 16D
1 Evaluate each number.
1 1 1 1 1
a 25 2 b 625 2 c 27 3 d 125 3 e 400 2
1 1 1 1 1
f 625 4 g 814 h 100 000 5 i 729 6 j 32 5
1
1 −1 −1 −1
k 16 − 2 l 8 3 m 81 4 n 3125 5 o 1 000 000 − 6
2 Evaluate each number.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
25 2 100 2 64 2 81 2 25 2
a 36 b 36 c 81 d 25 e 64

( ) g ( ) h ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
27 3 8 3 1000 3 64 3 512 3
f 125 512 64 i 125 j 343
1
3 Use the general rule for raising a power to another power to prove that x n is
equivalent to n x .
MR 4 Which of these is the odd one out?
−1 −1 −1
16 4 64 2 8 3

Show how you decided.

1
−
CM 5 Imagine that you are a teacher. Write down how you would teach the class that 27 3
1
is equal to 3 .
PS 6 Find values for x and y (greater than 1) that make this equation work.
1 1
x2 =y3

Indices of the form ba

You know that a power that is a unit fraction represents the root equivalent to the denominator; for
1
example, a power of 4 is the fourth root.
1
x =
n n
x
What does a power that is not a unit fraction represent? Look carefully at these two examples.
2 1 1
t3 = t3 × t3
= ( 3 t )2
3
81 = ( 4 81)
3
4

= 33
= 27

16.3 Negative and fractional powers 445

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2 1 4
−
Example 6 Evaluate each expression. a 27 3 b 16 − 4 c 32 5

Work through problems like these one step at a time.

1 2 2
a 27 3 = 3 so 27 3 = 32 and 27 3 = 9.
When you are dealing with a negative index, remember that it represents a reciprocal.
Step 1: Rewrite the calculation as a fraction by dealing with the negative power.
Step 2: Take the root of the base number, given by the denominator of the fraction.
Step 3: Raise the result to the power given by the numerator of the fraction.
Step 4: Write out the answer as a fraction.

( 16 )
1 1
1 1
b Step 1: 16− 4 = 1 4
Step 2: 16 4 = 4 16 = 2 Step 3: 21 = 2 Step 4: 16 − 4 = 1
2

=( )
4 1 4
4 − 1
c Step 1: 32− 5 1 5
Step 2: 32 5 = 5 32 = 2 Step 3: 24 = 16 Step 4: 32 5 = 16
32

Exercise 16E
1 Evaluate each expression.
4 2 3 4
a 32 5 b 125 3 c 1296 4 d 243 5
2 Rewrite each number in index form.
a 3
t2 b 4
m3 c 5
k2 d x3

3 Evaluate each expression.

2 2 3 5
a 83 b 27 3 c 16 2 d 625 4
4 Evaluate each expression.
1 1 1 1
−
a 25− 2 b 36 − 2 c 16 4 d 81− 4
1 1 1 1
e 16 − 2 f 8− 3 g 32 − 5 h 27 − 3
5 Evaluate each expression.
3 3 3 3
−
a 25− 2 b 36 − 2 c 16 4 d 81− 4
4 2 2 −
2
e 64 − 3 f 8− 3 g 32 − 5 h 27 3
6 Evaluate each expression.
5 1 2 3
a 100 − 2 b 144 − 2 c 125− 3 d 9− 2
5 5 4 1
−
e 4− 2 f 64 − 6 g 27 3 h 169 − 2
MR 7 Which of these is the odd one out?
−
3 1 2
− −
16 4 64 2 8 3

Show how you decided.

2
−
CM 8 Imagine that you are a teacher. Write down how you would teach the class that 27 3

is equal to 91 .
PS 9 Solve this equation.
2
−
x 3 = 3x–1

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16.4 Surds
Key terms
This section will show you how to:
exact value rationalise
• simplify surds
surd
• calculate and manipulate surds, including rationalising a
denominator.

Surds are roots of rational numbers. The square roots of 2, 3, 5, 10 and 15 are written like this.
2 3 5 10 15
These are also referred to as exact values.
Here are four general rules for simplifying surds. Use numerical values to check that they work.
a C a
a × b = ab C a × D b = CD ab a ÷ b = C a ÷D b =
b D b
For example: For example: For example: For example:

• 2× 2= 4 • 3 5 × 4 3 = 12 15 • 50 ÷ 36 48
2 • 36 48 ÷ 9 3 = 36 48
99 33
=2 • 9 2 × 7 8 = 63 2 × 8
= 50
2 = 4 16
• 2× 3= 6 = 63 16
=4×4
• 2 × 8 = 16 = 63 × 4 = 25
= 16
=4 = 252 =5
15 × 3 3 • 3 5 × 4 45 = 12 225 • 96 ÷ 4 15 27
• = 10 =
2 × 20 2 × 8 • 15 27 ÷ 5 75 =
3 75
5×5 3 = 12 × 15 96
= 15 × 3 3
= 4×5 4 =
= 180 3×5 3
= 4× 5 = 24
9
=
=2 5 = 4× 6 5
• 6 × 15 = 90
=2 6
= 9 × 10
= 3 10

Exercise 16F
1 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form if necessary.
a 2× 3 b 5 × 3 c 2 × 2 d 2 × 8
e 5 × 8 f 3 × 3 g 6 × 2 h 7 × 3
i 2 × 7 j 2 × 18 k 6 × 6 l 5 × 6

2 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form if necessary.

a 12 ÷ 3 b 15 ÷ 3 c 12 ÷ 2 d 24 ÷ 8
e 40 ÷ 8 f 3÷ 3 g 6÷ 2 h 21 ÷ 3
i 28 ÷ 7 j 48 ÷ 8 k 6÷ 6 l 54 ÷ 6

16.4 Surds 447

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3 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form if necessary.

a 2× 3× 2 b 5 × 3 × 15 c 2× 2× 8
d 2× 8× 3 e 5× 8× 8 f 3× 3× 3
g 6 × 2 × 48 h 7× 3× 3 i 2× 7× 2
j 2 × 18 × 5 k 6× 6× 3 l 5 × 6 × 30

4 Simplify each expression. Leave your answers in surd form.

a 2× 3÷ 2 b 5 × 3 ÷ 15 c 32 × 2 ÷ 8
d 2× 8÷ 8 e 5× 8÷ 8 f 3 × 3÷ 3
g 8 × 12 ÷ 48 h 7× 3÷ 3 i 2× 7÷ 2
j 2 × 18 ÷ 3 k 6× 6÷ 3 l 5 × 6 ÷ 30

5 Simplify each expression.

a a× a b a÷ a c a× a÷ a

6 Simplify each surd into the form a b .

a 18 b 24 c 12 d 50 e 8
f 27 g 48 h 75 i 45 j 63
k 32 l 200 m 1000 n 250 o 98
p 243

7 Simplify each expression.

a 2 18 × 3 2 b 4 24 × 2 5 c 3 12 × 3 3 d 2 8 ×2 8
e 2 27 × 4 8 f 2 27 × 4 8 g 2 45 × 3 3 h 2 63 × 2 7
i 2 32 × 4 2 j 1000 × 10 k 250 × 10 l 2 98 × 2 2
8 Simplify each expression.
a 4 2 ×5 3 b 2 5×3 3 c 4 2 ×3 2 d 2 2 ×2 8
e 2 5×3 8 f 3 3×2 3 g 2 6 ×5 2 h 5 7 ×2 3
i 2 3×3 7 j 2 2 × 3 18 k 2 6 ×2 6 l 4 5×3 6
9 Simplify each expression.
a 6 12 ÷ 2 3 b 3 15 ÷ 3 c 6 12 ÷ 2 d 4 24 ÷ 2 8
e 12 40 ÷ 3 8 f 5 3÷ 3 g 14 6 ÷ 2 2 h 4 21 ÷ 2 3
i 9 28 ÷ 3 7 j 12 56 ÷ 6 8 k 25 6 ÷ 5 6 l 4 5÷3 6
10 Simplify each expression.
a 4 2× 3÷2 2 b 4 5 × 3 ÷ 15 c 2 32 × 3 2 ÷ 2 8
d 6 2×2 8 ÷3 8 e 3 5 ×4 8 ÷2 8 f 12 3 × 4 3 ÷ 2 3
g 3 8 × 3 12 ÷ 3 48 h 4 7 ×2 3 ÷8 3 i 15 2 × 2 7 ÷ 3 2
j 8 2 × 2 18 ÷ 4 3 k 5 6 ×5 6 ÷5 3 l 2 5 × 3 6 ÷ 30
11 Simplify each expression.
a a b ×c b b a b ÷c b c a b ×c b ÷a b

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PS 12 Find the value of a that makes each equation true.

a 5 × a = 10 b 6 × a = 12 c 10 × 2 a = 20
d 2 6 × 3 a = 72 e 2 a × a =6 f 3 a × 3 a = 54
13 Simplify each expression.
2 2 2
 3  5 
2
 5  6 
2
 8
a   b   c   d   e  
 2   3  4   3  2 
EV 14 Decide whether each statement is true or false.
Show your working.
a a+b= a× b b a−b= a– b

PS 15 Write down a product of two different surds that has an integer answer.

PS 16 By squaring both sides, prove that this statement is true only if the value of one or
both of a or b is zero.
a + b = a+b

Calculating with surds

You should be able to use surds in solving problems.
Example 7

In the right-angled triangle ABC, the length of BC is 6 cm and the B

length of AC is 18 cm.
Calculate the length of AB. Leave your answer in surd form. 6 cm

A C
18 cm

Use Pythagoras’ theorem.

AC2 + BC2 = AB2
( 18 )2 + ( 6 )2 = 18 + 6
= 24
⇒ AB = 24 cm
= 2 6 cm
Example 8

Calculate the area of a square with a side of length 2 + 3 cm.

Give your answer in the form a + b 3.

Area = (2 + 3)2 cm2

= (2 + 3)(2 + 3) cm2

= 4 + 2 3 + 2 3 + 3 cm2

= 7 + 4 3 cm2

Hints and tips When you need to square a term in brackets, such as (2 + 3 )2, always write it out
in full, for example, as (2 + 3 )(2 + 3 ), and expand by your preferred method.

16.4 Surds 449

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Rationalising a denominator
When you write a surd as a fraction in an answer, you should write it with a rational denominator,
which means that the denominator should not include surds.
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by an appropriate square root will make the
denominator into a whole number.
Example 9

1 2 3
Rationalise the denominator of each expression. a b
3 8

a Multiply the numerator and denominator by 3. 1× 3

3× 3

= 3
3

b Multiply the numerator and denominator by 8. 2 3× 8

8 × 8

2 224
=
8

4 6
=
8

6
=
2

Alternatively, rewrite 8 as 2 2. 2 3
8

2 3
=
2 2

3
=
2

Multiply the numerator and denominator by 2. 3× 2

2× 2

= 6
2

Exercise 16G
1 Show that each statement is true.
a (2 + 3)(1 + 3) = 5 + 3 3 b (1 + 2)(2 + 3) = 2 + 2 2 + 3 + 6
c (4 – 3)(4 + 3) = 13
2 Expand and simplify where possible.
a 3(2 – 3) b 2(3 – 4 2) c 5(2 5 + 4)
d 3 7 (4 – 2 7 ) e 3 2 (5 – 2 8 ) f 3( 27 – 1)

450 16 Number: Counting, accuracy, powers and surds

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3 Expand and simplify where possible.

a (1 + 3)(3 – 3) b (2 + 5)(3 – 5) c (1 – 2)(3 + 2 2)
d (3 – 2 7 )(4 + 3 7 ) e (2 – 3 5)(2 + 3 5) f ( 3 + 2)( 3 + 8 )
g (2 + 5) 2
h (1 – 2) 2
i (3 + 2)2
4 Work out the missing lengths in each of these triangles, giving the answer in as
simple a form as possible.

Hints and tips Remember Pythagoras’ theorem in Example 7.

a b c
8 cm x
x 22 cm x
2 8 cm

10 cm
10 cm 8 cm

5 Calculate the area of each rectangle, simplifying your answers where possible.
(The area of a rectangle with length l and width w is A = l × w.)
a 1+ 3 cm
b 2+ 10 cm c 2 3 cm

2– 3 cm 5 cm 1+ 27 cm

6 Rationalise the denominator of each expression.

a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 e 3
3 2 5 2 3 3

f 5 g 3 2 h 5 3 i 7 j 1+ 2
2 8 6 3 2

2− 3 5+2 3
k l
3 3

7 a Expand and simplify each expression.

i (2 + 3)(2 – 3) ii (1 – 5)(1 + 5) iii ( 3 – 1)( 3 + 1)
iv (3 2 + 1)(3 2 – 1) v (2 – 4 3)(2 + 4 3)
b What happens in the answers to part a? Why?
MR 8 a Write down two surds that, when multiplied together, give a rational number.
b Write down two surds that, when multiplied together, do not give a rational
number.

MR 9 a Write down two surds that, when divided, give a rational number.
b Write down two surds that, when divided, do not give a rational number.
PS 10 An engineer uses a formula to work out the number of metres of cable she needs to
complete a job. Her calculator displays the answer as 10 70 . The button for
converting this to a decimal is not working.
She has 80 m of cable. Without using a calculator, decide whether she has enough
cable. Show clearly how you decide.

16.4 Surds 451

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CM 11 Write (3 + 2)2 – (1 – 8 )2 in the form a + b c where a, b and c are integers.

CM 12 x2 – y2 ≡ (x + y)(x – y) is an identity, which means it is true for any values of x and y

whether they are numeric or algebraic.
Show that it is true for x = 1 + 2 and y = 1 – 8 .

PS 13 The perimeter of this rectangle is 8 2 cm.

2 – 1 cm

Work out the area of the rectangle.

14 a These are arithmetic sequences. Work out the nth term in each case.
2 3 4 5
i 3 + 2 , 3 + 2 2 , 3 + 3 2 , 3 + 4 2 , ... ii , , , , ...
3 3 3 3

b These are geometric sequences. Work out the nth term in each case.
i 5 , 5, 5 5 , 25 , ... ii 5 + 2 , 5 2 + 2, 10 + 2 2 , 10 2 + 4 , ...

16.5 Limits of accuracy

This section will show you how to:
• find the error interval or limits of accuracy of numbers that Key terms
have been rounded to different degrees of accuracy.
error interval

Any recorded measurement has almost certainly been limits of accuracy

rounded. The true value will be somewhere between the lower bound
lower bound and the upper bound. The lower and upper
bounds are sometimes known as the limits of accuracy and upper bound
the range between them is the error interval.

Discrete data
Discrete data can only take certain values within a given range. Discrete data includes amounts of
money and numbers of people.

A coach is carrying 50 people, to the nearest 10.

Example 10

What are the minimum and maximum numbers of people on the coach?
45 is the lowest whole number that rounds to 50 to the nearest 10.
54 is the highest whole number that rounds to 50 to the nearest 10.
So the minimum is 45 people and maximum is 54 people.
The limits are written like this.
45 ⩽ number of people ⩽ 54
Remember: that you can only have a whole number of people.

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Continuous data
Continuous data can take any value, within a given range. Continuous data includes length and mass.
A journey of 26 miles measured to the nearest mile could actually be as long as 26.499 999 9… miles
or as short as 25.5 miles. It could not be 26.5 miles, as this would round up to 27 miles. However,
26.499 999 9… is virtually the same as 26.5.
You overcome this difficulty by saying that 26.5 is the upper bound of the measured value and 25.5 is
its lower bound. You can therefore write:
25.5 miles ⩽ actual distance < 26.5 miles
which states that the actual distance is greater than or equal to 25.5 miles but less than 26.5 miles.
When stating the upper bound, follow the accepted practice, as demonstrated here, which eliminates
the difficulties of using recurring decimals.

A mathematical peculiarity
Let x = 0.999 999… (1)
Multiply by 10. 10x = 9.999 999… (2)
Subtract (1) from (2). 9x = 9
Divide by 9. x=1
•
So, 0. 9 = 1.
Hence, it is valid to give the upper bound without using recurring decimals.

The length of a stick of wood is 32 cm, measured to the nearest centimetre.

Example 11

What is the error interval of the actual length of the stick?

The lower limit is 31.5 cm, as this is the lowest value that rounds to 32 cm to the
nearest centimetre.
The upper limit is 32.499 999 999… cm, as this is the highest value that rounds to 32 cm to the
nearest centimetre, since 32.5 cm would round to 33 cm.
However, you say that 32.5 cm, is the upper bound. So you write:
31.5 cm ⩽ length of stick < 32.5 cm
Note the use of the strict inequality (<) for the upper bound.

A time of 53.7 seconds is accurate to 1 decimal place. What is the error interval?
Example 12

The smallest possible value is 53.65 seconds.

The largest possible value is 53.749 999 999… but 53.75 seconds is the upper bound.
So the error interval is 53.65 seconds ⩽ time < 53.75 seconds.

A skip has a mass of 220 kg measured to 3 significant figures. What are the limits of accuracy of
Example 13

the mass of the skip?

The smallest possible value is 219.5 kg.
The largest possible value is 220.499 999 99… kg but 220.5 kg is the upper bound.
So the limits of accuracy are 219.5 kg ⩽ mass of skip < 220.5 kg.

16.5 Limits of accuracy 453

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Exercise 16H
1 Write down the error interval of each measurement.
a 7 cm measured to the nearest centimetre
b 120 g measured to the nearest 10 g
c 3400 km measured to the nearest 100 km
d 50 mph measured to the nearest mile per hour
e £6 given to the nearest pound
f 16.8 cm to the nearest tenth of a centimetre
g 16 kg to the nearest kilogram
h A football crowd of 14 500 given to the nearest 100
i 55 miles given to the nearest mile
j 55 miles given to the nearest 5 miles
2 Write down the limits of accuracy for each measurement. Each is rounded to the
given degree of accuracy.
a 6 cm (1 significant figure) b 17 kg (2 significant figures)
c 32 min (2 significant figures) d 238 km (3 significant figures)
e 7.3 m (1 decimal place) f 25.8 kg (1 decimal place)
g 3.4 h (1 decimal place) h 87 g (2 significant figures)
i 4.23 mm (2 decimal places) j 2.19 kg (2 decimal places)
k 12.67 min (2 decimal places) l 25 m (2 significant figures)
m 40 cm (1 significant figure) n 600 g (2 significant figures)
o 30 min (1 significant figure) p 1000 m (2 significant figures)
q 4.0 m (1 decimal place) r 7.04 kg (2 decimal places)
s 12.0 s (1 decimal place) t 7.00 m (2 decimal places)
3 Write down the lower and upper bounds of each measurement, rounded to the
accuracy stated.
a 8 m (1 significant figure) b 26 kg (2 significant figures)
c 25 min (2 significant figures) d 85 g (2 significant figures)
e 2.40 m (2 decimal places) f 0.2 kg (1 decimal place)
g 0.06 s (2 decimal places) h 300 g (1 significant figure)
i 0.7 m (1 decimal place) j 366 g (3 significant figures)
k 170 weeks (2 significant figures) l 210 g (2 significant figures)
PS 4 A bus has 53 seats, of which 37 are occupied.
The driver estimates that at the next bus stop 20 people, to the nearest 10, will get on
and no one will get off.
If she is correct, is it possible they will all get a seat?

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EV 5 A chain is 30 m long, measured to the nearest metre.

It is needed to fasten a boat to a harbour wall, a distance that is also 30 m, to the
nearest metre.
Which statement is definitely true? Explain your decision.
A: The chain will be long enough.
B: The chain will not be long enough.
C: It is impossible to tell whether or not the chain is long enough.

6 A bag contains 2.5 kg of soil, to the nearest 100 g.

What is the least amount of soil in the bag?
Give your answer in kilograms and grams.

7 Billy has 40 identical marbles. Each marble has a mass of 65 g (to the nearest gram).
a What is the greatest possible mass of one marble?
b What is the least possible mass of one marble?
c What is the greatest possible mass of all the marbles?
d What is the least possible mass of all the marbles?
PS 8 A whole number, when rounded to 2 significant figures, is 350. When rounded to
1 significant figure it is 300. What is the range of values for the number?

MR 9 Three students are describing a number a. Abe says it is in the range 3 < a ⩽ 7, Bee
says it is in the range 2 ⩽ a < 5 and Con says it is in the range 4 < a < 6. Work out one
possible value of the number a.

16.6 Problems involving limits of

accuracy
This section will show you how to:
• combine limits of two or more variables to solve problems.

When rounded values are used for a calculation, the minimum and maximum possible exact values of
the calculation can vary by large amounts. There are four operations that can be performed on limits
of accuracy – addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Addition and subtraction

Suppose you have two bags, each with the mass given to the
nearest kilogram. A B
The limits for bag A are 4.5 kg ⩽ mass < 5.5 kg.
mass 5 kg mass 9 kg
The limits for bag B are 8.5 kg ⩽ mass < 9.5 kg. to nearest kg to nearest kg
The minimum total mass of the two bags is 4.5 kg + 8.5 kg = 13 kg.
The maximum total mass of the two bags is 5.5 kg + 9.5 kg = 15 kg.
The minimum difference between the masses of the two bags is 8.5 kg – 5.5 kg = 3 kg.
The maximum difference between the masses of the two bags is 9.5 kg – 4.5 kg = 5 kg.

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The table shows the combinations to give the minimum and maximum values for addition and
subtraction of two numbers, a and b.
a and b lie within limits amin ⩽ a < amax and bmin ⩽ b < bmax.

Operation Minimum Maximum

Addition (a + b) amin + bmin amax + bmax
Subtraction (a – b) amin – bmax amax – bmin

Multiplication and division

Suppose a car is travelling at an average speed of 30 mph, to the nearest 5 mph, for 2 hours, to the
nearest 30 minutes.
The limits for the average speed are:
27.5 mph ⩽ average speed < 32.5 mph.
The limits for the time are:
1 hour 45 minutes (1.75 hours) ⩽ time < 2 hours 15 minutes (2.25 hours).
The minimum distance travelled = 27.5 × 1.75
= 48.125 miles.
The maximum distance travelled = 32.5 × 2.25
= 73.125 miles.
Suppose a lorry is travelling for 100 miles, to the nearest 10 miles, and takes 2 hours, to the nearest
30 minutes.
The limits for the distance are:
95 miles ⩽ distance < 105 miles.
The limits for the time are the same as for the car.
95
The minimum average speed is 2.25
= 42 mph.
105
The maximum average speed is 1.75
= 60 mph.

The table shows the combinations to give the minimum and maximum values for multiplication and
division of two numbers a and b.
a and b lie within limits amin ⩽ a < amax and bmin ⩽ b < bmax.

Operation Minimum Maximum

Multiplication (a × b) amin × bmin amax × bmax

Division (a ÷ b) amin ÷ bmax amax ÷ bmin

To solve problems involving limits, write down all the limits for each value, and then decide which
combination to use to obtain the required solution.
When rounding, you must be careful to ensure your answers are within the acceptable range of
the limits.

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A rectangle has sides given as 6 cm by 15 cm, to the nearest centimetre.

Example 14
Calculate the limits of accuracy of the area of the rectangle.
Write down the limits: 5.5 cm ⩽ width < 6.5 cm, 14.5 cm ⩽ length < 15.5 cm
For maximum area, multiply maximum width by maximum length, and for minimum area,
multiply minimum width by minimum length.
The upper bound of the width is 6.5 cm and of the length is 15.5 cm. So the upper bound of the
area of the rectangle is:
6.5 cm × 15.5 cm = 100.75 cm2.
The lower bound of the width is 5.5 cm and of the length is 14.5 cm. So the lower bound of the
area of the rectangle is:
5.5 cm × 14.5 cm = 79.75 cm2.
Therefore, the limits of accuracy for the area of the rectangle are:
79.75 cm2 ⩽ area < 100.75 cm2.

The distance from Bristol to Bath is 15 miles, to the nearest mile. The time Jeff took to drive
Example 15

between Bristol and Bath was 40 minutes, to the nearest 10 minutes.

Calculate the upper limit of Jeff’s average speed.
Write down the limits. 14.5 miles ⩽ distance < 15.5 miles, 35 minutes ⩽ time < 45 minutes
speed = distance ÷ time
To work out the maximum speed you need the maximum distance ÷ minimum time.
15.5 miles ÷ 35 minutes = 0.443 (3 significant figures) miles per minute
0.443 mph × 60 = 26.6 mph
The upper limit of Jeff’s average speed = 26.6 mph.

Exercise 16I
1 Boxes have a mass of 7 kg, to the nearest kilogram.
What are the minimum and maximum masses of 10 of these boxes?

2 A machine cuts lengths of rope from a 50-m roll.

The lengths are 2.5 m long, to 1 decimal place.
What are the minimum and maximum numbers of pieces of rope that can be cut?

MR 3 Books each have a mass of 1200 g, to the nearest 100 g.

a What is the greatest possible mass of 10 books? Give your answer in kilograms.
b A trolley can safely hold up to 25 kg of books. How many books can safely be put
on the trolley?

PS 4 Jack is five years old. Jill is eight years old.

What is the greatest difference between their ages? Show your working.

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5 These are the dimensions of rectangles. In each case, find the limits of accuracy of
the area. The measurements are shown to the level of accuracy indicated in brackets.
a 5 cm × 9 cm (nearest centimetre) b 4.5 cm × 8.4 cm (1 decimal place)
c 7.8 cm × 18 cm (2 significant figures)
6 A rectangular garden has sides of 6 m and 4 m, measured to the nearest metre.
a Write down the limits of accuracy for each length.
b What is the maximum area of the garden?
c What is the minimum perimeter of the garden?
7 A cinema screen is measured as 6 m by 15 m, to the nearest metre. Calculate the
limits of accuracy for the area of the screen.

8 The measurements, to the nearest centimetre, of a box are given as 10 cm by 7 cm by

4 cm. Calculate the limits of accuracy for the volume of the box.

MR 9 Mr Sparks is an electrician. He has a 50-m roll of cable, correct to the nearest metre.
He uses 10 m on each job, to the nearest metre.
If he does four jobs, what is the maximum amount of cable he will have left?

PS 10 Jon and Matt are exactly 7 miles apart. They are walking towards each other.
Jon is walking at 4 mph and Matt is walking at 2 mph.
Both speeds are given to the nearest mile per hour.
Without doing any time calculations, decide whether it is possible for them to meet
in 1 hour. Justify your answer.

11 The area of a rectangular field is given as 350 m2, to the nearest 10 m2. One length is
given as 16 m, to the nearest metre. Find the limits of accuracy for the other length of
the field.

12 In triangle ABC, AB = 9 cm, BC = 7 cm and ∠ABC = 37°. All the measurements are
given to the nearest unit. Calculate the limits of accuracy for the area of the triangle.

13 The price of pure gold is £18.25 per gram. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. (Assume
these figures are exact.) A solid gold bar in the shape of a cuboid has sides 4.6 cm,
2.2 cm and 6.6 cm. These measurements are made to the nearest 0.1 cm.
a i What are the limits of accuracy for the volume of this gold bar?
ii What are the upper and lower limits of the cost of this bar?
The gold bar was weighed and given a mass of 1296 g, to the nearest gram.
b What are the upper and lower limits for the cost of the bar now?
c Explain why the price ranges are so different.
14 A stopwatch records the time for the winner of a 100-m race as 14.7 seconds,
measured to the nearest one-tenth of a second.
a What are the greatest and least possible times for the winner?
b The length of the 100-m track is correct to the nearest metre. What are the greatest
and least possible lengths of the track?
c What is the fastest possible average speed of the winner, with a time of
14.7 seconds in the 100-m race?

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15 A cube has a side measured as 8 cm, to the nearest millimetre. What is the greatest
percentage error of the following?
a The calculated area of one face b The calculated volume of the cube
16 A cube has a volume of 40 cm3, to the nearest cubic centimetre. Find the range of
possible values of the side length of the cube.

17 A cube has a volume of 200 cm3, to the nearest 10 cm3. Find the limits of accuracy of
the side length of the cube.

18 A model car travels 40 m, measured to one significant figure, at a speed of 2 m/s,

measured to one significant figure. Between what limits does the time taken lie?

PS 19 The formula for calculating the tension, T newtons, in some coloured springs is:
20x
T=
l
where x is the length that the spring is extended and l is the unstretched length of
the spring.
If x and l are accurate to one decimal place, decide which colour of spring, if any, has
the greater tension.
Red spring: x = 3.4 cm and l = 5.3 cm
Green spring: x = 1.5 cm and l = 2.4 cm
Blue spring: x = 0.5 cm and l = 0.9 cm

16.7 Choices and outcomes

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• work out the number of choices, arrangements
factorial
or outcomes when choosing from lists or sets.
product rule for counting
Product rule for counting systematic counting
Look at these five letter cards.

M A T H S

How many different ways can you rearrange them, still using all five? One example is ATHMS.
When you pick the first card, you have a choice of five. Then there are only four cards left, so for the
second card you have a choice of four. Similarly, for the third card you have a choice of three, and
so on. This gives a total of 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 ways of ordering the cards. Each of these ways is a
different arrangement of the cards. If we were only picking 3 cards there would be 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 ways.
These are examples of the product rule for counting.
You can write the calculation 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 as 5 , which you say as ‘five factorial’. Most calculators
have a factorial button, which is often a ‘SHIFT’ function, and looks like this:
x!
x –1 .
Note that 1 = 1 and, surprisingly, 0 = 1 as well. You can try these on your calculator. 1 = 1 may seem
sensible but 0 = 1 seems a bit strange.

16.7 Choices and outcomes 459

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Now imagine you have five students and you want to pick three of them as prefects.
Aki

Ben

Clara

Drishti

Ed
You may think that the first student can be picked five ways, the second four ways and the third three
ways, giving 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 different choices. However, picking Aki, Ben and Clara would give the
same three students as picking Ben, Clara and Aki. So you have to be careful when the order doesn’t
matter. There are six possible orders of picking Aki, Ben and Clara: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB and
CBA. This is 3 × 2 × 1. That means that the number of ways of picking a group of three students from
5 is 60 ÷ 6 = 10 different ways.

Work out:
Example 16

a 10 (Round your answer to 3 significant figures and write it in standard form.)

b the number of ways six different cups can be arranged in a line
c the number of ways four cups chosen from six different cups can be arranged in a line
d the number of ways a set of four cups can be chosen from six different cups.

a 10 = 3 628 800
= 3 630 000 (to 3 sf)
3 630 000 = 3.63 × 106 in standard form.
b There are six options for the first cup, five for the second, and so on.
6×5×4×3×2×1=6
= 720
c There are six options for the first cup, five for the second, four for the third and three for
the fourth.
6 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 360
d A set of four cups means that ABCD is the same set as ABDC so there are 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
different ways ABCD could be chosen as set. So the number of ways that a set of four cups
can be chosen is 360 ÷ 24 = 15.

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In Mathsland, vehicle registration plates comprise one, two or three letters followed by a one-,
Example 17
two- or three-digit number. Given that the number cannot start with zero, how many possible
vehicles can be registered?
Sometimes you have to be methodical and apply a systematic counting strategy.
Start with a single letter. There are 26 letters. Choosing two gives 26 × 26 = 676 options.
Choosing three gives 26 × 26 × 26 = 17 576 options.
Now consider the numbers. For the first number there are nine options (1–9). The second
number may be zero, so there are ten choices (0–9) and therefore, for two numbers, there are
9 × 10 = 90 options. Again, for the third number there are ten choices so for three numbers
there are 9 × 10 × 10 = 900 options.
Now combine all of the possible arrangements of letters and numbers: 1 letter 1 number,
1 letter 2 numbers, … until you get to 3 letters and 3 numbers. You can write this as a table.
Letters
1 (26) 2 (676) 3 (17 576)
Numbers
1 (9) 234 6084 158 184

2 (90) 2340 60 840 1 581 840

3 (900) 23 400 608 400 15 818 400

Adding up all of the options gives 18 259 722 different possibilities.

There are about 35 million vehicles on the road in Britain today

A basketball squad has 12 members. Only five players are allowed on court at a time, but
Example 18

substitutions are allowed at any time. How many different teams could play?
The order doesn’t matter so there is a choice of 5 players from 12.
Picking 5 players from 12 would give 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 = 95 040 ways.
Any group of 5 could be chosen in 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 ways.
Hence it is possible to pick 95 040 ÷ 120 = 792 different teams of five.

You have five number cards.

Example 19

How many odd numbers more than 30 000 can you make 1 2 3 4 5
with these cards?
You need a systematic counting strategy. The number can only start with 3, 4 or 5 and must end
in 1, 3 or 5. If it starts with 3 it cannot end in 3.
So, using ■ for any digit, the possibilities are 3■■■1, 3■■■5, 4■■■1, 4■■■3, 4■■■5, 5■■■1,
5■■■3, so there are seven possible options for the start and end digits.
The order of the three digits in the middle doesn’t matter, so you can choose them in 3 × 2 ×
1 = 6 ways. So that is a total of 7 × 6 = 42 possible odd numbers more than 30 000.

16.7 Choices and outcomes 461

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Example 20 How many different five-letter arrangements of the letters in the word MINIM are there?
Note that there are two repeated letters, I and M. Ignoring the repeated letters there are 5
possible arrangements. As there are two Is, half of these will be duplicated, so divide by 2. Of
the remaining arrangements, as there are two Ms half of these will be duplicated, so divide by
2 again.
5 ÷ 2 = 60, 60 ÷ 2 = 30
If the word had been SWISS, the answer would be 5 ÷ 3 = 20, as there would be 3 × 2 × 1
repetitions of the letter S.

Exercise 16J
PS 1 Two of these coins are chosen at random.
Work out the probability that the two coins will
have a total value greater than £1.

MR 2 How many numbers between 0 and 200 have at least one digit of 6?

3 a Use your calculator to work out these numbers.

i 7 ii 20
b 60 ≈ 8 32 × 1081, which is about the number of atoms in the whole universe.
What is the largest factorial that you can work out with your calculator?

MR 4 These keypads each require a four-key pass-code. How many possible codes are
there for each keypad?
a b

MR 5 The second keypad in question 4 has been reprogrammed. It still requires a four-key
pass-code but now the first key pressed must be a letter. How many codes
are possible?

6 A combination lock has three wheels. Each wheel has the digits 0 to 9 on it.
a How many different combinations are possible?
b Bill has forgotten his combination. He knows it uses the three digits of his house
number, which is 432. How many possible combinations will Bill need to try to be
certain he finds the correct one?

7 Eight runners take part in a 100-m race. How many different ways can the first three
places be filled?

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8 a Two cards are taken from a regular 52-card pack, with replacement. What is the
probability that an ace is drawn, followed by a king?
b Two cards are taken from a regular 52-card pack, without replacement. What is the
probability that an ace is drawn, followed by a king?

9 This is Pascal’s triangle. Each row starts and ends with 1 and each 1
of the numbers in between is the sum of the numbers above it 1 1
(to the left and right); for example, 5 = 1 + 4, 10 = 6 + 4. 1 2 1
1 3
1 3
a Copy the triangle and write down the next five rows. 1 4 6 4 1
b There are 10 ways of choosing 3 students from 5. There are 1 5 10 10 5 1
15 ways of choosing 4 sets of 4 cups from 6. Now refer to the
triangle. Count downwards, taking the top row (the single 1) as row 0. Count
across, taking the first 1 in each row as position 0, so row 4, position 2 is 6.
i What value is in row 5 position 3?
ii What value is in row 6 position 4?
c Use your answers to b to explain why there are 35 ways of choosing a set of
3 from 7 items.
EV d Write down how many ways there are of choosing a set of 4 from 9 items.
CM 10 In a noisy factory, a system of lights is used to summon workers to the office.
For example, using three lights gives eight possible options.

Note: ‘All lights off’ is not an option, since an employee with that code would be
running to the office all the time.
a There are five lights and each one can be on or off. How many employees could
there be? Do not include the situation where all lights are off.
b Another factory has 200 employees. How many lights will they need to make sure
that every employee could have a unique system of lights?

PS 11 Josh is running a stall at the school fayre. Players pay £1 to throw six dice. This shows
the prizes.
Number of 6s 1 2 3 4 5 6
Prize (£) 1 5 10 50 200 1000
Josh expects 200 people to play the game.
He can take out insurance against six 6s being thrown. It will cost £50.
Should he take out the insurance? Explain your answer.

12 Explain why there are 12 different four-letter arrangements of the letters in the
word MINI.

13 A three-digit number is formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. How many of these
will be between 200 and 500?

14 A box contains three red balls, two blue balls and four yellow balls. How many
different colour arrangements of three balls can be made from the box if at least one
red ball must be included?

16.7 Choices and outcomes 463

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15 a How many ways can you choose

two students from a class of 30?
b A caf offers a breakfast deal.
How many different breakfast
deals are possible?
c Naz is a vegetarian. How many
breakfast deals could he have
from the caf above?
d Work out how many even three-digit numbers can be made from the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4.
e Chris has 15 identical balls in a bag. How many ways can she choose three balls
from the 15 balls?
f How many different four-digit numbers can be made from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
g Omar throws five regular dice. How many different ways could they land?
h An online retailer allocates codes to its products. The code consists of two letters
followed by a two-digit number, which could start with zero. What is the maximum
number of products the retailer could sell?
i An online assessment consists of 10 multiple-choice questions. The company sets
the questions in a random order. How many different ways can the test be set?

16 At the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, the England squad comprised:

Goalkeepers (3): Joe Hart, Ben Foster, Fraser Forster
Defenders (7): Glen Johnson, Leighton Baines, Gary Cahill, Phil Jagielka,
Chris Smalling, Phil Jones, Luke Shaw
Midfield players (9): Steven Gerrard, Jack Wilshere, Frank Lampard, Jordan Henderson,
Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, James Milner, Raheem Sterling, Adam Lallana, Ross Barkley
Forwards (4): Daniel Sturridge, Wayne Rooney, Danny Welbeck, Rickie Lambert
There are 11 players in a football team. There is always one goalkeeper. The manager,
Roy Hodgson, had various options for organising the 10 outfield players. For example,
if he played 4–4–2 this means 4 defenders, 4 midfield players and 2 forwards.
a How many teams could he field if he chose the following systems?
i 4–4–2 ii 4–3–3 iii 4–5–1
EV b What assumptions have you made? How will this affect the answers?
17 A child’s toy train set consists of an engine, a guard’s van and
eight wagons. The engine always has to be at the front of the
train, with the guard’s van at the back.
a If all 8 wagons are used how many different trains could there be?
PS b If at least one wagon is used, how many different trains could there be?

CM 18 A different factory from that in question 10 uses an array of

lights that consists of 3 rows of 3 bulbs.
Ali says: “There are eight ways that any row could be lit up,
so there are 8 × 8 × 8 ways minus the situation where all the
lights are out, so this is 83 – 1 ways.”
Baz says: “That is wrong. Each light can be on or off, so the number of ways is 29 – 1.”
Who is correct? Explain your answer.

464 16 Number: Counting, accuracy, powers and surds

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 Four-digit numbers are to be made using four of these five number cards.

1 2 3 4 5

Show clearly that the number of even four-digit numbers between 3000 and 5000 is 18.

This is a ‘communicating mathematically’ question so make it clear, using words, what

you are doing.

The even four-digit numbers between Show that you understand where the
3000 and 5000 will be numbers come from.
3■■2 or 3■■4 or 4■■2, Explain the number of ways of getting
where ■■ are any two of the remaining 2 digits from 3.
three digits. Even though it is obvious that 3 × 6 = 18,
The number of ways of picking 2 digits explain the final step.
from 3 where the order matters is 3 × 2 = 6.
As there are 3 possible sets and each set
has 6 possible ways, this is 3 × 6 = 18.

3
2 cm
PS 2 The area of this rectangle is (12 – 3 2 ) cm2.
Work out the perimeter of the rectangle. Give your answer in the
form a 2 ± b, where a and b are integers.

This is a problem-solving question so you will need to show your strategy.

You need to establish the missing side first. There are two possible methods.
Method 1 Divide the area by 3 2 , then rationalise
12 − 3 2
=
(
12 − 3 2 × 3 2 ) the denominator.
3 2 3 2 ×3 2

36 2 − 9 × 2
= Simplify, then factorise.
9×2

=
(
18 2 2 − 1 ) Divide top and bottom by 18.
18

= 2 2–1
Method 2 Factorise 3 2 out of 12. Show the
12 = 6 × 2 × 2 factorisation of 12 clearly.
=2×3× 2 × 2
Hence 12 – 3 2 = 3 2 (2 2 – 1)

Missing side is 2 2 – 1 so: Once you have found the missing

side show the calculation for getting
P = 2 × 3 2 + 2 × (2 2 – 1) the perimeter.
=6 2 +4 2 –2 Remember that the final answer is twice
Perimeter = 10 2 – 2 the total of both sides.

16 Worked exemplars 465

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Ready to progress?
I can convert terminating decimals into fractions.

I can manipulate positive, negative and fractional indices.

I can find measures of accuracy for numbers given to whole-number, decimal-place and
significant-figure accuracies.
I can use a systematic counting strategy to work out numbers of arrangements.
I can estimate powers and roots of any given positive number.

I can change a recurring decimal into a fraction.

I can work with surds and know how to manipulate them.
I can calculate the limits of compound measures.
I can use the product rule to work out choices, arrangements and outcomes.

Review questions
1 Write down the answers to these.
a 169 b 4 10 000 c 5 × 2 5 + 32

2 A school has 1850 students to the nearest 10.

a What is the lowest possible number of students at the school?
b What is the greatest number of students at the school?
PS 3 A cube number and two square numbers have a sum of 60. What are the numbers?

PS 4 Khalid writes down all the numbers from 100 to 200 inclusive. How many times does
he write the digit 5?

5 Which is greater, 12 ÷ 10 or 9 ÷ (4 × 5 )?

6 A combination lock has four wheels. Each wheel has the digits 1 to 9 and the letters ,
Y and on it.
a How many different combinations are possible?
b How many different combinations are possible if at least one letter must be included?
PS 7 The letters of the word CODES are used to form five-letter codes.
a Show that there are 120 possible codes.
b All the possible codes are then arranged in alphabetical order. The first code is
CDEOS; the 120th is SOEDC. What number in the list is the word CODES itself?

8 a Work out the value of 37 ÷ 33.

1
b Write down the value of 64 2 .
c 4n = 1 . Find the value of n.
64

9 a Write down the exact value of 5–2.

b Simplify 63 × 65 .
64

466 16 Number: Counting, accuracy, powers and surds

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10 Express the recurring decimal 0 466 666 66… as a fraction. Give your answer in its
simplest form.

11 Find values of a and b such that this statement is true.

(4 + 5)(3 – 5) = a + b 5

PS 12 The area of this rectangle is 60 cm2.

Find the value of x. Give your answer in the form a b where a and b are integers.
5
2 cm

x cm

• •
13 6
a Prove that 0. 5 4 = 11. • •
b Hence, or otherwise, express 0.3 5 4 as a fraction.
•
14 Express the recurring decimal 0.2 4 as a fraction.

15
1
a Write down the value of 812 .
b Write 50 in the form k 2 , where k is an integer.
16 1
a Rationalise the denominator of .
5
b Expand ( 3 – 1)( 3 + 1).
17 a i Show that 32 = 4 2 .
ii Expand and simplify ( 2 + 12 )2.
CM b Show clearly that this triangle is right-angled. All lengths are in centimetres.
2 + 
12
2

2 + 6

PS 18 a Calculate the length of the diagonal x in this cube of side 3 m.

x
3m

b A man is carrying a pole of length 5 m down a long corridor. The length of the pole
is measured to the nearest centimetre. At the end of the corridor is a right-angled
corner. The corridor is 3 m wide and 3 m high, both measurements correct to the
nearest 10 cm. Will the man carrying the pole be certain to get round the corner?

3m

3m

16 Review questions 467

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17
Algebra: Quadratic
equations

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to draw quadratic graphs
• how to solve quadratic equations by factorisation, the quadratic
formula and completing the square
• how to solve problems involving quadratic equations
• how to recognise and find the significant points of a quadratic graph
• how to use graphs to solve a pair of simultaneous equations, one
linear and one non-linear
• how to use the method of intersection to solve one quadratic
equation, using the graph of another quadratic equation and an
appropriate straight line
• how to solve quadratic inequalities.

You should already know:

• how to substitute into simple algebraic functions
• how to plot a graph from a given table of values
• how to draw linear graphs
• how to find the equation of a graph
• how to collect together like terms
• how to multiply together two algebraic expressions
• how to solve simple linear equations and inequalities.

About this chapter

Like most mathematics, quadratic equations have their origins in
ancient Egypt.
The Egyptians did not have a formal system of algebra but could
solve problems that involved quadratics. This problem was written
in hieroglyphics on the Berlin Papyrus, which was written some time
around 2160–1700 BC:
The area of a square of 100 is equal to that of two smaller squares. The
side of one is 21 + 41 the side of the other.
Today we would express this as: x2 + y2 = 100
3
y= 4
x
In about 300 BC, Euclid developed a geometrical method for solving
quadratics. This work was developed by Hindu mathematicians, but
it was not until much later, in 1145 AD that the Arabic mathematician
Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-Nasi, published the book Liber embadorum,
468 which gave a complete solution of the quadratic equation.
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17.1 Plotting quadratic graphs

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• draw and read values from quadratic graphs. parabola quadratic

A quadratic graph has the form y = ax2 + bx + c. All of the following

are quadratic equations and each produces a quadratic graph, which is a smooth curve called a parabola:
y = x2, y = x2 + 5, y = x2 – 3x, y = x2 + 5x + 6, y = 3x2 – 5x + 4
Draw the graph of y = x2 + 5x + 6 for – 5  x  3.
Make a table, as shown below. Work out the values in each row (x2, 5x, 6) separately, adding them
together to obtain the values of y. Then plot the points from the table and join them with a smooth curve.
y
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
y = x2 + 5x + 6
x2 25 16 9 4 1 30

+5x – 25 – 20 – 15 – 10 –5
25
+6 6 6 6 6 6
y 6 2 0 0 2
20

x 0 1 2 3
15
x 2
0 1 4 9
+5x 0 5 10 15
10
+6 6 6 6 6
y 6 12 20 30 5

–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 x

–5

a Complete the table for y = 3x2 – 5x + 4 for – 1  x  3, then draw the graph.
Example 1

x –1 – 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y 12 4 2.25 2 10.25 16
b Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 2.2.
c Use your graph to find the values of x that give a y-value of 9.
a The table only gives some values. So you either set up your own table with 3x2, – 5x and
+4, or calculate each y-value on your calculator. For example, on the majority of scientific
calculators, you would work out the value for – 0.5 as:
x 4
4
Make sure when you square a negative number that you put the negative number in brackets.

x –1 – 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y 12 7.25 4 2.25 2 3.25 6 10.25 16

The graph is shown in the solution to part b.

(continued )

17.1 Plotting quadratic graphs 469

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b To find the corresponding y-value for any value of x, you start on the x-axis at that x-value, go
up to the curve, across to the y-axis and read off the y-value. This procedure is marked on
the graph with arrows.
y
y = 3x2 – 5x + 4
16

12

–1 0 1 2 3 x

Always show these arrows so you can double check your readings.
When x = 2.2, y = 7.5.
c This time start at 9 on the y-axis and read off the two x-values that correspond to a y-value
of 9. Again, this procedure is marked on the graph with arrows.
When y = 9, x = – 0.7 or x = 2.4.

Drawing accurate graphs

Although it is difficult to draw accurate curves, you need to make sure that whatever you draw is the
right shape and accurate enough to read off values. Try to avoid the following common errors:
• When the points are too far apart, a curve tends Wobbly curve Feathering
to ‘wobble’.
• Drawing curves in small sections leads to
‘feathering’.
Miscalculated
• The place where a curve should turn smoothly is Flat bottom point y
drawn ‘flat’.
• A line is drawn through a point that, clearly, has
been incorrectly plotted.
0 x
Here are some tips that will make it easier for you to
draw smooth, curved lines.
• If you are right-handed, turn your paper or
exercise book round so that you draw from left to right. Your hand is steadier this way than when
you are trying to draw from right to left or away from your body. If you are left-handed, you should
find drawing from right to left the more accurate way.
• Move your pencil over the points as a practice run without drawing the curve.
• Do one continuous curve and only stop at a plotted point.
• Use a sharp pencil and do not press too heavily, so that you may easily rub out mistakes.
You do not need to work out all values in a table, only the y-value. The other rows in the table are just
working lines to break down the calculation. Learning how to calculate y-values with a calculator can
make this process quicker.

470 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Exercise 17A
In this exercise, suitable ranges are suggested for the axes. You can use any type of graph paper.

1 a Copy and complete the table or use a calculator to work out values for the graph
of y = x2 – 2x – 8 for values of x from – 5 to 5. Plot the graph using – 5  x  5 and
– 10  y  30 for your axes.
x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x 2
25 9 4
– 2x 10 –4
–8 –8 –8
y 27 –8

b Use your graph to find the value of y when x = 0.5.

c Use your graph to find the values of x that give a y-value of – 3.
2 a Copy and complete the table or use a calculator to work out the values for the
graph of y = x2 + 2x – 1 for values of x from – 3 to 3. Plot the graph using – 3  x  3
and – 2  y  14 for your axes.
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
x 2
9 1 4
+2x –6 –2 4
–1 –1 –1 –1
y 2 7
b Use your graph to find the y-value when x = – 2.5.
c Use your graph to find the values of x that give a y-value of 1.
d On the same axes, draw the graph of y = x
2 + 2.
e Where do the graphs y = x2 + 2x – 1 and y = x
2
+ 2 cross?

3 a Copy and complete the table or use a calculator to work out values for the graph
of y = 2x2 – 5x – 3 for values of x from – 2 to 4.
x –2 – 1.5 –1 – 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
y 15 9 –3 –5 –3 9

b Where does the graph cross the x-axis?

MR 4 Shayla is writing out a table of values for the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 7.
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
y 4 3 4 7 12 19 28

a What do you notice about the value of y when x = 1 and when x = 3?

b Complete the table without substituting any values, explaining how it is possible to
do so.

17.1 Plotting quadratic graphs 471

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5 Copy the grid onto centimetre-squared paper.

y
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2 Focus 3 cm
1
0
O 3 cm x
–1
–2
Directrix

Mark a point at (0, 2). This is the focus.

Draw the line y = – 2. This is the directrix.
All the points on a parabola are the same distance from the focus and the directrix.
The origin is 2 units away from both and this will be the lowest point of the parabola.
Set a pair of compasses to a radius of 3 cm. Using the focus as the centre, draw arcs
on both sides to intersect with the line y = 1, which is 3 cm from the directrix.
Now set the compasses at 4 cm and draw arcs from the focus to intersect with y = 2.
Repeat with the compasses set to 5 cm, 6 cm, etc.
Once you have drawn all the points, join them with a smooth curve to show a parabola.
The parabola drawn has the equation y = 81 x2.

CM 6 Here are three quadratic equations.

Parabola A: y = 2x2
Parabola B: y = –x2
Parabola C: y = x2 + 2
Give a reason why each line may be the odd one out.

17.2 Solving quadratic equations

by factorisation
This section will show you how to:
• solve a quadratic equation by factorisation
• rearrange a quadratic equation so that it can be factorised.

Solving the quadratic equation x2 + ax + b = 0

To solve a quadratic equation such as x2 – 2x – 3 = 0, you first have to be able to factorise it. You met
factorising in Chapter 8.

472 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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To solve x2 + 6x + 5 = 0, first factorise it to get (x + 5)(x + 1) = 0.

The only way this expression can ever equal 0 is if the value of one of the brackets is 0.
So either (x + 5) = 0 or (x + 1) = 0
→ x+5=0 or x+1=0
→ x = –5 or x = –1
So the solution is x = – 5 or x = – 1.

Solve x2 + 9 = 6x
Example 2

Collect all terms to the left hand side. x2 – 6x + 9 = 0

Factorising gives: (x – 3)(x – 3) = 0
Since (x – 3) is repeated, you can rewrite this as: (x – 3)2 = 0
So there is only one solution: x=3

A right-angled triangle has a hypotenuse of 13 cm.

Example 3

The other two sides are (x + 5) cm and (x – 2) cm.

Calculate the perimeter of the triangle.

13
x+5

x–2

The sides of a right-angled triangle are connected by Pythagoras’ theorem,

which says that c2 = a2 + b2.
(x + 5)2 + (x – 2)2 = 132 c b
(x2 + 10x + 25) + (x2 – 4x + 4) = 169
2x2 + 6x + 29 = 169 a
2x2 + 6x – 140 = 0
Divide by a factor of 2: x2 + 3x – 70 = 0
This factorises to: (x + 10)(x – 7) = 0
This gives: x = – 10 or 7
You should reject the negative value as it would give negative lengths, so x must equal 7.
So the sides of the triangle are 5 cm, 12 cm and 13 cm and the perimeter is 30 cm.
Note: You may know the Pythagorean triple 5, 12, 13 and guess the answer, but this example
demonstrates how you can solve a similar question when you do not know the Pythagorean
triple.

17.2 Solving quadratic equations by factorisation 473

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Example 4 A coach driver travelled 300 km. Her actual average speed turned out to be 10 km/h less
than expected. Therefore, the journey took 1 hour longer than expected. Find her actual
average speed.
Let the actual average speed be x km/h.
So the expected speed would have been (x + 10) km/h.

Time taken = distance travelled

speed
300
At x km/h, she took hours.
x
300
At (x + 10) km/h, she took hours.
x + 10
Since the journey took 1 hour longer than expected, then:
300 300 x + 10 300 + x + 10 310 + x
time taken = +1= + = =
x + 10 x + 10 x + 10 x + 10 x + 10
300 310 + x
So =
x x + 10
Multiply both sides by x and by (x + 10): 300(x + 10) = x(310 + x)
300x + 3000 = 310x + x2
Rearranging into the form x2 + ax + b = 0, gives: x2 + 10x – 3000 = 0
Factorising gives: (x + 60)(x – 50) = 0
→ x = – 60 or 50
The average speed could not be – 60 km/h, so it has to be 50 km/h.

Exercise 17B
1 Solve the following equations.
a (x + 2)(x + 5) = 0 b (y – 9)(y – 4) = 0 c (z + 6)(z – 3) = 0
2 First factorise, then solve each of the following.
a x2 + 5x + 4 = 0 b x2 – 6x + 8 = 0 c x2 – 3x – 10 = 0 d x2 – 2x – 15 = 0
e t2 + 3t – 18 = 0 f x2 – x – 2 = 0 g m2 + 10m + 25 = 0 h a2 – 14a + 49 = 0
PS 3 A rectangular field is 40 m longer than it is wide. The area is 48 000 square metres.
The farmer wants to place a fence all around the field.
How long will the fence be?

Hints and tips If one solution to a real-life problem is negative, reject it and only
give the positive answer.

Hints and tips Let the width be x, set up a quadratic equation and solve it to
find x.

4 Rearrange, then solve the following equations.

a t2 + 7t = 30 b x2 – 7x = 44 c t2 – t = 72 d x2 = 17x – 72
e x2 + 1 = 2x f (x + 1)(x – 2) = 40 g (x + 1)(x – 2) = 4

474 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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EV 5 A teacher asks her class to solve x2 – 3x = 4.

This is Mario’s answer.
x2 – 3x – 4 = 0
(x – 4)(x + 1) = 0
So x – 4 = 0 or x + 1 = 0
x = 4 or – 1
This is Sylvan’s answer.
x(x – 3) = 4
So x = 4 or x – 3 = 4 → x = – 3 + 4 = – 1
When the teacher reads out the answer of x = 4 or – 1, both students mark their work
as correct.
Who used the correct method and what mistakes did the other student make?
PS 6 Find the perimeter of a right-angled triangle with sides of (x – 12) cm, (x – 5) cm and (x – 3) cm.

PS 7 On a journey of 400 km, the driver of a train calculates that if he were to increase his
average speed by 2 km/h, he would take 20 minutes less. Work out his average speed.
MR 8 a Solve the equation x2 – 13x + 36 = 0.
b Hence solve the following equations.
i u4 – 13u2 + 36 = 0 ii v – 13v1/2 + 36 = 0 iii (w – 8)4 + 36 = 13(w – 8)2
Solving the general quadratic equation by factorisation
The general quadratic equation is one of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a, b and c are positive or
negative whole numbers. (It is easier to make sure that a is always positive.) Before you can solve any
quadratic equation by factorisation, you must rearrange it into this form.
The factorisation method is then similar to the method used to solve equations of the form
x2 + ax + b = 0. That is, you have to find two factors of ax2 + bx + c with a product of 0.
Consider the quadratic equation 2x2 – 11x + 15 = 0.
This factorises to (2x – 5)(x – 3) = 0.
Since the product is equal to 0, one of the brackets must equal 0.
So either 2x – 5 = 0 or x–3=0
2x = 5
x = 2 21 or x=3

Solve these quadratic equations. a 12x2 – 28x = – 15 b 30x2 – 5x – 5 = 0

Example 5

a First, rearrange the equation into the general form: 12x2 – 28x + 15 = 0
This factorises to: (2x – 3)(6x – 5) = 0
The only way this product can equal 0 is if the value of one of the brackets is 0.
So either 2x – 3 = 0 or 6x – 5 = 0
→ 2x = 3 or 6x = 5
3 5
→ x= 2
or x= 6
1 5
So the solution is x = 1 2 or x = 6
Note: It is better to leave the answer as a fraction so you can see which numbers were in
the brackets. This makes it easier to check for a mistake than when you give the answer as a
rounded decimal.
(continued )

17.2 Solving quadratic equations by factorisation 475

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b This equation is already in the general quadratic form and it will factorise to (15x + 5)(2x – 1)
= 0 or (3x + 1)(10x – 5) = 0.
Look again at the equation. There is a common factor of 5 which you can take out to give:
5(6x2 – x – 1) = 0
This is much easier to factorise to 5(3x + 1)(2x – 1) = 0, which you can solve to give x = – 31 or
x = 21 .
Notice that you could divide the equation by 5 to get (3x + 1)(2x – 1) = 0 without changing
the two solutions.

Solve this equation. 2x – 3 =5

Example 6

Multiply through by x to give: 2x2 – 3 = 5x

Rearrange into the general form: 2x2 – 5x – 3 = 0
This factorises to: (2x + 1)(x – 3) = 0
So x = –1 or x = 3.
2

Special cases
Sometimes the values of b or c are zero. (Note that if a is zero the equation is no longer a quadratic
equation but a linear equation.)

Solve these quadratic equations. a 3x2 – 4 = 0 b 4x2 – 25 = 0 c 6x2 – x = 0

Example 7

a Rearrange to get: 3x2 = 4

4
Divide both sides by 3: x2 =
3
Take the square root on both sides: x=± 4
3
2
= ±
3
2 3
Rationalise the denominator: = ±
3
Note: A square root can be positive or negative. The answer is in surd form (see Chapter 16).
b You can use the method of part a or you should recognise this as the difference of two
squares (see chapter 15). You can factorise this to (2x – 5)(2x + 5) = 0.
Each set of brackets can be put equal to zero.
2x – 5 = 0 → x = + 25

2x + 5 = 0 → x = – 25

So the solution is x = ± 5
2
c There is a common factor of x, so factorise as x(6x – 1) = 0.
There is only one set of brackets this time but each factor can be equal to zero, so x = 0 or
6x – 1 = 0.
1
So x = 0 or 6

476 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Exercise 17C
Give your answers either in rational form or as mixed numbers.

1 Solve these equations.

a 3x2 + 8x – 3 = 0 b 6x2 – 5x – 4 = 0 c 5x2 – 9x – 2 = 0
d 4t2 – 4t – 35 = 0 e 18t2 + 9t + 1 = 0 f 3t2 – 14t + 8 = 0
g 6x2 + 15x – 9 = 0 h 12x2 – 16x – 35 = 0 i 15t2 + 4t – 35 = 0
j 28x2 – 85x + 63 = 0 k 24x2 – 19x + 2 = 0 l 16t2 – 1 = 0
m 4x2 + 9x = 0 n 25t2 – 49 = 0 o 9m2 – 24m – 9 = 0

Hints and tips Look out for the special cases where b or c is zero.

2 Rearrange these equations into the general form and then solve them.
a x2 – x = 42 b 8x(x + 1) = 30
c 13x2 = 11 – 2x d 10x2 – x = 2
e 8x2 + 6x + 3 = 2x2 + x + 2 f 25x2 = 10 – 45x
g 8x – 16 – x2 = 0 h (2x + 1)(5x + 2) = (2x – 2)(x – 2)
i 5x + 5 = 30x + 15x + 5
2
j 2m2 = 50
k 6x2 + 30 = 5 – 3x2 – 30x l 4x2 + 4x – 49 = 4x
m 2t2 – t = 15
MR 3 Here are three equations.
A: (x – 1)2 = 0 B: 3x + 2 = 5 C: x2 – 4x = 5
a Give a mathematical fact that equations A and B have in common.
b Give a mathematical reason why equation B is different from equations A and C.
PS 4 Pythagoras’ theorem states that the sum of the squares of the two short sides of a
right-angled triangle equals the square of the long side (hypotenuse).
A right-angled triangle has a hypotenuse of 5x – 1 and shorter sides of 2x + 3 and
x + 1 cm.
a Show that 20x2 – 24x – 9 = 0
b Find the area of the triangle.
MR 5 15
a Show that x = 8
is a solution to the equation 40x2 + 117x = 360.
b Find the other solution.
6 Solve the equation 2x + 5x = 11.

PS 7 A rectangular room is 3 m longer than it is wide.

It cost £364 to carpet the room. Carpet costs £16 per square metre.
How wide is the room?

17.2 Solving quadratic equations by factorisation 477

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17.3 Solving a quadratic equation by

using the quadratic formula
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula
quadratic formula
• recognise why some quadratic equations cannot be solved.
soluble
Many quadratic equations cannot be solved by factorisation discriminant
because they do not have simple factors. For example, try to
factorise x2 – 4x – 3 = 0 or 3x2 – 6x + 2 = 0.
One way to solve this type of equation is to use the quadratic formula. You can use this formula
to solve any quadratic equation that is soluble. (Some are not, which the quadratic formula would
immediately show. You will learn about this later in this section.)
The solution of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by:

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
2a
where a and b are the coefficients of x2 and x respectively and c is the constant term.
This is the quadratic formula.
The symbol ± states that the square root has a positive and a negative value, and you must use both of
them in solving for x.

Solve 5x2 – 11x – 4 = 0, giving solutions correct to 2 decimal places.

Example 8

−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Substitute a = 5, b = – 11 and c = – 4 into the formula: x =
2a

−(−11) ± 11) − 4 ( 5) ( − 4 )
( −−11 2
−11
So x =
2 ( 5)
Note: Using brackets can help you to avoid arithmetic errors. A common error is to write
– 112 is – 121.

11 ± 121 + 80 11 ± 201
x= =
10 10
x = 2.52 or – 0.32
Note: The calculation has been done in stages. You can also work out the answer with
a calculator, but make sure you can use it properly. If not, break the calculation down.
Remember the rule ‘if you try to do two things at once, you will probably get one of
them wrong’.

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A rectangle has sides of x m and (x + 4) m. Its area is 100 m2. Find the perimeter of the rectangle,
Example 9
correct to 1 decimal place.
So x(x + 4) = 100 → x2 + 4x – 100 = 0
Put a = 1, b = 4 and c = – 100 into the quadratic formula, which gives

x = − ( 4) ± ( 4 )2 − 4 ( 1)(
) ( −100 )
2 ( 1)

x = −4 ± 16 + 400
=
− 4 ± 416
2 2
x = – 12.198 or 8.198
Since x is the length of the side of a rectangle, it cannot be negative, so the only valid answer
is 8.198.
The other side of the rectangle is 8.198 + 4 = 12.198.
The perimeter of the rectangle is 2(8.198 + 12.198) = 40.8 cm (1 decimal place).

Exercise 17D
1 Use the quadratic formula to solve these equations, giving your answers to
2 decimal places.
a 2x2 + x – 8 = 0 b x2 – x – 10 = 0 c 7x2 + 12x + 2 = 0
d 6x2 + 22x + 19 = 0 e x2 + 3x – 6 = 0 f 4x2 + 5x = 3
g 4x2 – 9x + 4 = 0 h 7x2 + 3x = 2 i 5x2 + 1 = 10x

Hints and tips Use brackets when substituting and do not try to work two
things out at the same time.

PS 2 A rectangular lawn is 2 m longer than it is wide.

The area of the lawn is 21 m2. The gardener wants to edge the lawn with edging strips,
1
which are sold in lengths of 1 2 m. How many will she need to buy?

MR 3 Shaun is solving a quadratic equation, using the formula.

He correctly substitutes values for a, b and c to get:
3±37
x=
2
What is the equation Shaun is trying to solve?

CM 4 Terry uses the quadratic formula to solve 4x2 – 4x + 1 = 0.

June uses factorisation to solve 4x2 – 4x + 1 = 0.
They both find something unusual in their solutions.
Explain what this is, and why.

5 3
Solve the equation x + x
= 7. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.

PS 6 The sum of a number and its reciprocal is 2.05. What are the two numbers?

Hints and tips The reciprocal of the fraction ba is ba .

17.3 Solving a quadratic equation by using the quadratic formula 479

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MR 7 a Solve these equations using the quadratic formula, giving all answers correct to
3 decimal places.
i x2 + 3x + 1 = 0 ii x2 – 10x + 23 = 0 iii x2 = 7x + 4 iv x2 + 6x = 8
b Why do the two answers for each equation add up to –b?

Quadratic equations with no solution

The quantity (b2 – 4ac) in the quadratic formula is known as the discriminant.
All quadratic equations can be shown as parabolas.
Here are the graphs of the three types of quadratic equations:

y y y

0 x 0 x 0 x

When the discriminant, When b2 – 4ac equals zero, When b2 – 4ac is negative,
b – 4ac, is positive it means it means there is only one
2
you would have to find the
there are two solutions and solution and the graph just square root of a negative
the graph crosses the x-axis touches the x-axis number, so there are no
twice solutions and the graph
does not cross the x-axis

These rules are also true for negative parabolas.

Although it is possible to take the square root of a negative number and get something called
an imaginary number, you won’t learn about them at this level. So there are no solutions if the
discriminant is negative.

Find the discriminant b2 – 4ac of the equation x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 and explain what the result
Example 10

tells you.
b2 – 4ac = (3)2 – 4(1)(5)
= 9 – 20
= – 11
This means there are no solutions for x.

How many times does the graph of y = 13 – 2x – 3x2 meet the x-axis?
Example 11

b2 – 4ac = (– 2)2 – 4(13)(– 3)

= 4 + 156
= 160
Since b2 – 4ac is positive, the graph meets the x-axis at two points.

480 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Exercise 17E
1 Work out the discriminant b2 – 4ac of the equations. In each case say how many
solutions the equation has.
a 3x2 + 2x – 4 = 0 b 25x2 – 30x + 9 = 0 c 4x2 + 3x + 2 = 0
d 2x2 + x + 1 = 0 e x2 – 2x – 16 = 0 f 5x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
g 6x – x2 – 10 = 0 h 48x – 9x2 – 64 = 0 i 45 – 7x – 2x2 = 0
MR 2 A quadratic equation has the solutions x = 2 ± 5 3 . Find the value of b2 – 4ac.

MR 3 Bill works out the discriminant of the quadratic equation x2 + bx – c = 0 as b2 – 4ac = 13.
There are four possible equations that could lead to this discriminant. What are they?

MR 4 For which values of k does the equation x2 + (k + 2)x + (6 – k) = 0 have only

one answer?

EV 5 The ten quadratic equations below have been sorted into two categories, ones which
can be factorised and ones which cannot be factorised. Evaluate b2 – 4ac for each one
and determine what is special about the value of b2 – 4ac for equations that can be
factorised.

Can be factorised Cannot be factorised

14x + 27x – 20 = 0
2
8x2 – 19x + 10 = 0
15x2 + 11x + 2 = 0 3x2 + 7x – 18 = 0
12x2 – 25x + 12 = 0 30x2 – 13x – 28 = 0
63 – 4x – 4x2= 0 9 – 6x – 5x2 = 0
9x2 + 18x – 16 = 0 10x2 + 26x + 15 = 0

17.4 Solving quadratic equations

by completing the square
This section will show you how to:
• solve a quadratic equation by completing the square.
Key term
completing the square
Another method for solving a quadratic equation is
completing the square.
Consider the equation x2 – 8x + 16 = 25
Factorise the expression on the left into (x – 4)2 = 25
Take the square root of both sides. ( x – 4 )2 = 25
Remember that 25 has two square roots (5 and – 5) x – 4 = ±5
Add 4 to both sides x = ±5 + 4
Either x = 5 + 4 = 9 or x = – 5 + 4 = – 1.

17.4 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square 481

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Now consider the equation x2 + 6x = 7

If you add 9 to both sides you make an expression on the left hand side that you can factorise
as before.
x2 + 6x + 9 = 16
(x + 3)2 = 16
Take the square root as before. x + 3 = ±4
Subtract 3 from both sides. x = ±4 – 3 = 1 or – 7
The process of rewriting x2 + 6x as x2 + 6x + 9 is called completing the square.
This diagram shows you why.
x 3 x 3

x x2 3x x x2 3x

3 3x 3 3x 9

In general, x2 + 2ax + a2 = (x + a)2, which you can rearrange to give x2 + 2ax = (x + a)2 – a2.
So x2 + 6x = (x + 3)2 – 9.

Rewrite the following in the form (x + a)2 + b or (x + a)2 – b.

Example 12

a x2 + 10x
b x2 + 6x – 13
a x2 + 10x equals x2 + 2ax when a = 5.
Hence x2 + 10x = (x + 5)2 – 25.
b Ignore the – 13 for the moment. x2 + 6x = (x + 3)2 – 9
Now bring the – 13 back to get the final answer: x2 + 6x – 13 = (x + 3)2 – 9 – 13
= (x + 3)2 – 22

Rewrite x2 + 4x – 7 in the form (x + a)2 – b. Hence solve the equation x2 + 4x – 7 = 0, giving your
Example 13

answers to 2 decimal places.

Start by ignoring the – 7: x2 + 4x = (x + 2)2 – 4
Then adding the – 7 back in gives: x2 + 4x – 7 = (x + 2)2 – 4 – 7
= (x + 2)2 – 11
You can now rewrite x2 + 4x – 7 = 0 by completing the square as: (x + 2)2 – 11 = 0
Rearranging gives: (x + 2)2 = 11
Taking the square root of both sides gives: x + 2 = ± 11
x = – 2 ± 11
This answer is in surd form and you could leave it like this, but you are asked to evaluate it to
2 decimal places.
x = 1.32 or – 5.32 (to 2 decimal places)

482 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Solve x2 – 6x – 1 = 0 by completing the square. Leave your answer in the form a ± b .

Example 14
x2 – 6x = (x – 3)2 – 9
So x2 – 6x – 1 = (x – 3)2 – 9 – 1
= (x – 3)2 – 10
When x2 – 6x – 1 = 0, then (x – 3)2 – 10 = 0
→ (x – 3)2 = 10
Taking the square root of both sides gives:
x – 3 = ± 10
→ x = 3 ± 10

Exercise 17F
1 Write an equivalent expression in the form (x ± a)2 – b.
a x2 + 4x b x2 + 14x c x2 – 6x d x2 + 6x
e x2 – 10x f x2 + 20x g x2 – 4x – 1 h x2 + 6x + 3
i x2 + 8x – 6 j x2 + 2x – 1 k x2 – 2x – 7 l x2 + 18x + 70
PS 2 a Frankie writes the steps to solve x2 + 6x + 7 = 0 by completing the square on sticky
notes. Put the notes in the correct order.

b Write down the stages as in part a needed to solve the equation x2 – 4x – 3 = 0.

c Solve the equations below, giving the answers in surd form.
i x2 + 6x + 7 = 0 ii x2 – 4x – 3 = 0
3 Solve the following equations by completing the square. Leave your answers in surd
form where appropriate.
a x2 + 4x – 1 = 0 b x2 + 14x – 5 = 0 c x2 – 6x + 3 = 0
d x2 – 10x – 5 = 0 e x2 + 20x – 1 = 0 f x2 + 8x – 6 = 0
4 Solve by completing the square. Give your answers to 2 decimal places.
a x2 + 2x – 5 = 0 b x2 – 4x – 7 = 0 c x2 + 2x – 9 = 0
CM 5 Prove that the solutions to the equation x2 + bx + c = 0 are:

±  − c
b b2
−
2  4 

17.4 Solving quadratic equations by completing the square 483

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MR 6 Dave rewrites the expression x2 + px + q by completing the square.

He correctly does this and gets (x – 7)2 – 52.
What are the values of p and q?

CM 7 a Prove that the expression x2 – 12x + 40 is positive for all values of x.

b What does this tell you about the graph of y = x2 – 12x + 40?
EV 8 You have been asked to solve the equation x2 + 16x – 2436 = 0.
You could factorise, use the quadratic formula or complete the square.
Evaluate all three methods, stating advantages and disadvantages where appropriate.

PS 9 The following statements are the steps in the method of completing the square to
solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. Rearrange the steps to give the complete solution.
2
b b c
A x = − 2a ± −
4a2 a


( ) b2  c
2
b
B  x+ − + = 0
 2a 4 a 2  a


( ) b2 
2
b
C a x + − +c = 0
 2a 4 a 2 

( )
2
b b2 c
D x + 2a = −
4a2 a

( )
2
b b2 c
E x+ − + = 0
2a 4a2 a

b2 4 ac
F x =− b ± −
2a 4a2 4a2

b 1
G x = − 2a ± 2a b 2 − 4 ac

(b
H a x2 + a x + c = 0 )
− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
I x = 2a

2
J x+ b = ± b2 −c
2a 4a a

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17.5 The significant points of a

quadratic curve
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• identify the significant points of a quadratic function
maximum minimum
graphically
• identify the roots of a quadratic function by solving a roots turning point
quadratic equation
• identify the turning point of a quadratic function by using
symmetry or completing the square.

A quadratic curve has four interesting points for a mathematician. These are the points A, B, C and
D on the diagram. The x-values at A and B are called the roots, and are where the curve crosses the
x-axis. C is the point where the curve crosses the y-axis (the intercept) and D is the turning point,
which is the lowest or highest point of the curve.
y y

A B x A B x
C

C
D

Exercise 17G
1 a Plot the graphs of
i y = x2 – 4x – 5 (use axes with – 2  x  6 and – 10  y  7)
ii y = x2 + 6x + 8 (use axes with – 7  x  1 and – 1  y  15) and
iii y = x2 – 2x (use axes with – 2  x  4 and – 1  y  8).
b State the coordinates of the points where each curve intersects the y-axis (the
y-intercept). How does the y-intercept relate to the equation of the curve?
c Solve each equation for y = 0.
d Look at where each curve intersects the x-axis. Each curve should intersect the
x-axis twice. How do these points relate to the equation of each curve?
e Look at the turning point of each curve, the lowest point on each of these curves.
Complete the square for each equation. What does this tell you about how the
turning point relates to the equation of the curve?

The roots
You can find the roots of a quadratic curve by putting the expression equal to zero and solving the
quadratic equation. Remember that you may have to use the formula or complete the square instead
of factorising.

The y-intercept
The constant term of the equation y = ax2 + bx + c is where the curve crosses the y-axis, when x = 0.
The intercept is at (0, c).

17.5 The significant points of a quadratic curve 485

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The turning point

If the turning point is the highest point, it is called the maximum.
If the turning point is the lowest point, it is called the minimum.
Because a quadratic graph has a vertical line of symmetry passing through the turning point, the
x-coordinate of the turning point is always half-way between the roots. You can then find the y-value
by reading from the graph or by substituting the x-value into the original equation.
Alternatively, you can find the turning point by completing the square.
When a quadratic is written in the form (x – p)2 + q then the minimum point is (p, q). Note the sign
change of p. You will learn how this can be used to transform a graph in Chapter 24.
Note: If the x2 term is negative then the graph will be inverted and the turning point will be
a maximum.

a Find the y-intercept, roots and turning point of the graph y = x2 + 8x – 65.
Example 15

b Sketch the graph of y = x2 + 8x – 65.

a The y-intercept is the point where x = 0. When x = 0, y = – 65, so the y-intercept is at (0, – 65).
To find the roots, solve the equation x2 + 8x – 65 = 0.
Factorise: (x + 13)(x – 5) = 0
→ x = – 13 or 5
The roots are at (– 13, 0) and (5, 0).
To find the turning point, complete the square:
x2 + 8x – 65 = (x + 4)2 – 16 – 65
= (x + 4)2 – 81
Hence the minimum value of (x + 4)2 – 81 is – 81 when x = – 4.
The turning point is at (– 4, – 81).
b Sketch the graph, using the coordinates of the roots, y-intercept and turning point.
y

0
x
–13 –4 0 5

–65

(–4, –81)

486 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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a Find the y-intercept, roots and turning point of the graph y = 1 + 4x – x2.
Example 16
b Sketch the graph of y = 1 + 4x – x2.
a The y-intercept is the point where x = 0, so the y-intercept is at (0, 1).
To find the roots, solve the equation 1 + 4x – x2 = 0.
By multiplying both sides by – 1, you can rewrite this equation as x2 – 4x – 1 = 0.
This expression does not factorise (b2 – 4ac = 20), but you can complete the square instead.
x2 – 4x – 1 = 0
(x – 2)2 – 4 – 1 = 0
(x – 2)2 – 5 = 0
(x – 2)2 = 5
x–2=± 5
→x=2± 5
The roots are (2 + 5 , 0) and (2 – 5 , 0).
You can find the turning point by completing the square.
You found the roots by completing the square but on the expression x2 – 4x – 1 rather than
1 + 4x – x2.
x2 – 4x – 1 = (x – 2)2 – 5
So multiplying both sides by – 1 gives an equation we can use to find the turning point:
1 + 4x – x2 = 5 – (x – 2)2
y = 5 when x = 2 and the turning point is a maximum point (2, 5).
b Sketch the graph, using the coordinates of the roots, y-intercept and turning point.
y

(2, 5)

0
x
2 – 5 0 2 2 + 5

17.5 The significant points of a quadratic curve 487

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Exercise 17H
1 For each graph, write down
i the coordinates of the y-intercept
ii the coordinates of points where the curve intersects the x-axis
iii the coordinates of the turning point.
a y
y = x2 – 2x – 3
14

12

10

0 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

–2

–4

–6

b y

15

10

0 x
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4

–5

–10

–15

–20
y = 5 – x2 – 4x

488 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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2 a Plot the graph of y = x2 – 6x – 16 for – 4  x  10.

b Write down the coordinates of
i the y-intercept
ii the points where the curve intersects the x-axis
iii the turning point.
3 Work out the roots and y-intercept of the graphs of:
a y = x2 – 4 b y = x2 – 6x c y = x2 – 2x – 3 d y = x2 + 14x + 33
4 Work out the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = x2 – 6x + 3.

5 Work out the minimum value of the expression x2 – 8x + 2.

6 Work out the maximum value of the expression –x2 + 2x – 6.

EV 7 a Work out the turning point of the graph of y = x2 – 4x + 4.

b What does your answer tell you about the roots of y = x2 – 4x + 4?
PS 8 Work out the roots, y-intercept and turning point of the graph of y = 2x2 – 9x – 5.

9 Work out the roots and turning point of the graph of y = 2x2 – 25x + 73, giving all
values correct to 2 decimal places.

10 Sketch the graph of y = x2 – 10x – 39. You should include the roots, y-intercept and
turning point.

MR 11 Masood draws a quadratic graph that has a minimum point at (3, – 7) but forgets to
label it.
He knows it is of the form y = x2 + px + q.
Help Masood to find the values of p and q.

MR 12 a The graph y = x2 + 4x + 2 has a minimum point at (– 2, 2).

Write down the minimum point of the graph y = x2 + 4x – 3.
b The graph y = x2 – 2ax + b has a minimum point at (a, b – a2).
Write down the minimum points of:
i y = x2 – 2ax + 2b
ii y = x2 – 4ax + b
PS 13 Find the equation of a quadratic graph from its significant points:
• its turning point is at (– 4, – 18);
• its roots are at (– 7, 0) and (– 1, 0);
• its y-intercept is at (0, 14).

PS 14 A ball is fired vertically upwards.

After t seconds, its height above the ground is given in metres by h = 60 + 20t – 5t2.
a Write down its initial height above the ground.
b Work out the maximum height it reaches above the ground and the time at which this
occurs.
c Work out the time at which the ball will hit the ground.

17.5 The significant points of a quadratic curve 489

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17.6 Solving one linear and one non-

linear equation using graphs
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve a pair of simultaneous equations where one is linear
linear
and one is non-linear, using graphs.
non-linear
You will see how to use an algebraic method for solving a pair
of simultaneous equations where one is linear (a straight line)
and one is non-linear (a curve) in Section 17.8. In this section, you will learn how to do this graphically.
The point where the graphs cross gives the solution. However, in most cases, there are two solutions,
because the straight line will cross the curve twice.
Most of the non-linear graphs will be quadratic graphs, but there is one other type you can meet. This
is an equation of the form x2 + y2 = r2, which is a circle, with the centre as the origin and a radius of r.
y

(0, r)

(–r, 0) 0 (r, 0)
x

(0, –r)

Consider finding the approximate solutions of the pair of equations y = x2 + x – 2 and y = 2x + 3 by

graphical means.
Set up a table for the quadratic equation. y
20
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 19
y 10 4 0 –2 –2 0 4 10 18 18
Draw both graphs on the same set of axes. 17
16
From the graph, you can read the approximate solutions as 15
(– 1.8, – 0.6) and (2.8, 8.6). 14
13 y = x2 + x – 2
12
11
10 y = 2x + 3
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
–4

490 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Find the approximate solutions of the pair of equations x2 + y2 = 25 and y = x + 2 by

Example 17
graphical means.
The curve is a circle of radius 5 centred on the origin.
From the graph, you can read the approximate solutions as (– 4.4, – 2.4), (2.4, 4.4).
y
6
5 y=x+2

4
x2 + y2 = 25
3
2
1

–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

Exercise 17I
1 Use graphical methods to find the approximate or exact solutions to the following pairs
of simultaneous equations. In this question, suitable ranges for the axes are given.
a y = x2 + 3x – 2 and y = x (– 5  x  5, – 5  y  5)
b y = x2 – 3x – 6 and y = 2x (– 4  x  8, – 10  y  20)
c x2 + y2 = 25 and x + y = 1 (– 6  x  6, – 6  y  6)
d x2 + y2 = 4 and y = x + 1 (– 5  x  5, – 5  y  5)
e y = x2 – 3x + 1 and y = 2x – 1 (0  x  6, – 4  y  12)
f y = x2 – 3 and y = x + 3 (– 5  x  5, – 4  y  8)
g y = x2 – 3x – 2 and y = 2x – 3 (– 5  x  5, – 5  y  10)
h x2 + y2 = 9 and y = x – 1 (– 5  x  5, – 5  y  5)
CM 2 a Solve the simultaneous equations y = x2 + 3x – 4 and y = 5x – 5 (– 5  x  5, – 8  y  8).
b What is special about the intersection of these two graphs?
c Show that 5x – 5 = x2 + 3x – 4 can be rearranged to x2 – 2x + 1 = 0.
d Factorise and solve x2 – 2x + 1 = 0.
e Explain how the solution in part d relates to the intersection of the graphs.
CM 3 a Solve the simultaneous equations y = x2 + 2x + 3 and y = x – 1 (– 5  x  5, – 5  y  8).
b What is special about the intersection of these two graphs?
c Rearrange x – 1 = x2 + 2x + 3 into the general quadratic form ax2 + bx + c = 0.
d Work out the discriminant b2 – 4ac for the quadratic in part c.
e Explain how the value of the discriminant relates to the intersection of the graphs.
CM 4 a Solve the simultaneous equations y = 4x + 31 – x2 and y = 12x – 1 – x2 (– 4  x  12,
– 5  y  40).
b Explain geometrically why these simultaneous equations have only one solution.

17.6 Solving one linear and one non-linear equation using graphs 491
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PS 5 A pebble is projected vertically from the ground at 40 m/s. After t seconds, its height
is h = 40t – 5t2.
A second pebble is projected vertically from the ground one second later at 60 m/s.
After t seconds, its height is h = 60(t – 1) – 5(t – 1)2.
a Show that 60(t – 1) – 5(t – 1)2 can be rewritten as 5(13 – t)(t – 1).
b Plot both graphs on the same axes.
c Use the graph to find the time when both pebbles are at the same height.

17.7 Solving quadratic equations

by the method of intersection
This section will show you how to:
• solve equations by the method of intersecting graphs.

You can solve many equations by drawing two intersecting graphs on the same axes and using
the x-value(s) of their point(s) of intersection. Sometimes you can use the same graph to solve
several equations.
To solve the equation x2 + 3x – 1 = 0 using the graph of y = x2 + 3x – 2 and its intersection with another
graph, follow the steps below. This will give the equation of the other graph and the solution(s).
This method will give the required graph.
Step 1: Write down the original (given) equation. y = x2 + 3x – 2
Step 2: Write down the (new) equation to be solved in reverse. 0 = x2 + 3x – 1
Step 3: Subtract these equations. y= –1
Step 4: Draw this line on the original graph to solve the new equation.
Draw the graphs of y = x2 + 3x – 2 and y = – 1 on the same axes.
The intersection of these two graphs is the solution of
x2 + 3x – 1 = 0
The solutions, correct to 1 decimal place, are x = – 3.3 and 0.3.
This works because you are drawing a straight line on the same axes as the original graph, and solving
for x and y where they intersect.
y
y = x2 + 3x – 2

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1 y = –1

–2

–3

–4

492 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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At the points of intersection the y-values will be the same and so will the x-values. This works because
you can say:
original equation = straight line
Rearranging this gives: (original equation) – (straight line) = 0
You have been asked to solve: (new equation) = 0
So (original equation) – (straight line) = (new equation)
Rearranging this again gives: (original equation) – (new equation) = straight line

Show how to solve the equation x2 + 2x – 3 = 0 using the graph of y = x2 + 3x – 2

Example 18

and its intersection with another graph. Give the equation of the other graph and
the solutions.
Write down the given graph: y = x2 + 3x – 2
Write down the new equation: 0 = x2 + 2x – 3
Subtract: y= x+1
Draw the graphs of y = x + 3x – 2 and y = x + 1 on the same axes.
2

The intersection of the two graphs is the solution of x2 + 2x – 3 = 0.

The solutions are x = 1 and – 3.

y
y = x2 + 3x – 2 y = x +1

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
–1

–2

–3

–4

17.7 Solving quadratic equations by the method of intersection 493

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Exercise 17J
In questions 1 and 2, use the graphs given here. Trace the graphs or place a ruler over them in the
position of the line. You only need to give solution values to 1 decimal place. In later questions,
draw the graphs yourself.
y y = x2 – 3x – 6
1 Below is the graph of y = x2 – 3x – 6.
4
a Solve these equations.
i x2 – 3x – 6 = 0 2
ii x – 3x – 6 = 4
2

iii x2 – 3x – 2 = 0 0 x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
b By drawing a suitable straight line
solve 2x2 – 6x + 2 = 0. –2

–4

–6

–8

Hints and tips Cancel by 2 first.

2 Below are the graphs of y = x2 – 2 and y = x + 2.

a Solve these equations. y

i x2 – x – 4 = 0 10

ii x – 2 = 0
2

8 y = x2 – 2
b By drawing suitable straight
lines solve these equations.
6 y=x+2
i x2 – 2 = 3
ii x2 – 4 = 0 4

0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4

–2

–4

494 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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3 Draw the graphs of y = x2 – 3 and y = x + 2 on the same axes. Use the graphs to solve
these equations.
a x2 – 5 = 0 b x2 – x – 5 = 0
4 Draw the graph of y = x2 + 3x – 5.
By drawing a suitable straight line, solve x2 + 2x – 7 = 0.

MR 5 The graph shows the lines A: y = x2 + 3x – 2; B: y = x; C: y = x + 2; D: y + x = 3 and

E: y + x + 1 = 0.
y

10
A
9
C
8
7
B
6
5
4
3
2
1

–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
–1
–2
D
–3
–4
E
–5

a Which pair of lines has a common solution of (0.5, 2.5)?

b Which pair of lines has the solutions of (1, 2) and (– 5, 8)?
c What quadratic equation has an approximate solution of (– 4.2, 3.2) and (0.2, – 1.2)?
d The minimum point of the graph y = x2 + 3x – 2 is at (– 1.5, – 4.25).
What is the minimum point of the graph y = x2 + 3x – 8?

MR 6 Jack has already drawn a graph of y = x2 – 8x – 10.

a Write down the straight line Jack would need to draw to use his graph to solve each of
the following equations.
i x2 – 8x – 10 = 5 ii x2 – 8x – 10 = x + 3 iii x2 – 8x = 0
iv x2 – 9x – 10 = 0 v x2 – 11x – 1 = 0 vi x2 – 7x – 12 = 0
vii 5x + 10 – x2
b What straight line could Jack draw to solve the equation 2x2 = 17x + 26?
MR 7 Jill has already drawn a graph of y = 12 – 5x – x2.
a What equation is Jill trying to solve if she has plotted the line
i y=7 ii y = x + 1 iii x + y = 3 iv 3y = x + 6?
Write each answer with the right hand side equal to zero.
b Use the discriminant b2 – 4ac to show that x + y = 17 will not intersect y = 12 – 5x – x2.
17.7 Solving quadratic equations by the method of intersection 495
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EV 8 Jamil was given a sketch of the graph y = x2 + 3x + 5 and asked to draw an appropriate
straight line to solve x2 + x – 2 = 0.
This is Jamil’s working:
Original y = x2 + 3x + 5
New 0 = x2 + x – 2
y= 2x – 7
When Jamil drew the line y = 2x – 7, it did not intersect with the parabola y = x2 + 3x + 5.
He concluded that the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 did not have any solutions.
a Show by factorisation that the equation x2 + x – 2 = 0 has solutions – 2 and 1.
b Explain the error that Jamil made.
c What line should Jamil have drawn?

17.8 Solving linear and non-linear

simultaneous equations
algebraically
This section will show you how to:
• solve simultaneous equations where one equation is linear and the other is non-linear.

You have already seen the method of substitution for solving linear simultaneous equations. You can
use a similar method when you need to solve a pair of equations, where one is linear and the other is
non-linear, but you must always substitute from the linear into the non-linear.
Consider solving these simultaneous equations. Start by labelling them (1) and (2):
x2 + y2 = 5 (1)
x+y=3 (2)
Rearrange equation (2) to obtain:
x=3–y
Substitute this into equation (1), which gives:
(3 – y)2 + y2 = 5
Expand and rearrange into the general form of the quadratic equation:
9 – 6y + y2 + y2 = 5
2y2 – 6y + 4 = 0
Divide by 2:
y2 – 3y + 2 = 0
Factorise:
(y – 1)(y – 2) = 0
→ y = 1 or 2

496 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Substitute for y in equation (2):

When y = 1, x = 2 and when y = 2, x = 1.
Note that you should always give answers as a pair of values in x and y.
Sometimes both equations will have y as the subject, in which case you can substitute for y.
Consider the simultaneous equations: y = x2 + x – 2 and y = 2x + 4
Substituting for y gives: 2x + 4 = x2 + x – 2
Rearranging into the general quadratic: x2 – x – 6 = 0
Factorising and solving gives: (x + 2)(x – 3) = 0
x = – 2 or 3
Substituting back to find y: When x = – 2, y = 0.
When x = 3, y = 10.
So the solutions are (– 2, 0) and (3, 10).

Exercise 17K
1 Solve these pairs of linear simultaneous equations using the substitution method.
a 2x + y = 9 b 3x – 2y = 10 c x – 2y = 10
x – 2y = 7 4x + y = 17 2x + 3y = 13

2 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.

a y = x2 + 2x – 3 b y = x2 – 2x – 5 c y = x2 – 2x
y = 2x + 1 y=x–1 y = 2x – 3

3 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.

a xy = 2 b xy = – 4
y=x+1 2y = x + 6

4 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.

a x2 + y2 = 25 b x2 + y2 = 9
x+y=7 y=x+3

5 a FInd the coordinates of the points where the graphs of x2 + y2 = 13 and

5y + x = 13 intersect.
b Find the length of the chord joining the two points.
CM 6 a Given that x2 + y2 = 74 and that y = 3x – 8, show that 5x2 – 24x – 5 = 0.
b Solve the simultaneous equations x2 + y2 = 74 and y = 3x – 8.
CM 7 a Given that x2 + y2 = 185 and that y = 6x – 37, show that x2 – 12x + 32 = 0.
b Solve the simultaneous equations x2 + y2 = 185 and y = 6x – 37.
8 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a x2 + y2 = 85 b x2 + y2 = 5 c x2 + y2 = 34 d x2 + y2 = 65
y = 2x – 5 y = 3x + 5 y = 4x – 17 y = 5x – 13

17.8 Solving linear and non-linear simultaneous equations algebraically 497

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MR 9 a Solve the simultaneous equations: y = x2 + 3x – 4 and y = 5x – 5.

b Which of the sketches below represents the graphs of the equations in part a?
Explain your choice.
i ii iii
y y y

0 x 0 x 0 x

PS 10 The simultaneous equations x2 + y2 = 5 and y = 2x + 5 only have one solution.

y
y = 2x + 5

x 2 + y2 = 5

0 x

a Find the solution.

b Write down the intersection of each pair of graphs.
i x2 + y2 = 5 and y = – 2x + 5
ii x2 + y2 = 5 and y = – 2x – 5
iii x2 + y2 = 5 and y = 2x – 5
MR 11 Solve these pairs of simultaneous equations.
a y = x2 + x – 2 b y = x2 + 2x – 3
y = 5x – 6 y = 4x – 4
c What is the geometrical significance of the answers to parts a and b?
PS 12 A tennis court has an area of 224 m2. If the length were decreased by 1 m and the width
increased by 1 m, the area would be increased by 1 m2. Find the dimensions of the court.

PS 13 Helen worked out that she could save 30 minutes on a 45 km journey if she travelled
at an average speed that was 15 km/h faster than her original intended speed. Find
the speed at which Helen had originally planned to travel.

PS 14 Claire intended to spend £3.20 on balloons for her party. But each balloon cost her 2p
more than she expected, so she had to buy eight fewer balloons. Find the cost of
each balloon.

498 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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17.9 Quadratic inequalities

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve quadratic inequalities.
critical values

In Chapter 15, you met linear inequalities, how to illustrate quadratic inequality
them on a number line and how to use set notation. In this
section you will discover how to do the same for quadratic inequalities.
The expression ‘x2 – 4’ is greater than 0 when x is bigger than 2, but it is also greater than 0 when x is
less than – 2. For example, 52 – 4 = 21, which is greater than zero, but (– 5)2 – 4 = 21 too.
So you would write that x2 – 4 > 0 when x < – 2 and x > 2.
Similarly, x2 – 4 < 0 when – 2 < x < 2.
Using set notation, the integer answers are – 1, 0, 1 .
Because of the shape of a quadratic graph, there may be one or two sets of values. Whether the
quadratic expression is less than or greater than zero, you first need to find out when the quadratic
expression is equal to zero, by solving a quadratic equation. These answers are called the critical
values. You can then use these critical values to sketch the quadratic graph and you can then use the
quadratic graph to determine the set(s) of values for x for which the quadratic inequality is true.

Joseph has completed a table of values for y = 2x2 – 3x – 2.

Example 19

x –2 – 1.5 –1 – 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

y 12 7 3 0 –2 –3 –3 –2 0 3 7 12
State the set of values for which
i 2x2 – 3x – 2 = 0 ii 2x2 – 3x – 2 < 0 iii 2x2 – 3x – 2  0.
i From the table, y = 0 when x = – 0.5 and x = 2, so 2x2 – 3x – 2 = 0 when x = – 0.5 and x = 2.
ii From the table, y < 0 for all values of x between – 0.5 and 2. You would write – 0.5 < x < 2.
Note that this includes all the values between – 0.5 and 2, not just the values in the table.
iii y  0 for all values of x less than or equal to – 0.5 and all values of x greater than or equal to
2. You would write this as x  – 0.5 and x  2.

a Solve i x2 + 2x – 15  0 ii x2 + 2x – 15 < 0
Example 20

b Write the integer answers for part ii in set notation.

a i Factorise and solve x2 + 2x – 15 = 0: (x + 5)(x – 3) = 0 y

The critical values

are – 5 and 3.
Sketch the quadratic graph, using the roots:
From the graph, y  0 for x  – 5 and x  3.
>0
a ii From the same graph, y < 0 for – 5 < x < 3.
b The integer answers are – 4, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2
0
x
–5 0 3

<0

17.9 Quadratic inequalities 499

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Example 21 A rectangle has sides of (3x – 5) m and (x – 2) m. If its area is less than 80 m2 and its perimeter is
at least 30 m, find the set of possible values for x.
Using the perimeter, you have a linear inequality: 2(3x – 5) + 2(x – 2)  30
6x – 10 + 2x – 4  30
8x – 14  30
8x  44
x  5 21
Using the area, you have a quadratic inequality: (3x – 5)(x – 2) < 80
3x2 – 11x + 10 < 80
3x2 – 11x – 70 < 0
Solve the quadratic equation: 3x2 – 11x – 70 = 0
(3x + 10)(x – 7) = 0
The critical values are – 10
3
and 7.
Sketch the graph:
y

>0

0
– 10
x
0 7
3

<0

From the graph, y < 0 for – 10

3
<x<7
Plot both answers on a number line.

10 0 51 7
–— –
3 2

1
From the number line, the values of x that satisfy both inequalities are 5 2  x < 7.
Note that if the quadratic does not factorise but b2 – 4ac is still positive, you will need to find the
critical values by using the quadratic formula or completing the square instead.

500 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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Exercise 17L
1 Solve
a x2 – 16 > 0 b x2 – 100  0 c x2 – x < 0 d x2 + 5x  0
e x2 – 529 < 0 f 4x2 – 9  0 g 3x2 – 8x > 0 h 2x2 + 19x  0
2 State all the integers for which
a x2 – 9  0 b x2 – 9x + 18  0
Give the answers in set notation.

3 Solve
a x2 – 3x – 10 > 0 b x2 + 12x + 35 < 0 c x2 – 6x + 5  0 d x2  x + 72
e 3x2 – 10x + 3  0 f 2x2 + 13x + 11 > 0 g 5x2 + 6  13x h 6x2 + 5x < 6
4 Represent each solution on a number line:
a x2 + 10x – 24 < 0 b x2 – 10x + 24 > 0
5 a Find the set of values of x that satisfy both 4x – 23  2(x – 5) and x2 – 13x + 30 < 0.
b Find the set of values of x that satisfy both 5(x + 3) < 8x + 3 and 3x2 + 35  22x.
6 Solve the inequality 12x < x2 + 20.

MR 7 For which values of x is the expression x2 – 4x + 6 greater than the expression 21 + 3x – x2?

PS 8 A rectangle has sides of (2x – 3) m and (x + 1) m.

Its perimeter is at least 23 m and its area is at most 88 m2.
Represent the possible values of x on a number line.

MR 9 a Solve x2 – 16x – 489 936 < 0.

b Solve x2 + 8x + 11 > 0, giving the critical values in surd form.
c Solve 5x2  3(x + 2), giving the critical values correct to 2 decimal places.
PS 10 A gardener has been asked to lay a patio 3 metres longer than its width.
Each slab is a square of side 0.5 m and costs £4.
The gardener has been asked to spend more than £220 but less than £448.
Find the two possible amounts he could spend.

MR 11 Solve the inequality x4 – 17x2 + 16 > 0

30
MR 12 a Verify that x − 3 > x + 4 for x = – 10 and x = 5.
30
b Find the set(s) of all values of x for which x − 3 > x + 4.

17.9 Quadratic inequalities 501

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 A line segment is drawn between the points where the circle x2 + y2 = 200 and the line
y = x + 16 intersect.
Show that the length of the line segment is 12 2 .

This is a question on communicating mathematically. You must demonstrate your

method clearly, constructing a chain of reasoning that leads to a complete proof.
x2 + y2 = 200 Start by finding the two points where the
x + (x + 16) = 200
2 2 circle intersects the straight line.

x + x + 32x + 256 = 200

2 2

2x2 + 32x + 56 = 0
x2 + 16x + 28 = 0
(x + 2)(x + 14) = 0
x = – 2, – 14
y = 14, 2
Lines intersect at (– 2, 14) and (– 14, 2)
Horizontal length: – 2 – (– 14) = 12 Finally, use Pythagoras’ theorem to find
Vertical length: 14 – 2 = 12 the length of the line segment.

Length = 122 + 122

= 288
= 144 × 2
= 12 2

EV 2 The graph of y = x2 – 3x + 1 has been plotted.

y

12

10

0 x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

–2

a By plotting an appropriate straight line on the same graph, solve the equation
x2 – 4x – 2 = 0.
b Comment on the accuracy of your answers.
502 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations
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This is an evaluation question, which means that you need to consider and analyse your results.

a Start by determining the equation of the

y = x – 3x + 1
2 straight line that needs to be plotted.

0 = x2 – 4x – 2
y= x+3
y Plot y = x + 3.
12

10

0 x
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

–2

x = – 0.4, 4.4 Read off x values from intersection points

correct to 1 decimal place.
b To check the accuracy of your results, use
Quadratic Formula: a = 1, b = – 4, c = – 2 another method to solve the equation. Use
the quadratic formula (or complete the
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac square) to solve x2 – 4x – 2 = 0.
x=
2a Write the answers to a greater accuracy than
you found by the graphical method.
− ( −4 ) ± ( −4 )2 − 4 ( 1) ( −2)
=
2 ( 1)

4± 24
= = – 0.4494897, 4.4494897 (7 dp)
2
Or:
Completing the Square: (x – 2)2 – 4 – 2 = 0
(x – 2)2 = 6
x–2=± 6
x = 2 ± 6 = – 0.4494897, 4.4494897 (7 dp)
Answers found by method of intersection were Finally, evaluate the methods used and
accurate to 1 decimal place, but algebraic methods results obtained.
were more accurate.

17 Worked exemplars 503

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Ready to progress?
I can draw quadratic graphs from their tables of values.

I can solve a quadratic equation of the form x2 + ax + b = 0

I can find the significant points of a quadratic graph.
I can solve equations, using the intersection of two graphs.

I can solve a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 by factorisation.

I can solve a quadratic equation using the quadratic formula or by completing the square.
I can solve linear and non-linear simultaneous equations.
I can solve complicated problems involving quadratic equations.
I can solve quadratic inequalities.

Review questions
1
PS 1 An n-sided polygon has 2 n(n – 3) diagonals.
a Find the number of sides of a polygon with 27 diagonals.
b Find the number of sides of a polygon with n diagonals.
2 How many solutions does each pair of simultaneous equations have?
a x2 + y2 = 72 and x + y = 10
b x2 + y2 = 72 and x + y = 12
c x2 + y2 = 72 and x + y = 14
6 8 − 5x
3 a Show that the equation x + 4 = x − 2 can be rearranged to give 5x2 + 18x – 44 = 0.
6 8 − 5x
b Solve x + 4 = x − 2 , giving your solutions correct to 3 significant figures.

Hints and tips Multiply both sides by (x + 4) and (x – 2).

PS 4 The diagram shows a six-sided shape. x

All the corners are right angles.
All the measurements are given in centimetres.
The area of the shape is 71 cm2. 2x + 5

a Show that 4x + 9x – 69 = 0.
2
x+1
b Find the value of x, correct to 3 significant figures.
3x + 2

PS 5 The length of a rectangle is 5 m more than its width. Its area is 300 m2. Find the actual
dimensions of the rectangle.

6 a Plot the graph of y = x2 – 3x + 1 for – 2  x  5, – 1  y  11.

b By plotting appropriate straight lines, solve
i x2 – 3x + 1 = 2
ii x2 – 4x + 2 = 0

504 17 Algebra: Quadratic equations

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7 For the curve y = x2 – 20x + 36, find

a the coordinates of the y-intercept
b the coordinates of the points where the curve intersects the x-axis
c the coordinates of the turning point.
MR 8 A circle has the equation x2 + y2 = 50.
Find algebraically where the line x + y = 8 intersects the circle.

9 Find the minimum possible value of:

a x2 + 18x + 75 b x2 – 8x + 19
PS 10 A woman is x years old. Her husband is three years younger.
The product of their ages is 550.
a Set up a quadratic equation to represent this situation.
b How old is the woman?
MR 11 Solve the inequalities:
a x2 > 10x + 1575
b x2 < 4x + 89 996
c x2  22x + 359 879
PS 12 The length of a carpet is 1 m more than its width. Its area is 9 m2. Find the dimensions
of the carpet to 2 decimal places.

PS 13 Find the area of a right-angled triangle with a hypotenuse of (5x – 3) cm and shorter
sides of (x + 4) cm and (4x + 3) cm.

14 Solve algebraically the simultaneous equations x2 + y2 = 100 and y = 3x – 10.

MR 15 a Factorise p2 – q2.
b Hence show that 900 – 1 = 31 × 29
c Given that x2 + 2x – 899, find the value of b2 – 4ac.
d Hence solve x2 + 2x – 899 = 0 by
i factorisation ii quadratic formula iii completing the square.
PS 16 A rectangular garden measures 15 m by 11 m and is surrounded by a path of uniform
width of area 41.25 m2. Find the width of the path.

17 a Write 12 + 12x – x2 in the form a – (x + b)2, where a and b are integers.

b State the maximum possible value of 12 + 12x – x2.
EV 18 Sharon wants to solve the equation a2 + 26a = 9831 but she does not have a calculator.
Which method of solving quadratic equations would you recommend?
Explain your answer and show the solution.

19 a Solve graphically the simultaneous equations y = 16x – 10 – 2x2 and y = 10x – 5 – x2.
b Solve algebraically the simultaneous equations y = 16x – 10 – 2x2 and y = 10x – 5 – x2.
c Solve 16x – 10 – 2x2  10x – 5 – x2.
CM 20 Prove that x2 – 8x + 19 is positive for all values of x.

17 Review questions 505

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18
Statistics: Sampling
and more complex
diagrams
This chapter is going to show you:
• how to collect data to obtain an unbiased sample
• how to draw and interpret frequency polygons
• how to draw and interpret cumulative frequency graphs
• how to draw and interpret box plots
• how to draw and interpret histograms.

You should already know:

• how to work out the mean, the median, the mode and the range from given data
• how to calculate an estimate for the mean from a grouped frequency table
• how to extract information from statistical diagrams
• the meaning of the terms ‘discrete data’ and ‘continuous data’.

About this chapter

Statistical distributions can help you to understand your
society and the world you live in. There are many different
sorts of distribution, including population distribution and
the normal distribution.
Population distribution asks or answers the question:
“Where on Earth do people live?” Population density is
a measure of the number of people living in a fixed area, Population density (people per km )
2

by country
such as a square mile or square kilometre. Calculating
distributions over the whole planet shows that they are far from uniform.
The map shows areas of the world that are densely
populated and areas where very few people live.
Number of people

In some areas it is easy to understand the distribution

of the population. For example, central regions of
Australia are so hot and so thickly covered in scrubland
that very few people would want to live there, hence
they are thinly populated. However, coastal regions that
enjoy good climate are much more thickly populated. IQ scores
The south-east of the UK is far more densely populated than the
rest of the UK and much of Europe. In fact, the southern part of
England has a very similar population density to India and Pakistan.
The normal distribution shows how the spread of data tends to be
around a central value and forms a symmetrical pattern. For example,
the bar chart shows the distribution of intelligence quotient (IQ) scores
amongst a sample of the UK population. The curve follows the shape of the bar chart. It shows a
typical normal distribution for a population, which you may meet in further studies of statistics.
506
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18.1 Collecting data

Key terms
This section will show you how to:
bias hypothesis
• understand sampling
population primary data
• collect unbiased reliable data for a sample.
random sample sample

Data collection sample size secondary data

There is more than one way to collect data. unbiased

Data that you collect yourself is primary data. You control it,
in terms of accuracy and amount.
Data collected by someone else is secondary data. There is a
lot of this type of data available on the internet or in newspapers. It is useful because you can access
a huge volume of data, but you do have to rely on its sources being accurate.
Statisticians carry out surveys about a population for a wide variety of purposes. In statistics, the term
‘population’ can mean a group of objects or events as well as a group of people.
It is seldom possible to survey a whole population. There are some populations for which it would
be physically impossible to survey every member. For example, suppose a marine biologist wanted
to find the average length of eels in the North Sea. It would be impossible to find and measure every
eel, so he would choose a small part of the population to survey and assume that the results for
this sample are representative of the whole population. Even when it is physically possible, it would
probably take too long and cost too much money.
To ensure the accuracy and reliability of a sample, you must address two questions.
• Will the sample be representative of the whole population and thereby eliminate bias?
• How large should the sample be, to give results that are valid for the whole population?
As part of your statistics work, you may need to test a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement based
on a theory. Testing a hypothesis involves planning, collecting data, evaluating the significance of the
data and then interpreting the results, which may or may not show that the hypothesis is true.

Specify the problem.

Plan the collection of
data.

Interpret and discuss

the results. Collect the data.

Process and represent

the data.

There are four parts to testing a hypothesis.

Part 1 State the hypothesis, outlining the problem and planning that needs to be done.
Part 2 Plan the data collection and collect the data. Record the data collected clearly.
Part 3 Choose the best way to process and represent the data. This will normally mean calculating
averages (mean, median, mode) and measures of spread (range), then representing data in
suitable diagrams.
Part 4 Interpret the data and make conclusions.

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Example 1 A gardener grows tomatoes, some in a greenhouse and some outside. He wants to investigate
the following hypothesis.
‘Tomato plants grown inside the greenhouse produce more tomatoes than those grown outside.’
Describe how he could test his hypothesis.
Plan the data collection.
Consider 30 tomato plants grown in the greenhouse and 30 plants grown outside. Count the
tomatoes on each plant.
Collect the data.
Record the numbers of tomatoes collected from the plants between June and September. Only
count those that are ‘fit for purpose’. This will avoid bias.
Choose the best way to process and represent the data.
Calculate the mean number collected per plant, as well as the range. Draw a suitable diagram
to show the data. This could be a pie chart or a bar chart.
Interpret the data and make conclusions.
Look at the statistics. What do they show? Is there a clear conclusion or does he need to alter
the hypothesis in any way?

Samples
You need to know how to carry out a survey based on a random sample in which every member of the
population has an equal chance of being chosen. For example, it may be the first 100 people met in a
survey, or 100 names picked from a hat or 100 names taken at random from the electoral register or a
telephone directory.
Before you do this, you must determine how much data you need to collect to ensure that the sample
is representative of the population. This is called the sample size.
Sample size depends on:
• the desired precision with which the sample is to represent the population
• the amount of time or money available to meet the cost of collecting the sample data.
The greater the precision desired, the larger the sample size needs to be – but the larger the sample
size, the greater the cost and the time taken. Therefore, you will always have to set the benefit of
achieving high accuracy in a sample against the cost of achieving it.
The next example addresses some of the problems associated with obtaining an unbiased sample.

You are going to conduct a survey among an audience of 30 000 people at a rock concert.
Example 2

How would you choose the sample?

You cannot question all of them, so you might settle for a sample size of 200 people.
Assuming that there will be as many men as women at the concert, you would need the sample
to contain the same proportion of each: 100 men and 100 women.
Assuming that about 20% of the audience will be aged under 20, you would also need the
sample to contain 40 people aged under 20 and 160 people aged 20 and over.
You would also need to select people from different parts of the audience, to get a balanced
view. So choose groups of people taken from the front, the back and the middle of
the audience.

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Exercise 18A
1 Decide whether you would use primary data or secondary data for each.
a Oliver wants to know which month of the year is the hottest.
b Andrew wants to compare how good boys and girls are at estimating the size of an
angle.
c Joy thinks that more men than women go to football matches.
d Sheehab wants to know if tennis is watched by more women than men.
e A headteacher said that the more revision you do, the better your examination
results.
f A newspaper suggested that the older you are, the more likely you are to shop at a
department store.

CM 2 Roxanne’s maths teacher has asked her to find out if this hypothesis is true.
‘In Year 11, the girls are better than the boys at spelling.’
Describe how she could test the hypothesis.

CM 3 Steve wants test this hypothesis.

‘Students who play more sport watch less TV.’
Describe how he could test his hypothesis.

MR 4 A headteacher wanted to find out how often the upper-school students visited a local
caf . The table shows the numbers of students in each upper-school year.

Boys Girls

Y9 102 129
Y10 143 135
Y11 110 140

He asks 10% of the boys and 10% of the girls in each year group.
How many more girls are asked than boys?

EV 5 Trevor carried out a survey at a football match.

The attendance is 20 000 of which 15 000 are male.
a Write down the ratio of males to females in the survey.
b State any assumptions you made in your answer to part a.

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PS 6 Claire wants to find out the opinions of sixth-form students on the eating facilities in the
school. The table shows the number of students in the two year groups of the sixth form.
Year group Total
12 228
13 172
Total number in
400
the sixth form
Claire decides to sample one-quarter of year 12 students and one-third of year 13 students.
What percentage of the sixth form were in the sample?

EV 7 The manager of a company carries out a survey on wages for the employees. He
decides to carry out a random sample for the four groups of employees. The table
shows the number of employees in each of the four groups.

Male Female Total

Full time 132 68 200
Part time 43 57 100
Total number of employees 300

He decides to sample 30 employees, using the same proportion from each group.
a Complete a table to show the number of employees in the sample.
b The manager says: “I now have exactly the same proportion for each group.”
Explain why this is not true.

18.2 Frequency polygons

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• draw and interpret frequency polygons.
frequency polygon

Statistical information is often presented in pictorial or grouped data

diagrammatic form to help people understand it. For example,
mid-class value
you should have seen pictograms, pie charts, bar charts and
vertical line charts.
You can also represent discrete or continuous grouped data in a frequency polygon. They show the
shapes of distributions, and can be used to compare distributions. When you plot a frequency
polygon for grouped data, you use the middle value of each group, just as in estimating the mean.
This is called the mid-class value.

The table shows the marks of 40 students in a spelling test.

Example 3

Mark 0– 4 5–9 10–14 15–19

Frequency 4 14 20 2
Show this grouped discrete data in a frequency polygon.
Plot the frequencies at the mid-class values.
(2, 4), (7, 14), (12, 20), (17, 2)

510 18 Statistics: Sampling and more complex diagrams

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Complete the polygon by joining up the plotted points with straight lines.

22

20

18

16

14
Frequency

12

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Mark

The table shows the masses of 100 parcels.

Example 4

Mass, m (kilograms) 0 < m  5 5 < m 10 10 < m  15 15 < m  20 20 < m  25 25 < m  30

Frequency 4 13 25 32 17 9
Show this grouped continuous data in a frequency polygon.
Plot the ordered pairs of mid-class values against the frequency.
(2.5, 4), (7.5, 13), (12.5, 25), (17.5, 32), (22.5, 17), (27.5, 9)
Complete the polygon by joining up the
plotted points with straight lines. 40

You do not know what happens outside

the range of the groups in the table, so do 30
not draw lines before (2.5, 4) or after (27.5, 9).
Frequency

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Mass, m (kg)

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Exercise 18B
1 The table shows how many students were absent from one particular lesson during
a term.
Number of students absent 1–3 4–6 7–9 10–12
Frequency 16 10 6 2

a Draw a frequency polygon to illustrate the data.

b Calculate an estimate for the mean number of absences for this lesson during the term.
EV 2 After a numeracy test, all the results were collated for girls and boys separately, as
shown in the table.

Number of correct answers, n 1  n  4 5  n  8 9  n  12 13  n  16 17  n  20

Boys 3 7 21 26 15
Girls 4 8 17 23 20

a On the same diagram, draw frequency polygons to illustrate the boys’ scores and
the girls’ scores.
b Estimate the mean scores for boys and girls separately.
c Comment on your results.
3 The table shows the heights of the girls in Year 11 at a London school.

Height, h (cm) 120 < h  130 130 < h  140 140 < h  150 150 < h  160 160 < h  170
Frequency 15 37 25 13 5

a Draw a frequency polygon for the data.

b Estimate the mean height of the girls.
EV 4 The frequency polygon shows the amount of money spent in a corner shop by the
first 40 customers one morning.

20

15
Frequency

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Amount spent (£)

a i Use the frequency polygon to complete the table for the amounts spent by the
first 40 customers.

Amount spent, m (£) 0<m1 1<m2 2<m3 3<m4 4<m5

Frequency

ii Calculate an estimate for the mean amount of money spent by these

40 customers.

512 18 Statistics: Sampling and more complex diagrams

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b The shopkeeper records the amount spent by the first 40 customers in the
afternoon. The table below shows the data.
Amount spent, m (£) 0 < m  2 2 < m  4 4 < m  6 6 < m  8 8 < m  10
Frequency 3 5 18 10 4

i Copy the graph above and draw on it the frequency polygon to show this data.
ii Calculate an estimate for the mean amount spent by the 40 afternoon customers.
c Comment on the differences between the frequency polygons and the average
amounts spent by the different sets of customers.

PS 5 A doctor was concerned at the length of time her patients had to wait to see her
when they came to the morning surgery. The table shows the results of her three-day
survey of waiting times.
Time, m
0 < m  10 10 < m  20 20 < m  30 30 < m  40 40 < m  50 50 < m  60
(minutes)
Monday 5 8 17 9 7 4
Tuesday 9 8 16 3 2 1
Wednesday 7 6 18 2 1 1
a On the same pair of axes, draw a frequency polygon for each day.
b What is the average amount of time spent waiting each day?
c Why might the average time for each day be different?
PS 6 The frequency polygon shows the lengths of time that students spent on homework
one weekend.
Calculate an estimate of the mean time spent on homework by the students.

20

15
Frequency

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (hours)

MR 7 20
The frequency polygon shows the times that a
number of people waited at a Post Office before
being served one morning. 15
Number of people

Julie said: “Most people spent 30 seconds waiting.”

Explain why she may be wrong. 10

0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (minutes)

18.2 Frequency polygons 513

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18.3 Cumulative frequency graphs

This section will show you how to:
• draw and interpret cumulative frequency graphs. Key terms
cumulative frequency
The marks of 50 students in a mathematics test have been
put into this grouped table. cumulative frequency graph
cumulative frequency curve
Mark Frequency Cumulative frequency
dispersion
21 to 30 1 1
interquartile range
31 to 40 6 7
lower quartile
41 to 50 6 13
51 to 60 8 21 quartile

61 to 70 8 29 upper quartile

71 to 80 6 35
81 to 90 7 42
91 to 100 6 48
101 to 110 1 49
111 to 120 1 50

The final column shows the cumulative frequency, which you can find by adding each frequency to
the sum of all the preceding frequencies. For example, in the table, 1 + 6 = 7, 7 + 6 = 13, 13 + 8 = 21…
You can use this data to plot a cumulative frequency graph. You would plot the points (30, 1), (40, 7),
(50, 13), (60, 21), … to produce the graph, as shown. Notice that the points are plotted at the end of
each group.

50

40
Cumulative frequency

30

20

10

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Marks

If the points are joined in a freehand curve, rather than as straight lines, the result is a cumulative
frequency curve.

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50

40
Cumulative frequency

30

20

10

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Marks

Note that the cumulative frequency is always shown on the vertical axis. The scales on both axes are
labelled at each graduation mark, in the usual way.
Do not label the scales like this.

21–30 31– 40 41–50

You can join the plotted points:

• by straight lines, to give a cumulative frequency polygon
• with a freehand curve, to give a cumulative frequency curve.
They are both called cumulative frequency graphs. If you need to draw a cumulative frequency graph
you may use either form, but a cumulative frequency polygon is easier to draw.

The median
The median is the middle data value, when all the values are listed in order of size from lowest to
highest. If you want to find the median from a simple list of discrete data, you must use the 21 (n + 1)th
value.
If n items of data values are plotted on a cumulative frequency graph, you can find the median from
the middle value of the cumulative frequency, that is the 21 nth value. This is because the cumulative
frequency graph treats the data as continuous, even for data such as examination marks, which are
discrete. You can use the 21 nth value when working with cumulative frequency diagrams because you
are only looking for an estimate of the median.
Since there are 50 values in the table above, the middle value is the 25th value. To find the median,
you would draw a horizontal line from 25 on the cumulative frequency axis to meet the graph, then
draw a vertical line down to the horizontal axis. This will give an estimate of the median. In this
example, the median is about 65 marks.

The interquartile range

You can divide the cumulative frequency into four parts, to obtain the quartiles and the
interquartile range.
The lower quartile is the value one-quarter of the way up the cumulative frequency axis and is given
by the 41 nth value.
The upper quartile is the value three-quarters of the way up the cumulative frequency axis and is
given by the 43 nth value.
The interquartile range is the difference between the lower and upper quartiles.

18.3 Cumulative frequency graphs 515

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The interquartile range is a measure of the dispersion of a set of data. The advantage of the
interquartile range is that it eliminates extreme values and bases the measure of spread on the
middle 50% of the data.
Look again at the graph from the start of this section.
50

40 Three-quarter value
Cumulative frequency

30
Middle value

20
One-quarter value
10

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Marks

Lower quartile Median Upper quartile

The quarter and three-quarter values out of 50 values are the 12.5th value and the 37.5th value.
Drawing lines across to the cumulative frequency curve from these values and down to the horizontal
axis gives the lower and upper quartiles. In this example, the lower quartile is 49 marks, the upper
quartile is 84 marks and the interquartile range is 84 – 49 = 35 marks.
Consider this question.
The head teacher gives an award to the top 10% of students. What is the minimum mark for
the award?
The top 10% is the top five students (10% of 50 is 5). Drawing a line across from the 45th student to
the graph and down to the horizontal axis gives a minimum mark of 95.

The table shows the marks of 100 students in an English examination.

Example 5

Mark Number of students Cumulative frequency

21  x  30 3 3
31  x  40 9 12
41  x  50 12 24
51  x  60 15 39
61  x  70 22 61
71  x  80 16 77
81  x  90 10 87
91  x  100 8 95
101  x  110 3 98
111  x  120 2 100

a Draw a cumulative frequency graph.

b Use your graph to find the median and the interquartile range.
c Students who score less than 44 have to resit the examination. Estimate the number of
students who will have to resit the examination.

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There are different ways of giving groups, depending whether the data is discrete or
continuous, but the important thing to remember is to plot the highest value of each group
against the corresponding cumulative frequency.
a Draw the graph.
100

80 Three-quarter value
Cumulative frequency

60
Middle value

40
One-quarter value
20

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Marks

b Add the lines for the median (50th value), lower and upper quartiles (25th and 75th values).
Read the required answers from the graph.
Median = 65 marks
Lower quartile = 51 marks Upper quartile = 79 marks
Interquartile range = 79 – 51 = 28 marks
c Draw a perpendicular line up from 44 on the mark axis, to intersect the graph. At the point
of intersection, draw a horizontal line across to the cumulative frequency axis, as shown.
The number of students who need to resit the examination is 17.

Hints and tips The median is often abbreviated to m or Q2, the lower quartile to Q1,
the upper quartile to Q3 and the interquartile range to IQR.

Exercise 18C
1 A class of 30 students was asked to estimate a time of one minute. The teacher
recorded the actual times when the students said one minute was over. The table
shows the results.
a Copy the table and complete the cumulative frequency column.
b Draw a cumulative frequency graph.
c Use your graph to estimate the median time and the interquartile range.
Time, t (seconds) Frequency Cumulative frequency
20 < t  30 1
30 < t  40 3
40 < t  50 6
50 < t  60 12
60 < t  70 3
70 < t  80 3
80 < t  90 2

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MR 2 A group of 50 pensioners was given the same task as the students in question 1.
The table shows the results.
a Copy the table and complete the cumulative frequency column.
b Draw a cumulative frequency graph.
c Use your graph to estimate the median time and the interquartile range.
d Which group, the students or the pensioners, would you say was better at
estimating time? Give a reason for your answer.

Time, t (seconds) Frequency Cumulative frequency

10 < t  20 1
20 < t  30 2
30 < t  40 2
40 < t  50 9
50 < t  60 17
60 < t  70 13
70 < t  80 3
80 < t  90 2
90 < t  100 1

3 The table shows the numbers of students in

360 secondary schools in South Yorkshire.
a Copy the table and complete a cumulative Number of students Frequency
frequency column. 101–200 12
b Draw a cumulative frequency graph. 201–300 18
c Use your graph to estimate the median 301– 400 33
number of students in the schools. 401–500 50
d Work out estimates for the lower and upper 501– 600 63
quartiles and write down the interquartile 601–700 74
range. 701– 800 64
e Schools with fewer than 350 students are 801–900 35
threatened with closure. Estimate the
901–1000 11
percentage of schools that are threatened
with closure.

MR 4 The table shows the results when Sian

recorded the midday temperature at
50 European resorts. Each temperature was Temperature, T (°C) Frequency
recorded to the nearest degree. 5–7 2
a Copy the table and complete a cumulative 8–10 3
frequency column. 11–13 5
b When drawing a cumulative frequency 14–16 6
graph, explain why the temperature at the
17–19 6
top ends of the groups must be plotted at
7.5 °C, 10.5 °C, 13.5 °C, 16.5 °C, … 20–22 9
c Draw a cumulative frequency graph. 23–25 8
26–28 6
d Use your diagram to estimate the median
temperature and the interquartile range. 29–31 5

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5 At the school charity f te, a game consists of throwing three darts and recording the
total score. The results of the first 80 people to throw are recorded in the table.
a Draw a cumulative frequency graph to show the data.
b Use your graph to estimate the median score and quartiles.
c People who score over 90 are given a prize. Estimate the percentage of the
80 people who receive a prize.

Total score, x Frequency

1  x  20 9
21  x  40 13
41  x  60 23
61  x  80 15
81  x  100 11
101  x  120 7
121  x  140 2

MR 6 Mrs James set her class an end-of-course test with two papers, A and B. She plotted
cumulative frequency curves for the results.

80
Paper A
70 Paper B

60
Cumulative frequency

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Marks

a What is the median score for each paper?

b What is the interquartile range for each paper?
c Which is the harder paper? Explain how you know.
d Mrs James wanted 80% of the students to pass each paper and 20% of the students
to get a top grade in each paper.
What marks for each paper give:
i a pass ii the top grade?

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PS 7 The cumulative frequency table shows the ages of 200 people in a village.

Age, a (years) Cumulative frequency

0 < a  20 30
20 < a  40 95
40 < a  60 150
60 < a  80 185
80 < a  100 200

Calculate an estimate for the mean age of the people in the village.

PS 8 ara recorded the duration, in minutes, of 60 helpline telephone calls. She produced
this cumulative frequency curve for the data.

60

50
Cumulative frequency

40

30

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (minutes)

Calculate an estimate for the mean length of the telephone calls.

18.4 Box plots Key terms

This section will show you how to: box-and-whisker plot

• draw and interpret box plots. box plot

A box plot (sometimes called a box-and-whisker plot) is another way of displaying and comparing data.
It requires five pieces of data: the lowest value, the lower quartile (Q1), the median (Q2), the upper
quartile (Q3) and the highest value. Look at this diagram.

Lowest Lower Upper Highest

value quartile, Q 1 Median, Q 2 quartile, Q 3 value

Always place the data values against a scale so that you plot them accurately. This also means that
anyone can interpret your box plot correctly.

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This is a box plot for the girls’ marks in last year’s end-of-year examination.
Example 6

Girls

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Examination mark

The boys’ results for the same examination are: lowest mark 39, lower quartile 65, median 78,
upper quartile 87 and highest mark 112.
a On the same graph, draw the box plot for the boys’ marks.
b Comment on the differences between the two distributions of marks.
a The data for boys and girls is plotted on the grid below.

Boys

Girls

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Examination mark

b The girls and boys have the same median mark of 78. The interquartile range of 22 is also
the same, but the range is smaller for the girls, showing that they are more consistent.
Both the lower and upper quartiles for the girls are higher than those for the boys.
This suggests that the girls did better than the boys overall, even though a boy got the
highest mark.

Exercise 18D
EV 1 The box plot shows the times taken for a group of adults to do 10 long-
multiplication calculations.

Adults

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (minutes)

The same set of calculations was given to the same number of students in Year 11.
Their results were: shortest time 3 minutes 20 seconds, lower quartile 6 minutes
10 seconds, median 7 minutes, upper quartile 7 minutes 50 seconds and longest time
9 minutes 40 seconds.
a Copy the diagram and draw a box plot for the students’ times.
b Comment on the differences between the two distributions.

18.4 Box plots 521

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EV 2 The box plot shows the sizes of secondary schools in Dorset.

Dorset

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Size (number of students)

The data for schools in Lancashire is: smallest 280 students, lower quartile
1100 students, median 1400 students, upper quartile 1600 students and largest
1820 students.
a Copy the diagram and draw a box plot for the sizes of schools in Lancashire.
b Comment on the differences between the two distributions.
EV 3 The box plots for the noon temperature at two resorts, recorded over a year, are
shown on the graph below.

Resort B

Resort A

–5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Temperature (°C)

a Comment on the differences in the two distributions.

b Misha wants to go on holiday in July. Which resort would you recommend and why?
EV 4 This table shows some data about the annual salaries for 100 men and 100 women.
Lowest salary Lower quartile Median salary Upper quartile Highest salary
Men £6500 £16 000 £20 000 £22 000 £44 500
Women £7000 £14 000 £16 000 £21 500 £33 500

a Draw box plots to compare the sets of data.

b Comment on the differences between the distributions.
5 The table shows the monthly income of 100 families.
a Draw a cumulative frequency diagram to show the data.
b Estimate the median monthly income.
c Estimate the lower and upper quartiles. Monthly income (£) Frequency
d The lowest monthly income was £1480 and 1451–1500 8
the highest was £1740. 1501–1550 14
Draw a box plot to show the distribution 1551–1600 25
of incomes. 1601–1650 35
1651–1700 14
1701–1750 4

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MR 6 A health practice had two doctors, Dr Excel and Dr Collins.

The practice manager drew these box plots to illustrate the waiting times for their
patients during October.

Dr Collins

Dr Excel

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Waiting time (minutes)

a For Dr Collins, what is:

i the median waiting time
ii the interquartile range for his waiting times
iii the longest waiting time for any patient in October?
b For Dr Excel, what is:
i the shortest waiting time for any patient in October
ii the median waiting time
iii the interquartile range for her waiting times?
c Anwar was deciding which doctor to try to see. Which one would you advise he
chooses? Give reasons to support your answer.

MR 7 Rodrigo was given a diagram showing box plots for the daily amounts of sunshine in
the resorts of Bude and Torquay for August. No scale was shown.
He was told to write a report about the differences between the amounts of sunshine
in both resorts.

Bude

Torquay

Write a report that he could possibly produce from these box plots.

PS 8 These are the box plots for a school’s end-of-year mathematics examination.
Estimate the difference between the means of the boys’ and the girls’
examination marks.

Boys

Girls

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Examination mark

18.4 Box plots 523

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18.5 Histograms
This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• draw and interpret histograms where the bars are of
equal width class interval
• draw and interpret histograms where the bars are of frequency density
unequal width
histogram
• calculate the median, quartiles and interquartile range
from a histogram.

Histograms with equal class intervals

A histogram looks similar to a bar chart, but there are four fundamental differences.
• There are no gaps between the bars.
• The horizontal axis has a continuous scale since it represents continuous data, such as time, mass
or length and is divided into class intervals.
• The area of each bar represents the frequency of the bar.
• The vertical axis is labelled frequency density, where:
frequency of class interval
frequency density = .
width of class intervval
The histogram below has been drawn from the table of times it takes people to walk to work.
Time, t (minutes) 0<t4 4<t8 8 < t  12 12 < t  16
Frequency 8 12 10 7
Frequency density 2 3 2.5 1.75

2
Frequency density

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (minutes)

Each class interval has the same width of 4 minutes. You can work out the frequency density for each
interval by dividing the frequency by 4.
Notice that each bar starts at the least possible time and finishes at the greatest possible time for each
class interval.

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Histograms with unequal class intervals

Sometimes the data values in a frequency distribution are grouped into class intervals of different
widths. In this case, the resulting histogram has bars of unequal width. It is important that you
remember that the area of a bar in a histogram represents the class frequency of the bar.
In a histogram with bars of unequal width, you work out the height of each bar by dividing its class
frequency by the width of its class interval (bar width), which is the difference between the lower
and upper bounds for that interval. Conversely, given a histogram, you can find any of its class
frequencies by multiplying the height of the corresponding bar by its width.

The table gives the heights of a group of girls, classified as shown.

Example 7

Height, h (cm) 151 < h  153 153 < h  154 154 < h  155 155 < h  159 159 < h  160
Frequency 64 43 47 96 12

Draw a histogram to show this data.

It is convenient to write the table vertically and add two columns for class width and
frequency density.
Work out the class width by subtracting the lower class boundary from the upper class
boundary. Work out the frequency density by dividing the frequency by the class width.

Height, h (cm) Frequency Class width Frequency density

151 < h  153 64 2 32
153 < h  154 43 1 43
154 < h  155 47 1 47
155 < h  159 96 4 24
159 < h  160 12 1 12

Now draw the histogram. Mark the horizontal scale as normal, from a value below the lowest
value in the table to a value above the largest value in the table. In this case, mark the scale
from 150 cm to 160 cm. The vertical scale is always frequency density and is marked up to at
least the largest frequency density in the table. In this case, 50 is a sensible value.
Draw each bar between the lower class boundary and the upper class boundary horizontally,
and up to the frequency density vertically.

50

40
Frequency density

30

20

10

0
150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160
Height (cm)

18.5 Histograms 525

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Calculating the median, quartiles and mean from a histogram

This histogram shows the distribution of heights of 400 daffodils in a greenhouse.

Example 8

a Complete a frequency table for the heights of the daffodils, and show the
cumulative frequency.
b Calculate an estimate for the median height.
c Calculate an estimate for the interquartile range of the heights.
d Calculate an estimate for the mean of the distribution.

60

50

40
Frequency density

30

20

10

0
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Height, h (cm)

a The class intervals of the frequency table will be 24 < h  26, 26 < h  27, … Work out the
frequencies by multiplying the width of each bar by the frequency density. Remember that
the value on the vertical axis is not the frequency.

Height, h (cm) 24 < h  26 26 < h  27 27 < h  28 28 < h  31 31 < h  37

Frequency 50 50 60 120 120
Cumulative frequency 50 100 160 280 400

b There are 400 values so the median will be the 200th value. Counting up the frequencies
from the beginning, you reach the fourth column of the table above.
The median occurs in the interval 28 < h  31. There are 160 values before this group and
120 in it. To reach the 200th value you need to count 40 more values into this group. 40 out
of 120 is one-third. One-third of the way through this group, which has a class interval of 3,
is 29 cm. Hence the median is 29 cm.
40
This can be written as 28 + 120 × 3 = 28 + 1 = 29 cm.
c The interquartile range is the difference between the upper quartile and the lower quartile.
In this case, the lower quartile is the 100th value and will be at the end of the 26< h  27
interval. The upper quartile is the 300th value and will be in the 31< h  37 interval. So, in
the same way that you found the median, you can work out Q1 and Q3.
Q1 = 27 cm
20
and Q3 = 31 + 120
× 6 = 31 + 1 = 32 cm.

So the interquartile range is 32 cm – 27 cm = 5 cm.

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d To estimate the mean, use the table to get the midway values of the class intervals and
multiply these by the corresponding frequencies. The sum of these divided by 400 will give
the estimated mean. So, the mean is:

25 × 50 + 26.5 × 50
50 + 2277.5 × 60 + 29.5 × 120 + 34 × 120
400
11 845
=
400
= 29.6 cm (3 sf)

Exercise 18E
1 Draw histograms, with equal class intervals, for these grouped
frequency distributions.

a
Temperature, t (°C) 8 < t  10 10 < t  12 12 < t  14 14 < t  16 16 < t  18
Frequency 5 13 18 4 3

b Wage, w (£1000) 6 < w  10 10 < w  14 14 < w  18 18 < w  22

Frequency 12 24 40 18

2 Draw histograms, with unequal class intervals, for these grouped

frequency distributions.

a
Age, a (years) 11 < a  14 14 < a  16 16 < a  17 17 < a  21
Frequency 21 24 10 20

b
Pressure, p (pascals) 745 < p  755 755 < p  760 760 < p  765 765 < p  775
Frequency 4 6 14 10

Hints and tips Pressure is measured in pascals (Pa).

c
Time, t (minutes) 0<t8 8 < t  12 12 < t  16 16 < t  20
Frequency 72 48 54 36

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PS 3 The sales of a newspaper over 70 years are recorded in the table.

Years 1946–65 1966–85 1986–95 1996–2005 2006–10 2011–2015
Copies (nearest 1000) 62 000 68 000 71 000 75 000 63 000 52 000

Illustrate this information on a histogram.

MR 4 The London trains were always late, so one month a survey was undertaken to find
how many trains were late, and by how many minutes (to the nearest minute).
The results are illustrated by this histogram.

30

25

20
Frequency density

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Minutes late

a i Explain how you work out the number of trains that were included in the
survey.
ii Use your explanation to work out the number of trains in the survey.
b How many trains were delayed for longer than 15 minutes?
5 One summer, Monty monitored the mass of the tomatoes grown on each of his
plants. His results are summarised in the table.
Mass, m (kg) 6  m < 10 10  m < 12 12  m < 16 16  m < 20 20  m < 25
Frequency 8 18 28 16 10

a Draw a histogram for this distribution.

b Calculate an estimate for the median mass of tomatoes the plants produced.
c Calculate an estimate for the mean mass of tomatoes the plants produced.
d How many plants produced more than 15 kg of tomatoes?

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6 The histogram illustrates the results of a survey to find the speeds of vehicles passing
a particular point on the M1.

12

10

8
Frequency density

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed (mph)

a Copy and complete the table.

Speed, v (mph) 0 < v  40 40 < v  50 50 < v  60 60 < v  70 70 < v  80 80 < v  100
Frequency

b Work out the number of vehicles included in the survey.

c Calculate an estimate for the median speed of the vehicles passing this point on
the M1.
d Calculate an estimate for the mean speed of the vehicles passing this point on the M1.
MR 7 The histogram shows the test scores for 300 students in a school.

4
Frequency density

0
0 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Test score

a Calculate an estimate for the median score.

b Calculate an estimate for the interquartile range of the scores.
c Calculate an estimate for the mean score.
d Given that 90% of the students passed this test, explain how to work out the pass
mark.
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8 The histogram shows the distribution of midday temperatures over a period of time.
a Draw a grouped frequency table for the data.
b State the modal group.
c Calculate an estimate for the median.
d Calculate the lower and upper quartiles and the interquartile range.
e Calculate an estimate for the mean.

25

20
Frequency density

15

10

0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Temperature (°C)

PS 9 The histogram shows the distances employees of a company travel to work.

Frequency density

0 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Distance (km)

It is known that 18 workers travel between 10 km and 12 km to work.

What is the probability of choosing a worker at random who travels less than 7.5 km
to work?

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 The mean speed of each member of a cycling club over a long-distance race was
recorded and a frequency polygon was drawn.

40

35

30

25
Frequency

20

15

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Speed, s (mph)

Use the frequency polygon to calculate an estimate for the mean speed.

This is a problem-solving question. You need to follow a series of processes to move the
information from a graphical format into a tabular format.
Create a grouped frequency table. Remember that each plotted
point is the mid-class value.
Speed, s (mph) Frequency, f Midpoint, m f×m
5 < s  10 12 7.5 90
10 < s  15 23 12.5 287.5
15 < s  20 34 17.5 595
20 < s  25 24 22.5 540
25 < s  30 5 27.5 137.5
30 < s  35 2 32.5 65
100 1715

Estimate for the mean speed = 1715 ÷ 100 Use the information from your
= 17.15 table to calculate an estimate
for the mean speed to a
= 17.2 mph (1 dp) suitable degree of accuracy.

18 Worked exemplars 531

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MR 2 Simon makes men’s and women’s shirts. He needs to Neck size, n (inches) Frequency
know the range of collar sizes so he measures 12 < n  13 5
100 men’s necks. The results are shown in the table.
13 < n  14 16
a Draw a cumulative frequency graph to show this 14 < n  15 28
information.
15 < n  16 37
b Use the graph to work out:
16 < n  17 10
i the median ii the interquartile range.
17 < n  18 4
c The box plot shows the neck sizes of 100 women.

Neck size, inches

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Compare the distribution of neck sizes for men and women.

This is a mathematical reasoning question. You need to demonstrate your use of mathematical
skills and knowledge in your answer.
a The cumulative frequencies are: 5, 21, 49, 86, 96, 100 Remember to plot the cumulative
frequencies at the end of each
Men
class interval.
100
You can draw either a cumulative
frequency polygon or a cumulative
80
frequency curve.
Cumulative frequency

60

40

20

0
12 14 16 18
Neck size, n (inches)

b i median = 15 inches You need to read these values by

ii lower quartile = 14.2 inches drawing lines from the relevant places
on the cumulative frequency axis: 50,
upper quartile = 15.5 inches 25 and 75.
So IQR = 15.5 – 14.2 = 1.3 inches
c For women: You must carefully compare the
median = 13.5 inches medians and the IQRs and make a
written conclusion.
IQR = 14.7 – 12.2 = 2.5 inches
Here you are making a deduction to
Comparing the medians shows that, on average, men draw a conclusion from mathematical
have a larger neck size. information.
Comparing the IQRs show that the neck sizes of the
women are more spread out.

532 18 Statistics: Sampling and more complex diagrams

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Ready to progress?
I know how to collect data to obtain an unbiased sample.
I can draw and interpret frequency polygons.

I can draw and interpret cumulative frequency diagrams.

I can work out the median, the quartiles and the interquartile ranges from cumulative
frequency diagrams.
I can draw and interpret box plots.

I can draw and interpret histograms where the class intervals are of equal and unequal widths.
I can calculate the mean, the median, the quartiles and the interquartile range from
a histogram.

Review questions
CM 1 Explain how you can ensure that a sample is representative of a population.

EV 2 The frequency polygon shows the times taken by a group of 50 students to complete
a mathematical puzzle.

20

15
Frequency

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time taken, t (minutes)

a The frequency table shows the times taken by a group of 50 adults to complete the
same puzzle.
Time taken, t (minutes) Frequency
0 < t  10 4
10 < t  20 11
20 < t  30 19
30 < t  40 10
40 < t  50 6

On a copy of the diagram, draw a frequency polygon to show the times taken by
the adults to complete the puzzle.
b Compare the times taken by each group to complete the puzzle. Make two
comments supported by the data.

18 Review questions 533

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3 48 people went on a coach trip to the seaside.

The grouped frequency table shows information about their ages.

Age, a (years) Frequency

0 < a  10 4
10 < a  20 6
20 < a  30 10
30 < a  40 22
40 < a  50 4
50 < a  60 2

a Copy the table and complete a cumulative frequency column.

b Draw a cumulative frequency graph.
c Use your graph to estimate the median age.
d Use your graph to estimate the lower quartile, the upper quartile and the
interquartile range.

MR 4 The box plots show some information about the monthly wages of all the men and
women who work for a large bank.

Men

Women

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10 000 11 000 12 000
Wage (£)

a Write down the median wage:

i for the men ii for the women.
b Work out the interquartile wage:
i for the men ii for the women.
c Compare the distribution of the wages. Make two comments supported by the
data.

5 The table gives some information about the lengths of time some students took to
run a cross country race.
Time taken, t (minutes) Frequency
40 < t  50 5
50 < t  55 12
55 < t  60 18
60 < t  70 15
70 < t  90 8

Draw a histogram to show the information in the table.

534 18 Statistics: Sampling and more complex diagrams

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6 The histogram shows the distribution of ages.

a Draw the grouped frequency table for the data.
b State the modal group.
c Calculate an estimate for the median.
d Calculate the lower and upper quartiles and the interquartile range.
e Calculate an estimate for the mean.

stratified sample
6

5
Frequency density

0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Age (years)

PS 7 Kelly has a cumulative frequency graph from a survey of 80 people about how much
they spent at a local newspaper shop on one morning.
She knows that nobody spent less than 50p and nobody spent more than £6. The
median amount was £3, the lower quartile was £2 and the upper quartile £4.
Explain how she could estimate the mean amount spent in the survey.

18 Review questions 535

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19
Probability:
Combined events

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out the probability of two events
• how to draw and use frequency tree diagrams
• how to use probability for independent events
• how to use conditional probability.

You should already know:

• how to work out the probability of an outcome
• how to use a two-way table to work out probability.

About this chapter

Chance is a part of our everyday lives. Judgements are frequently made
based on probability. A good example is the weather forecast. You are likely
to hear, for example: “There is a 40 per cent chance of rain today.”
How do they know that?
• Records of data that predict possibility of rainfall go back as far as
1854, when meteorologists regarded the presence of nimbus clouds
as an indication that there was a good chance of rain.
• Barometers were used to predict the chance of rainfall. A sign of
falling pressure on the barometer was taken as an indication of a
good chance of rain.
• Finally, the direction of wind was used to determine the chances
of rainfall. If the wind blew from a rainy part of the country, the
chance of rain would be high.
The occurrence of all these three indicators would almost certainly mean
that rain would come.

536
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19.1 Addition rules for outcomes

of events
This section will show you how to:
• work out the probability of different outcomes of combined events.

You have used the addition rule already but it has not yet been formally defined.
When two outcomes are mutually exclusive, you can work out the probability of either of them
occurring by adding up the separate probabilities.

A bag contains twelve red balls, eight green balls, five blue balls and fifteen black balls. A ball is
Example 1

drawn at random. What is the probability of it being:

a red b black c red or black
d not green e neither green nor blue?
12 3 15 3
a P(red) =
40
=
10
b P(black) =
40
=
8
3 3 27
c P(red or black) = P(red) + P(black) = + =
10 8 40
32 4
d P(not green) =
40
=
5
27
e P(neither green nor blue) = P(red or black) =
40
Note: In part e, ‘not green’ and ‘not blue’ are not mutually exclusive as ‘not green’ includes
‘blue’ and ‘not blue’ includes ‘green’, so the addition rule does not work here.
So P(neither green nor blue) P(not green) + P(not blue)

Exercise 19A
1 Jenny picks a card from a standard pack. What is the probability that she picks:
a a heart b a club c a heart or a club?
2 Ben chooses a card at random from this set.

P R O B A B I L I T Y
Work out:
a P(choosing a B) b P(choosing a vowel) c P(choosing a B or a vowel).
3 A bag contains 10 white balls, 12 black balls and 8 red balls. Keva picks a ball at
random from the bag. Work out the probability that the ball she picks is:
a white b black c black or white
d not red e neither red nor black.

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4 At the School Fayre tombola stall you win a prize if you draw from the drum a ticket
with a number that ends in 0 or 5. There are 300 tickets in the drum altogether,
numbered 1 to 300.
a How many winning tickets are there in the drum?
b What is the probability of getting a losing ticket?
5 John needs his calculator for his mathematics lesson. It is always in his pocket, his
school bag or his locker.
The probability it is in his pocket is 0.35 and the probability it is in his bag is 0.45.
What is the probability that:
a he will have the calculator for the lesson b his calculator is in his locker?
MR 6 A spinner is numbered and coloured as shown in the diagram. The probabilities of
scoring the different colours are given in the table.
1
Colour Probability Number Probability 3
Red 0.5 1 0.4
Green 0.25 2 0.35
Blue 0.25 3 0.25

1
Viv spins the arrow on the spinner.
2
a What is the probability of it stopping on:
i red or green ii 2 or 3 iii 3 or green iv 2 or green?
b i Explain why P(1 or red) is not 0.9.
ii Work out P(1 or red).
PS 7 A bag contains 200 coloured discs. Each disc is red, blue or green.
There are twice as many red discs as blue discs in the bag.
The probability of choosing a green disc is 0.31.
Work out the probability of choosing a red disc.
CM 8 The probability that it rains on Monday is 0.5. The probability that it rains on Tuesday
is 0.3 and the probability that it rains on Wednesday is 0.2. Kelly argues that it is
certain to rain on Monday, Tuesday or Wednesday because 0.5 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 1, which is
the probability of a certainty. Explain why she is wrong.
9 Brian and Kathy want a selection of background music at their wedding reception.
They upload 100 different tracks onto the MP3 player.
40 love songs 35 musical show songs
15 classical music tracks 10 rock tracks
They will set it to play the tracks continuously, at random.
a What is the probability that:
i the first track played is a love song
ii the last track of the evening is either a musical show song or a classical track
iii the track when they start their meal is not a rock track?
b They want a love song or a classical track to be playing when they start cutting the
cake. What is the probability that they will not get a track of their choice?
c The reception lasts for five and a half hours. For what amount of time, in hours and
minutes, would you expect the MP3 player to be playing love song tracks?

538 19 Probability: Combined events

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PS 10 James, John and Joe play the Count Dracula game together every Saturday. John is
always the favourite to win, with a probability of 0.75.
In 2014 there were 52 Saturdays and James won eight times.
What was the probability of Joe winning?

19.2 Combined events

This section will show you how to:
• work out the probability of two outcomes or events
Key terms
occurring at the same time.
combined event
There are many situations where two events occur together. sample space diagram
This is known as a combined event. Some examples are given
below. Note that, in each case, all the possible outcomes of theoretical probability space
the combined events are shown in diagrams. These are called diagram
theoretical probability space diagrams or sample space diagrams.

Throwing two dice

Suppose you throw two fair dice, one red and one blue. The red dice can land with any one of six
scores: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. The blue dice can also land with any one of six scores. This gives a total of
36 possible combinations. These are shown in the left-hand diagram below, where each combination
is given as a set of coordinates, such as (2, 3). The first number is the score on the blue dice and the
second number is the score on the red dice.
The combination (2, 3) gives a total score of 5. The total scores for all the combinations are shown in
the right-hand diagram.

6 (1, 6) (2, 6) (3, 6) (4, 6) (5, 6) (6, 6) 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

5 (1, 5) (2, 5) (3, 5) (4, 5) (5, 5) (6, 5) 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Score on red dice

Score on red dice

4 (1, 4) (2, 4) (3, 4) (4, 4) (5, 4) (6, 4) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

3 (1, 3) (2, 3) (3, 3) (4, 3) (5, 3) (6, 3) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2 (1, 2) (2, 2) (3, 2) (4, 2) (5, 2) (6, 2) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 (1, 1) (2, 1) (3, 1) (4, 1) (5, 1) (6, 1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Score on blue dice Score on blue dice

From the diagram on the right, you can see that there are two ways to get a score of 3. This gives a
probability of:
2 1
P(3) = 36
=
18

From the diagram on the left, you can see that there are six ways to get a ‘double’. This gives a
probability of:
6 1
P(double) = =
36 36

19.2 Combined events 539

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Coins and dice

Throwing one coin
There are two equally likely outcomes, head or tail.
1
P(head) = P(tail) = 2

Throwing two coins together

There are four equally likely outcomes:
1
• two heads P(2 heads) = 4
1
• two tails P(2 tails) = 4

• a head and a tail (two ways) P(head and tail) = 2424 or

= 2121
or

Throwing a dice and a coin

There are 12 equally likely outcomes.
A head and an even number can be achieved in (1, H) (2, H) (3, H) (4, H) (5, H) (6, H)

Outcome

H
on coin
three ways.
(1, T) (2, T) (3, T) (4, T) (5, T) (6, T)

T
3 1
P(head and an even number) = 12
=
4
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score on dice

Exercise 19B
1 Sasha throws two fair dice, each numbered from 1 to 6.
a What is the most likely score?
b Which two scores are least likely?
c Copy and complete the table to show the probabilities of all scores from 2 to 12.
Score 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Probability

d What is the probability of a score that is:

i bigger than 10 ii from 3 to 7 inclusive iii even
iv a square number v a prime number vi a triangular number?
2 When two fair dice are thrown, what is the probability that:
a the score is an even ‘double’
b at least one of the dice shows a 2
c the score on one dice is twice the score on the other dice
d at least one of the dice shows a multiple of 3?
3 When two fair dice are thrown, what is the probability that:
a both dice show a 6
b at least one of the dice shows a 6
c exactly one dice shows a 6?

540 19 Probability: Combined events

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4 The sample space diagram shows the scores for the event ‘the 6 5 4 1 0

Score on second dice

difference between the scores when two fair dice are thrown’. 5 4 3 1
a Copy and complete the diagram. 4 3
b What is the probability that the difference is: 3 2

i 1 ii 0 iii 4 2 1
1 0
iv 6 v an odd number?
1 2 3 4 5 6
Score on first dice
CM 5 Two fair coins are thrown together.
a What is the probability of scoring:
i two heads ii a head and a tail iii at least one tail iv no tails?
b Explain why the four events are exhaustive.
6 A dice and a coin are thrown together. What is the probability of scoring:
a a head on the coin and a 6 on the dice
b a tail on the coin and an even number on the dice
c a head on the coin and a square number on the dice?
7 Luka spins two fair five-sided spinners together. He records 5 10

Score on second
the total scores of the faces that they land on in a sample 4

spinner
space diagram, like this. 3 4
a Copy and complete Luka’s sample space diagram. 2 3
b What is the most likely score? 1 2
1 2 3 4 5
c When Luka spins two fair five-sided spinners together,
Score on first
what is the probability of his total score being: spinner
i 5 ii an even number iii a ‘double’ iv less than 7?
PS 8 a List all the possible outcomes when three fair coins are thrown together.
b Write down:
i P(throwing three heads) ii P(throwing two heads and one tail)
iii P(throwing no heads) iv P(throwing at least one tail).
MR 9 When one coin is thrown, there are two outcomes. When two coins are thrown,
there are four outcomes. When three coins are thrown, there are eight outcomes.
a How many outcomes will there be when four coins are thrown?
b How many outcomes will there be when five coins are thrown?
c How many outcomes will there be when 10 coins are thrown?
d How many outcomes will there be when n coins are thrown?
PS 10 When Mel walked into her local
shopping centre, she saw a competition
taking place. Mel decided to have a go.
a Draw the sample space diagram for
this event.
b What is the probability of winning a
prize?
c How many goes should she have in order to expect to win a prize at least once?
d If she had 40 goes, how many times could she expect to have won?

19.2 Combined events 541

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PS 11 I throw five coins. What is the probability that I will get more heads than tails?

MR 12 I roll a dice three times and add the three numbers obtained.
Explain the difficulty in drawing a sample space to show all the possible events.

19.3 Tree diagrams

This section will show you how to:
Key terms
• understand frequency tree diagrams and probability tree diagrams
frequency tree diagram
• use probability tree diagrams to work out the probabilities involved
in combined events. probability tree diagram

In mathematics, you have seen that difficult ideas can be expressed in diagrams. These can be very
helpful in the study of probability.

Frequency tree diagrams

Suppose a bag contains coloured discs. You are going to take discs at random from the bag. The
1 1
probability of taking a red disc is 8
, the probability of taking a blue disc is 4 and the probability of
taking a green disc is 85 .
You take a disc and then replace it. You do this 80 times.
How many discs of each colour would you expect to take?
10
1 1
P(red) = 8 , so you would expect to choose 8 × 80 = 10 red discs. Red
1 1
P(blue) = 4 , so you would expect to choose 4 × 80 = 20 blue discs. Blue
80 20
5 5
P(green) = 8
, so you would expect to choose 8 × 80 = 50 green discs.
You can show this information on a frequency tree diagram. Green
50

400 people take a two-part test. In the first part of the test, the probability that someone passes
Example 2

is 0.8. In the second part of the test, the probability that someone passes is 0.6. Show the
outcomes on a frequency tree.
First part: P(pass) = 0.8, so 400 × 0.8 = 320 pass. So 80 fail.
Second part: P(pass) = 0.6, so if someone passes the first part, then 0.6 × 320 = 192 pass the
second part and 128 fail the second part.
Second part: P(pass) = 0.6, so if someone fails the first part, then 0.6 × 80 = 48 pass the second
part and 32 fail the second part.
First part Second part

Pass 192

320
Pass
Fail 128
400
Pass 48
Fail
80

Fail 32

542 19 Probability: Combined events

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Probability tree diagrams

Suppose you take two cards from this pack of six cards, but
you replace the first card before you take the second card.
One way to show all the possible outcomes of this experiment is in a probability space diagram.

● ■● ■● ■● ▲● ▲● ●●
▲ ■▲ ■▲ ■▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ●▲
Second card

▲ ■▲ ■▲ ■▲ ▲▲ ▲▲ ●▲
■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ▲■ ▲■ ●■
■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ▲■ ▲■ ●■
■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ▲■ ▲■ ●■

■ ■ ■ ▲ ▲ ●
First card

From the diagram, you can see immediately that the probability of taking, for example, two squares, is
9 out of 36 pairs of cards. So:
9 1
P(two squares) is 36
=
4

Look again at the probability space diagram above. What is the probability of taking:
Example 3

a a square and a triangle (in any order) b two circles c two shapes that are the same?
a There are 6 combinations that give a square then a triangle and 6 that give a triangle then a
square. So there are 12 combinations that give a square and a triangle altogether. So:
P(square and triangle, in any order) is 12 = 1
36 3
b There is only 1 combination that gives two circles. So:
1
P(two circles) = 36
c There are 9 combinations of two squares together, 4 combinations of two triangles together
and 1 combination of two circles together. These give a total of 14 combinations with two
shapes the same. So:
P(two shapes the same) is 14 = 7
36 18

You can also use probability tree diagrams to solve problems involving combined events. Returning
to the ‘six-card’ problem above, when you take the first card, there are three possible outcomes:
a square, a triangle or a circle. For a single event:
3 2 1
P(square) = 6
P(triangle) = 6 P(circle) = 6
You can show this by representing each outcome as a branch and writing its ■
probability on that branch. 3
Then you can extend the diagram to show a second choice. Because the first 6
card has been replaced, you can still take a square, a triangle or a circle, with the
same probabilities. This is true no matter what you took the first time. You can 2
demonstrate this by adding three more branches to each branch in the diagram. 6
▲
Here is the complete probability tree diagram.

1
6

19.3 Tree diagrams 543

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First event Second event Outcome Probability

3
3 ■ ■ ■ 6
× 3
6
=
9
36
6
2
3
■ 6
▲ ■ ▲ 6
× 2
6
=
6
36

3 1
3
6 6 ● ■ ● 6
× 1
6
=
3
36

2
3 ■ ▲ ■ 6
× 3
6
=
6
36
6
2 2
6 2
▲ 6
▲ ▲ ▲ 6
× 2
6
=
4
36
1
2
6 ● ▲ ● 6
× 1
6
=
2
36

1 1
6 3 ■ ● ■ 6
× 3
6
=
3
36
6
2
6 1
● ▲ ● ▲ 6
× 2
6
=
2
36
1
1
6 ● ● ● 6
× 1
6
=
1
36

Notice that the sum of all the probabilities is 1, as the outcomes are exhaustive.
You can calculate the probability of any final outcome by multiplying all the probabilities on its
branches. For instance:
3 3 9 1
P(two squares) is 6
× 6
= 36
which cancels to 4
2 1 2 1
P(triangle followed by circle) is 6
× 6
= 36
which cancels to 18
.

Look again at the probability tree diagram above. What is the probability of taking:
Example 4

a two triangles b a circle followed by a triangle c a square and a triangle, in

any order
d two circles e two shapes that are the same?
4 1
a P(two triangles) is 36
= 9
2 1
b P(circle followed by triangle) is 36
= 18
c There are 2 results in the outcome column that show a square and a triangle. These are in
6
the second and fourth rows. The probability of each is 36
. Their combined probability is
given by the addition rule.
6 6 12
P(square and triangle, in any order) is 36
+ 36
= 36
1
= 3
1
d P(two circles) = 36
e There are 3 final outcomes that have two shapes the same. These are on the first, fifth and
9 1
last rows. The probabilities are respectively , 4
36 36
and 36
. Their combined probability is
given by the addition rule.
9 4 1 14
P(two shapes the same) is 36 + 36
+ 36
= 36
7
= 18
Note that the answers to parts c, d and e are the same as the answers found in Example 8.

544 19 Probability: Combined events

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Exercise 19C
Prediction Actual result
1 80 students took a driving test.
Pass
Before the test each student predicted
whether they would pass or fail.
Pass
50 students predicted they would pass. Fail
80
After the test, 42 students who predicted Pass
they would pass did actually pass. Fail

56 students passed the test.

Fail
Copy and complete the frequency tree diagram.
2 On my way to work, I drive through two sets of roadworks with traffic lights that only
show green or red. I know that the probability of the first set being green is 31 and the
probability of the second set being green is 21 .
a What is the probability that the first set of lights will be red?
b What is the probability that the second set of lights will be red?
c Copy and complete the tree diagram,
First event Second
showing the event outcomes
possible Outcome Probability
when passing
through both sets of lights. First event Second event Outcome Probability
_ 1
1 _ 1_
d Use your tree diagram to _
1 G (G, G)  =
_3 1
1 _6
_2 1
work out the probability that: _2
1 G (G, G) 3
 =
2 6
2
i I do not get held up at G
either set of lights.
_
1 G
_3
1
ii I get held up at exactly 3 R
one set of lights. R
iii I get held up at least once. G
G
e Over a school term I make
90 journeys to work. On how R
many days can I expect to get R
two green lights?
R
3 Six out of every 10 cars in Britain are made abroad. R
a What is the probability that any car will be British made?
b Two cars can be seen approaching in the distance. Draw a tree diagram to work out
the probability that:
i both cars are British made ii one car is British and the other was made abroad.
4 a Jack throws three fair
First event coins.
Second Copy and
event complete
Third event the tree diagram toProbability
Outcome show the
possible outcomes.
First event Second event Third event Outcome Probability
_  1
1 _  1
_ = 1
_
H (H, H, H) 2 2 2 8
H T _  1
1 _  1
_ = 1
_
H (H, H, H) 2 2 2 8
H H
_
1
TH
2
H T
_
1 TH
2 T
T
H
H
T
H
T H H
T
T T
T
H
T the probability of throwing:
b Use your tree diagram to work out
i three tails ii two heads and a tail T iii at least one tail.
19.3 Tree diagrams 545
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5 Aziz takes a three-part language examination paper. He has a 0.4 chance of passing
the first part, on ‘speaking’. He has a 0.5 chance of passing the second, on ‘listening’.
He has a 0.7 chance of passing the third part, on ‘writing’.
a Draw a tree diagram, where the first event is passing or failing the ‘speaking’ part, the
second event is passing or failing the ‘listening’ part and the third event is passing or
failing the ‘writing’ part.
b If he passes all three parts, his father will give him £50. What is the probability that he
gets the money?
c If he passes two parts only, he can resit the other part. What is the probability that he
will have to resit the examination?
d If he fails all three parts, he will be not be able to continue the course. What is the
probability that he will not continue the course?

6 In a group of 10 girls, six like the pop group Smudge and four like the pop group
Grudge. Two girls are to be chosen for a pop quiz.
a What is the probability that the first girl chosen will be a Smudge fan?
b Draw a tree diagram to show the outcomes when you choose, at random, two girls
and ask which pop groups they like.
c Use your tree diagram to work out the probability that both girls will like:
i Smudge ii the same group iii different groups.
PS 7 Look at all the tree diagrams that you have seen so far.
a What do the probabilities across any set of branches (outlined in the diagram below)
always add up to?
b What do the final probabilities (outlined in the diagram below) always add up to?
c Now copy the diagram and fill in all of the missing values.
First event Second event Outcome Probability
b

_ _
2 _ __
3
a
3
4 C (A, C) 5

3
4
= 10

_2 A
5 ? (A, D) _
2
D 5
 ? = ?
(B, E) _
1
E ?  ? = 5
?
? B
?
F (B, F) ?  ? = ?

PS 8 When playing the game Pontoon, you are dealt two cards. If you get an ace and a
king, queen or jack you have been dealt a ‘Royal Pontoon’. What is the probability of
being dealt a Royal Pontoon? Give your answer to 3 decimal places.

MR 9 I have a bag containing white, blue and green jelly babies. Explain how a tree diagram
can help me find the probability of picking, at random, three sweets of different colours.

MR 10 a Suppose you throw a fair coin four times. Show how you could work out the
probability of getting four heads without drawing a tree diagram.
b A fair coin is thrown n times. Write down the probability of scoring n heads.

546 19 Probability: Combined events

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19.4 Independent events

This section will show you how to: Key term
• use the connectors ‘and’ and ‘or’ to work out the independent events
probabilities for combined events.

If the outcomes of an event A do not affect the outcomes of an event B, then events A and
B are independent events. Most of the combined events you have studied so far have been
independent events.
If A and B are independent, then P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B).
The next three examples show you how to work out problems about combined events without using
tree diagrams. The method is similar to using a tree diagram but uses the words ‘and’ and ‘or’.

The chance that Ashley hits a target with an arrow is 41 . He has two shots at the target. What is
Example 5

the probability that he hits the target:

a both times b once only?
a P(hits both times) = P(first shot hits and second shot hits)
1 1 1
= 4
× 4
= 16

b P(hits the target once only) = P(first hits and second misses or first misses and second hits)
= ( 41 × 43 ) + ( 43 × 41 ) = 166 = 83
Note: The connections between the word ‘and’ and the operation ‘times’, and the word ‘or’ and
the operation ‘add’.

‘At least’ problems

When you are working with combined events, you may need to find the probability of at least one of
the outcomes occurring. There are two ways to do this.
You can write out all the possibilities, which takes a long time.
Alternatively, you can use P(at least one) = 1 – P(none).
The second option is much quicker and there is less chance of making a mistake.
Example 6

A bag contains seven red balls and three black balls. Anton takes out a ball, notes the colour
and replaces it. He does this three times. What is the probability that he takes out:
a no red balls b at least one red ball?
3 3 3 27
a P(no reds) = P(black, black, black) = 10
× 10
× 10
= 1000
b P(at least one red) = 1 – P(no reds)
27 27 973
Since P(no reds) = 1000
, P(at least one red) = 1 – 1000
, which is 1000
.

Notice that the answer to part b is 1 minus the answer to part a.

Working in decimals, P(no reds) = 0.027 so P(at least one red) = 1 – 0.027, which is 0.973.

19.4 Independent events 547

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More advanced use of ‘and’ and ‘or’

You have already seen how to solve some probability problems related to independent events by
using tree diagrams or the and/or method. These methods are similar but the and/or method works
better in the case of three events that occur one after another, or where the number of outcomes of
one event is greater than two. This is because the tree diagram would be too large and involved.
Example 7

Josh picks three cards from a normal pack. He replaces each card and shuffles the pack, before
picking the next card. What is the probability that he draws:
a three kings b exactly two kings and one other card
c no kings d at least one king?
Let K be the outcome ‘drawing a king’. Let N be the outcome ‘not drawing a king’.
1 1 1 1
a P(KKK) = 13
× 13
× 13
= 2197

b P(exactly two kings) = P(KKN) or P(KNK) or P(NKK)

= ( 131 × 131 × 1213 ) + ( 131 × 1213 × 131 ) + ( 1213 × 131 × 131 )
36
= 2197

12 12 12
c P(no kings) = P(NNN) = 13
× 13
× 13
1728
=
2197

d P(at least one king) = 1 – P(no kings)

1728
=1– 2197
469
= 2197

Note: The notation P(KKN) or P(KNK) or P(NKK) represents P(the first card is a king, the second
is a king and the third is not a king) or P(the first is a king, the second is not a king and the third
is a king) or P(the first is not a king, the second is a king and the third is a king).
Note also that the probability of each component of part b is exactly the same. So the
calculation could be:
1 1 12 36
3× 13
× 13
× 13
= 2197

Patterns of this kind often occur in probability.

Exercise 19D
1 2
Jack throws a coin twice. The coin is biased so it has a probability of 3
of landing on a
head. What is the probability that Jack throws:
a two heads b a head and a tail?
2 Bernie draws a card from a normal pack, replaces it, shuffles the pack and then draws
another card. What is the probability that the cards he draws are:
a both aces b an ace and a king?

548 19 Probability: Combined events

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3 The probability that I am late for work on Monday is 0.4. The probability that I am late
on Tuesday is 0.2. What is the probability that:
a I am late for work on Monday and Tuesday
b I am late for work on Monday and on time on Tuesday
c I am on time on both Monday and Tuesday.
PS 4 What is the probability of rolling the same number on a fair dice five times in a row?

5 A bag contains four red balls and six blue balls. Su takes out a ball, notes its colour
and replaces it. Then she takes out another ball. Work out:
a P(both balls are red) b P(both balls are blue) c P(at least one ball is red).
6 The probability that Steve is late for work is 65 . The probability that Nigel is late for
work is 9.
10
The probability that Gary is late for work is 21 . Work out:

a P(all three are late) b P(none of them is late) c P(at least one is late).
MR 7 a Sorcha throws a fair dice three times. What is the probability of scoring:
i three sixes ii no sixes iii at least one six?
b A fair dice is thrown n times. What is the probability of scoring:
i n sixes ii no sixes iii at least one six?
8 The driving test is made up of a written test and a practical test. It is known that 90%
of people who take the written test pass and 60% of people who take the practical test
pass. A person who passes the written test does not have to take it again. A person
who fails the practical test does have to take it again.
a What is the probability that someone passes both tests?
b What is the probability that someone passes the written test but takes two attempts to
pass the practical test?

CM 9 Seven out of 10 cars in Britain are made by foreign manufacturers. Three cars can be
seen approaching in the distance.
a What is the probability that all three cars are foreign?
b Explain why, if the first car is foreign, the probability of the second car being foreign is
still 0.7.
c Explain why the probability that exactly two of the three cars are foreign is 0.441.
PS 10 The probability that an orchid planted in Cardasica will grow well is 0.6.
Kieron plants 10 orchids in Cardasica. What is the probability that at least nine of
these orchids will grow well?

PS 11 Evie’s mathematics teacher told her that the probability that she gets her mathematics
homework correct is always the same. In four homeworks, the chance of her getting
at least one incorrect is 0.5904.
What is the probability of Evie getting her mathematics homework correct on any
one occasion?

CM 12 James has been dealt two cards and knows that if he is now dealt a 10, jack, queen or
a king he will win.
16
James thinks that the chance of his winning is now 50
. Explain why he is wrong.

19.4 Independent events 549

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19.5 Conditional probability

This section will show you how to: Key term
• work out the probability of combined events when the conditional probability
probabilities change after each event.

When the probability of one event is dependent on the outcome of another event, you are dealing
with conditional probability. For instance, if you take a card from a pack and do not return it, then the
probabilities for the next card drawn will be different. The next example illustrates this situation.
Example 8

A bag contains nine balls, of which five are white and four are black.

W W W W W B B B B
A ball is taken out and not replaced. Then another ball is taken out.
a If the first ball removed is black, what is the probability that:
i the second ball will be black ii both balls will be black?
b What is the probability that at least one black ball is taken out?
a When a black ball is removed, there are five white balls and three black balls left, reducing
the total to eight.

W W W W W B B B
You can either draw a tree diagram to show this information, or just write down the
probabilities, remembering there is one fewer ball in the bag each time one is taken out.

First event Second event Outcome Probability

_ 3
4 _
_
3 B (B, B) 9

8
8

B
_
4
9
_
5
_ 5
4 _
8 W (B, W) 9

8

_ 4 _
_
4 B (W, B) 5
9

8
_
5 8
9
W
_
4
8 W (W, W) _ 4
5 _

9 8

Hence, when the second ball is taken out:

3
i P(second ball black) = 8
4 3
ii P(both balls black) = 9
× 8
1
= 6

(continued)

550 19 Probability: Combined events

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b P(at least one black ball) = 1 – P(none black)

= 1 – P(W, W)
=1– 5× 4
9 8
13
=
18

Exercise 19E
1 There are 10 calculators in a box. Three of them are faulty. What is the
probability that:
a Dave takes the first and it is a good one
b Julie takes the second and it is a good one
c Andrew takes the third and it is faulty?
2 65 men (M) and women (W) are asked if they are right (R) or left (L) handed.
The Venn Diagram shows the results.

ξ
M L M
L

25 8 9
R
W
23
L

Copy and complete the frequency tree diagram.

3 A box contains 10 red balls and 15 yellow balls. One is taken out at random and not
replaced. Another is then taken out.
a If the first ball taken out is red, what is the probability that the second ball is:
i red ii yellow?
b If the first ball taken out is yellow, what is the probability that the second ball is:
i red ii yellow?
c Work out:
i P(both balls are red) ii P(both balls are yellow)
iii P(the balls are different colours)
4 A fruit bowl contains six Granny Smith apples and four Golden Delicious apples.
Kevin takes two apples at random.
a If the first apple is a Granny Smith, what is the probability that the second is:
i a Granny Smith ii a Golden Delicious?
b If the first apple is a Golden Delicious, what is the probability that the second is:
i a Granny Smith ii a Golden Delicious?
c Work out:
i P(both are Granny Smiths) ii P(both are Golden Delicious)
iii P(the apples are different).
19.5 Conditional probability 551
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5 There are five white eggs and one brown egg in an egg box. Kate decides to use two
of the eggs to make an omelette. She takes each egg from the box without looking at
its colour.
a What is the probability that the first egg taken is brown?
b If the first egg taken is brown, what is the probability that the second egg taken will be
brown?
c What is the probability that Kate makes an omelette from:
i two white eggs ii one white and one brown egg iii two brown eggs?
CM 6 A bag contains three black balls and seven red balls. Aidan takes out a ball and does
not replace it. He does this twice more.
a Work out the probability for each event.
i P(all three are black) ii P(exactly two are black)
iii P(exactly one is black) iv P(none is black).
b Explain why the four probabilities in a add up to 1.
MR 7 A quarter of all cars on British roads are made in Britain. Jon sees a British-made car
coming down the road. He says that the probability of the next car being British-
1
made is 3 because a British-made car has just gone past. Explain why he is wrong.

MR 8 An engineering test is made up of two parts: a written test and a practical test. It is
known that 90% of those who take the written test pass. When a person passes the
written test, the probability that they will also pass the practical test is 60%. When a
person fails the written test, the probability that they will pass the practical test
is 20%.
a What is the probability that someone passes both tests?
b What is the probability that someone passes one test?
c What is the probability that someone fails both tests?
d Explain how you could check your answers to parts a, b and c.
CM 9 A bag contains only blue discs and white discs, all the same size. Tony is asked to find
the probability of taking out two discs of the same colour.
Describe how Tony would do this, explaining carefully the point where he is most
likely to go wrong.

PS 10 What is the probability that the first four cards being dealt from a normal pack are all
aces? Give your answer as a fraction in its simplest form.

PS 11 In a survey of 140 students, 37 study music, 103 play a sport and 25 do neither.
a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the data.
b Use your diagram to calculate the probability that a student selected at random:
i will study music and not play a sport
ii will study music, given that they play a sport.
Give your answers to 3 decimal places.

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 Susie is rehearsing for a driving test. This test is made up of two parts, a practical and
a theory. She is told that the probability of passing only one of these two tests is
0.44 and the probability of passing the practical is 0.8.
a Draw a tree diagram to show this information.
b Set up an equation to calculate the probability of passing the theory test.

This is a problem-solving question. You must process the problem into a series of algebraic steps.

a Here, you are solving the problem

Theory Outcome Probability by making a decision to put it into
x Pass PP 0.8x an algebraic context.
Practical
Let x = P(passing the theory test)
Pass
0.8
1–x Fail PF 0.8(1 – x)
and so

Pass FP 0.2x P(failing the theory test) = 1 – x.

x
0.2
Fail

1–x Fail FF 0.2(1 – x)

b P(only pass one test) = P(PF) + P(FP) Use the tree diagram to work out
= 0.8(1 – x) + 0.2x P(only pass one test). Remember
So 0.8 – 0.8x + 0.2x = 0.44 to add the two outcomes.
0.8 – 0.6x = 0.44 ⇒ 0.6x = 0.8 – 0.44 This is the equation to solve.
0.8 − 0.44 Rearrange the equation to
x= = 0.6 calculate x.
0.6
MR 2 a A bag contains 10 red discs, 10 white discs and 10 blue discs.
Explain how to calculate P(3 red discs) if none are replaced.
b Harry has a bag that contains a quantity of red discs, white discs and blue discs.
He takes out ten discs at random, as a sample, and finds he has only blue discs and
white discs. He says: “This shows that there are no red discs in the bag.”
Is he correct? Give a reason to support your answer.

This question assesses your mathematical reasoning. You need to draw conclusions from the given
information and demonstrate your mathematical understanding.

a P(first disc is red) = 10 This is an example of conditional

30
probability, as the discs are not
1
= 3 replaced. You will need to show
P(second disc is red) = 9 your working as part of the
29
8 explanation. Your answer can be
P(third disc is red) = 28 given as a fraction or a decimal.
= 72 Here you are making a deduction
to draw a conclusion from
So P(3 red discs) = 31 × 299 2
×
7 mathematical information.
6
=
203
= 0.0296 (3 sf)
b No, he is incorrect as there may be at least one red disc in You need to say “No” and give a
the bag but he has not chosen them in the sample. valid, specific reason from given
information.

19 Worked exemplars 553

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Ready to progress?
I can draw a tree diagram to work out the probability of combined events.
I can use and/or to work out probabilities of specific outcomes of combined events.
I can work out probabilities for independent events.
I can work out the probabilities of combined events when the probability of each event
changes depending on the outcome of the previous event.
I can draw and use frequency tree diagrams to solve problems.

Review questions
1 Adel puts 8 red counters and 4 blue counters into a bag.
She takes, at random, a counter from the bag. 1st counter 2nd counter
2
– Red
She writes down the colour of the counter. 3

She puts the counter in the bag again.

2 Red
–
She then takes, at random, a second counter from 3

the bag. …… Blue

a Copy and complete the tree diagram. …… Red

b Work out the probability that Adel takes two ……

Blue
counters that are the same colour.
c Work out the probability that Adel takes two …… Blue
counters that are different colours.

MR 2 At the end of a course, army cadets have to pass an examination to gain a certificate.
The probability of passing at the first attempt is 0.65. Those who fail are allowed to resit.
The probability of passing the resit is 0.7. No further attempts are allowed.
a Copy and complete the tree diagram.
1st attempt 2nd attempt

0.65 Pass

Pass
0.7

……… Fail

……… Fail

b i What is the probability that a cadet gains a certificate?

ii What is the probability that a cadet fails to gain a certificate after two attempts?
c 2000 cadets take the examination. Draw a frequency tree diagram to show how
many cadets reach each stage.

3 Mrs Smart drives to work. She passes through two sets of traffic lights.
The probability that she has to stop at the first set of traffic lights is 25 .
If she has to stop at the first set of traffic lights, the probability that she has to stop at
the second is 65 .
If she does not have to stop at the first set of traffic lights, the probability that she has
to stop at the second is 31 .
Work out the probability that she has to stop at only one set of traffic lights.
554 19 Probability: Combined events
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4 Tim has two bags of marbles.

Bag A contains 7 red marbles and 3 blue marbles.
Bag B contains 3 red marbles and 7 blue marbles.
Tim rolls a fair six-sided dice once.
If he rolls a 6 he takes a marble from bag A.
If he does not roll a 6 he takes a marble from bag B.
Calculate the probability that Tim chooses a red marble.

CM 5 Adam and Lara play in two different games of chess.

5
The probability that Adam and Lara both win their games is 16
.
The probability that Adam wins his game is 83 .
Explain how you would work out the probability that Lara wins her game.

PS 6 The two-way table shows the number of people watching a film at a cinema.

Male Female
Adult 21 14
Child 10 5

Two of these people are chosen at random to receive free cinema tickets.
Calculate the probability that the two people are children of the same gender.
Give your answer to 3 decimal places.

PS 7 Two outcomes A and B are independent.

The probability of B is double the probability of A.
9
The probability of both A and B occurring is 32 .
Work out the probability that outcome A occurs.

MR 8 A bag contains some red and some blue balls.

A ball is taken out at random and its colour is noted. The ball is then replaced in the
bag. Another ball is then taken out at random and its colour is noted.
a Which of these could not be the probability of two red balls?
9 1 13
25 9 20

Give a reason for your choice.

b It is known that there are more blue balls than red balls in the bag.
Which of the probabilities in part a must be the probability of two red balls? Give a
reason for your choice.

PS 9 In a sixth form of 260 students, 93 study Spanish, 95 study chemistry, 165 study
mathematics, 18 study Spanish and chemistry, 75 study chemistry and mathematics,
20 study mathematics and Spanish and 15 study all three subjects.
a Draw a Venn diagram to illustrate the data.
b Use your diagram to calculate the probability that a student selected at random
studies:
i only Spanish ii mathematics and chemistry but not Spanish.
iii none of these subjects iv Spanish, given that they study mathematics.
Give your answers to 3 significant figures.
19 Review questions 555
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20
Geometry and
measures: Properties
of circles

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to prove and use circle theorems to work out angles
• how to work out angles in cyclic quadrilaterals
• how to use tangents, chords and alternate segment theorem to
work out angles in circles.

You should already know:

• that the three interior angles of a triangle add up to 180°
• that the four interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°
• the properties of angles formed by a straight line (transversal)
across parallel lines
• the correct terms for different parts of a circle.

About this chapter

Circles feature in all sorts of human activity, from making pottery and clocks
to wheels. The most primitive wheels were probably logs rolled under the
object to be moved. One of the largest wheels currently is the London Eye.
Engineers need to know about circles, since gears and pulleys rely on them.
Circles are also used in what some see as an art form, others as vandalism –
the formation of crop circles. In philosophy, circles are thought to represent
a whole, as well as the completion of a cycle.
There is a famous story about the thirteenth-century Italian artist Giotto.
Pope Boniface VIII wanted to find the best painter in Italy to work on some
paintings for St Peter’s Basilica in Rome. When Giotto was asked for a sample
of his work, he took a brush and, in one even sweep, drew a perfect circle on
a sheet of paper. The Pope’s messenger was angry, but took the drawing and
showed the Pope, explaining how Giotto had drawn it, freehand. Giotto got
the commission.
Euclid, who lived in about 300 BC, is famous for his study of geometry,
including many propositions or theorems based on circles. In this chapter,
you will study some of those theorems.

556
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20.1 Circle theorems

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• prove and use circle theorems to work out angles
prove theorem
created in a circle from points on the circumference.

What can you remember about circles?

Work with a partner. Draw a diagram of a circle. Add a diameter and a radius.
Draw a chord on your diagram. Shade in a sector and a segment.
Draw a tangent to your circle.
Now colour the circumference. Use a different colour to shade an arc.
Mark the centre and shade a semicircle.

Exercise 20A
MR 1 a Draw a circle with radius about 5 cm. Mark clearly the centre, O.
C

A
B

b Choose any two points, A and B, on the circumference of the circle.

c Mark a point C on the other side of the circle from AB.
d Draw the lines OA, OB, AC and BC to produce a diagram like this.
e Measure ∠AOB and ∠ACB.
f Repeat parts a–e for three circles with a different radius.
g Comment on your results.
MR 2 a Draw four circles with radii between 3 cm and 5 cm.
b In each circle, draw a diameter and label it AB.
c In each circle, mark any point on the circumference and label it C.
d Measure ∠ABC.
e Comment on what you have found out.
MR 3 a Draw any circle. C
A
b Mark any two points, A and B, on the circumference of the circle.
D
c Label three points C, D and E on the circumference of the circle
and opposite the arc AB, as shown in the diagram. O

d Draw the lines AC, BC, AD, BD, AE and BE. B E

e Measure ∠ACB, ∠ADB and ∠AEB.

f Comment on what you have found out.
g Will this work for other circles?

20.1 Circle theorems 557

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Now that you can identify the parts of a circle, and have discovered some important facts about them,
you are ready to learn some circle theorems. Work through them carefully and try to follow the steps.
The diagram shows a circle, centre O, with an arc AB. The two radii, OA and OB, form an angle at O.
D

O C

B
A

The two chords, AC and BC, join points A and B to point C on the circumference. You say that the arc
AB subtends angles at the circumference, C, and at the centre, O.
OA = OB = OC = OD All the radii in a circle are equal.
∠AOB + ∠COB + ∠DOC = 180° (1) AD is a straight line.
∠CΟΒ + ∠OCB + ∠CBO = 180° Angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
OC = OB and ∠OCB = ∠CBO Triangle OCB is isosceles.
Hence ∠COB + 2 × ∠OCB = 180°
⇒ ∠COB = 180° – 2 × ∠OCB (2)
Substitute equation (2) into equation (1) to give:
∠AOB + (180° – 2 × ∠OCB) + ∠DOC = 180°
⇒ ∠AOB + 180° – 2 × ∠OCB + ∠DOC = 180°
⇒ ∠AOB – 2 × ∠OCB + ∠DOC = 180° – 180°
=0
Hence ∠AOB = 2 × ∠OCB – ∠DOC (3)
But ∠OCB = ∠OCA + ∠ACB (4)
Substitute equation (4) into equation (3) to give:
∠AOB = 2 × (∠OCA + ∠ACB) – ∠DOC
Hence ∠AOB = 2 × ∠OCA + 2 × ∠ACB – ∠DOC (5)
OA = OC and ∠OAC = ∠OCA Triangle OAC is isosceles.
Hence ∠AOC + 2 × ∠OCA = 180° Angles in a triangle add up to 180°.
But ∠AOC + ∠DOC = 180° Angles on a straight line add up to 180°.
Hence ∠DOC = 2 × ∠OCA (6)
Substitute equation (6) into equation (5) to give:
∠AOB = ∠DOC + 2 × ∠ACB – ∠DOC
Hence ∠AOB = 2 × ∠ACB
Look again at the working above.
By working through the steps, making sure that you can justify each stage by referring to what
you have already done, and giving reasons based on what you know, you have proved the first
circle theorem.

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Circle theorem 1 C
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the circumference
x
when they are both subtended by the same arc.
∠AOB = 2 × ∠ACB O

2x
B
A

Look again at the diagram in circle theorem 1.

Imagine you move A and B apart, so that they become the endpoints of a diameter AB.
Then the angle at the centre becomes 180° and the angle at the circumference will be half of 180°,
which is 90°.
This gives the second theorem.

Circle theorem 2
Every angle subtended at the circumference of a semicircle by the
diameter is a right angle.
O

Theorem 1 tells you that any angle subtended from arc AB at a point C on the circumference is always
half the angle subtended at the centre.
Therefore, every possible angle subtended from arc AB at the circumference will correspond to the
same angle at the centre.
Hence all the angles subtended at the circumference will be equal.

Circle theorem 3 C3
Angles subtended at the circumference in the same segment of a C2
circle are equal. x
x C4
Points C1, C2, C3 and C4 on the circumference are subtended by the
same arc AB. x
C1
So ∠AC1B = ∠AC2B = ∠AC3B = ∠AC4B x

A B

Hints and tips In circle theorem 3, the angles were described as ‘in the same segment’.
Remember: A segment of a circle is the part cut off by a chord. So angles in the
same segment are all on the same side of the chord AB.

20.1 Circle theorems 559

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Example 1 Work out the sizes of the angles marked a and b in each diagram. O is the centre of the circle.
a b

a
35° b
O O
P 25°
b a

a a = 35° Angles in the same segment are equal.

b = 2 × 35° The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
= 70°
b OP = OQ Radii in a circle are equal.
∠OPQ = ∠OQP Triangle OPQ is isosceles.
a + (2 × 25°) = 180° The sum of the angles in triangle OPQ is 180°.
a = 180° – (2 × 25°)
= 130°
b = 130° ÷ 2 The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
= 65°

In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle. PQR is a straight line.

Example 2

P
Show that a = 144°. Q
R
72° a
O
T

∠PQT = 180° – 72°

= 108° Angles on a straight line add up to 180°.

Reflex angle ∠POT = 2 × 108° The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
= 216°
a + 216° = 360° The sum of angles around a point add up to 360°.
a = 360° – 216°
= 144°

In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle. POQ is parallel to TR.

Example 3

Q
a Work out the size of the angles labelled a and b.
R
b What size would you need to make ∠ROQ for PTRO to become a
64°
parallelogram?
a O

T
b

560 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles

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a a = 64° ÷ 2 The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
a = 32°
∠TQP = a Alternate angles are equal.
= 32°
∠PTQ = 90° The angle at the circumference of a semicircle
b + 90° + 32° = 180° The sum of angles in PQT is 180°.
b =180° – 122°
= 58°
b Let ∠RTQ = x.
∠ROQ = 2x The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
For PTRO to be a parallelogram:
∠TPQ = 2x TPQ and ROQ are allied angles.
∠QPT + ∠PTQ + ∠QTR = 180° Consecutive angles in a parallelogram add up to 180°.
2x + 90° + x = 180°
3x + 90° = 180°
x = 90° ÷ 3 = 30°
So, ∠ROQ needs to be 2 × 30° = 60° for PTRO to be a parallelogram.

Hints and tips There are other acceptable methods for reaching this answer.

Exercise 20B
1 Work out the size of the angle marked x in each circle. O is the centre.
a b c d
x 35°
O 28° O O O
x x
31° 210°
x

e f g 30°
h x

x
O O O O
x
70°
x

20.1 Circle theorems 561

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2 Find the size of the angle marked x in each diagram. O is the centre of the circle,
where shown.
a b c d
x
x x
35°
O x
50° 95°
40°
88° 61°

105°
e f 10°
g h
x 60°

68° x
O O O
x
66° x

3 B
In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle. C
41°
Find the size of each of these angles.
a ∠ADB b ∠DBA c ∠CAD O

A
D

4 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle. E

Find the size of each of these angles.

a ∠EDF b ∠DEG c ∠EGF O
18°
D 37°

F
G

CM 5 In the diagram Y is a diameter of the circle, Z

∠A = a and A is the centre.
a
Show that the value of a is 55°.
110°
Y
X A

CM 6 Find the values of x and y in each of these circles. O is the centre, where shown. Give
reasons for your answers.
a b c
29°

x
x y y
44° 23°
150°
x
y
140° O O

20°

59°
562 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles
31° y
O O
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78°
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d e f
59°
31° y
O O
51° x

y 25°
78° x
x
y

MR 7 In the diagram, O is the centre and AD is a diameter of the circle. A

15°
Lana worked out that x was 68°. Lex worked out that x was 86°.
Evaluate both of the answers. O B
x
C
E D 38°

CM 8 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and A

∠CBD = x.
B
Prove that the reflex angle AOC is 2x. O
x D

CM 9 A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle, centre O. B

Angle ABO is x and angle CBO is y. x

y
a State the value of angle BAO.
O
b State the value of angle AOD.
c Prove that the angle subtended by the diameter of the circle A
at the circumference is a right angle.
C
D

PS 0
10 A, B, C and D are four points on a circle, centre O. D

∠OAB = 53° and ∠OAD = 17° C

Work out the size of ∠OBD.

O

MR 1
11 Prove circle theorem 3: angles subtended at the circumference in the same segment
of a circle are equal.

20.1 Circle theorems 563

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20.2 Cyclic quadrilaterals

This section will show you how to: Key term
• find the sizes of angles in cyclic quadrilaterals. cyclic quadrilateral

A quadrilateral with four vertices that lie on the circumference of a

circle is a cyclic quadrilateral.
The diagram shows any cyclic quadrilateral. b

Draw a circle, mark four points on the circumference and join them, in order, a
to make a cyclic quadrilateral. Make two tracings of your quadrilateral and cut
each one in two, from opposite corners. Cut along a different diagonal each d c
time. Now arrange the two parts of each quadrilateral, putting opposite
corners together. What do you notice? Try it again, with another cyclic
quadrilateral.
In this diagram, each point on the circumference is joined to the centre,
creating four isosceles triangles with base angles of x, y, w and t. w
y
x + x + y + y + w + w + t + t = 360° Angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°.
w
So 2(x + y + w + t) = 360° t
and x + y + w + t = 180° (1) t y
x x
So (x + y) + (w + t) = 180°
But (x + y) and (w + t) are the opposite angles of the cyclic quadrilateral.
Also, (x + t) + (y + w) = 180° (2) Rearranging equation (1)
and (x + t) and (y + w) are the other opposite angles of the cyclic quadrilateral.

Circle theorem 4
The sum of the opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180°. b
a + c = 180° and b + d = 180°
a

d c

Find the values of x and y in the diagram.

Example 4

108° 85°

x + 85° = 180° Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral

So, x = 95°
y + 108° = 180° Opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral
So, y = 72°

564 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles

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Exercise 20C
1 Work out the sizes of the lettered angles in each circle.
a b c d
e
85° x c
d 81°
g
130°

a b 88° x f 70°
h 105°

e f g h
120°
89°
l p
34°
140° O 136° x
j k m y
50°
q
n

2 Find the values of x and y in each circle. O is the centre of the circle, where shown.
a b c d
x y x
54° x
43° O
y 48° 21°
64°
O 15°
30° y
y
x

e f x
g h
x 76°
y
32° x
42° O x y
y 85°
67°
40° 14° 38°

PS 3 a Judy said that every rectangle is cyclic. Prove that Judy is correct.
b Nathan said that every parallelogram is cyclic. How can you show this is incorrect
without having to draw a parallelogram?

4 Find the values of x and y in each circle. O is the centre of the circle, where shown.
a b c d
x x y
x x
O O O
y
y
98° 160° 105° 100°

y 70°

5 Find the values of x and y in each circle.

a b c d
x 42° 42°
68° y
118°
x
50° x y
y 51° y 20° x

35°

20.2 Cyclic quadrilaterals 565

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6 Find the values of x and y in each circle, centre O.

a b c d
x
y
42° 85° O O x
x
O y 38° O
x 16°
y
76°

PS 7 In the cyclic quadrilateral PQRT, O is the centre of the circle and angle ROQ = 38°.
POT is a diameter and is parallel to QR. Calculate these angles.
a ∠ORT b ∠QRT c ∠QPT

Hints and tips It is helpful to draw a diagram, if you are not given one.

A
CM 8 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle.
a Explain why 3x – 30° = 180°. x

b Work out the size of angle CDO, marked y on the diagram.

Give reasons in your working. D O
y 30° B
2x – 30°

CM 9 ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral within a circle, centre O, and angle AOC = 2x.
B
a State the value of ∠ΑΒC, giving a reason.
b State the value of the reflex angle AOC, giving a reason.
c State the value of ∠ADC, giving a reason.
O
d Hence prove that the sum of any pair of opposite angles of a
cyclic quadrilateral is 180°. A 2x C

D
CM 10 In the diagram, ABCE is a parallelogram.
A B
Prove that ∠AED = ∠ADE.
Give reasons in your working.

E D C

CM 11 A, B, C and D are four points on a circle, centre O. D

∠ABC = 139° and
∠OAD = 23°
Work out the size of ∠OCD. O

B
C

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20.3 Tangents and chords

This section will show you how to:
Key term
• use tangents and chords to find the sizes of angles in
circles. point of contact

A tangent is a straight line that touches a circle at only one point.

This point is called the point of contact.
Tangent
A chord is a line that joins two points on the circumference. Point of
contact

Chord

Circle theorem 5
A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the O
point of contact.
The radius O is perpendicular to the tangent AB.
A B
X

The diagram shows a circle with tangents drawn from point T to A

T
meet points A and B on the circumference.

The radii OA and OB are perpendicular to the tangents. From circle theorem 5
In triangles OAT and OBT:
OA = OB Radii in a circle are equal.
OAT = OBT The radius is perpendicular to the
= 90° tangent at the point of contact.
OT is a common side.
Hence triangles OAT and OBT are congruent (RHS).
So AT = BT and ∠ATO = ∠BTO

Circle theorem 6
X
Tangents to a circle from an external point to the points of
contact are equal in length.
A = AY A

20.3 Tangents and chords 567

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Circle theorem 7 X
The line joining an external point to the centre of the
circle bisects the angle between the tangents. x
O A
∠OA = ∠OAY x

In this diagram, chord AB has been bisected at point P by another radius. A

In the two triangles OAP and OBP:
OA = OB Radii in a circle are equal.
O P
AP = BP P bisects AB.
OP is common. OP is a side in both triangles.
B
So OAP and OBP are congruent (SSS).
Then it follows that ∠OPA = ∠OPB.
But ∠OPA + ∠OPB = 180° Angles on a straight line.
So ∠OPA + ∠OPB = 2 × ∠OPA
= 180°
Hence ∠OPA = 180° ÷ 2
= 90°

Circle theorem 8
A radius bisects a chord at 90°.
O
O is the centre of the circle.
B
∠BMO = 90° and
M
C
BM = CM

OA is the radius of the circle and AB is a tangent.

Example 5

A
OA = 5 cm and 12 cm
5 cm
AB = 12 cm B
O
Show that the length of OB is 13 cm.
∠OAB = 90° The radius is perpendicular to the
tangent at the point of contact.
Let OB = x cm
By Pythagoras’ theorem:
x2 = 52 + 122
x2 = 169
So x = 169
OB = 13 cm

568 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles

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Exercise 20D
1 TP and TQ are tangents to a circle with centre O. Find the value of x in each case.
Pa P PP bP P PP c d
x x T Tx x T T T T T T
70°70° 70°
70°
52°52° 52°
52°
x x x x O O OO O O OO
P P PP
O O OO O O OO
Q Q QQ 5x 5x 5x5x 3x 3x 3x3x

x x x x Q Q QQ
P P PP T T T T x x x x
T T T T

2 Each diagram shows tangents to a circle with centre O. Find the value of y in each case.
a 8 cm 8 cm
8 cm b c 6 cm
6 cm 6 cm d
8 cm 6 cm
y y y 4
4 cm 4 cmcm y y y
y 1010
10 cm cmcm O OO 4 cm y
O 5 cm
O 5 cm
5Ocm
O OO 10 cm 4O
4 cm 4 cmcm O OO O 5 cm
O 4 cm O
y y y
y
y y y
10 cm1010
cmcm
12 cm1212
cmcm y
10 cm
12 cm

3 Each diagram shows a tangent to a circle with centre O. Find the values of x and y in
each case.
a b yy y c d
78°
78° 78°
xx x
78° x y
xx x 31°
31° 31° 31°
yy y 40°
40° 40°x 40° OO O O
y
OO O O OO O O OO x xO O
x x
2x
2x 2x 2x
yy y y
xx x x

yy y y

4 In each of the diagrams, TP and TQ are tangents to the circle with centre O. Find the
value of x in each case.
a b c T T d
T T
T T x x

48° 48°

28° 28°
P P
x x Q Q
P xP x Q Q
P P P P
71° 71° Q Q
x x
O O O O T
4x 4x T

Q Q

20.3 Tangents and chords 569

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PS 5 Two circles with the same centre have radii of 7 cm and 12 cm respectively. A tangent
to the inner circle cuts the outer circle at A and B. Find the length of AB.

CM 6 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle and AB is a

tangent to the circle at C.
Prove that triangle BCD is isosceles. O

64° D

32°
A C B

CM 7 BA and BC are tangents to the circle with centre O. OA and OC are radii. B

a Prove that angles AOB and COB are equal. A

b Prove that OB bisects the angle ABC.

EV 8 The diagram shows a circle with centre O. X

The circle fits exactly inside an equilateral triangle Y .
The lengths of the sides of the triangle are 20 cm.
Ling said that the radius of the circle is 5.8 cm.
Evaluate Ling’s statement. O

Z Y

PS 9 The diagram shows a circle, centre O. Q

A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of the circle.

PQ and PR are tangents to the circle at B and D respectively. B
AC is parallel to PR. O
A C
∠QPR = 52°
What is the size of ∠BOC? 52°
R P
D

570 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles

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20.4 Alternate segment theorem

This section will show you: Key term
• how to use the alternate segment theorem to find the
alternate segment
sizes of angles in circles.

B
What is an alternate segment?
A
In the diagram, A, B and C are points on the circumference of the circle with
O
centre O.
The segment containing the angle BAC is called the alternate segment of angle
x
BCQ, because it is on the other side of the chord BC from the angle BCQ.
P C Q

Exercise 20E
1 a Draw a circle with a radius of approximately 5 cm.
b Draw a tangent, ATB, where T is the point of contact with the circle.
c Draw a triangle RST in the circle, where S and R are two points on the circumference.
B
T

A
R

MR 2 a Measure ∠ATS and ∠TRS on your diagram from question 1.

b What do you notice?
MR 3 a Measure ∠BTR and ∠RST on your diagram from question 1.
b What do you notice?

You should have just found, experimentally, that the angle between a chord and the tangent at one of
its endpoints is equal to the angle that the chord subtends at the circumference.
Now work through the proof.
B
The tangent PQ touches the circle at C.
A
Angle BCQ = x O
Then ∠OCB = 90° – x OC is perpendicular to PQ.
∠OBC = ∠OCB OBC is an isosceles triangle. x
P C Q
∠COB = 180° – (90° – x) – (90° – x) The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°.
= 180 – 90 + x – 90 + x
= 2x
∠CAB is half ∠COB The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
So ∠CAB = x
= ∠BCQ

20.4 Alternate segment theorem 571

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Circle theorem 9
B
PTQ is the tangent to a circle at T. x
A
The segment containing the angle TBA is the alternate segment of angle PTA.
The angle between a tangent and a chord through the point of contact is
equal to the angle in the alternate segment. x
∠PTA = ∠TBA P T Q

In the diagram, find the size of: a ∠ATS b ∠TSR.

Example 6

B
T
70°
A

80° R

a ∠ATS = 80° Angle in the alternate segment

b ∠TSR = 70° Angle in the alternate segment

Exercise 20F
1 Find the size of the lettered angles in each diagram.
a b c d
65° k
c 52°
b 43° i 48°
63° 41°
75° 79° g
n
a h
e m
f d

2 Find the size of the lettered angles in each diagram.

a b c d
c b c
d
d 47° b 70°

O a
a a
b
75° a
106°

3 In each diagram, find the value of x.

a b x – 30° x – 30°

x x x x
3x 3x

572 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles

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4 In each diagram, ATB is a tangent to the circle. O is the centre, where marked. Find
the size of each lettered angle.
a b c d
z y
x y
O y O 38° O

z 32° 42°
65° 65° x 69° x x
A T B A T B A T B A T B

EV 5 In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle.

B
Y is a tangent to the circle at A.
BC is a straight line. C O
Yuka said that triangle AC is isosceles.
64°
32°
Evaluate Yuka’s statement.
X A Y

PS 6 AB and AC are tangents to the circle at and Y. C

Work out the size of ∠ Y . Y

Give reasons to justify your answer.
Z

56°
42°
B X A

CM 7 PT is a tangent to a circle, centre O.

B
A and B are points on the circumference. A
x
∠PBA = x O

a Write down the value of ∠AOP.

b Calculate ∠OPA in terms of x.
P T
c Prove that ∠APT = ∠PBA.
CM 8 A circle has two tangents PQ and PT from a common point P.
Use the alternate segment theorem to prove that PQ = PT.

20.4 Alternate segment theorem 573

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Worked exemplars
1 a i Write down the value of x.
ii Calculate the value of y. 40°
x
CM b A and C are points on the circumference of a circle,
centre B.
AD and CD are tangents and ∠A∆D = 40°.
A y
Explain why ∠ABC is 100°. Give reasons
for your answers.

B 40° D

This is a communicating mathematics question, so show your reasoning clearly at each stage.

a i x = 40° Angles in the same segment Your explanation does not need to go
into great detail. Write short, simple
ii y = 180° – 40°
statements, clearly stating which
= 140° Opposite angles in cyclic quadrilateral theorem you are using to justify each
equal 180° step.
b ∠BAD = 90° Radius is perpendicular to tangent.
∠ABD = 50° Angle sum of a triangle is 180°.
Similarly:
∠BCD = 90° Radius is perpendicular to tangent.
∠CBD = 50° Angle sum of a triangle is 180°.
So ∠ABC = 2 × 50°
= 100°

PS 2 In the diagram, Y is a tangent to the circle at A. X

A
BCY is a straight line. 70°

Work out the size of ∠ABC. 25° Y

O
C
B

This is a problem-solving question where you need to plan your strategy to find the
size of this angle.
∠ACB = 70° Angle in alternate segment You need to combine your knowledge of
∠ACY = 110° Angles on a line = 180° angles in a triangle with angles in a circle
to identify the unknown angles in the
∠CAY = 45° Angles in a triangle sum diagram until you are able to calculate the
to 180° angle ABC.
so ∠ABC = 45° Angle in alternate segment You need to show your reasoning at each
stage: it’s not sufficient to simply state
the answer with no indication of how you
found it.

574 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles

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EV 3 In the diagram, ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral. C

AE is a tangent at A. B

CDE is a straight line. 40°

∠CAD = 32° D

∠ABD = 40°
Chris worked out that ∠AED is 68°. 32°
x
Evaluate Chris’s answer. E
A

This is an evaluating question, so you need to look at an answer and see if it’s correct.
If it is not, say why you think the result has been given incorrectly.
∠DAE = 40° Alternate segment Here you are able to show that Chris is
theorem correct, but you do need to show how this
∠ACD = 40° Angle subtended by the answer is found and indicate clearly the
same chord justification of each answer to each stage
of the working.
∠CAE = ∠CAD + ∠DAE
There is more than one way to show this.
= 40° + 32°
= 72°
∠AED = 180° – (∠DAE + ∠ADE)
∠ADE = 180° – ∠ADC
= 180° – (180° – 32° – 40°)
= 72°
So ∠AED = 180° – (72° + 40°) Angles in
a triangle
sum to
180°
so ∠AED = 68°
This shows that Chris was correct.

20 Worked exemplars 575

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Ready to progress?
I can use tangents and chords to work out angles in circles.
I can calculate angles in cyclic quadrilaterals.
I can use the alternate segment theorem to calculate angles in circles.

I can prove circle theorems and use them to prove geometrical results.

Review questions
1 In each diagram, O is the centre of the circle.
a Write down the value of x. b Write down the value of y.

x y

O
O
38°
88°

c Calculate the value of t, stating any assumptions you have made.

110°
t

2 a Write down the value of a. b Write down the value of b.

a b
55°

105°

CM 3 A, B, C and D are all points on the circumference of a circle, centre O. A

a Explain how you know that the value of x is 160°. 80°

b Give a reason why y is 100°. O

x B
D
y

C
CM 4 A
A, B, C and D are all points on the circumference of a circle, centre O.
x
Show that OBCD could only be a rhombus if x = 60°.
O

B
D

576 20 Geometry and measures: Properties of circles C

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5 PQRT is a cyclic quadrilateral. Q

ATB is a tangent to the circle at point T.

P
PQ = RQ
∠RTΒ = 42° R
If PT is parallel with QR, show that ∠PTR = 84°.
42°
A T B
PS 6 PD and TD are tangents, at A and B respectively, P
of a circle, centre O. A
Eve calculated x to be 41°. 66°

Show that she is correct.

C 50° D
O

T
CM 7 On the diagram, lines AB and AC are both A
B
tangents of a circle, centre O.
The tangents touch the circle at B and
C respectively.
O
Prove that the quadrilateral ABOC would
always be cyclic.
C

CM 8 A and B are two points on the circumference of a circle, centre O. A

PT is a tangent to the circle at point B.

∠ABP = x O
Prove that ∠AOB will always be 2x.
x

T B P
EV 9 AC and BC are both tangents to the circle, centre O.
Calculate the length of PC. State any assumptions you make.

O 8 cm
B

A
P 12 cm

20 Review questions 577

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21
Ratio, proportion
and rates of change:
Variation

This chapter is going show you:

• how to solve problems where two variables are connected by a
relationship in which they vary in direct proportion
• how to solve problems where two variables are connected by a
relationship in which they vary in indirect proportion
• how to recognise graphs that illustrate direct and inverse
proportion.

You should already know:

• squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots of integers
• how to substitute values into algebraic expressions
• how to solve simple algebraic equations.

About this chapter

In many real-life situations, variables are connected by a rule or relationship.
It may be that as one variable increases, the other increases. Alternatively, it
may be that as one variable increases, the other decreases. In this chapter
you will learn how quantities vary when they are related in some way. For
example, as plants get older they become taller; as a car gets older it is worth
less (and eventually it is worthless); as more songs are downloaded there is
less money left on a gift voucher.

578
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21.1 Direct proportion

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve problems where two variables have a directly
constant of proportionality
proportional relationship (direct variation)
• work out the constant of proportionality direct variation

• recognise graphs that show direct variation.

There is direct variation or direct proportion between two variables when one variable is a simple
multiple of the other. That is, their ratio is a constant.
For example:
• 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
There is a multiplying factor of 2.2 between kilograms and pounds.
• Area of a circle = πr2
There is a multiplying factor of π between the area of a circle and the square of its radius.

When you are working with direct variation, start by finding this multiplying factor or constant of
proportionality. Then you can use it to solve the problem.
The symbol for variation or proportion is ∝.
You can write the statement ‘pay is directly proportional to time’ mathematically as:
pay ∝ time
This implies that:
pay = k × time
where k is the constant of proportionality.
Follow these steps to solve proportionality problems.
Step 1: Set up the proportion statement, using the proportionality symbol, with letters or symbols to
represent the variables.
Step 2: Set up the equation, using a constant of proportionality.
Step 3: Use the given information to work out the value of the constant of proportionality.
Step 4: Substitute the value of the constant of proportionality into the equation and use this
equation to find unknown values.
Step 5: If you are asked to sketch (or identify) a graph, it will always be a straight line starting
from the origin.
The gradient of the graph will depend on the value of the constant of proportionality.
Variable 2

0
0 Variable 1

21.1 Direct proportion 579

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Example 1 The cost of repairing an article is directly proportional to the time spent working on it. A repair
job that takes 6 hours to complete costs £180. Work out:
a the cost of a repair that takes 5 hours
b the length of time it takes to complete a repair costing £240.
Step 1: Let C be the cost of repairing an article and t the time it takes. Set up the
proportion statement.
C∝t
Step 2: Set up the equation.
C = kt where k is the constant of proportionality
Note: You can replace the proportionality sign ∝ with ‘= k’ to obtain the
proportionality equation.
Step 3: Since C = £180 when t = 6 hours, then 180 = 6k
180
⇒k=
6
= 30
Step 4: So the formula is C = 30t.
a t = 5 hours, so: C = 30 × 5
= 150
The cost is £150.
b C = £240, so: 240 = 30 × t
240
⇒t=
30
=8
The time spent completing the repair is 8 hours.

Exercise 21A
For questions 1 to 4, first work out k, the constant of proportionality, and then the formula
connecting the variables.

1 T is directly proportional to M. If T = 20 when M = 4, work out the value of:

a T when M = 3 b M when T = 10.
2 W is directly proportional to F. If W = 45 when F = 3, work out the value of:
a W when F = 5 b F when W = 90.
3 Q varies directly with P. If Q = 100 when P = 2, work out the value of:
a Q when P = 3 b P when Q = 300.
4 You are given that x varies directly with y. This graph y
shows the relationship between x and y.
Find the value of: a x when y = 9 b y when x = 30. 7

0 x
0 17.5

580 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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5 The distance a train travels is directly proportional to the time taken for the journey.
The train travels 105 miles in 3 hours.
a What distance will the train travel in 5 hours?
b How much time will it take the train to travel 280 miles?
6 The cost of fuel delivery is directly proportional to its mass. The graph shows the
relationship between cost and mass.

47.5
Cost (£)

0
0 250
Mass (kg)

a What is the delivery cost for 350 kg fuel?

b How much fuel would be delivered if the cost were £33.25?
MR 7 The number of children who can play safely in a playground is directly proportional
to the area of the playground. A playground with an area of 210 m2 is safe for
60 children.
a How many children can safely play in a playground of area 154 m2?
b A playgroup has 24 children. What is area of the smallest playground in which they
could safely play?

EV 8 The number of spaces in a car park is directly proportional to the area of the car park.
A car park has 300 parking spaces in an area of 4500 m .
a The area of the car park increases by 750 m . After the increase in area, how many
extra spaces will there be, assuming that the constant of proportionality stays the
same?
b The car park is then redesigned to create 25 more spaces. Work out the new
proportionality equation.

PS 9 The number of passengers in a bus queue is directly proportional to the time that the
person at the front of the queue has spent waiting.
Karen is the first to arrive at a bus stop. When she has been waiting 5 minutes the
queue has 20 passengers.
A bus has room for 70 passengers.
When an empty bus arrives, it fills up completely and takes all of the passengers in
the queue. How long had Karen been waiting for the bus?

PS 10 Hooke’s Law for an elastic spring states that the distance a spring stretches varies
directly as the force is applied. When a force of 160 N is applied the total length of
the spring is 25 cm. When a force of 240 N is applied the total length of the spring is
26.25 cm. Work out the length of the spring when no force is applied.

21.1 Direct proportion 581

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Direct proportions involving squares, square roots, cubes and cube roots
The method for direct proportion involving squares, cubes, square roots and cube roots is the same
as for linear direct variation.

The cost of a circular badge is directly proportional to the square of its radius. The cost of a
Example 2

badge with a radius of 2 cm is 68p. Work out:

a the cost of a badge of radius 2.4 cm b the radius of a badge costing £1.53.
Step 1: Let C be the cost and r the radius of a badge. Set up the proportion statement.
C ∝ r2
Step 2: Set up the equation.
C = kr2 where k is the constant of proportionality.
Step 3: Since C = 68p when r = 2 cm, then 68 = 4k
68
⇒k=
4
= 17
Step 4: So the formula is C = 17r2.
a r = 2.4 cm, so C = 17 × 2.42 = 97.92
The cost is 98p, as the value must be rounded.
b C = 153p, so 153 = 17r2
153
⇒ r2 = =9
17
⇒r=3
The radius is 3 cm.

Recognising graphs showing direct proportion

Relationships for non-linear direct proportion have equations such as y = kx2, y = kx3, y = k x or
y = k 3 x . You need to be able to recognise graphs of this type.
y y
y = kx2 y = kx3

0 x 0 x
0 0

y y

y = kx
y = k 3x

0 x 0 x
0 0

582 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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The graph shows the relationship between y and x.

Example 3 y
y = kx3
Work out:
a the value of y when x = 3
b the value of x when y = 56.

0 x
0 1

Use the values shown on the graph to set up the equation of proportionality.
7 = k × 13
Hence the value of k is 7.
a When x = 3, y = 7 × 33
= 7 × 27
= 189
b When y = 56, 56 = 7 × x3
⇒ x3 = 56 ÷ 7
=8
⇒x= 38
x=2

Exercise 21B
For questions 1 to 6, first work out k, the constant of proportionality, and then the formula
connecting the variables.

1 T is directly proportional to x2. If T = 36 when x = 3, find the value of:

a T when x = 5 b x when T = 400.
2 W is directly proportional to M2.
The graph shows the relationship between W and M.
W
W = kM 2

12

0
0 2 M

Find the value of:

a W when M = 3 b M when W = 75.
3 E varies directly with C . If E = 40 when C = 25, find the value of:
a E when C = 49 b C when E = 10.4.

21.1 Direct proportion 583

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4 X is directly proportional to Y . If X = 128 when Y = 16, find the value of:

a X when Y = 36 b Y when X = 48.
5 P is directly proportional to f 3. If P = 400 when f = 10, find the value of:
a P when f = 4 b f when P = 50.
6 y is directly proportional to 3
x . If y = 100 when x = 125, find the value of:
a y when x = 64 b x when y = 40.
7 The cost of serving tea and biscuits varies directly with the square root of the number
of people. It costs £25 to serve tea and biscuits to 100 people.
a How much will it cost to serve tea and biscuits to 400 people?
b I have a budget of £37.50. What is the maximum number of people that can be served
tea and biscuits?

8 In an experiment, the temperature, in Celsius degrees (°C), varied directly with the
square of the pressure, in atmospheres (atm). The temperature was 20 °C when the
pressure was 5 atm.
a What was the temperature at 2 atm?
b What was the pressure at 80 °C?
9 The mass, in grams, of a ball bearing varies directly with the cube of the radius,
measured in millimetres. A ball bearing of radius 4 mm has a mass of 115.2 g.
a A ball bearing has a radius of 6 mm. What is its mass?
b A ball bearing has a mass of 48.6 g. What is its radius?
10 The energy, in joules (J), of a particle varies directly with the square of its speed, in
metres per second (m/s). A particle moving at 20 m/s has 50 J of energy.
a How much energy has a particle moving at 4 m/s?
b At what speed is a particle moving if it has 200 J of energy?
11 The cost, C, in pounds, of a trip varies directly with the square root of the distance
travelled, M, in miles. The graph shows the relationship between C and M.
C

C = k
M
35

0
0 100 M

a What is the cost of a 500-mile trip (to the nearest pound)?

b What is the distance of a trip costing £70?
12 A sculptor is making statues.
The amount of clay used is directly proportional to the cube of the height of
the statue.
The sculptor uses 500 cm of clay for a statue that is 10 cm in height.
How much clay will she use for a similar statue if it is twice as tall?

584 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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13 The cost of a machine is proportional to the time taken to build it.

A small machine costs £100 and takes 2 hours to build.
A large machine takes 5 hours to build. How much will it cost?

MR 14 Match each proportion statement with the correct sketch graph.

a y∝x b y∝x c y∝ x
A B C
y y y

0 x 0 x 0 x

MR 15 Match each table of values to one of the graphs in question 14.

a
x 1 2 3
y 3 12 27

b x 1 2 3
y 3 6 9

EV 16 The surface area, S, of a cube is directly proportional to the square of the length of its
side. The mass, M, of the cube is directly proportional to the cube of the length of its
side. Work out an equation of proportionality that relates S to M.

21.2 Inverse proportion

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• solve problems in which two variables have an inversely
inverse proportion
proportional relationship (inverse variation)
• work out the constant of proportionality. inverse variation

There is inverse variation or inverse proportion between two variables when one variable is directly
proportional to the reciprocal of the other. That is, the product of the two variables is constant. As
one variable increases, the other decreases.
For example, the faster you travel over a given distance, the less time it takes. So there is an inverse
variation between speed and time. In other words, speed is inversely proportional to time.
1 k
S ∝ and so S =
T T
which can be written as ST = k, where k is the constant of proportionality.

21.2 Inverse proportion 585

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Example 4 M is inversely proportional to R. If M = 9 when R = 4, find the value of:

a M when R = 2 b R when M = 3.
Step 1: Set up the proportion statement.
1
M∝
R
Step 2: Set up the equation.
k
M = where k is the constant of proportionality.
R
k
Step 3: Since M = 9 when R = 4, 9 =
4
⇒k=9×4
= 36
Step 4: The formula is M = 36 .
R
a R = 2, so: M = 36 = 18
2
b M = 3, so: 3= 36
R
⇒ 3R = 36
⇒ R = 12

Indirect proportions involving squares, square roots and cubes

The method for indirect proportion involving squares, cubes and square roots is the same as for
standard indirect variation.
Recognising graphs showing indirect variation
k k
Relationships for indirect variation have equations such as y = , y = k , y = k2 or y = x 3 . You need to
x x x
be able to recognise graphs of this type.
y y

k
y=
x
k
y= x

0 x 0 x
0 0

y y

k
y= y= 3
k
x2
0 x 0 x
x
0 0

586 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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Example 5
The graph shows the relationship between y and x. y

Work out:
a the value of y when x = 4 b the value of x when y = 1.5.
8
k
y=
冪莥x

0 x
0 9

Use the values shown on the graph to set up the equation of proportionality.
8= k
9
Hence the value of k is 24.
a When x = 4, y = 24 ÷ 4
= 12
b When y = 1.5, 1.5 = 24 ÷ x
⇒ x = 24 ÷ 1.5
= 16
⇒ x = 256

Exercise 21C
For questions 1 to 6, first find the equation connecting the variables.

1 T is inversely proportional to m. If T = 6 when m = 2, find the value of:

a T when m = 4 b m when T = 4.8.
2 W is inversely proportional to x. If W = 5 when x = 12, find the value of:
a W when x = 3 b x when W = 10.
3 Q varies inversely with (5 – t). If Q = 8 when t = 3, find the value of:
a Q when t = 10 b t when Q = 16.
4 M varies inversely with t2. The graph shows the relationship between M and t.
M

k
M=
t2
0 t
0 2

Find the value of:

a M when t = 3 b t when M = 1.44.

21.2 Inverse proportion 587

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5 W is inversely proportional to T . If W = 6 when T = 16, find the value of:

a W when T = 25 b T when W = 2.4.
6 y is inversely proportional to the cube of x. If y = 4 when x = 2, find the value of:
a y when x = 1 b x when y = 21 .
7 A grant available to community groups was inversely proportional to the number of
groups that qualified for the grant. When 30 groups qualified for the grant, they each
received £60.
a How much would each grant have been if 120 groups qualified for it?
b If each grant had been £50, how many groups would have received it?
8 While doing underwater tests in one part of an ocean, a team of scientists noticed
that the temperature, T, in Celsius degrees (°C), was inversely proportional to the
depth, D, in kilometres (km). The graph shows the relationship between T and D.
T

T= k
D
0
0 4 D

a What was the temperature at a depth of 8 km?

b At what depth was the temperature 2 °C?
9 In testing, it was found that a new car engine had serious problems. The distance it
travelled, in kilometres (km), without breaking down was inversely proportional to
the square of its speed in metres per second (m/s). When the speed was 12 m/s, the
car broke down after 3 km.
a Find the distance covered before a breakdown, when the speed was 15 m/s.
b On one test, the engine broke down after 6.75 km. At what speed had it been
travelling?

10 The pressure, in atmospheres (atm), in a balloon was inversely proportional to the

square root of its height above sea level, in metres. When the balloon was at a height
of 25 m, the pressure was 1.44 atm.
a What was the pressure in the balloon at 9 m above sea level?
b What was the height of the balloon when the pressure was 0.72 atm?
MR 11 The amount of waste that a firm produces, measured in tonnes per hour, is inversely
proportional to the square root of the area of the filter beds, in square metres (m2).
The firm produces 1.25 tonnes of waste per hour with filter beds of size 0.16 m2.
a The filter beds used to be only 0.01 m2. How much waste did the firm produce then?
b How much waste could be produced if the filter beds were 0.75 m2?

588 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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MR 12 Which statement does the graph represent? Give a reason for your answer.
1
A: y ∝ x B: y ∝ x
C: y ∝ x
y

PS 13 In the table, y is inversely proportional to the cube root of x.

Copy and complete the table, leaving your answers as fractions.
x 8 27
1
y 1 2

PS 14 The fuel consumption, in miles per gallon (mpg), of a car is inversely proportional to
its speed, in miles per hour (mph). When the car is travelling at 30 mph, the fuel
consumption is 60 mpg.
How much further would the car travel on 1 gallon of fuel by travelling at 60 mph
instead of 70 mph?

PS 15 Newton’s law states: ‘The gravitational attraction force, F, between two point masses
(m1 and m2) is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of their separation distance, d. The force is always
attractive and acts along the line joining them.’ This is expressed as:
Gm1m2
F =
d2
A boy of mass 70 kg exerts a force of 70 N towards the centre of the Earth. The mass of
the Earth is 5.98 × 1024 kg. The distance to the centre of the Earth is 6.38 × 106 metres.
The force exerted by the Moon on the Earth causes the rise and fall of the tides.
Calculate this force, given that the mass of the Moon is 7.36 × 1022 kg and the distance
from the Earth to the Moon is 3.85 × 108 metres.

21.2 Inverse proportion 589

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Worked exemplars
MR 1 a Match each graph with the correct proportionality equation.
y y y

20 20 20

0 x 0 x 0 x
0 10 0 10 0 10

Graph 1 Graph 2 Graph 3

k
Equation A: y = kx2 Equation B: y= Equation C: y = kx
x2

CM b In each case work out the value of y when x = 20.

This is a mathematical reasoning question, so you need to demonstrate that you can
apply your mathematical skills and knowledge to answer it.
a Graph 1 matches equation C. Start with the graph with which you are
Graph 2 matches equation A. most confident. This is the linear graph.
When you have matched that one, look
Graph 3 matches equation B. at the quadratic. This will leave only one
graph and equation remaining.
b Equation A Set up the proportionality equation for
20 = k × 10 2 each equation. Check that your graphs are
correct in part a by substituting in values.
⇒k= 1
5
y = 1 × x2
5
y = 1 × 202
5
= 80
Equation B
20 = k 2
10
⇒ k = 2000
2000
y =
x2
2000
y =
20 2
=5
Equation C
20 = k × 10
⇒k=2
y = 2x
y = 2 × 20 = 40

590 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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PS 2 The mass of a solid, M, is directly proportional to the cube of its height, h.

When h = 10, M = 4000.
The surface area, A, of the solid is directly proportional to the square of the height, h.
When h = 10, A = 50.
Find the value of A when M = 32 000.

This is a problem-solving question that requires you to translate a non-mathematical

problem into a series of mathematical processes.
M = kh3 Set up the proportionality statement for
4000 = k × 10 3 the mass and height, then use the given
information to find the value of k.
⇒k=4
M = 4h3
A = ph2 Now set up the proportionality equation
50 = p × 10 2 for the area and the height.
Use a different letter for the constant of
⇒p= 1 proportionality constant.
2
A = 1 h2
2
32 000 = 4h3 Use M = 32 000 to work out the
h = 8000
3 corresponding value of h, then
substitute this into the proportionality
⇒ h = 20 equation for A.
A = 1 × 202
2
= 200
1
MR 3 Given that y ∝ x2 and that y ∝ z , which of these statements is true?
1 1 1
x∝z x∝ z x∝ z
x∝ 4
z

This question is about mathematical reasoning and is multi-choice.

K Set up the proportionality equations. Ignore the actual
y = kx2 and y =
z values of the proportionality constants as you do not need
K to work them out. Equate the two expressions for y.
kx2 =
z

K K Take the square root to get x as the subject.

x2 = ⇒ x =
z 4
z Because K just represents a constant, you can continue to
use the same letter for the unknown value.
1 Choose the correct proportionality relationship.
x∝
4
z

21 Worked exemplars 591

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Ready to progress?
I can recognise direct and inverse proportion.
I know what a constant of proportionality is, and how to find it.
I can find formulae describing inverse or direct proportion.
I can solve problems involving direct or inverse proportion.

Review questions
1 y is proportional to x . Copy and complete the table.
x 25 400
y 10 20

2 The energy, E, of an object moving horizontally is directly proportional to the speed,

v, of the object. When the speed is 10 m/s the energy is 40 000 joules.
a Find an equation connecting E and v.
b Find the speed of the object when the energy is 14 400 joules.
3 y is inversely proportional to the cube root of x. When y = 8, x = 81 .
a Find an expression for y in terms of x.
b Calculate:
1
i the value of y when x = 125
ii the value of x when y = 2.

4 The mass of a cube is directly proportional to the cube of its side. A cube with a side
of 4 cm has a mass of 320 grams. Calculate the side length of a cube made of the same
material with a mass of 36 450 grams.

5 y is directly proportional to the cube of x. When y = 16, x = 3. Find the value of y when
x = 6.

6 D is directly proportional to the square of M. D = 20 when M = 2.

a Express D in terms of M.
b Work out the value of D when M = 7.
c Work out the positive value of M when D = 45.
7 P is directly proportional to Q3.
When Q = 3, P = 270.
Find the value of P when Q = 2.

CM 8 Two variables, x and y, are known to be proportional to each other. When x = 10,
y = 25.
Find the constant of proportionality, k, if:

a y∝x b y ∝ x2 c y∝ 1 d y ∝
1
.
x x

592 21 Ratio, proportion and rates of change: Variation

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9 y is directly proportional to the cube root of x. When x = 27, y = 6.

a Find the value of y when x = 125.
b Find the value of x when y = 3.
10 The surface area, A, of a solid is directly proportional to the square of the depth, d.
When d = 6, A = 12π.
a Find the value of A when d = 12. Give your answer in terms of π.
b Find the value of d when A = 27π.
11 A is inversely proportional to the square of B.
When B = 2, A = 25.
a Find a formula for A in terms of B.
b Calculate the value of A when B = 5.
MR 12 The graph shows the relationship between y and x.
y
y = kx3

1000

0 x
0 20

Work out the value of y when x = 10.

EV 13 The frequency, f, of sound is inversely proportional to the wavelength, w. A sound

with a frequency of 36 hertz has a wavelength of 20.25 metres.
a Calculate the frequency when the frequency and the wavelength have the same
numerical value.
b Explain why the wavelength could not be 0 metres.
y
PS 14 y = kx2
y is proportional to x2.
When x = 6, y = 324. 729
Work out the values of a and b on the graph.

b
0 x
0 4 a

PS 15 y and x are positive quantities. y is inversely proportional to x2. y

When y = 160, x = 20.
y and z are both positive. y is directly proportional to z.
When y = 50, z = 50.
The diagram shows both of these relationships.
Find the value of x at the point of intersection.

0 x
0

21 Review questions 593

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22
Geometry and
measures: Triangles

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to use trigonometric ratios to solve more complex 2D
problems and 3D problems
• how to calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of any angle from
0° to 360°
• how to use the sine and cosine rules to solve problems involving
non right-angled triangles
1
• how to use the formula A = 2
ab sin C to calculate the area of a
triangle.

You should already know:

• how to use Pythagoras’ theorem to work out the sides of right-angled
triangles
• how to use sine, cosine and tangent to work out angles and sides of
right-angled triangles
• how to use bearings and calculate angles of elevation and
depression
• how to use circle theorems.

About this chapter

In surveying, trigonometry is used extensively in the process of
triangulation. Triangulation is used to work out the location of one point
by measuring angles or bearings to it from two other known points, at
either end of a fixed baseline. Triangulation can be used to calculate the
position and distance to a ship from the shore. One observer measures
the angle between the shore and the ship, and a second observer at a
different point does the same. The sine rule is then applied to work out
the position of the ship and its distance from shore.
The sine rule is one of a number of different trigonometrical rules you
will explore in this chapter.

594
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22.1 Further 2D problems

This section will show you how to:
• use trigonometric ratios and Pythagoras’ theorem to solve more complex two-dimensional
problems.

This section brings together previous work on Pythagoras’ theorem, circle theorems and the
trigonometric ratios – sine (sin), cosine (cos) and tangent (tan).

In triangle ABC, AB = 6 cm, BC = 9 cm and angle ABC = 52°. A

Example 1

Calculate:
a the length of the perpendicular from A to BC 6 cm

b the area of the triangle. 52°

B C
9 cm

a Draw the perpendicular from A to BC to form the right-angled triangle ADB. A

Let h be the length of the perpendicular AD.

h
sin 52° =
6 6 cm
h = 6 sin 52° (Multiply both sides by 6) h

= 4.73 (3 sf)
1 52°
b The area of triangle ABC is 2 × base × height B D
1
= 2 ×9×h
= 21.3 cm2 (3 sf)

SR is a diameter of a circle with radius 25 cm. PQ is a chord at right

Example 2

P
angles to SR. is the midpoint of PQ. The length of R is 1 cm.
Calculate the length of the arc PQ.
X
S R
O

To calculate the length of the arc PQ, you need first to calculate the angle it subtends at the
centre of the circle. So join P to the centre of the circle O to obtain the angle PO , which is
equal to half the angle subtended by PQ at O.
In right-angled triangle PO :
P
O = OR – R 25 cm
= 25 – 1 x
O
= 24 cm 24 cm X

So, cos x = 24
25
⇒ x = cos–1 0.96
= 16.26°
So, the angle subtended at the centre by the arc PQ is 2 × 16.26° = 32.52°.
⇒ Arc length PQ is θ × 2πr = 32.52 × 2 × π × 25
360 360
= 14.2 cm (3 sf)

22.1 Further 2D problems 595

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Example 3 AC is the diameter of a circle with radius 5 cm. B

The length of BC is 7 cm.

Calculate the length of AB.
A C

Angle ABC is a right angle (the angle at the circumference

of a semicircle).
So use Pythagoras’ theorem. AB2 + BC2 = AC2
AB2 + 72 = 102
AB2 = 100 – 49
= 51
AB = 51
= 7.1 (2 sf)

QTP is a tangent to a circle, centre O, radius 4 cm. Q

Example 4

T
The tangent touches the circle at T.
4 cm P
Angle TOP is 50°. 50°
Calculate the length of OP. O

As QTP is a tangent to the circle, it is perpendicular to the radius, so OTP is a right angle.
OT = 4 cm (radius)
4
cos 50° =
OP
OP × cos 50° = 4 (Multiply both sides by OP)
OP = 4
cos 50°
= 6.2 cm (2 sf)

Exercise 22A
PS 1 AC and BC are tangents to a circle of radius 7 cm. A
Calculate the length of AB.
7 cm C
42°
O

PS 2 CD, length 20 cm, is a diameter of a circle. AB, length 12 cm, is a A

chord at right angles to DC. Calculate the angle AOB.
O
D C

596 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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3 Calculate the length of AB in this diagram.

D

12 cm

37° 63°
A C
B

PS 4 A building has a ledge halfway up, as shown in the diagram. Asif measures the length
AB as 100 m, the angle CAB as 31° and the angle EAB as 42°. Use this information to
calculate the width of the ledge CD.
E

D
C
42°
31° B
A
100 m

Hints and tips Remember, the ledge is halfway up, so ED = CB.

PS 5 AB and CD are two equal, perpendicular chords of a circle, A

centre O, that intersect at . The circle is of radius 6 cm and the
6 cm
angle COA is 113°. Calculate:
113°
a the length AC
X O
b the angle AO D C

c the length B.
B

Hints and tips A = C

MR 6 A vertical flagpole PQ is held by a wooden framework, as shown in the diagram.

Show that the size of angle QRP is 38.0°.
Q

6m

25°
P R
4m

22.1 Further 2D problems 597

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PS 7 A mine descends from ground level for 500 m at an angle of 13° to the horizontal. It
then continues for another 300 m at an angle of 17° to the horizontal, as shown in the
diagram. There is also a vertical shaft, x metres along the surface from the opening.
Work out the distance between the two openings.
x

13°

500 m
17°

300 m

B
8 a Use Pythagoras’ theorem to work out the length of BC.
Leave your answer in surd form.
1 cm
b Write down the values of:
45°
i cos 45° ii sin 45° iii tan 45°
A 1 cm C
leaving your answers in surd form.

EV 9 In the diagram, AD = 5 cm, AC = 8 cm and AB = 12 cm. A

Eve says: “The angle CAB is 14°.”
12 cm
Comment on Eve’s statement. 5 cm 8 cm

D C B

22.2 Further 3D problems

This section will show you how to:
• use trigonometric ratios and Pythagoras’ theorem to solve more complex three-dimensional
problems.

To solve a problem in three dimensions, you often need to identify a right-angled triangle that
contains the required length or angle. This triangle will also need to contain two known measures
that you can use to make the required calculation.
You should extract the triangle you are going to use from its 3D situation and redraw it as a separate
right-angled triangle. Annotate the re-drawn triangle with the known quantities and the unknown
quantity that you are going to calculate. Then use the trigonometric ratios (sine, cosine and tangent)
and Pythagoras’ theorem to solve the triangle.

598 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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The diagram shows a cuboid 22.5 cm by 40 cm by 30 cm. M is the H

Example 5 G
midpoint of FG.
Calculate these angles. M
E F 40 cm
a ABE
b ECA
c EMH D C

30 cm
A 22.5 cm B

a The right-angled triangle containing the angle required is ABE. E

Solving for α gives:
40
tan α =
22.5
40 cm
= 1.7777
⇒ α = tan–1 1.7777
= 60.6° (3 sf)
A B
22.5 cm

b The right-angled triangle containing the angle required is ACE, but C

you only know AE is so far. Therefore, you need to work out AC by
applying Pythagoras’ theorem to the right-angled triangle ABC.
x2 = (22.5)2 + (30)2 cm2 x 30 cm

⇒ x = 37.5 cm

A B
22.5 cm

Returning to triangle ACE: E

40
tan β =
37.5
= 1.0666
⇒ β = tan–11.0666 40 cm
= 46.8° (3 sf)

A C
x = 37.5 cm

c EMH is an isosceles triangle.

Draw the perpendicular from M to N, the midpoint of HE, to M
form two right-angled triangles. Angle HMN equals angle EMN,
and HN = NE = 15 cm.
Taking triangle MEN: 22.5 cm

n θ = s15
tan
22.5 H E
N
= 0.666 666
30 cm
n θ = tan
⇒ s –1 0.666 666
= 33.7° (3 sf)
Therefore, angle EHE is 2 × 33.7° = 67.4° (3 sf)

22.2 Further 3D problems 599

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Example 6 A, B and C are three points at ground level. They are in the same horizontal plane. C is 50 km
east of B. B is north of A. C is on a bearing of 050° from A.
An aircraft, flying in an easterly direction, passes over B and over C at the same height. When
it passes over B, the angle of elevation from A is 12°. Work out the angle of elevation of the
aircraft from A when it is over C.
First, draw a diagram containing all the known information.
X Y

B C
50 km
12°

50°

Next, use the right-angled triangle ABC to calculate AB and AC. B

50 km
C
AB = 50
tan 50°
= 41.95 km (4 sf)
50 50°
AC =
sin 50° A
= 65.27 km (4 sf)
Then use the right-angled triangle AB to calculate B , and X
hence CY.
12°
A B
B = 41.95 tan 12° 41.95 km
= 8.917 km (4 sf)
Finally, use the right-angled triangle ACY to calculate the Y
required angle of elevation,n θ. s
8.917 km
nθ = s 8 . 917
tan A C
65.27 65.27 km
= 0.1366
n θ = tan
⇒ s –1 0.1366
= 7.8° (1 dp)
Always write down your intermediate working values to at least 4 significant figures, or use the
answer on your calculator display to avoid inaccuracy in the final answer.

Exercise 22B
1 A vertical flagpole AP stands at the corner of a P
rectangular courtyard ABCD.
Calculate the angle of elevation of P from C. 6m

A 10 m B

8m

D C

600 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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A 10 cm B
2 ABCD is a vertical rectangular plane. EDC is a horizontal
triangular plane. 4 cm
D
Angle CDE = 90°, AB = 10 cm, BC = 4 cm and ED = 9 cm. C
Calculate: 9 cm
a angle AED b angle DEC
c length EC d angle BEC. E

3 The diagram shows a pyramid. The base is a horizontal V

rectangle ABCD, 20 cm by 15 cm. The length of each
sloping edge is 24 cm. The apex, V, is over the centre
of the rectangular base. Calculate: 24 cm
D
C
a the size of the angle VAC
b the height of the pyramid 15 cm

c the volume of the pyramid A B

20 cm
d the size of the angle between the face VAD and the base ABCD.
PS 4 The diagram shows the roof of a building. The base F
ABCD is a horizontal rectangle, 7 m by 4 m. The triangular 5m
ends are equilateral triangles. Each side of the roof is an
E D
isosceles trapezium. The length of the top of the roof,
EF, is 5 m.
C
a Calculate the size of the angle between the face EAB 4m
A M
and the base ABCD. 7m
4m
b A roofer charges £125 per square metre to tile a roof.
B
How much would it cost to tile this roof?

PS 5 The diagram shows a tetrahedron, where each face is an D

equilateral triangle of side 6 m. The lines AN and BM meet
the sides CB and AC at right angles and intersect at , which
is directly below the vertex, D. Calculate:
a the distance A 6m C

b the angle between the side DB and the base ABC. M N

A B

CM 6 The lengths of the sides of a cuboid are a, b and c. X

Show that the length of the diagonal Y is a + b + c . 2 2 2

a
c
b Y

EV 7 In the diagram, ABCD is a right pyramid with a X

rectangular base.
Leo calculates the angle between the edge D and the 18 cm
base ABCD to be 56.3°. A B

Explain why Leo’s result might be wrong. 16 cm

D 20 cm C

22.2 Further 3D problems 601

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22.3 Trigonometric ratios of angles

between 0° and 360°
This section will show you how to: Key term
• calculate the sine, cosine and tangent of any angle from
periodic
0° to 360°.

The sine curve

Exercise 22C
MR 1 a Copy and complete this table. Use your calculator to find the values, then round
them to three decimal places.
x sin x x sin x x sin x x sin x
0° 180° 180° 360°
15° 165° 195° 345°
30° 150° 210° 330°
45° 135° 225° 315°
60° 120° 240° 300°
75° 105° 255° 285°
90° 90° 270° 270°
b Comment on what you notice about the sine of each acute angle and its related
non-acute angles.
MR 2 a Draw a graph of sin x against x. Take x from 0° to 360° and sin x from –1 to 1.
b Comment on any symmetries shown in your graph.
When you plotted the sine of angles between 0° and 360° in Exercise 22C, you produced the sine curve.
y
1

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–1
Sine x
Looking at the sine graph below, you can see that sin 27° = 0.45 (2 sf).
From the symmetry of the graph, 153° also has a sine of 0.45. sin 153° = sin(180° – 153°) = sin 27°
y
1

0.45

0° 27° 90° 153° 180° 270° 360° x

–1
Sine x
So, when 90° < x < 180°, sin x = sin (180° – x).

602 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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Now look at this sine graph. Again, you can use the symmetry of the graph to see that the lines
of y = 0.56 and y = – 0.56 cut the graph at points that are symmetrical to each other.
y
1

0.56

214° 326°
0° 34° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–0.56

–1
Sine x

You can see that:

• 0.56 is the sine of 34° and –0.56 is the sine of 214° and of 326°
• sin 214 = –sin (214° – 180°) = –sin 34° = – 0.56 (2 sf)
• sin 326 = –sin (360° – 326°) = –sin 34°= – 0.56 (2 sf)
So, when 180° < x < 270°, sin x = –sin (x – 180°)
and when 270° < x < 360°, sin x = –sin (360° – x).
Note:
• Every value of sine between –1 and 1 gives two angles between 0° and 360°.
• When the value of sine is positive, both angles are between 0° and 180°.
• When the value of sine is negative, both angles are between 180° and 360°.
• You can use the sine graph from 0° to 360° to check approximate values.
• The graph is periodic. This means that it will keep on repeating the same shape as you go further
down the horizontal axis. The period is 360° as this is the given shape that repeats.

Calculate the angles between 0° and 360° with a sine of 0.56.

Example 7

You know that both angles are between 0° and 180°.

Using your calculator to calculate sin–1 0.56, you get 34.1°.
The other angle is, therefore:
180° – 34.1° = 145.9°
So, the angles are 34.1° and 145.9°.

Calculate the angles between 0° and 360° with a sine of – 0.197.

Example 8

You know that both angles are between 180° and 360°.
Using your calculator to calculate sin–1 0.197, you get 11.4°.
So the angles are:
180° + 11.4° and 360° – 11.4°
which gives 191.4° and 348.6°.

22.3 Trigonometric ratios of angles between 0° and 360° 603

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The cosine curve

Exercise 22D
MR 1 a Copy and complete this table. Use your calculator to find the values, then round
them to three decimal places.
x cos x x cos x x cos x x cos x
0° 180° 180° 360°
15° 165° 195° 345°
30° 150° 210° 330°
45° 135° 225° 315°
60° 120° 240° 300°
75° 105° 255° 285°
90° 90° 270° 270°
b Comment on what you notice about the cosine of each acute angle and its related
non-acute angles.

MR 2 a Draw a graph of cos x against x. Take x from 0° to 360° and cos x from –1 to 1.
b Describe any symmetries shown in your graph.
When you plotted the cosine of angles between 0° and 360° in Exercise 22D, you drew the
cosine curve.
y
1

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–1
Cosine x

Using the symmetries of the graph and the lines y = 0.77 and y = – 0.77, you can see that:
y
1
0.77

140° 220°
0° 40° 90° 180° 270° 320° 360° x

–0.77
–1
Cosine x

cos 40° = 0.77 and cos 320° = 0.77 so cos 320° = cos (360° – 40°)
cos 140° = – 0.77 and cos 220° = – 0.77 so cos 140° = – cos (180° – 140°) and cos 220° = –(220° – 180°)
• When 90° < x < 180°, cos x = – cos (180 – x)°.
• When 180° < x < 270°, cos x = – cos (x – 180°).
• When 270° < x < 360°, cos x = cos (360° – x).

604 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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Note:
• Every value of cosine between –1 and 1 gives two angles between 0° and 360°.
• When the value of cosine is positive, one angle is between 0° and 90° and the other is between 270°
and 360°.
• When the value of cosine is negative, both angles are between 90° and 270°.
• You can use the cosine graph from 0° to 360° to check approximate values.
• The cosine curve is periodic, repeating every 360°.

Calculate the angles between 0° and 360° with a cosine of 0.75.

Example 9

You know that one angle is between 0° and 90° and the other is between 270° and 360°.
Using your calculator to calculate cos–1 0.75, you get 41.4°.
The other angle is, therefore
360° – 41.4° = 318.6°
So, the angles are 41.4° and 318.6°.

Calculate the angles between 0° and 360° with a cosine of – 0.285.

Example 10

You know that both angles are between 90° and 270°.
Using your calculator to calculate cos–1 0.285, you get 73.4°.
So the angles are:
180° – 73.4° and 180° + 73.4°
which gives 106.6° and 253.4°.
You can use your calculator to check your answer, by keying in cosine.

Exercise 22E
1 State the two angles between 0° and 360° for each of these sine values.
a 0.6 b 0.8 c 0.75 d – 0.7
e – 0.25 f – 0.32 g – 0.175 h – 0.814
i 0.471 j – 0.097 k 0.553 l – 0.5
MR 2 Which of these values is the odd one out? Give a reason for your answer.
sin 36° sin 144° sin 234° sin 324°

MR 3 The graph of sine x is periodic, which means that it repeats forever in each direction.
a Write down one value of x greater than 360° for which the sine value is 0.978 147 6.
b Write down one value of x less than 0° for which the sine value is 0.978 147 6.
c Describe any symmetries of the graph of y = sin x.
PS 4 Solve the equation 6(sin x)2 = 1 + sin x, giving all answers between 0° and 360°.
Where appropriate, round answers to 1 decimal place.

Hints and tips Replace sin x with y and solve the quadratic equation.

22.3 Trigonometric ratios of angles between 0° and 360° 605

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5 State the two angles between 0° and 360° for each of these cosine values.
a 0.6 b 0.58 c 0.458 d 0.575
e 0.185 f – 0.8 g – 0.25 h – 0.175
i – 0.361 j – 0.974 k 0.196 l 0.714
MR 6 Which of these values is the odd one out? Give a reason for your answer.
cos 58° cos 118° cos 238° cos 262°

MR 7 The graph of cosine x is periodic, which means that it repeats forever in

each direction.
a Write down one value of x greater than 360° for which the cosine value is – 0.669 130 6.
b Write down one value of x less than 0° for which the cosine value is – 0.669 130 6.
c Describe any symmetries of the graph of y = cos x.
EV 8 The graph shows the heights of the tide one day in Bude over a 24-hour period.

5
Height (m)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 0

Time
a i What times are high tide and low tide? ii How long is it between each high tide?
b Compare this graph with the sine curve.
i What are the similarities? ii What are the differences?

Exercise 22F
1 Write down the sine of each of these angles.
a 135° b 269° c 305° d 133°
2 Write down the cosine of each of these angles.
a 129° b 209° c 95° d 357°

606 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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3 Write down the two possible values of x (0° < x < 360°) for each equation. Give your
answers to 1 decimal place.
a sin x = 0.361 b sin x = – 0.486 c cos x = 0.641
d cos x = – 0.866 e sin x = 0.874 f cos x = 0.874
MR 4 Find two angles such that the sine of each is 0.5.

MR 5 Given that cos 41° = 0.755, what is cos 139°?

6 Write down the value of each of the following, correct to 3 significant figures.
a sin 50° + cos 50° b cos 120° – sin 120° c sin 136° + cos 223°
d sin 175° + cos 257° e sin 114° – sin 210° f cos 123° + sin 177°
EV 7 It is suggested that (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1 is true for all values of x. Test out this
suggestion to see if you agree.

PS 8 Suppose the sine key on your calculator is broken but the cosine key is working.
Show how you could calculate these.
a sin 25° b sin 130°
PS 9 Find a solution to each of these equations.
a sin (x + 20°) = 0.5 b cos (5x) = 0.45
PS 10 Use any suitable method to work out the solution to the equation sin x = (cos x)2.

EV 11 Rose said that one angle with sine of 0.9659 could be 435°. Keiren said that was not
quite correct. Evaluate each person’s statement.

The tangent curve

Exercise 22G
MR 1 a Use your calculator to calculate tan 90°. What do you notice?
b Which is the closest angle to 90° for which you can calculate the tangent on your
calculator?

MR 2 What is the largest value for a tangent that you can get on your calculator?

MR 3 a Find values of tan x where x = 0°, 15°, 30°, 45°, 60° … 360°.
b Draw a graph of your results.
c State the tangents of 0°, 180° and 360°.
d Explain what appears to happen at x = 90° and x = 270°.
MR 4 a State some rules for calculating both angles between 0° and 360° that have any
given tangent.
b Do you think the tangent curve is periodic? If so, what is the period?

22.3 Trigonometric ratios of angles between 0° and 360° 607

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When you plotted the tangent of angles between 0° and 360° in Exercise 22G, then plotted them on a
graph, you drew the tangent curve.
Tan x

0° 90° 180° 270° 360° x

Using the symmetries of the graph and the lines y = 1.2 and y = –1.2, you can see that:
Tan x

1.2

130° 310°
0° 50° 90° 180° 230° 270° 360° x

–1.2

tan 50° = 1.2 and tan 230° = 1.2

so tan 230° = tan (230° – 180°) = tan 50°
tan 130° = tan 310° = –1.2°
so tan 130° = – tan (180° – 130°) = – tan 50°
and tan 310° = – tan (360° – 310°) = – tan 50°
• When 90° < x < 180°, tan x = – tan (180° – x)°.
• When 180° < x < 270°, tan x = tan (x – 180°).
• When 270° < x < 360°, tan x = – tan (360° – x)

608 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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Note
• Every value of tangent gives two angles between 0° and 360°.
• When the value of tangent is positive, one angle is between 0° and 90° and the other is between
180° and 270°.
• When the value of tangent is negative, one angle is between 90° and 180° and the other is between
270° and 360°.
• You can use the tangent graph from 0° to 360° to check approximate values.
• The tangent curve is periodic, repeating every 180°.

Exercise 22H
PS 1 Calculate the angles between 0° and 360° with a tangent of:
a 0.875 b –1.5
2 State the angles between 0° and 360° for each of these tangent values.
a 0.258 b 1.875 c 2.55 d – 0.358
e – 0.634 f –3.68 g 1.397 h –1.153
i – 0.098 j 0.998
MR 3 Which of these values is the odd one out? Give a reason for your answer.
tan 45° tan 135° tan 235° tan 315°

MR 4 The graph of tan x is periodic, which means that it repeats forever in each direction.
a Write down one value of x greater than 360° for which the tangent value is 2.144 506 9.
b Write down one value of x less than 0° for which the tangent value is 2.144 506 9.
c Describe any symmetries of the graph of y = tan x.
EV 5 Mel said: “One angle with tangent of – 0.4040 could be 158°.” Jos said: “No, it’s –22°.”
Evaluate each person’s statement.

22.4 Solving any triangle

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• use the sine rule and the cosine rule to work out sides
cosine rule included angle
and angles in any triangle.
sine rule
You know that every triangle has six measurements: three
sides and three angles. To solve a triangle (that is, to work
out any unknown angles or sides), you need to know at least three of these measurements. Any
combination of three measurements, with the exception of three angles, is sufficient to work out the
remaining measurements. In a right-angled triangle, one of the known measurements is, of course,
the right angle.
When you solve a triangle with no right angle, you can use one of two rules, depending on what you
know about the triangle. These are the sine rule and the cosine rule.

22.4 Solving any triangle 609

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The sine rule

Take any triangle ABC and label the sides a, b and c, where a is opposite A
angle A, b is opposite angle B and c is opposite to angle C. Draw the
perpendicular from A to the opposite side BC.
From right-angled triangle ADB, h = c sin B c
h
b

From right-angled triangle ADC, h = b sin C

Therefore:
B C
c sin B = b sin C D
a
which you can rearrange to give:
c b
=
sin C sin B A

By drawing a perpendicular from each of the other two vertices to the

opposite side (or by algebraic symmetry), you can see that: c b
a c and that a b h'
= =
sin A sin C sin A sin B
These are usually combined in the form: B C
a b c
a
= =
sin A sin B sin C
A
which you can invert to give:
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c c b
A triangle is not always conveniently labelled, as in these diagrams. h''
So when using the sine rule, remember to take each side in turn,
divide it by the sine of the angle opposite and then put the resulting
B C
fractions equal to each other. a

Note
• When you are calculating a side, use the rule with the sides on top.
• When you are calculating an angle, use the rule with the sines on top.

Work out the value of x.

Example 11

84°
25 cm

47°
B x C

Use the sine rule with sides on top.

x 25
=
n 84° ssin 47°
sin
25 sin 84°
⇒x= (Multiply both sides by sin 84°)
sin 47°
= 34.0 cm (3 sf)

610 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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Work out the value of x.

Example 12
A

7 cm 6 cm

40° x
B C

Use the sine rule with sines on top.

sin
nx ssin 40°
=
7 6
7 sin 440°
⇒ sin x = (Multiply both sides by 7)
6
= 0.7499
⇒ x = sin–1 0.7499
= 48.6° (3 sf)

The ambiguous case

It is possible to calculate the sine of an angle that is greater than 90° (see Section 22.3).
For example, sin 30° = sin 150° = 0.5.
(Notice that the two angles add up to 180°.)
So sin 25° = sin 155° and sin 100° = sin 80°.

In triangle ABC, AB = 9 cm, AC = 7 cm and angle ABC = 40°. Work out the angle ACB.
Example 13

As you sketch triangle ABC, note that C can have two positions, giving two
different configurations.
A A

9 cm 9 cm
7 cm
7 cm or
40° 40°
B C B C

Proceed as in the normal sine rule situation.

sin
nC ssin 40°
=
9 7
9 sin 440°
⇒ sin C = (Multiply both sides by 9)
7
= 0.8264
Keying inverse sine on the calculator gives C = 55.7°.
However, there is another angle with a sine of 0.8264, given by (180° – 55.7°) = 124.3°.
These two values for C give the two different triangles shown above.
When you have an illustration of the triangle, it is clear whether the required angle is acute or
obtuse. When you do not have an illustration, you have to consider the scenario carefully and
decide which is the most logical.

22.4 Solving any triangle 611

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Exercise 22I
1 Work out length x in each of these triangles.
a B b B C c B
41°
85° x 102° 45° x
65° C
A C x
4m 12 cm 32 cm

37°

A
A

2 Work out angle x in each of these triangles.

a B b B C c B
32°
x x 15 m

8 cm C
7m 13 m x
14 cm
43°
58°
A C A
6m
A

MR 3 In triangle ABC, angle A is 38°, side AB is 10 cm and side BC is 8 cm. Work out the two
possible values of angle C.

EV 4 Abbey said: “The longest side in any triangle is opposite the largest angle.”
Evaluate this statement.

MR 5 In triangle ABC, angle A is 42°, AB is 16 cm and BC is 14 cm. Work out the two possible
lengths of AC.

PS 6 To calculate the height of a tower standing on a small A

hill, Mary made some measurements (see diagram).
From a point B, the angle of elevation of C is 20° and the
angle of elevation of A is 50°. The distance BC is 25 m. h
a Calculate these angles.
i ABC
ii BAC
25 m C
b Using the sine rule and triangle ABC, calculate the
height h of the tower. 50°
20°
B

PS 7 Use the information on this sketch to calculate the width, w, of the river.

40° 80°

50 m

612 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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PS 8 An old building is unsafe and is protected by a fence. A demolition company is going

to demolish the building and has to work out the height BD, marked h on
the diagram.
Use the measurements marked on the diagram to calculate the value of h.
B

113°
37°
A C D
20 m

PS 9 A light is hung from a horizontal beam using two strings. The shorter string is 2.5 m
long and makes an angle of 71° with the horizontal. The longer string makes an angle
of 43° with the horizontal. What is the length of the longer string?

EV 10 An aircraft is found by two searchlights on the ground that are 3 km apart. The two
beams of light meet on the aircraft at an angle of 125° vertically above the line joining
the searchlights. One of the beams of light makes an angle of 31° with the horizontal.
Paul calculated the height of the aircraft as 676 m. Is Paul correct?

MR 11 Two ships leave a port in directions that are 41° from each other. After half an hour,
the ships are 11 km apart. If the speed of the slower ship is 7 km/h, what is the speed
of the faster ship?

PS 12 A rescue helicopter is based at an airfield at A. N

The helicopter is sent out to rescue a man who has had an M 145°
accident on a mountain at M, due north of A.
The helicopter then flies on a bearing of 145° to a hospital
at H, as shown on the diagram. 103°
Calculate the direct distance from the mountain to the hospital. A
38 km
H
MR 13 Choose four values of θ between 0 and 90 to show that sin θ = sin (180 – θ ).

14 Triangle ABC has an obtuse angle at B. Calculate the size of angle ABC.
A

10 cm
7 cm
30°
B C

15 a b c .
CM For any triangle ABC, prove the sine rule = =
sin A sin B sin C

22.4 Solving any triangle 613

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The cosine rule

Take the triangle, shown on the right, where D is the foot of the A
perpendicular to BC from A.
Using Pythagoras’ theorem on triangle BDA:
c h b
h2 = c2 – x2
Using Pythagoras’ theorem on triangle ADC:
h2 = b2 – (a – x)2 B C
x D a–x
Therefore:
c2 – x2 = b2 – (a – x)2
c2 – x2 = b2 – a2 + 2ax – x2
⇒ c2 = b2 – a2 + 2ax
From triangle BDA, x = c cos B.
So:
c2 = b2 – a2 + 2ac cos B
A
which you can rearrange to give:
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B c

By algebraic symmetry: b

a = b + c – 2bc cos A and c = a + b – 2ab cos C

2 2 2 2 2 2
B
This is the cosine rule, which you can remember with the diagram a
on the right, where: C

a = b + c – 2bc cos A
2 2 2

Note the symmetry of the rule and how the rule works using two adjacent sides and the angle
between them (the included angle).
You can rearrange the formula to calculate any of the three angles.
b 2 + c2 − a2
cos A =
2bc
a 2 + c2 − b2
cos B =
2ac
a 2 + b2 − c2
cos C =
2ab

Work out the value of x in this triangle.

Example 14

80°
6
10

Use the cosine rule.

x2 = 62 + 102 – 2 × 6 × 10 × cos 80°
= 115.16
⇒ x = 10.7 (3 sf)

614 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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Work out the value of x in this triangle.

Example 15 x
5 7

Use the cosine rule.

52 + 7 2 − 8 2
cos x = = 0.1428
2×5×7
⇒ x = cos–1 0.1428
= 81.8° (3 sf)

It is possible to calculate the cosine of an angle that is greater than 90° (see Section 22.3).
For example, cos 120° = – cos 60° = – 0.5. (Notice the minus sign; the two angles add up to 180°.)
So cos 150° = – cos 30° = – 0.866.

A ship sails from a port on a bearing of 055° for 40 km. It then N

Example 16

changes course to 123° for another 50 km. What bearing

should the ship steer to go straight back to the port?
123°
N
40 km
50 km
055°

Previously, you have solved this type of problem A

using right-angled triangles. You could apply this N
method here but it would involve at least six separate 40 km 50 km
calculations. 55°
P
Using the cosine and sine rules, however, you can
B
reduce the solution to two separate calculations,
55° +
as follows.
The course diagram gives the triangle PAB, where you can use allied angles and angles round a
point to work out angle PAB.
The allied angle with 055° is 180 – 55° = 125°
So angle PAB = 360° – (125° + 123°) = 112°
Let φ be the bearing that the ship needs to steer. Then using alternate angles around P and B:
n θ + 55°
φ= s + 180°
n θ , you
To calculate s first have to use the cosine rule to work out PB.
PB2 = 402 + 502 – 2 × 40 × 50 × cos 112° km2 (Remember the cosine of 112° is negative.)
⇒ PB = 5598.43 km
2 2

⇒ PB = 74.82 km
n θ from
You can now calculate s the sine rule.
n θ ssin 112°
sin
=
50 74.82
50 × sin 112°
nθ = s
⇒ sin = 0.6196
74.82
⇒n θ = 38.3°
s
So the ship should steer on a bearing of 38.3° + 55° + 180° = 273.3°.

22.4 Solving any triangle 615

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Exercise 22J
1 Calculate the length x in each of these triangles.
a b c
B B 15 cm C B
x C

102°
6m x 22 cm
32 cm 45 cm
x
37°
65°
A C
8m A
A

EV 2 Calculate the angle x in each of these triangles.

a b c
B
B B 12 cm
C 30 cm
x
10 m
7m
15 cm 50 cm x C
24 cm
x
A C 40 cm
9m
A A

d Explain the significance of your answer to part c.

3 In triangle ABC, AB = 5 cm, BC = 6 cm and angle ABC = 55°. Work out the length
of AC.

PS 4 A triangle has two sides of length 40 cm and an angle of 110°. Work out the length of
the third side of the triangle.

PS 5 The diagram shows a trapezium ABCD. AB = 6.7 cm, AD = 7.2 cm, CB = 9.3 cm and
angle DAB = 100°.
D 7.2 cm A

100°
6.7 cm

C B
9.3 cm

Calculate:
a the length DB b angle DBA c angle DBC
d the length DC e the area of the trapezium.
6 A quadrilateral ABCD has AD = 6 cm, DC = 9 cm, AB = 10 cm and BC = 12 cm. Angle
ADC = 120°. Calculate angle ABC.

PS 7 A triangle has two sides of length 30 cm and an angle of 50°. Unfortunately, the
position of the angle is not known. Work out the two possible lengths of the third
side of the triangle.

PS 8 A ship sails from a port on a bearing of 050° for 50 km then turns on a bearing of 150°
for 40 km. A crewman is taken ill, so the ship drops anchor. What course and distance
should a rescue helicopter fly from the port to reach the ship in the shortest possible
time? Assume the shortest distance will take the shortest time.
616 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles
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MR 9 The three sides of a triangle are 3a, 5a and 7a. Calculate the smallest angle in the
triangle.

PS 10 ABCD is a trapezium where AB is parallel to CD. AB = 4 cm, BC = 5 cm, CD = 8 cm and

DA = 6 cm. A line B is parallel to AD and cuts DC at . Calculate:
a angle BCD b the length BD.
PS 11 Two ships, and Y, leave a port at 9 am.
Ship travels at an average speed of 20 km/h on a bearing of 075° from the port.
Ship Y travels at an average speed of 25 km/h on a bearing of 130° from the port.
Calculate the distance between the two ships at 11 am.

CM 12 Choose four values of θ between 0° and 90° to show that cos θ = –cos (180° – θ ).

PS 13 Calculate the size of the largest angle in triangle ABC.

A

7 cm 11 cm

B 15 cm C

Choosing the correct rule

When solving triangles, there are only four situations that can occur.
You can solve each of them completely in three stages.
Two sides and the included angle 75°
7
1 Use the cosine rule to work out the third side. 10

2 Use the sine rule to work out either of the other angles.
3 Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to work out the third angle.

Two angles and a side

1 80°
Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to work out the third angle. 10
2, 3 Use the sine rule to work out the other two sides.
62°

Three sides
1 Use the cosine rule to work out one angle. 8 12
2 Use the sine rule to work out another angle.
3 Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to work
out the third angle.
15

22.4 Solving any triangle 617

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Two sides and a non-included angle

This is the ambiguous case already covered.
1 Use the sine rule to work out the two possible values
of the appropriate angle.
8
2 Use the sum of the angles in a triangle to work out the
two possible values of the third angle.
3 Use the sine rule to work out the two possible values 40°
10
for the length of the third side.

Exercise 22K
1 Calculate the value of x in each of these triangles.
a b c
B B 12 cm C B x
C
x
8m 16 cm B 84°
B x 12 cm C B x
C
65° x 20 cm 45 cm 84°
37°
A8 m x C 16 cm
8m
65° A 20 cm 45 cm
A C 37°
A
8m
B A B
B 15 cm C A
d e f x
12 m 65°
6m B B
22 cm B 15 cm C C
x12 m 91 cm x
65°
6m
65° C 22 cm
x
43° C
A 73 cm
x A 91 cm
65° C x A 43°
A 73 cm
A
A

PS 2 The hands of a clock have lengths 3 cm and 5 cm. Work out the distance between the
tips of the hands at 4 o’clock.

PS 3 A spacecraft is seen hovering in the same vertical plane as two towns, and F. It is
8.5 km from and 12 km from F. The angle of elevation of the spacecraft when
observed from F is 43°. Calculate the distance between the two towns.

PS 4 Two boats, Mary Jo and Suzie, leave port at the same time.
Mary Jo sails at 10 knots on a bearing of 065°. Suzie sails on a bearing of 120°.
After 1 hour, Mary Jo is on a bearing of 330° from Suzie. What is Suzie’s speed?

Hints and tips A knot is a nautical mile per hour.

PS 5 Two ships leave port at the same time. Darling Dave sails at 12 knots on a bearing of
055° and Merry Mary sails at 18 knots on a bearing of 280°.
a How far apart are the two ships after 1 hour?
b What is the bearing of Merry Mary from Darling Dave after 1 hour?

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CM 6 Triangle ABC has sides with lengths a, b and c, as shown in the diagram.
A

c b

B a C

a What can you say about the angle BAC, if b2 + c2 – a2 = 0?

b What can you say about the angle BAC, if b2 + c2 – a2 > 0?
c What can you say about the angle BAC, if b2 + c2 – a2 < 0?
EV 7 The diagram shows a sketch of a field ABCD.
A

B
37°

25° 30 m
80°

D 50 m C

A farmer wants to put a new fence round the perimeter of the field.
William says the perimeter of the field is 142 m.
Evaluate on William’s statement.

22.5 Using sine to calculate the area

of a triangle
This section will show you how to: Key term
• work out the area of a triangle if you know two sides
area rule
and the included angle.

In triangle ABC, the vertical height is BD and the base is AC.

Let BD = h and AC = b, then the area of the triangle is given by:
1 × AC × BD = 1 bh
2 2 B
However, in triangle BCD
h = BC sin C = a sin C
where BC = a. c a
h
Substituting into bh gives:
1 × (a sin C ) = 21 ab sin C
2b A
D
C
b
as the area of the triangle.
By taking the perpendicular from A to its opposite side BC, and the perpendicular from C to its
opposite side AB, you can show that the area of the triangle is also given by:
1 ac sin B and 1 bc sin A
2 2
Note the pattern: the area is given by the product of two sides multiplied by the sine of the included
angle. This is the area rule. Starting from any of the three forms, it is also possible to use the sine rule
to establish the other two.
22.5 Using sine to calculate the area of a triangle 619
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Example 17 Work out the area of triangle ABC. B

5 cm

38°
C A
7 cm

Area = 21 ab sin C
Area = 1 × 5 × 7 × sin 38°
2
= 10.8 cm2 (3 sf)

Work out the area of triangle ABC.

Example 18

You have all three sides but no angle. So first you must work out an angle in order to apply the
area rule.
B
8 cm 13 cm

A C
19 cm

Calculate the value of angle C, using the cosine rule.

a2 + b2 − c2
cos C =
2ab
132 + 192 − 8 2
=
2 × 13
13 × 119
= 0.9433

⇒ C = cos–1 0.9433
= 19.383…° (Keep the exact value in your calculator memory.)

Now apply the area rule.

1 ab sin C = 1 × 13 × 19 × sin 19.383…°
2 2
= 41.0 cm2 (3 sf)

Exercise 22L
1 Work out the area of each of the following triangles.
a Triangle ABC where BC = 7 cm, AC = 8 cm and angle ACB = 59°
b Triangle ABC where angle BAC = 86°, AC = 6.7 cm and AB = 8 cm
c Triangle PQR where QR = 27 cm, PR = 19 cm and angle QRP = 109°
d Triangle Y where Y = 231 cm, = 191 cm and angle Y = 73°
e Triangle LMN where LN = 63 cm, LM = 39 cm and angle NLM = 85°
2 The area of triangle ABC is 27 cm2. If BC = 14 cm and angle BCA = 115°, calculate AC.

3 The area of triangle LMN is 113 cm2, LM = 16 cm and MN = 21 cm. Angle LMN is acute.
Calculate these angles.
a LMN b MNL
620 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles
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PS 4 In a quadrilateral ABCD, DC = 4 cm, BD = 11 cm, angle BAD = 32°, angle ABD = 48°
and angle BDC = 61°. Calculate the area of the quadrilateral.

5 A board is in the shape of a triangle with sides 60 cm, 70 cm and 80 cm. Work out the
area of the board.

PS 6 Two circles, centres P and Q, have radii of 6 cm and 7 cm respectively. The circles
intersect at and Y. Given that PQ = 9 cm, work out the area of triangle P Q.

PS 7 The points A, B and C are on the circumference of a circle, centre O and radius 7 cm.
AB = 4 cm and BC = 3.5 cm. Calculate:
a angle AOB b the area of quadrilateral OABC.
CM 8 Prove that for any triangle ABC, area = 21 ab sin C.

PS 9 Calculate the area of triangle PQR.

Q
6 cm

P 45°

7 2 cm R

PS 10 Sanjay is making a kite.

The diagram shows a sketch of his kite.
Calculate the area of the material he will need to make the kite.

25 cm

60 cm
40 cm

PS 11 An equilateral triangle has sides of length a.

Work out the area of the triangle, giving your answer in surd form.

EV 12 A pyramid has a square base of side length 10 cm.

10 cm

10 cm
10 cm

Which of these expressions gives the total surface area of the pyramid?
a 100(1 + 2 3) cm2 b 100(2 + 3 ) cm2
c 100(1 + 3 ) cm2 d 100(1 + 2 2 )cm2

22.5 Using sine to calculate the area of a triangle 621

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Worked exemplars
EV 1 The diagram shows a cuboid ABCDEFGH. A B

Ben said the size of angle AGE is 23°. D C

Evaluate Ben’s statement. E F
4 cm
5 cm
H 8 cm G

This is an evaluating question where you check the statement to see if it’s correct. This
means you need to calculate the given angle in order to check the validity of the statement.
Identify a triangle from the given diagram with the required angle: AGE. You need to find
length EG in order to have sufficient data in the triangle to work out the angle.

E 8 cm F Draw the right-angled triangle EFG and work out the

length of EG using Pythagoras’ theorem.
x 5 cm

x2 = 82 + 52
= 89
⇒ x = 89
= 9.434 cm
A Draw the right-angled triangle AGE, label the
required angle y and calculate its value.
4 cm
y
E 9.434 cm G

tan y = O
A
= 4
9.434
= 0.4240
⇒ y = tan–1 0.420
= 23.0° (3 sf)
So Ben is correct. Once you have found the angle, say explicitly
whether or not the statement is correct.

MR 2 A tetrahedron has one face that is an equilateral triangle of side 6 cm and three faces
that are isosceles triangles with sides 6 cm, 9 cm and 9 cm.

9 cm

6 cm

Show that the surface area of the tetrahedron is 92 cm2.

622 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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This is a mathematical reasoning question where you have to construct a chain of reasoning
to achieve a given result.
You need to plan a strategy to work out the area of each face, remembering that a
tetrahedron is a triangular-based pyramid.
The base is an equilateral triangle with a side You can work out the area of the base
length 6 cm and angles of 60°: using the given information that it is an
C equilateral triangle.

60°
b=6 a=6

60° 60°
A B
c=6

Area of base = 21 ac sin B

= 1 × 6 × 6 × sin 60°
2

= 15.588 457…
C The remaining three faces are identical. Draw
one and use the cosine rule to work out
x an angle.

b=9 9=a

A B

Angle C, in one of the isosceles triangles:

a 2 + b2 − c2
cos C =
2ab
92 + 92 – 6 2
=
2×9×9
= 0.777 777…

⇒ C = 38.942 448°
Then use the area rule to work out the area
Area of one of these faces: 21 ab sin C
of each face.
= 1 × 9 × 9 × sin 38.942 448°
2
= 25.455 848 cm2

Total area = 3 × 25.455 848 + 15.588 457 Finally, add the faces together.
= 91.956 001 If you don’t get the result given in the
= 92.0 cm (3 sf)2 question, re-check both your strategy and
your accuracy.
Remember to keep the accurate intermediate
answers to minimise rounding errors.

22 Worked exemplars 623

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Ready to progress?
I can solve more complex 2D and 3D problems using Pythagoras’ theorem and
trigonometric ratios.
I can use the sine and cosine rules.
I can calculate the area of a triangle, using area = 21 ab sin C.

I can calculate the trigonometric ratios for any angle up to 360°.

Review questions
EV 1 ABC is a triangle. AB = 12 cm, AC = 10 cm and BC = 15 cm. A Not drawn
accurately
Oliver calculated the size of angle A to be 85.4°.
Evaluate Oliver’s result. 10 cm
12 cm

C
B 15 cm
MR 2 Show that the area of triangle ABC is 40.9 cm2.
B 13 cm C

116°
7 cm

Not drawn
accurately
A

CM 3 Show that angle C is the largest angle in triangle ABC.

A B

10 cm 11 cm
70°
Not drawn
accurately
C

MR 4 PQR is an equilateral triangle.

a i Show how you can use the diagram to work out the P Not drawn
value of sin 30°. accurately

ii Use the diagram to work out the exact value of cos 30°,
leaving your answer in surd form.
b Use the exact values of cos 30° and sin 30° to show that
(cos 30°)2 + (sin 30°)2 = 1.
c Use the diagram to show that for all values of x between Q T R
0 and 90, (sin x)2 + (cos x)2 = 1.

624 22 Geometry and measures: Triangles

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5 The diagram shows a vertical chimney, QR, on horizontal ground, PTR.

Calculate the height of the chimney.
Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Q
Not drawn
accurately

26° 55°
P R
T
30 m

PS 6 Solve the equation 6(cos x)2 = 1 + cos x, giving all answers between 0° and 360°. Round
your answers, where appropriate, to 1 decimal place.

PS 7 ABCD is the square base of a pyramid. The vertex V is directly above the centre of
the square.
The length of AV is 30 cm and of AB is 22 cm.
V

30 cm
D C

A 22 cm B

Calculate the angle AV makes with the base.

CM 8 The cross-section of prism ABCDEF is a right-angled triangle.

A 9 cm B

6 cm

D C
5 cm
E F

Show that the angle AFD is 30.2°.

EV 9 The points A, B and C are on the circumference of a circle, centre O, and radius 5 cm.
The length of AB is 3 cm and of BC is 3.5 cm
Jamil said: “The area of quadrilateral OABC is 15.4 cm2.”
Comment on Jamil’s calculation.

22 Review questions 625

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23
Algebra: Graphs

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to work out speed from a distance–time graph
• how to interpret the gradients of straight lines on a velocity–time graph
• how to calculate and interpret the area under a velocity–time graph
consisting of straight lines
• how to draw a graph of the depth of liquid as a container is filled
• how to estimate and interpret the area under a curve
• how to work out and interpret a gradient at a point on a curve
• how to find the equation of a tangent to a circle
• how to recognise and draw cubic, reciprocal and exponential graphs
• how to transform a graph.

You should already know:

• how speed, distance and time are related
• how to draw linear graphs and quadratic graphs
• how to find the gradient of a line
• how to find the equation of a graph using the gradient-intercept
method
• how to find the equation of a perpendicular line
• that a tangent to a circle and a radius that meet at a point are
perpendicular
• how to transform a shape by a translation (with a column vector)
and a reflection (in a mirror line).

About this chapter

You will find graphs in newspapers, on the internet and in textbooks for
most subjects you learn in school. They give a visual representation of the
relationships between variables and can be used to compare data and give
information in a way that simple lists of data cannot.
When you throw a ball in the air it is affected by
Height (m)

gravity, wind and wind resistance. The height of

the ball over time can be modelled by a quadratic
graph, although the actual height at any time may
be slightly different from the graph. Most real-
life graphs are not smooth curves, but we use 0 Time (s)
mathematical functions to model real-life situations.

626
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23.1 Distance–time graphs

This section will show you how to:
• interpret distance–time graphs Key term
• draw a graph of the depth of liquid as a container is filled. distance–time graph

As the name suggests, a distance–time graph gives information about how far someone or something
has travelled over a given time period.
You can find the average speed from a distance–time graph, using the formula:
total distance travelled
average speed = . 500
total time taken
400

Distance (km)
This is the same as finding the gradient of the line. 300
500 km 200
Gradient =
2h
100
= 250 km/h
0
The steeper the gradient, the faster the speed. 0 1 2 3
Time (h)

Nottingham is 50 km from Barnsley.

Example 1

D E
50
This distance–time graph represents
a car journey from Barnsley
Nottingham, and back again. 40
Distance from Barnsley (km)

C
a What can you say about points B, C
and D? 30

b What can you say about the journey

between points D and F? 20
c Work out the average speed for each B
of the five stages of the journey. 10

F
0
A0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (minutes)

From the graph:

a B: After 20 minutes the car was 16 km away from Barnsley.
C: After 30 minutes the car was 35 km away from Barnsley.
D: After 50 minutes the car was 50 km away from Barnsley, so at Nottingham.
b D–F: The car stayed at Nottingham for 20 minutes, and then took 60 minutes for the return
journey to Barnsley.
c Work out the average speeds over the five stages of the journey as follows.
A to B represents 16 km in 20 minutes.
1
Since 20 minutes = 3 of an hour, you could use the formula:
1
average speed = 16 ÷ 3 = 48
However, it is simpler to use a ratio.

(continued )

23.1 Distance–time graphs 627

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1
20 minutes is 3 of an hour, so multiply by 3 to give distance per hour.
Multiplying both numbers by 3 gives 48 km in 60 minutes, which is 48 km/h.
B to C represents 19 km in 10 minutes.
Again, the most straightforward method is using a ratio.
Multiplying both numbers by 6 gives 114 km in 60 minutes, which is 114 km/h.
C to D represents 15 km in 20 minutes.
Multiplying both numbers by 3 gives 45 km in 60 minutes, which is 45 km/h.
D to E represents a stop, so the average speed is 0 km/h since no further distance was travelled.
E to F represents the return journey of 50 km in 60 minutes, which is 50 km/h.

Exercise 23A
1 This distance–time graph illustrates
Paul’s car journey to a meeting.

240
200
Distance (km)

160
120
80
40
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time taken (hours)

a How long after he set off did he:

i stop for his break
ii resume his journey following his break
iii reach his meeting place?
b At what average speed was he travelling:
i over the first hour ii over the second hour
iii for the last part of his journey?

Hints and tips If one part of a journey takes 30 minutes, double the distance to
get the average speed per hour.

MR 2 a Work out the speed for the first part of the journey
shown in this distance–time graph. 40

b For the second part of the journey, was the vehicle

travelling faster or more slowly? Give a reason for 30
Distance (miles)

your answer.
c Work out the average speed for the whole journey. 20

10

0
0 1 2 3

Time (hours)

628 23 Algebra: Graphs

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3 Calculate the average speed of the journey represented by each of these graphs.
a b c
30 30 30 150150150 60 60 60

Distance (km)
Distance (km)
Distance (km)
Distance (km)
Distance (km)
Distance (km)

Distance (m)
Distance (m)
Distance (m)
20 20 20 100100100 40 40 40

10 10 10 50 50 50 20 20 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 10 1 21 2 32 3 43 4 4 0 0 50 5 10 5 101510 1520
15 20 20 0 0 20 2 42 4 64 6 86 8 8
TimeTimeTime
(hours) (hours)
(hours) TimeTimeTime (seconds)
(seconds)
(seconds) TimeTimeTime
(hours) (hours)
(hours)

4 A small bus set off from Leeds

50
to first pick up Mike, then his parents
40

Distance (km)
and grandparents. It then took them
all to a hotel. The bus then went on a 30
further 10 km to pick up another 20
party and took them back to Leeds. 10
This distance–time graph illustrates 0
the journey. 12 noon 1.00 pm 2.00 pm 3.00 pm
Time

a How far from Leeds do Mike’s parents and grandparents live?

b How far from Leeds is the hotel at which Mike and his family stayed?
c What was the average speed of the bus on its return journey to Leeds?
MR 5 Richard and Paul took part in a 5000-metre race. It is illustrated in this graph.
a Paul ran a steady race.
5000
What was his average
speed in: 4000
i metres per minute
Distance (m)

3000
ii kilometres per hour? Paul
Richard
b Richard ran in spurts. 2000
What was his highest 1000
average speed?
c Who finished the race 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
first and by how many Time taken (minutes)
minutes?
CM 6 Three friends, Patrick, Araf and Sean, Patrick Araf Sean
1000
ran a 1000-metre race. This distance–
time graph illustrates their race. 800
Distance (m)

600
a Describe the race.
400
b i What was Araf’s average speed 200
in metres per second?
0
ii What is this speed in kilometres 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
per hour? Time taken (minutes)

23.1 Distance–time graphs 629

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PS 7 A walker sets off at 9:00 am from point P to walk along a trail at a steady pace of 6 km/h.
90 minutes later, a cyclist sets off from P on the same trail at a steady pace of 15 km/h.
At what time does the cyclist overtake the walker?

Hints and tips Drawing a distance–time graph is a straightforward method of

answering this question.

MR 8 Two vehicles set off from Town at different times. They both travelled to Town Y,
then returned to Town . Vehicle 1 set off at 14:30.

70

C
B
60

A
50

Vehicle 1
Distance (miles)

40
Vehicle 2 D

30

20

10

0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165

Time (minutes)

a What happened at point A? b What happened at point B?

c What happened at point C? d What happened at point D?
e At what time did Vehicle 1 return to Town ?
f Find the difference between the average speeds of the two vehicles. Give your answer
in miles per hour, correct to 1 decimal place.

Filling containers
This graph shows the change in the depth of water in
a flat-bottomed flask, as it is filled at a steady rate.
It shows that at first the depth of water increases
Depth

quickly then slows down as the flask gets wider.

As the flask gets narrower again, the depth increases
at a faster rate.
When the water reaches the neck, which has a 0
constant cross-section, the depth increases at a 0 Time
constant rate up to the top of the neck.

Example 2

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a b c d

1 2 3 4

Draw a graph to show the change in depth of water in each flask as they are filled at a
steady rate.
a The flask has the same diameter from bottom to top so the depth increases at a
constant rate.
Depth

Depth

Depth

Depth
1 2 3 4

0 0 0 0
0 Time 0 Time 0 Time 0 Time

b The flask gets wider from bottom to top so at first the depth changes quickly, but it slows
down as the flask gets wider.
Depth

Depth

Depth

Depth

2 3 4

0 0 0 0
0 Time 0 Time 0 Time 0 Time

c The flask is made from two parts, both of a constant width, with the top half much wider
than the bottom half. The depth increases at a constant fast rate at first, then at a constant
much slower rate.
Depth

Depth

Depth

3 4

0 0 0
0 Time 0 Time 0 Time

d The bottom of the flask is a constant diameter so fills at a constant rate. At the top of the
flask, the flask gets narrower and the depth changes increasingly quickly.
Depth

Depth

0 0
0 Time 0 Time

23.1 Distance–time graphs 631

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Exercise 23B
MR 1 Shejuti took a bath. The graph shows the depth of water in the bath from the time
she started running the water to the time that the bath was empty again.
Explain what you think is happening for each part of the graph from a to g.

d
c

b
e
Depth

a
g

0
0
Time

MR 2 a Liquid is poured at a steady rate into the bottle shown

in the diagram.
As the bottle is filled, the depth, d, of the liquid in the bottle
changes.
Which of the four graphs shows the change in depth?

d d
d d d d
A B
A B C D
0 0
0 Time 0 Time
0 0 0 0
0 Time 0 Time 0 Time a 0 Time b
a b c
b Draw bottles for each of the other three graphs.
MR 3 Draw a graph of the depth of water in each of these containers as it is filled steadily.
a b c
aa bb cc d e
b c d e f
a b c

d e f
dd ee ff g
e f g
d e f

g
gg
g

632 23 Algebra: Graphs

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23.2 Velocity–time graphs

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• read information from a velocity–time graph
acceleration
• work out the distance travelled from a velocity–time graph
deceleration
• work out the acceleration from a velocity–time graph.
velocity–time graph
You read a velocity–time graph in a similar way to a zero gradient
distance–time graph. A positive gradient means the velocity
is increasing. A zero gradient, when the line is horizontal,
indicates a steady or constant velocity. A negative gradient means the velocity is decreasing. Any line
on the graph represents the average speed
maintained over that section.
50
Look the journey represented by this graph.
A to B takes 2 hours and the speed increases C D
40
from 0 km/h to 10 km/h.
Velocity (km/h)
B to C takes 1 hour and the speed increases
30
from 10 km/h to 40 km/h.
C to D takes 2 hours and the speed is constant
20
at 40 km/h.
D to E takes 1 hour and the speed decreases
10
from 40 km/h to 0 km/h. B
A
You can also work out the distance covered E
0
from a velocity–time graph. The distance 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
covered is equal to the area under the graph.
Time (hours)
When the speed is constant, you can find this
by multiplying speed by time.
Example 3

The velocity–time graph represents a car journey.

What can you say about: 30

a the velocity
Velocity (km/h)

20
b the time taken
c the distance travelled?
10

0
0 1 2 3 4

Time (hours)

a As the line is horizontal, the velocity is constant (steady) at 20 km/h.

b The time taken is 3 hours.
c Use the formula:
distance travelled = average speed × time taken
The distance travelled is 20 × 3 = 60 km.
You can see that this is the same as working out the area of the rectangle shown on the
graph (3 × 20 = 60 km/h).

23.2 Velocity–time graphs 633

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Example 4 The velocity–time graph shows a train journey between two stations.
Work out:
40
a the distance travelled
30
b the average speed for the

Velocity (m/s)
whole journey.
20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (seconds)

a You can find the distance travelled from the area under the graph.
Method 1 (Area of a trapezium)
1
Hints and tips Remember the formula for the area of a trapezium: A = 2 (a + b)h

a
20

30
b
1
Area of the trapezium = 2 (45 + 20) × 30
= 975 m 45

Method 2 (Dividing up the areas)

1
Hints and tips Remember the formula for the area of a triangle: area = 2 × base ×
perpendicular height

Split the trapezium into triangles and rectangles to find the total area.
1
Area of first triangle: 2 × 15 × 30 = 225 m
Area of rectangle: 20 × 30 = 600 m
40
Area of second triangle:
1 30
2 × 10 × 30 = 150 m
Speed (m/s)

Total distance travelled: 20

225 + 600 + 150 = 975 m
10
b Use the formula. average speed =
0
total distance travelled 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
total time taken Time (seconds)
975
=
45
= 21.7 m/s (1 dp)

634 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Exercise 23C
1 The diagram represents a car journey between two junctions of a bypass.

30
Velocity (m/s)

20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Time (seconds)

a What is the steady speed of the car?

b What distance does the car cover while speeding up?
c What distance does the car cover while slowing down?
d What is the distance between the junctions?
2 The diagram shows a velocity–time graph.
a Work out the total distance travelled. 10

Velocity (km/h)
b Work out the average speed for the whole journey.
5

0
0 1 2 3

Time (hours)
MR 3 The graph shows four parts of a two-hour journey,
A B
AB, BC, CD and DE. 100

a Which part of the journey covers the greatest 80

distance? Give a reason for your answer.
Velocity (mph)

D
b Work out the distance covered travelling from 60
C
C to E.
40
c Work out the total distance covered.
20

0 E
0 1 2
Time (hours)

PS 4 The graph shows 40 seconds of a car journey.

v
The maximum speed is v m/s.
The distance covered is 300 metres.
Velocity (m/s)

Work out the value of v.

0
0 10 20 30 40

Time (seconds)

23.2 Velocity–time graphs 635

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PS 5 A cyclist increases her speed at a steady rate from rest (0 m/s) to 10 m/s in 15 seconds.
She then travels at a steady speed for 30 seconds before slowing down to rest over a
further 20 seconds, decreasing speed at a steady rate.
a Draw a graph to represent this information.
b Use your graph to work out the total distance travelled.
MR 6 The diagram shows the journeys of two trains,
A and B. Train A

From this graph, write down whether each

Velocity (km/h)
statement:
must be true (T) could be true or false (C)
must be false (F).
a The trains are travelling in opposite directions. Train B
0
b The trains both cover the same distance. 0
Time
c Train A is speeding up and train B is slowing down.
d Train A is travelling up a slope.
e Train A overtakes train B.

Acceleration
The gradient of a velocity–time graph gives the rate at which the velocity is increasing or decreasing in a
given time. If the gradient is positive it is an acceleration. If the gradient is negative it is a deceleration.
difference in velocity
acceleration or deceleration =
difference in time
The units for acceleration and deceleration are, for example, metres per second per second (m/s ) or
kilometres per hour per hour (km/h ).
Example 5

In this velocity–time graph:

20
a find the initial velocity
15
b work out the acceleration.
Velocity (m/s)

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (seconds)

a Initial velocity is the velocity at the start of the

journey and you read this from the y-intercept. 20

Initial velocity = 5 m/s 15

Velocity (m/s)

difference in velocity 15
b Acceleration = 10
difference in time
20 − 5
= m/s 5
5 5
15 0
= m/s
5 0 1 2 3 4 5
= 3 m/s Time (seconds)

636 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Exercise 23D
1 The graph shows the journey of a car travelling
between two sets of traffic lights.
60
a Find the initial acceleration of the car.
b Find the final deceleration of the car. 50
c For how long was the car not accelerating?
d Find the distance travelled whilst the car 40

Velocity (m/s)
was travelling at a steady speed.
e Find the distance between the two sets 30
of traffic lights.
20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50

Time (seconds)

2 The graph shows the journey of a train travelling

50
between two towns.
a Work out the acceleration or deceleration for
40
each section of the graph.
Velocity (km/h)

b Find the total distance travelled.

30

20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Time (hours)

PS 3 The graph shows the velocity of a car

between two junctions. 4v

a Work out the acceleration in the first

10 seconds, in terms of v. 3v
Velocity (m/s)

b The distance travelled in the first

10 seconds is 75 metres. Work out the 2v
total distance travelled between the
junctions. v

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Time (seconds)

23.2 Velocity–time graphs 637

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23.3 Estimating the area

under a curve
This section will show you how to:
• use areas of rectangles, triangles and trapeziums to estimate the area under a curve
• interpret the meaning of the area under a curve.

A velocity–time graph made up of straight

lines is generally not as accurate a model
50
of real life as one that is curved. This
is because the curve can show gradual
changes in acceleration or deceleration. 40

Calculating the area under a curve

Velocity (km/h)
accurately is beyond the scope of GCSE. 30
However, it is possible to estimate the area
by splitting it up into simpler shapes – such 20
as rectangles, triangles and trapeziums –
that approximate its area. This means you
10
can estimate the distance travelled from a
curved velocity–time graph.
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hours)
Example 6

Estimate the total distance travelled for the journey shown in the graph above.
You can estimate the total distance
travelled by working out the areas of 50
the triangles and the trapezium shown.
Area of first triangle: 40
1 × 2 × 26 = 26 km
Velocity (km/h)

2
30
So distance travelled in the first
2 hours is approximately 26 km.
20
Area of the trapezium:
1 × (26 + 40) × 2 = 66 km
2 10
So distance travelled in the next
2 hours is approximately 66 km.
0
Area of second triangle: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
× 2 × 40 = 40 km Time (hours)
2
So distance travelled in the final 2 hours is approximately 40 km.
This gives a total distance travelled of 26 + 66 + 40 = 132 km.
Note: As all the shapes are inside the curved area, this will be a slight under-estimation of the
true distance covered.

638 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Example 7 The velocity–time graph represents

a journey. 50

a Estimate the distance travelled.

40
b State whether your estimate is an
under-estimate or an over-estimate.

Velocity (km/h)
30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hours)

a Divide the area approximately into a

triangle and trapezium. 50
Area of the triangle:
1 40
× 4 × 25 = 50 km
2
Velocity (km/h)

Area of the trapezium: 30

1
× (25 + 50) × 2 = 75 km
2
20
So the distance covered is
approximately 50 km + 75 km = 125 km.
10
b This is an over-estimate as the areas
found are greater than the area under
the curve. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hours)

Exercise 23E
1 For each velocity–time graph, estimate the distance travelled and state whether your
estimate is an under-estimate or an over-estimate.
a b
40 20

30 15
Velocity (mph)

Velocity (m/s)

20 10

10 5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 10 15 20 25

Time (hours) Time (seconds)

23.3 Estimating the area under a curve 639

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c d
30 30

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
20 20

10 10

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 2 4 6 8
Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

2 For each velocity–time graph, estimate the distance travelled and state whether your
estimate is an under-estimate or an over-estimate.
a b
5 30

Velocity (mph)
4 20
Velocity (mph)

3 10

2 0
0 1 2

1 Time (hours)

0
0 1 2

Time (hours)
EV 3 a For this velocity–time graph, find: 40

i the initial velocity

30
ii the maximum velocity.
Velocity (m/s)

b Find an estimate for the total distance

20
travelled using:
i one trapezium and one triangle 10
ii three trapezia and one triangle.
c Which of your answers in part b is more 0
accurate? Explain your answer. 0 10 20 30 40 50

Time (seconds)

CM 4 The velocity–time graph shows 20

a car journey over one minute.
a Describe the journey. 15
Velocity (m/s)

b Estimate the distance travelled

in the first 20 seconds. 10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (seconds)

640 23 Algebra: Graphs

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EV 5 This velocity–time graph shows the

20
same car journey as in question 4. The
dashed line also shows the journey of
a lorry that sets off at the same time as 15

Velocity (m/s)
the car.
a Compare the lorry journey with the 10
car journey.
b Which travels further in one 5
8
minute, the car or the lorry? Show
how you decide. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (seconds)

23.4 Rates of change

This section will show you how to: Key term
• draw a tangent at a point on a curve and use it to work out tangent
the gradient at a point on a curve
• interpret the gradient at a point on a curve.

A tangent is a line that touches a curve at a point.

The gradient of a curve at a point is the same
as the gradient of the tangent at that point.

Distance–time graphs Tangent

40
The gradient at any point on a distance–time graph gives the
velocity at that point.
30
Follow these steps to calculate the velocity.
Distance (miles)

Step 1: Draw a tangent carefully at the point.

20
Step 2: Make a right-angled triangle as shown.
Step 3: Use measurements from the axes to label the lengths 10
of the two shorter sides of the triangle.
Step 4: Use these measurements to calculate the gradient of the 0
tangent and therefore the speed of the object. 0 1 2 3 4
30 Time (hours)
In this example, the gradient of the tangent at T = 1.6 is 3
= 10, so
the speed at this point is 10 mph.
Tangent
40

30
Distance (miles)

30
20

10
3

0
0 1 2 3 4

Time (hours)

23.4 Rates of change 641

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You can also find the average speed between two times by
finding the gradient of the chord. 40

Draw the chord, make a the right-angled triangle and use the
measurements to label the triangle. 30

Distance (miles)
16
16
In this example, the gradient between 1 and 3 hours is 2
= 8,
so the average speed between these times is 8 mph. 20
2
10

0
0 1 2 3 4

Time (hours)

Velocity–time graphs
The gradient at any point on a velocity–time graph gives the acceleration at that point. Follow the
same steps described above in relation to distance–time graphs.
Example 8

Estimate the acceleration in this journey at 1 hour.

50

40
Velocity (km/h)

30

20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hours)

Draw the tangent carefully at 1 hour.

50

Add a right-angled triangle between

two integer points (such as 0 and 3). 40

Label the base and height of the

Velocity (km/h)

triangle 3 and 36. 30

Calculate the gradient and therefore

the acceleration. 20 36
36
The gradient is = 12, so the
3
acceleration is 12 km/h . 10

3
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Time (hours)

642 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Exercise 23F
1 The graph shows the height of a ball as it is thrown
into the air. 20

a Draw a tangent at the point where t = 1.

15
b Use your tangent to estimate the velocity

Height (m)
of the ball after one second.
10
c Write down the velocity of the ball after
2 seconds.
5

0
0 1 2 3 4

Time, t (seconds)

MR 2 Look at this distance–time graph.

50
a Estimate the velocity when:
i t=1 ii t = 4.
40
b At what time is the velocity zero? Distance (km)

c Estimate average velocity from: 30

i t = 0 to t = 2 ii t = 3 to t = 5.
20

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Time, t (hours)

CM 3 Look at this velocity–time graph.

a Estimate the acceleration when t = 10.
40
b Estimate the acceleration when t = 15.
c Estimate the deceleration when t = 30. 30
Velocity (m/s)

d At what time is the acceleration zero?

Explain how you know. 20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50

Time (seconds)

4 Look again at the graph in question 1.

Find two times when the speeds are numerically equal but in opposite directions.

23.4 Rates of change 643

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23.5 Equation of a circle

This section will show you how to:
• find the equation of a tangent to a circle.

You have met the equations and graphs of straight lines and quadratics in previous chapters and
know that each type of equation has a different graph shape. In the next two sections you will look at
some other equations and their graph shapes.
A circle with the equation x2 + y2 = r2 has its centre at the origin and a radius of r. So a circle with
the equation
x2 + y2 = 49
has a radius of 7.
In Chapter 10, you learnt how to find the gradient and equation of a line, and how to find the
equation of a line perpendicular to it. In Chapter 20, you discovered a circle theorem, which stated
that a tangent to a circle is perpendicular to a radius at the point of contact. You can put these two
things together to find the equation of a tangent to a circle at a given point.
Example 9

A circle has the equation x2 + y2 = 52.

a Find the diameter of the circle. Give your answer as a surd in its simplest form.
b Show that the equation of the tangent to the circle at the point (4, –6) is given by 3y + 26 = 2x.
y

0
x
0 4

–6

a r2 = 52, so the radius, r = 52 = 2 13. The diameter is twice as long as the radius, i.e. 4 13.
b The gradient of the radius (the line segment from the origin to (4, –6))
difference onn y--axis
=
difference onn x --axis
=–6
4
3
=– .
2
The tangent is perpendicular to the radius at this point so the gradient of the tangent is 2 .
3
(continued)
644 23 Algebra: Graphs
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2 2
Substituting x = 4, y = –6 and m = 3 into y = mx + c gives: –6 = 3
×4+c
8
which simplifies to; –6 = 3
+c
8
⇒ c = –6 – 3

26
=– 3

So, y = 23x – 26
3
Multiply both sides by 3. 3y = 2x – 26
Add 26 to both sides. 3y + 26 = 2x

Find the equations of both tangents to the circle y

Example 10

5
x2 + y2 = 116 with a gradient of 2.

0
x
0

Since the tangents are parallel and have a gradient of 25 , the line between them (which is a
diameter) will have a gradient of – 25 .
2
Since the diameter (and therefore radii) has a gradient of – 5
and a y-intercept of 0, the
equation of the radius that meets the tangent is:
y = – 25 x
Substitute y = – 25 x into x2 + y2 = 116. x2 + (– 25 x)2 = 116
4 2
x2 + 25
x = 116
29 2
25
x = 116
29x = 2900
2

x2 = 100
x = ±10
From y = – 25 x:
2
When x = 10, y = – 5
× 10 = – 4
2
When x = –10, y = – × –10 = 4
5
So, one tangent has x = 10, y = – 4 and m = 25 : –4 = 5
2 × 10 + c ⇒ c = –29
5
So, y = 2
x – 29
The other tangent has x = –10, y = 4 and m = 25 : 4 = 5
2
× –10 + c ⇒ c = 29
5
So, y = 2x + 29

23.5 Equation of a circle 645

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Exercise 23G
1 State the radius of each circle. Give your answers as simplified surds, where
appropriate.
a x2 + y2 = 36 b x2 + y2 = 12 c x2 + y2 = 75 d x2 + y2 = 576
2 State the diameter of each circle. Give your answers as simplified surds, where
appropriate.
a x2 + y2 = 117 b x2 + y2 = 7744 c x2 + y2 = 3249 d x2 + y2 = 9
16
PS 3 A circle has equation x2 + y2 = 100. Determine whether each point lies inside the
circle, outside the circle or on the circumference of the circle.
a (9, 4) b (7, 8) c (–8, 6)
d (0, 10) e (5, –9) f (–7, 7)

Hints and tips Use Pythagoras’ theorem to work out how far each point is from
the origin and compare it with the radius.

MR 4 (4, 3) and (0, –5) are points on the circumference of the circle with equation x2 + y2 = 25,
where both x and y are integers.
a State three other points on the circumference of x2 + y2 = 25 where the coordinates are
integers.
b How many pairs of coordinates on the circumference of x2 + y2 = 25 have both values
as integers?

5 Point A(4, 2) lies on the circumference of the circle x2 + y2 = 20.

a Find the gradient of the line segment joining A to the origin (0, 0).
b Find the gradient of the tangent to the circle at A.
c Find the equation of the tangent to the circle at A in the form y = mx + c.
CM 6 Show that the tangent to the circle x2 + y2 = 73 at the point (–8, 3) is given by the
equation 3y = 8x + 73.

7 Find the equation of the tangent in the form y = mx + c for these situations.
a Circle x2 + y2 = 34, tangent at (3, –5)
b Circle x2 + y2 = 40, tangent at (–2, –6)
c Circle x2 + y2 = a2, tangent at (p, q)

MR 8 Find the equations of both tangents to the circle x2 + y2 = 45 with a gradient of 2. Give
your answers in the form y = mx + c.

MR 9 A circle has the equation x2 + y2 = 50.

Find the equations of the tangents to the circle that are parallel to x + y = 8.

PS 10 1
A circle centred at the origin has a tangent with equation y = – x + c at the point (3, 9).
3
a Find the value of c.
b Find the equation of the circle.

646 23 Algebra: Graphs

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23.6 Other graphs

This section will show you how to: Key terms
• recognise and plot cubic, exponential and asymptote cubic
reciprocal graphs.
exponential function reciprocal
Cubic graphs
A cubic function or graph is one that contains a term in x3. These are examples of cubic functions.
y = x3 y = x3 + 3x y = x3 + x2 + x + 1
The techniques you use to draw them are exactly the same as the ones you use for quadratic and
linear graphs.
This is the graph of y = x3.
y

1.5

0.5

–1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

x

–0.5

–1

–1.5

–2

It has a characteristic shape that you should learn to recognise.

Example 11 shows you how to draw a cubic graph accurately.
You should use a calculator to work out the values of y and then round to 1 or 2 decimal places.
Example 11

a Complete the table and draw the graph of y = x3 – x2 – 4x + 4 for –3  x  3.

x –3 –2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y –20.00 0.00 6.00 4.00 1.88 3.38 10.00

b Use your graph to give the roots of the equation x3 – x2 – 4x + 4 = 0.

c Write down the coordinates of:
i the minimum vertex ii the maximum vertex.
d Write down the coordinates of the point where the graph intersects the y-axis.

23.6 Other graphs 647

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a Complete the table of values.

x –3 –2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

y –20.00 –7.88 0.00 4.38 6.00 5.63 4.00 1.88 0.00 –0.88 0.00 3.38 10.00
y
Use the table of values to complete
the graph. 10

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x

–5

–10

–15

–20

b Just as in quadratic graphs, the roots are the points where the graph crosses the x-axis.
This is where y = 0.
So the roots are x = –2, 1 and 2.
c i The minimum vertex is at the point (1.5, –0.88).
ii The maximum vertex is at the point (–1, 6).
Note that the minimum and maximum values of the function are ± infinity, as the arms of the
curve continue forever.
d Just as in a quadratic graph, this is the constant term in the equation, so the point is (0, 4).

Note the difference between the shape of a positive cubic graph (one with + x3) and a negative
cubic graph (one with –x3):
y y

Positive Negative

0 x 0 x

648 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Reciprocal graphs
a
A reciprocal function has the form y = .
x
These are examples of reciprocal functions.
1 4
y= y= y=–3
x x x
All reciprocal graphs have a similar shape and some symmetrical properties.
1
To draw the graph of y = for – 4  x  4:
x
1
Start by finding the y-values for the integer x-values between – 4 and 4 (except 0, since is infinity). 0
Round values to 2 decimal places, as it is difficult to plot a value more accurately than this.

x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
y –0.25 –0.33 –0.5 –1 1 0.5 0.33 0.25

The graph plotted from these values is shown in graph A. This does not show the properties of the
reciprocal function.
Find the y-values for x-values between–0.8 to 0.8 in steps of 0.2.

x –0.8 –0.6 –0.4 –0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

y –1.25 –1.67 –2.5 –5 5 2.5 1.67 1.25

Plotting these points as well gives graph B.

A y B y
5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1
–4 –3 –2 –1 – 4 –3 –2 –1
0 1 2 3 4x 0 1 2 3 4x
–1 –1

–2 –2

–3 –3

–4 –4

–5 –5

Graph B shows the characteristic properties of reciprocal graphs.

• The lines y = x and y = –x are lines of symmetry.
• The closer x gets to zero, the nearer the graph gets to the y-axis.
y
• As x increases, the graph gets closer to the x-axis.
y = –x y=x
The graph never actually touches the axes, it just gets closer and closer
to them. When a graph gets closer to a line but never touches or
crosses it, the line is called an asymptote.

0 x

23.6 Other graphs 649

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Note the difference between the shape of a positive reciprocal graph and a negative reciprocal graph:
y y

Positive Negative

0 x 0 x

Exponential graphs y y = kx
Equations that have the form y = kx, where k is a positive number, are
called exponential functions.
The graph of y = kx shows the properties of exponential functions.
• When k is greater than 1, the value of y increases steeply as x increases,
which you can see from the graph on the right.
• When k is greater than 1, as x takes on increasingly large negative values, 1
y gets closer to zero. The graph gets nearer and nearer to the negative
x-axis but y never actually becomes zero and so the graph never touches
0 x
the negative x-axis. That is, the negative x-axis is an asymptote to the graph.
• Whatever the value of k, the graph always intercepts the y-axis at 1, because here y = k0.
Example 12

a Complete the table below for y = 2x for –5  x  5. (Values are rounded to 2 decimal places.)

x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = 2x 0.03 0.06 0.13 1 2 4 32

b Plot the graph of y = 2x for –5  x  5.

a x –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y=2 x
0.03 0.06 0.13 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16 32

b y

0
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5

–2

650 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Exercise 23H
1 Sketch the graph of y = –x3.

2 a Copy and complete the table and draw the graph of y = 2x3 for –3  x  3.
x 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
y 31.25 6.75 0.00 0.25 16.00

b Use your graph to find the y-value when x = 2.7.

3 a Draw the graph of y = x3 + 3 for –3  x  3. Plot x-values in steps of 0.5.
b Use your graph to find the y-value when x = 1.2.
c Find the root of the equation x3 + 3 = 0.
4 a Plot the graph of y = x3 – 2x + 5 for –3  x  3.
b Use your graph to find:
i the root of x3 – 2x + 5 = 0
ii the approximate value of the coordinate of the maximum vertex
iii the approximate value of the coordinate of the minimum vertex
iv the coordinates of the point where the graph crosses the y-axis.
12
5 Copy and complete the table and draw the graph of y = – .
x
x –12 –6 –4 –3 –2 –1 –0.5 0.5 1 2 3 4 6 12
y –3 –3

CM 6 5
a Copy and complete the table and draw the graph of y = for –20  x  20.
x
x –20 –15 –10 –5 –2 –1 –0.5 –0.4 –0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 1 2 5 10 15 20
y 25 10 0.25

b Explain why there is no value when x = 0.

c On the same axes, draw the graph of y = x + 10.
d Use your graph to find the x-values of any points where the graphs intersect.
7 a Plot the graph of y = 3x for integer values of x from – 4 to +3. Draw the y-axis from
0 to 30 and round y-values to 2 decimal places.
b Use your graph to estimate the value of y when x = 2.5.
c Use your graph to estimate the value of x when y = 0.5.
8 Identify each graph as linear, quadratic, reciprocal, cubic, exponential or none of these.

a y b y c y

0 x 0 x 0 x

d y e y f y
23.6 Other graphs 651
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x remains the intellectual0property of Harper
x Collins Publishers Ltd 0 x
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d y e y f y
d y e y f y

0 x 0 x 0 x
0 x 0 x 0 x

g y h y i y
g y h y i y

0 x 0 x 0 x
0 x 0 x 0 x

PS 9 One grain of rice is placed on the first square of a chess board. Two grains of rice are
placed on the second square, four grains on the third square and so on.
a Explain why y = 2(n–1) gives the number of grains of rice on the nth square.
b How many grains of rice are there on the 64th square?
c If 1000 grains of rice are worth 5p, how much is the rice on the 64th square worth?
PS 10 An extremely large sheet of paper is 0.01 cm thick. It is torn in half and one piece
placed on top of the other. These two pieces are then torn in half and one half is
placed on top of the other half to give a pile four sheets thick. This happens 50 times.
a How many pieces will be in the pile after 50 tears?
b How thick is this pile?
MR 11 A curve of the form y = abx passes through the points (0, 5) and (2, 45).
Work out the values of a and b.

PS 12 This is the graph of y2 = x.

y
2

0 1 2 3 4 x

–1

–2

Copy this graph. Add sketches of these graphs to your sketch.

a y2 + 2 = x b 2y2 = x c (y – 2)2 = x

652 23 Algebra: Graphs

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23.7 Transformations of the graph

y = f(x)
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• transform a graph. function transform

Changing the equation of a graph by adding or subtracting a value, or by changing the sign,
transforms the graph in a certain way.

Exercise 23I
1 a Copy and complete the table for y = x2, y = x2 + 3 and y = x2 – 2.
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y=x 2

y = x2 + 3
y = x2 – 2

b Plot all three graphs on the same axes.

c Describe the relationship between y = x2 and y = x2 + 3.
d Describe the relationship between y = x2 and y = x2 – 2.
e Using your answers to c and d, describe the relationship between:
i y = x2 and y = x2 + 6
ii y = x2 and y = x2 – 6.
2 a Copy and complete the table for y = x2, y = (x – 2)2 and y = (x + 1)2.
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y = x2
y = (x – 2)2
y = (x + 1)2

b Plot all three graphs on the same axes.

c Describe the relationship between y = x2 and y = (x – 2)2.
d Describe the relationship between y = x2 and y = (x + 1)2.
e Using your answers to c and d, describe the relationship between
i y = x2 and y = (x – 3)2
ii y = x2 and y = (x + 4)2.

The notation f(x) is used to represent a function of x. A function of x is any algebraic expression in
which x is the only variable. These are examples of functions of x.
1
f(x) = x + 3, f(x) = 5x, f(x) = 2x – 7, f(x) = x2, f(x) = x3 + 2x – 1, f(x) = sin x and f(x) = .
x
In this section you will be introduced to four general statements or rules about transforming graphs.
Test these rules with a graphics calculator or a graph-drawing computer program to see them
in action.

23.7 Transformations of the graph y = f(x) 653

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This sketch graph represents a function y = f(x). y

y = f(x)

0 x

Rule 1 The graph of y = f(x) + a is a translation of the y

 0
graph of y = f(x) by a vector   .
 a
y = f(x) + a

y = f(x)

0 x

Rule 2 The graph of y = f(x – a) is a translation of the y

 a
graph of y = f(x) by a vector   .
 0 y = f(x – a)
Note The sign in front of a in the bracket is negative,
but the translation is in the positive direction. y = f(x)
 − a
f(x + a) would translate f(x) by the vector   . 0 x
 0

Rule 3 The graph of y = –f(x) is the reflection of the y

graph y = f(x) in the x-axis.

y = f(x)

0 x

y = –f(x)

Rule 4 The graph of y = f(–x) is the y

reflection of the graph y = f(x)
in the y-axis.
An invariant point is a point that y = f(–x) y = f(x)
does not change when a graph
is transformed. 0 x
For Rule 3, the invariant points for
y = –f(x) lie on the x-axis.
For Rule 4, the invariant points for y = f(–x) lie on the y-axis.

654 23 Algebra: Graphs

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aa bb
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yy yy

Example 13 i Sketch the following graphs.

a y = x2 b y = x2 – 5 c y = –x2 d y = (x – 5)2
00 xx 00 xx
ii Describe the transformation(s) that change(s) graph a toyeach –5–5 y y= =x2x2– –5 5
y= =x2x2 of the other graphs.

a b cc dd
yy yy yy yy
22
0 0 y y= =– –x x
xx

00 xx 00 xx 00 xx
55
yy == xx22 –5
–5 yy == xx22 –– 55 22
y y= =(x(x– –5)5)

cThis is the basic Adtranslation of A reflection in the  5

graph toyy which you  0  yy x-axis A translation of  
22
yy == –– xxto  0
apply the00 rules  −5
make the necessary xx
transformations.
The most common error with transformations concerns rule 2. Remember: y = f(x + a)
00 xx
 − a 55
= (x – 5)22
y = (x – 5)
The translation is   , so the sign of the constant inside the bracket changes in the vector.
y
 0
Example 14

This is the graph of y = sin x. y

2
Sketch the graph of:
a y = sin(x – 90°) 1

b y = 1 + sin x. 0 x
90° 180° 270° 360°
–1

–2

a The graph of y = f(x – 90°) is a translation y

 90  2
of the graph of y = f(x) by a vector  0  .
  1

0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–1

–2

b The graph of y = f(x) + 1 is a translation y

 0 2
of the graph of y = f(x) by a vector  
 1 1

0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–1

–2

23.7 Transformations of the graph y = f(x) 655

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Exercise 23J
1 On the same axes, sketch the following graphs. Describe the transformation(s) that
take(s) the graph in part a to each of the other graphs. If your graph gets too
‘crowded’, draw a new set of axes and re-draw part a.
a y = x2 b y = x2 + 3 c y = x2 – 1
d y = (x + 3)2 e y = (x + 3)2 – 1 f y = –x2 + 3
2 On the same axes, sketch the following graphs. Describe the transformation(s) that
take(s) the graph in part a to each of the other graphs. If your graph gets too
‘crowded’, draw a new set of axes and re-draw part a.
a y = sin x b y = sin (x + 90°) c y = sin (x – 45°) d y = sin x + 2
e y = –sin x f y = sin (–x) g y = –sin (–x)
MR 3 Which equation represents this graph?

0 90° 180° 270° 360° x

–1

–2

A: y = sin x B: y = cos (x – 90°) C: y = –sin (–x)

4 This is a sketch of the function y = f(x).

y
3

0 x

Use this to sketch these functions.

a y = f(x) + 2 b y = f(x – 3)
c y = –f(x) d y = –f(x) – 2
PS 5 What is the equation of the graph obtained when the following transformations are
applied to the graph of y = cos x?
 0  −30   45 
a Translation of   b Translation of  c Translation of  
 3  0   −2 

656 23 Algebra: Graphs

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6 a Sketch the graph y = x3.

b Use your sketch in part a to draw the graphs obtained when y = x3 is transformed as
follows.
 0  −2 
i Reflection in the x-axis
ii Translation of   iii Translation of  
 −2   0
c Give the equation of each of the graphs you sketched in part b.
EV 7 A teacher asked her class to apply the following transformations to the function f(x) = x2.
a f(–x) b –f(x)
Martyn said that they must be the same because –x2 = x2.
Is Martyn correct? Explain your answer.

MR 8 The graphs below are all transformations of y = x2. The coordinates of two points are
marked on each graph. Use this information to work out the equation of each graph.
a b c
a aa yyy b bb yyy ccc yyy

(0,(0,4)
(0,4)4)

(1,(1,1)
(1,1)1)
(1,(1,3)
(1,3)3)
(0,(0,2)
(0,2)2)
000 xxx 000 xxx 000 xxx
(2,(2,0)
(2,0)0) (2,(2,0)
(2,0)0)

PS 9 Below are the graphs of y = sin x and y = cos x.

y y

0
x 0 x
y = sin x y = cos x

a Describe a series of transformations that would take y = sin x to y = cos x.

b Which of these is equivalent to y = cos x?
i y = sin (x + 90°) ii y = –sin (x – 90°)

23.7 Transformations of the graph y = f(x) 657

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Completing the square

In Chapter 17, you completed the square to solve an equation and to find the turning point of a
quadratic graph. You can also relate completing the square to transforming a quadratic graph.
If f(x) = x2, then f(x ± a) ± b = (x ± a)2 ± b.
If f(x) = –x2, then f(x ± a) ± b = –[(x ± a)2 ± b].
For example, you can rewrite y = x2 + 8x – 3 as y = (x + 4)2 – 19, which is equivalent to y = f(x + 4) – 19.
 −4 
This is a translation of  .
−19 
The m nimum point of y = x2 is (0, 0) and is translated to (– 4, –19).

Exercise 23K
1 Given that f(x) = x2, write each equation in the form y = f(x ± a) ± b.
State the translation of the graph in each case.
a y = x2 – 6x + 11 b y = x2 + 14x + 35 c y = x2 – 22x + 100
2 Sketch each of these graphs, using completing the square to find the graph
transformation. In each case, show the m nimum or maximum point and the
intersection with the y-axis.
a y = x2 + 2x + 3 b y = x2 – 10x + 12 c y = 3 – x2 – 16x
MR 3 Each of these graphs can be written in the form y = ±x2 ± ax ± b.
State the equation of each graph.
a b c
a a a
y y y b by yb y c c yc y y

(3, 14)(3, 14)

(3, 14)

(7, 10)(7, 10)

(7, 10)
0 0 0 x x x 0 0 0 x x x 0 0 0 x x x

(4, –9)(4, –9)

(4, –9)

658 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Worked exemplars
PS 1 Tracy and Les both drove to the airport. The distance–time graphs of their journeys
are shown below.
Given that 5 miles is approximately 8 km, calculate who drove faster.
Tracy Les
25 25

20 20
Distance (miles)

Distance (km)
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25

Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

This is a problem-solving question, so you need to make connections between

different parts of mathematics, in this case distance–time graphs and converting
between units.
Tracy travels 18 miles in 20 minutes, so is Start by converting the information from
travelling at 54 mph. the graphs into speeds that can be used as
Les travels 21 km in 15 minutes, so is a comparison.
travelling at 84 km/h. These speeds are normally given per hour.
8 5 miles is equal to 8 km, so calculate Tracy’s
54 × = 86.4 km/h speed in km/h by multiplying her speed in
5
or 8
miles per hour by 5 .
8
84 ÷ = 52.5 mph 8
5 Alternatively, divide Les’ speed by 5
to
convert it into mph.
Hence: State your conclusion, comparing the two
Tracy (86.4 km/h) is travelling faster than speeds.
Les (84 km/h).
or
Tracy (54 mph) is travelling faster than
Les (52.5 mph)

23 Worked exemplars 659

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MR 2 The sketch shows the graph of y = x2 – 6x + 5.

The minimum point of the graph is (3, – 4).
y

0 x

a Describe what happens to the graph of f(x) = x2 under the transformation f(x – 3).
b Describe what happens to the graph of f(x) = x2 under the transformation f(x) – 4.
c Explain how the answers to a and b connect the equation y = x2 – 6x + 5 and the
minimum point (3, – 4).

 3 For parts a and b, write the transformations

a A translation of   as translations using column vectors.
0 Remember that the top number is x and the
bottom number is y.
 0 For part a, the transformation translates the
b A translation of   graph 3 units to the right.
 −4 
For part b, the transformation translates the
graph 4 units downwards.
c x2 – 6x + 5 = (x – 3)2 – 4 You have to use mathematical reasoning in
This means that the graph function part c.
 3 Remember that writing the equation in
is a translation of x2 by   . This ‘completing the square’ form (x – a)2 – b gives
 −4 
takes the original minimum point the minimum point (a, –b).
The transformations f(x – 3) and f(x) – 4
(0, 0) to (3, – 4). combined transform x2 into (x – 3)2 – 4, which
is the same as x2 – 6x + 5.

660 23 Algebra: Graphs

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Ready to progress?
I can draw and read information from a distance–time graph.
I can draw a graph of the depth of liquid as a container is filled.
I can calculate the gradient of a straight line and use this to find velocity from a distance–
time graph.

I can calculate the area under a graph consisting of straight lines and can interpret the
meaning of the area under a velocity–time graph.
I can interpret the gradients of the straight lines on a velocity–time graph.

1
I can draw and recognise the shapes of the graphs y = x3, y = and y = ax.
x
I can estimate and interpret the gradient and area under a velocity–time curve.
I can transform the graph of a given function and identify a transformation.
I can find the equation of a tangent to a circle.

Review questions

Depth
1 The depth–time graph shows how the depth changes as a flask
is filled.
Sketch a possible flask that could be represented by the graph.

0
0 Time
PS 2 A car accelerates from 5 m/s to V m/s at a constant
rate over 20 seconds. V
Velocity (m/s)

Given that it travels 240 m in that time, find:

a the value of V 5
b the acceleration of the car.
0
0 5 10 15 20

Time (seconds)

3 a On the same axes for – 4  x  5, plot the graphs of:

i y = x3 – 2x2 – 9x + 18 ii y = 2x.
b Use your graph to find three solutions to the equation x3 – 2x2 – 9x + 18 = 2x.
Give each solution correct to 1 decimal place.

PS 4 A motorcyclist is travelling along a road at

15 m/s when he passes a stationary police car. 20
Velocity (m/s)

The police officer sets off 10 seconds after

she is passed by the motorcyclist, 10
accelerating to 20 m/s in 5 seconds. She then
maintains a steady speed until she catches
0
the motorcyclist. 0 10 20
Given that they have travelled the same Time (seconds)
distance in the T seconds after the
motorcyclist passes the police car, find the value of T.

23 Review questions 661

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MR 5 Match each graph with the correct equation.

(1) y = x3 – 7x (2) y = 8x2 – x3 – 15x – 20 (3) y = –x3
(4) y = x3 + 2 (5) y = x3 – 3x2 – 10x + 24 (6) y = 6 – 11x + 6x2 – x3
a y b y c y

O x O x O x

d y e y f y

O x O x O x

Hints and tips Notice that in this question the origin is labelled O. It is the
point (0, 0).

6 A graph has the equation y = abx.

1 3
The graph passes through the points ( 2 , 10), ( 2 , 40) and (3, k).
Find the value of each of these.
a a b b c k
7 The graph shows y = f(x).
y

0
x
–2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

–2

Plot each of these graphs for –2  x  11, on separate axes.

a y = f(x) + 1 b y = f(x + 1)

662 23 Algebra: Graphs

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8 A circle has the equation x2 + y2 = 50.

a Find the coordinates of the two points, A and B, where the circle intersects the line
with equation 2x + y = 15.
The tangents of the circle at A and B intersect at point C.
b Find the coordinates of point C.
9 Look at this velocity–time graph.

4
Velocity (mph)

0
0 1 2

Time (hours)

a Estimate the acceleration when t = 1.

b Use two trapezia to estimate the total distance travelled.
PS 10 Sketch the graph of y = cos x.
On the same axes, sketch each of these.
a y = 1 + cos x b y = –cos x
c y = cos(–x) d y = cos(x + 90°)

11 A ball is launched into the air from the ground at 40 m/s.

After t seconds, the ball is (40t – 5t2) m above the ground.
a Plot a graph of height against time for 0  t  8.
b Find an estimate for the velocity of the ball after 3 seconds.

23 Review questions 663

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24
Algebra: Algebraic
fractions and functions

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to combine fractions algebraically and solve equations with
algebraic fractions
• how to rearrange and change the subject of a formula where the
subject appears twice, or as a power
• how to find the inverse function and the composite of two functions
• how to find an approximate solution for an equation using the
process of iteration.

You should already know:

• how to substitute numbers into an algebraic expression
• how to factorise linear and quadratic expressions
• how to expand a pair of linear brackets to get a quadratic equation.

About this chapter

Without algebra, humans would not have reached the Moon and aeroplanes
would not fly. Defining numbers with letters allows mathematicians to
use formulae and solve the very complicated equations that are needed
for today’s technologies. The ability to move from a special case to a
generalisation is what makes algebra so useful.
Processes such as manipulating algebraic fractions, rearranging formulae,
analysing functions and solving equations by iteration are used in a variety
of professions in the areas of science, engineering and computing, as well
as in the arts. For example, to use a spreadsheet competently, you need to
understand how functions work.
Weather forecasting makes use of the iterative process where small changes
in the initial conditions can lead to completely different results. This is
known as chaos theory. When the forecaster on television or on the internet
says that there is a 60% chance of rain, this probability has been determined
by running hundreds of simulations through an iterative process.

664
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24.1 Algebraic fractions

This section will show you how to: Key term
• simplify algebraic fractions
algebraic fraction
• solve equations containing algebraic fractions.

Algebraic fractions can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided using the same rules that apply
to numbers.
To add and subtract, find a common denominator and then find equivalent fractions with
that denominator.
a c ad bc ad + bc
Addition: For a + c , the common denominator is bd, so + = + =
b d b d bd bd bd
a c ad bc ad + bc
+ = + =
b d bd bd bd
a c ad bc ad − bc
Subtraction: For a − c , the common denominator is bd, so − = − =
b d b d bd bd bd
a c ad bc ad − bc
− = − =
b d bd bd bd
This method works for more than two terms.
a c e
For example, for + − , the common denominator is bdf, so
b d f
a c e adf bcf bde adf + bcf − bde
+ − = + − =
b d f bdf bdf bdf bdf
a c e adf bcf bde adf + bcf − bde
+ − = + − =
b d f bdf bdf bdf bdf

To multiply, cancel any common factors, then multiply the numerators together and the
denominators together.

Multiplication: a × c = ac
b d bd
To divide, find the reciprocal of the fraction you are dividing by, and then multiply.
a c a d ad
Division: ÷ = × =
b d b c bc
a c a d ad
÷ = × =
b d b c bc
Note that a, b, c and d can be numbers, other letters or algebraic expressions. Remember to:
• use brackets, if necessary, to avoid problems with signs and help you expand expressions
• factorise if you can
• cancel if you can.

1 x 2 a
+ −
Example 1

Simplify these fractions. a b

x 2y b 2b
a The common denominator is 2xy. b The common denominator is 2b.
1 x ( 1) ( 2 y ) + ( x ) ( x ) 2
−
a
=
4
−
a
+ =
x 2y ( x )(2y) b 2b 2b 2b
4−a
2y + x2 =
= 2b
2 xy

24.1 Algebraic fractions 665

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Example 2 Simplify these fractions.

x x+2 x 2x
a × b ÷
3 x−2 3 7

x x + 2 ( x ) ( x + 2)
a Multiplying: × =
3 x − 2 ( 3) ( x − 2)
x 2 + 2x
=
3x − 6
Remember, the line that separates the top and bottom of an algebraic fraction acts as brackets
as well as a division sign.

b Dividing: x 2x
÷ =
( x ) (7 )
3 7 ( 3) ( 2 x )
7
=
6

Solve this equation.

Example 3

x+1 x−3
− =1
3 2
( 2 ) ( x + 1) − ( 3) ( x − 3)
Subtract the fractions on the left-hand side. =1
( 2 ) ( 3)
Multiply both sides by 6. 2(x + 1) – 3(x – 3) = 1(2)(3)
Use brackets to avoid problems with signs and help you to expand to get a linear equation.
2x + 2 – 3x + 9 = 6
–x = –5
x=5

a Show that the equation

Example 4

3 2
− =1
x−1 x+1
can be rewritten as x2 – x – 6 = 0.
3 2
b Hence solve the equation − = 1.
x−1 x+1
a Add the fractions.

3( x + 1) − 2( x − 1)
=1
( x − 1)( x + 1)

Multiply both sides by the denominator. 3(x + 1) – 2(x – 1) = (x – 1)(x + 1)

(Use brackets to help with expanding and to avoid problems with minus signs.)
Expand the brackets. 3x + 3 – 2x + 2 = x2 – 1
(Note that the right-hand side is the difference of two squares.)
Rearrange into the general quadratic form. x2 – x – 6 = 0
b Factorise and solve. (x – 3)(x + 2) = 0
x = 3 or –2

666 24 Algebra: Algebraic fractions and functions

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Simplify this fraction.

Example 5
( x + 6 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 9 ) ( x + 1)
−
x+3 x+5
The common denominator is (x + 3)(x + 5).
( x + 6 ) ( x + 2 ) ( x + 5) − ( x + 9 ) ( x + 1) ( x + 3)
( x + 3) ( x + 5)
Expand the brackets in the numerator and simplify.

( x2 + 8 x + 12 ) ( x + 5) − ( x 2 + 10 x + 9 ) ( x + 3)
( x + 3) ( x + 5)

=
( x 3 + 8 x 2 + 12 x + 5x 2 + 40 x + 60) − ( x 3 + 10 x 2 + 9 x + 3x 2 + 30 x + 27 )
( x + 3)(
) ( x + 5)
x 3 + 13 x 2 + 52 x + 60 − x 3 − 13 x 2 − 39 x − 27
=
( x + 3)(
) ( x + 5)
13 x + 33
=
( x + 3)(
) ( x + 5)
It is sometimes simpler to leave an algebraic fraction in a factorised form.

Simplify this expression.

Example 6

x+3 x−1
−
x 2 + 5x + 4 x 2 + 4 x
x+3 x−1
Factorise the denominators. −
( x + 4)( x + 1) x( x + 4)
x ( x + 3) − ( x − 1) ( x + 1)
The common denominator is x(x + 1)(x + 4).
x ( x + 1) ( x + 4 )

Expand and simplify:

x 2 + 3 x − ( x 2 − 1) x 2 + 3x − x 2 + 1
=
x ( x + 1) ( x + 4 ) x ( x + 1) ( x + 4 )
3x + 1
=
x ( x + 1)(
) ( x + 4)

Simplify this expression.

Example 7

2x2 + x − 3
4x2 − 9
( 2 x + 3) ( x − 1)
Factorise the numerator and denominator. (Denominator is the difference of
( 2 x + 3) ( 2 x − 3)
two squares.)
( 2 x − 3) ( x − 1)
Cancel any common factors.
( 2 x − 3) ( 2 x − 3)
If at this stage there isn’t a common factor on the top and bottom, you should check
your factorisations.

The remaining fraction is the answer.

( x − 1)
( 2 x − 3)

24.1 Algebraic fractions 667

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Example 8
Simplify this expression.
x+5 x 2 − 7 x − 18
×
x −3 x +3

Factorise the quadratic expression.

x+5 ( x − 9)( x + 2)
×
x −3 x +3

Multiply.
( x + 5) ( x − 9 ) ( x + 2 ) = ( x + 5) ( x − 9 ) ( x + 2 )
( x −3 )( x +3 ) x−3 x +3 x −9

( x + 5) ( x − 9 ) ( x + 2 )
=
x−9
= (x + 5)(x + 2)
= x2 + 7x + 10

Exercise 24A
1 Simplify each of these.
x x 3x 2 x xy 2
a 2+3 b 4 + 5 c +
4 x
x+1 x+2 x 2x + 1 x − 4 2x − 3
d + e + f +
2 3 5 3 4 2
2 Simplify each of these.

a 3x − x
y
c xy − 2
x
b 2−3
4 5 4 y
2 x + 1 3x + 1
d − e x−2 − x−3 f x − 4 − 2x − 3
2 4 2 4 4 2
3 Solve these equations.

a x+1+ x+2 = 3 b 4x + 1 − x + 2 = 2
2 5 3 4

c 2x + 1 − x + 1 = 1 d 3x + 1 − 5x − 1 = 0
2 7 5 7
4 Simplify each of these.

c x × x−2
2y
a x×x b 4x ×
2 3 3y x 2 5

d x × 2x + 1 e x−5× 5
5 3 10 x 2 − 5x
5 Simplify each of these.

a 2x ÷ 4 y b 4 y ÷ 2 y2 c x−3÷
2
5
7 14 9x 3x 15 2x − 6
2x + 1 4 x + 2
e x ÷ 2x + x f x−2÷ 4
2
d ÷
2 4 6 3 12 x−3

g x − 5 ÷ x − 5x
2

10 5

668 24 Algebra: Algebraic fractions and functions

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6 Simplify each of these. Factorise and cancel where appropriate.

a 3x + x b 3x − x c 3x × x
4 4 4 4 4 4

d 3x ÷ x e 3x + 1 + x − 2 f 3x + 1 − x − 2
4 4 2 5 2 5

g 3x + 1 × x − 2 h x −9 × 5
i 2x + 3 ÷ 6 x + 9
2

2 5 10 x−3 5 10

j 2x − 2y
2 2

9 3
CM 7 Show that each algebraic fraction simplifies to the given expression.
a 2 5 simplifies to 3x2 + 2x – 3 = 0
+ =3
x+1 x+2

b 3 4
− =2 simplifies to 8x2 + 31x + 2 = 0
4x + 1 x + 2

c 2 6
− = 11 simplifies to 22x2 + 21x – 19 = 0
2x − 1 x + 1

8 x+2 2 x−2 2
a Simplify this expression. ×
x+ 2 x− 2

b Use your answer to find the value of x + 2 2 × x − 2 2 when x = 1.

x+ 2 x− 2

9 Write 2 3 4 as a single fraction with an expanded denominator.

+ −
x+3 x+4 x+5
10 Simplify this expression. x 2 + 5x + 6 x 2 − x − 30
÷
x+2 x+5

EV 11 x2 − x − 2
For homework a teacher asks his class to simplify the expression .
x2 + x − 6
−1
x2 − x − 2 −x − 1 x + 1
This is Tom’s answer: = =
x + x − 6 +3
2 x+3 x+3
−x − 1 x + 1
= =
x+3 x+3
Tom has made several mistakes. What are they?

An expression of the form ax +2 bx − c simplifies to x − 1 .

2
MR 12
dx − 9 2x − 3
What was the original expression?

13 Solve these equations.

a 4
+
5
=2 b 18
−
1
=1 c 2x − 1 − 6
=1
x+1 x+2 4x − 1 x + 1 2 x+1
3 4
d − =1
2 x − 1 3x − 1
14 Simplify these expressions.
4x2 − 1
x2 + 2x − 3 c 6 x +2 x − 2
2
a b
2x2 + 7 x + 3 2 x + 5x − 3
2
9x − 4

d 4 x2 + x − 3 4 x 2 − 25
2
e
4x − 7x + 3 8 x − 22 x + 5
2

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15 7 4
CM a Prove that the equation + = 3 simplifies to 3x2 + 4x – 20 = 0.
x+1 x+4
7 4
b Hence solve the equation + = 3.
x+1 x+4
EV 16 Emma swam 300 m at a speed of (x – 1) m/s, then a further 200 m at (x – 2) m/s.
The total swim took Emma 10 minutes.
a Show that 6x2 – 23x + 20 = 0.
b Find the speed at which Emma swam the first 200 m.

Hints and tips Remember how speed, distance and time are related.

a Expand and simplify ( x + 2 . )

3
CM 17

b Hence show that ( 1 + 2 )

3
=7+5 2.

c Find the exact value of ( 1 + 2 . )

6

18 Simplify these expressions.

a x+4 x−4 b 4 3 2 1
2 − + − −
( x + 3 ) ( x − 3 )2 x+1 x+2 x+3 x+4

PS 19 Simplify this expression. x2 + x 3 − 6

x 2 − x 3 − 18

24.2 Changing the subject

of a formula
This section will show you how to:
• change the subject of a formula where the subject occurs more than once.

When studying algebraic manipulation, you considered how to change the subject of a formula
where the subject only appears once. To rearrange formulae where the subject appears more than
once, the principle is the same as rearranging a formula where the subject only appears once or
solving an equation where the unknown appears on both sides.
Collect all the subject terms on the same side and everything else on the other side. Most often, you
then need to factorise the subject out of the resulting expression.
Example 9

Make x the subject of this formula. ax + b = cx + d

First, rearrange the formula to get all the x-terms on the left-hand side and all the other terms
on the right-hand side:
ax – cx = d – b
Factorise x out of the left-hand side. x(a – c) = d – b

Divide by the expression in brackets. x= d −b

a−c

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Example 10
Make p the subject of this formula.
ap + b
5=
cp + d

First, multiply both sides by the denominator of the algebraic fraction: 5(cp + d) = ap + b
Expand the brackets: 5cp + 5d = ap + b
Now continue as in Example 9: 5cp – ap = b – 5d
p(5c – a) = b – 5d

p = b − 5d
5c − a

Exercise 24B
1 Make c the subject of each formula.
a 5(c – 3) = p b 5(c – 3) = cp
2 Make G the subject of each formula.
R G+R
a F= G +3 b F= G +3
3 Make the letter in brackets the subject of the formula.
a p(a + b) = q(a – b) (a) b p(a + b) = q(a – b) (b)

c 5= a+b (a) d A = 2πrh + πrk (r)

a−c
e v2 = u2 + av2 (v) f R= x −3 (x)
x−2
4 a The perimeter of a shape is given by the formula P = πr + 2kr. Make r the subject of
this formula.
b The area of the same shape is given by A = 21[πr 2 + r 2 ( k 2 − 1) ]. Make r the subject
of this formula.

5 When £P is invested for Y years at a simple interest rate of R, the following formula
gives the amount, A, at any time.
PRY
A=P+
100
Make P the subject of this formula.

6 When two resistors with values a and b are connected in parallel, the total resistance
is given by:
R = ab
a+b
a Make b the subject of the formula.
b Write the formula when a is the subject.
EV 7 x+2
a Make x the subject of this formula. y=
x−2
4
b Show that the formula y = 1 + can be rearranged to give x = 2 + 4 .
x−2 y−1
c Combine the right-hand sides of each formula in part b into single fractions and
simplify as much as possible.
d What do you notice?
24.2 Changing the subject of a formula 671
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EV 8 The volume of the solid shown is given by this formulae.

V = 23 πr3 + πr2h r

a Explain why it is not possible to make r the subject of this formula.

b Make π the subject.
h
c If h = r, can the formula be rearranged to make r the subject? If
so, rearrange it to make r the subject.

9 Make x the subject of this formula. W = 21 z(x + y) + 21 y(x + z)

EV 10 The following formulae in x can be rearranged to give the formulae in terms

of y as shown.
x+1 1 − 2y 2x + 1 1 − 2y
y= gives x = y= gives x =
x+2 y−1 x+2 y−2

3x + 2 2−y 5 − 2y
y= gives x = y = x + 5 gives x =
4x + 1 4y − 3 3x + 2 3y − 1

5x + 1
Without rearranging the formula, write down y = as x = . . . and explain how you
2x + 3
can do this without any algebra.

EV 11 Alice and Brian have been asked to make u the subject of the formula 1 = 1 + 1 .
f u v
fv
Alice’s answer is u = .
v− f
1
Brian’s answer is u = .
1 1
−
f v
a Evaluate whether either or both of these answers are correct.
b Into which answer is it easier to substitute values?

24.3 Functions
This section will show you how to: Key terms
• find the output of a function
inverse
• find the inverse function.
inverse function
This is a function machine.

I 2 8 O

When you input a number into the function machine, it doubles the number and then adds 8 to
produce an output. For example, if the input is 7, then the output is 7 × 2 + 8 = 14 + 8 = 22.
If you are told the output, then you can also find the input by applying the inverse operations in
reverse order. For example, if the output is 30, then you subtract 8 and divide by 2.
30 – 8 = 22 22 ÷ 2 = 11
So the input was 11.

672 24 Algebra: Algebraic fractions and functions

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a Use this function machine to find the output for each input.
Example 11 i 6 ii –4

I SQUARE 5 O

b Find both possible inputs if the output is 20.

a i 62 = 36 36 – 5 = 31
ii (–4) = 16
2
16 – 5 = 11
b 20 + 5 = 25 25 = 5 or –5

Another way of writing a function is to use the function notation f(x). The value of x that you
substitute into a function f(x) is the input and the value of f(x) is the output of the function.
For example, for the function f(x) = 3x + 10, when the input is 5, the output f(5) is 3 × 5 + 10 = 25.

The function f(x) is defined as f(x) = 14 – 2x.

Example 12

a Find: i f(3) ii f(–5). b Solve f(x) = 0.

a i f(3) = 14 – 2 × 3
= 14 – 6
=8
ii f(–5) = 14 – 2 × (–5)
= 14 + 10
= 24
b When f(x) = 0, 14 – 2x = 0,
so x = 7.

Exercise 24C
1 a Use this function machine to find the output for each input.
i 11 ii 26 iii – 4 iv 1

I 9  2.5 O

b Find the input for each of these outputs.

i 18 ii 0 iii 500 iv 3

2 a Use the function machine to find the output when the input is 29.

I 7 4 3 O

b Find an algebraic expression for the output when the input is x.

c Use your answer for b to find the input when the output is 10.
3 For this function machine, find the input for each of these outputs.
a 30 b 60 c 18

I 2 cube root  10 O

24.3 Functions 673

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MR 4 For which input do these function machines also have the same output?

I 3 4 O

I 6 2 O

5 f(x) = 2x2 + 7 Find the value of each of these.

a f(3) b f(11) c f(–2)
d f(30) e f(–30) f f( 3)
g Given that f(k) = 57, find both values of k.
6 g(x) = 25 – x2 Find the value of each of these.
a g(4) b g(–8) c g(9)
d g(–9) e g( 13) f g(–0.4)
g Solve g(x) = 0.
MR 7 a Given that f(x) = 2x2 + 3x, find the value of
i f(–6) and ii f(4).
g(x) = x + 8x + 6
2

b Find the inputs for which f(x) and g(x) have the same outputs.

Inverse functions
An inverse function is a function that performs the opposite process of the original function, such as
adding instead of subtracting or multiplying instead of dividing. If the original function turns an input
of 3 into an output of 5, then the inverse function turns the output of 5 back into the input of 3, and it
will do this for all inputs and outputs. The notation used for an inverse function is f–1(x).
x−1
For example, the inverse function of f(x) = 2x + 1 is f–1(x) = .
2
To find the inverse function, write f(x) as y; make x the subject of the function; replace x with f–1(x) and
then replace y with x.
Consider f(x) = 2x + 1.
Writing f(x) as y gives y = 2x + 1.
y−1
Making x the subject of the function gives x = .
2
x−1
Replacing x with f–1(x) and then y with x gives f–1(x) = .
2
Find the inverse of the function f(x) = x3 + 10.
Example 13

Write f(x) as y. y = x3 + 10
Subtract 10 from both sides. y – 10 = x3
Cube root each side. 3 y − 10 = x
Reverse the sides. x= 3 y − 10
Replace x with f–1(x) and then y with x. f–1(x) = 3
x − 10

674 24 Algebra: Algebraic fractions and functions

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Exercise 24D
1 Find an expression for f–1(x) for:
a f(x) = 4x – 5 b f(x) = x3 + 2 c f(x) = 10
x+1
d f(x) = 10 – 2x e f(x) = x − 7 3
f f(x) = + 5
6 x
2 x+2
a Given that f(x) = , find an expression for f–1(x).
3x − 5
b Find the value of f(1).
c Substitute f(1) into f–1(x) to verify that the answer is 1.
MR 3 a Find the inverse functions of
12
i f(x) = 12 – x and ii g(x) = .
x
What do you notice?
3x + 8
b Find the inverse function of f(x) = 4 x − 3 . What do you notice?

c Prove that if f(x) = ax + b , then f–1(x) = ax + b .

cx − a cx − a

24.4 Composite functions

This section will show you how to:
Key term
• find the composite of two functions.
composite
A composite function is a combination of two functions to
create a third function. For two functions f(x) and g(x), the
function created by substituting g(x) into f(x) is called fg(x). You work this out by finding g(x) first and
then substituting your answer into f(x).

The functions f(x) and g(x) are defined as f(x) = 5x – 3 and g(x) = 21 x + 1. Find the value of:
Example 14

a f(4) b fg(4) c ff(4).

a f(4) = 5 × 4 – 3 b g(4) = 21 × 4 + 1 c f(4) = 17

= 20 – 3 =2+1 f(17) = 5 × 17 – 3
= 17 =3 = 85 – 3
= 82
f(3) = 5 × 3 – 3
= 15 – 3
= 12
Example 15

The functions f(x) and g(x) are defined as f(x) = 5x – 3 and g(x) = 21 x + 1. Find the value of:
a fg(x) b gf(x) c ff(x).

a Substitute g(x) into f(x). b Substitute f(x) into g(x). c Substitute f(x) into f(x).
f(x) = 5( 21 x + 1) – 3 g(x) = 21(5x – 3) + 1 f(x) = 5(5x – 3) – 3
= 25x – 15 – 3
= 2 21 x + 5 – 3 = 2 21 x – 1 21 + 1
= 25x – 18
= 2 21 x – 1
= 2 21 x + 2 2

24.4 Composite functions 675

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Exercise 24E
1 x−3
Given that f(x) = 10 – 3x and g(x) = , find the value of each of the following.
2
a fg(4) b gf(–2) c ff(7) d gg(0) e fgfgfg(5.8)

Hints and tips For fg(a), calculate g(a) and substitute this into f(x).

2 Given that f(x) = 24 and g(x) = 5x – 11, find the value of each of the following.
x−1
a fg(2.5) b gf(1.5) c fgf(10) d gfg(3) e ff(–11) f gg(–3)
CM 3 f(x) = x3 – 6 g(x) = 4(x – 2) h(x) = 3 – x
a Find simplified expressions for each of the following.
i gf(x) ii hg(x) iii fh(x) iv gg(x) v ff(x)
b Prove that gh(x) can never equal hg(x) for any value of x.

Hints and tips For gf(x), substitute f(x) into g(x).

PS 4 f(x) = x2 + a g(x) = x – b
If fg(x) = gf(x), find x in terms of b.

24.5 Iteration
This section will show you how to: Key term
• find an approximate solution for an equation using the
iteration
process of iteration.

Many equations cannot be solved exactly using any of the techniques you have met already. You
could use trial and improvement to solve an equation like this but there is a process called iteration
that is more efficient and does not require you to make a new decision after each attempt. This
involves solving the equation many times, using your result from the previous version each time to
make the answer more accurate.
To perform iteration, first rearrange the equation so that x is the subject, although there will be x
terms on the other side (the right-hand side) as well. The x that is the subject is called xn + 1 and any x
term on the right-hand side is called xn.
For example, xn + 1 = 2 xn + 6 can be used to solve the quadratic equation x2 – 2x – 6 = 0.
Substitute an initial value, called x1, into the right-hand side, and call the value obtained from this
substitution x2.

Find the first four iterations of the iterative formula xn + 1 = 3xn – 2 with x1 = 2.
Example 16

x2 = 3x1 – 2 x3 = 3x2 – 2 x4 = 3x3 – 2 x5 = 3x4 – 2

=3×2–2 =3×4–2 = 3 × 10 – 2 = 3 × 28 – 2
=4 = 10 = 28 = 82

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Using a calculator makes iteration much easier.

To solve the quadratic equation x2 – 2x – 6 = 0 using xn + 1 = 2 xn + 6 :
Let x1 = 4.
On your calculator, type 4 . This records the number 4 as the first ‘answer’.
Next type .
Note: Your calculator may work in a slightly different way, and require a different key press order. Check
how this works on your calculator before starting any iteration questions.
x2 = 2 x1 + 6 = 14 = 3.7417 (4 dp)
You then substitute this value back into the right hand side to generate the term x3, and so on.
x3 = 2 x2 + 6 = 2 × 3.7417 + 6 = 3.6720 (4 dp)

x4 = 2 x3 + 6 = 2 × 3.6720 + 6 = 3.6529 (4 dp)

You can just keep pressing on your calculator to generate further iterations.

An approximate solution for the equation x3 – 16x + 9 = 0 can be found using the iterative
Example 17

formula xn + 1 = 3 16 xn – 9 and an initial value of x1 = 4.

a Find the first six iterations, correct to 5 decimal places.
b Verify that 3.68 is a solution of the equation, correct to 2 decimal places.

a Enter the initial value on the calculator: 4

Enter the iterative formula.
This substitutes x1 = 4 into the formula. x2 = 3.80295
Press to substitute the value of x2 into the formula: x3 = 3.72885
Pressing four more times gives: x4 = 3.70021 x5 = 3.68902 x6 = 3.68463 x7 = 3.68290
b Both x6 and x7 round to 3.68, correct to 2 decimal places.

These steps can be used to find an approximate value for x3 = 6x + 8.

Example 18

Step 1: Start with x = 3.

Step 2: Find the value of 3
6 x + 8 , correct to 4 decimal places.
Step 3: Compare your answer with the value of x you substituted. If it is the same, you have
found the answer. If it is not the same, go back to step 2.
Find the solution of x3 = 6x + 8 given by this process.

Enter the initial value on the calculator.

Enter the iterative formula.

First iteration = 3 6 × 3 + 8 = 2.9625 (4 dp) Not the same as 3 so return to step 2.
Second iteration = 2.9539 (4 dp) Not the same as 2.9625 so return to step 2.
Third iteration = 2.9520 (4 dp) Not the same as 2.9539 so return to step 2.
Fourth iteration = 2.9515 (4 dp) Not the same as 2.9520 so return to step 2.
Fifth iteration = 2.9514 (4 dp) Not the same as 2.9515 so return to step 2.
Sixth iteration = 2.9514 (4 dp) The same as 2.9514 from the fifth iteration so
this is the answer.

24.5 Iteration 677

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Example 19 3
For the iterative formula xn + 1 = , find the value of x200 when x1 = 5.
3 − xn

x2 = 3 =– 3 x3 = 3 =3=2
3−5 2 3 − ( − 23 ) 92 3
3 3
x4 = 3 = 37 = 9 x5 = = 12 = 7
3 − ( 23 ) 3
7 3 − ( 79 ) 7 4
3 3
x6 = = 5 = 12 x7 = 3 = 33 = 5
3 − ( 74 ) 4 5 3 − ( 125 ) 5

Since you started with 5, this sequence will now cycle round 5, – 23 , 23 , 79 , 74 , 12
5 , returning to 125 for
every multiple of 6 (x6, x12, x18, etc.).
The largest multiple of 6 below 200 is 198, which is 2 less than 200, so x200(5) will be the same
as x2.
Hence x200 = – 3 .
2

Exercise 24F
1 Find the first four iterations using the iterative formula xn + 1 = 18 – 7xn with x1 = 2.

2 For the iterative formula xn + 1= 5xn – 12, find x5 for each initial value.
a x1 = 6 b x1 = – 4 c x1 = 1.2 d x1 = 3
3 These steps can be used to find an approximate value for x3 = 19x + 34.
Step 1: Start with x = 5.
Step 2: Find the value of 3 19 x + 34 , correct to 4 decimal places.
Step 3: Compare your answer with the value of x you substituted. If it is the same, you
have found the answer. If it is not the same, go back to step 2.
Find the solution to x3 = 19x + 34 given by this process.

Hints and tips Type in the value of x1, then use the button to type in the
iterative formula.

4 An approximate solution for the equation x3 – 7x – 10 = 0 can be found using the

iterative formula xn + 1 = 3 7 xn + 10 and an initial value of x1 = 3.
Find the first five iterations, correct to 4 decimal places.

CM 5 The iterative formula xn + 1 = 3 xn 2 + 5 can be used to find an approximate solution for

the equation x3 – x2 – 5 = 0.
a Using x1 = 2, show that x5 = 2.12, correct to 2 decimal places.
b Verify that 2.12 is a solution, correct to 2 decimal places.
CM 6 Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = 3 5 xn + 2 to show that 2.4142 is an approximate
solution for the equation x3 – 5x – 2 = 0.

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EV 7 a Solve, by factorisation, the equation x2 – 10x + 21 = 0.

b Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = 10 xn − 21 with x1 = 5 to determine which of the
two answers is generated by the formula.
c Investigate what happens with each of these initial values.
i x1 = 3.001 ii x1 = 2.999 iii x1 = 100 iv x1 = 3
d Generalise what happens for all values of x.
CM 8 You can use iterative formula xn + 1 = 3 xn 2 + 5 to find an approximate solution for the
equation x3 – x2 – 5 = 0.
a Show that the equation x = x + 4 can be rearranged as x2 – 2x – 4 = 0 and hence
x−1
xn + 4
xn + 1 = is an iterative formula for the equation x2 – 2x – 4 = 0.
xn − 1
b When x1 = 3, find the values of x2, x3 and x4, writing the answers as fractions where
appropriate.
c When x1 = 3.25, find the values of x2, x3 and x4, writing the answers as fractions.
d When x1 = 3.3, find the values of x2, x3 and x4, writing the answers as fractions.
e When x1 = 1 + 5, find the values of x2, x3 and x4, writing the answers as surds.
f Use the results from parts b to e to deduce a solution for the equation
x2 – 2x – 4 = 0.

EV 9 A square has sides of (x2 – 2) cm and (x + 5) cm.

a Show that x2 – x – 7 = 0.
b Use the iterative formula xn + 1 = xn + 7 and an initial input of x1 = 3 to find the area
of the square, correct to the nearest integer.
c How reliable is your answer for the area of the square?
PS 10 a For the iterative formula xn + 1 = xn2 – 3, find the value of x36 when x1 = 2.

b For the iterative formula xn + 1 = 1 , find the value of x when x = 3.

1 − xn 100 1

Hints and tips Generate x2, x3, x4 and so on, and look for a pattern.

EV 11 The equation x3 = 4x + 9 is to be solved by an iterative formula with x1 = 3.

a Investigate what happens when the iterative formula used is given by
xn + 1 = 9 .
xn 2 − 4
b Investigate what happens when the iterative formula used is given by
xn 3 − 9
xn + 1 = .
4
c Investigate what happens when the iterative formula used is given by
9
xn + 1 = 4+ .
xn

24.5 Iteration 679

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Worked exemplars
CM 1 The equation x3 – 19x + 9 = 0 can be written as the iterative formula xn + 1 = 3 19 xn − 9 .
a Using x1 = 4, find the first two iterations, correct to 3 decimal places.
b Show that 4.10 is a solution to the equation, correct to 2 decimal places.

This is a question on communicating mathematics so you need to state your

method clearly.

a First iteration Start by finding the first iteration.

x2 = 3 19 x1 − 9 Although the method shown is correct,
it is more efficient to register 4 as an
= 3 19 × 4 − 9 answer in the calculator’s memory and
= 3 67 then to type in the iterative formula using
Ans for xn, especially if you need more
= 4.062 (3 dp) than two iterations.
Second iteration Then move on to the second iteration.
x3 = 3 19 x2 − 9 Note that you should be using the exact
answer from the first iteration rather than
= 3
19 × 3 67 − 9 the rounded 4.062. (This would definitely
= 4.085 (3 dp) happen if you were using the efficient
calculator method.) In this example,
4.062 also gives a second iteration of
4.085, but this is not guaranteed.
b x4 = 4.094 (3 dp) Since you are asked to show that
x5 = 4.097 (3 dp) 4.1 is a solution, you are being asked to
communicate information accurately.
x6 = 4.099 (3 dp)
Continue to find iterations until two of
x7 = 4.099 (3 dp) them repeat.
Since x6 and x7 both equal 4.099 correct to Include a conclusion.
3 decimal places, 4.10 is a solution of the
equation correct to 2 decimal places.

680 24 Algebra: Algebraic fractions and functions

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PS 2 x 2 + 3 x − 10
Given that f (x) = , prove that f –1(3) = 4.
2 x 2 − 9 x + 10

This is a problem-solving question so you need to plan a strategy to solve it and, most
importantly, communicate your method clearly. You need to show each step clearly.
There are two different methods shown here.
Method 1 Factorise and cancel the numerator and
x + 3 x − 10
2 denominator.
f(x) =
2 x 2 − 9 x + 10

= ( x + 5)( x − 2)
(2 x − 5)( x − 2)
x+5
f(x) =
2x − 5

x+5 Find the inverse function.

y=
2x − 5
y(2x – 5) = x + 5
2xy – 5y = x + 5
2xy – x = 5y + 5
x(2y – 1) = 5y + 5
5y + 5
x=
2y − 1
5x + 5
f –1(x) =
2x − 1

5 × 3 + 5 20 Substitute x = 3.
f –1(3) = = =4
2×3−1 5

Method 2 Put the function equal to 3.

x 2 + 3 x − 10
3=
2 x 2 − 9 x + 10

3(2x2 – 9x + 10) = x2 + 3x – 10 Multiply by the denominator.

6x2 – 27x + 30 = x2 + 3x – 10 Simplify.
5x – 30x + 40 = 0
2

x2 – 6x + 8 = 0
(x – 2)(x – 4) = 0 Factorise.
x = 2 or 4
Not x = 2 because f(x) is undefined for Explain why x = 2 would not be allowed.
x = 2 in its original form, since both the
numerator and denominator would equal
zero, and division by zero is forbidden.
x = 4, so f –1(3) = 4

24 Worked exemplars 681

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Ready to progress?
I can find the output of a function given an input.

I can rearrange more complicated formulae where the subject may appear twice or as a power.

I can find an inverse function by rearranging.

I can find a composite function by combining two functions together.
I can combine and simplify algebraic fractions.
I can use iteration to find a solution to an equation to an appropriate degree of accuracy.

Review questions
1 f(x) = 20 – 3x2. Find the value of f (–2).

2 a Make x the subject of the formula 6x – K = a – Cx.

b Hence find the value of x when a = 5, K = –12 and C = – 8.
3 x 9
a Write f(x) = − as a single fraction in its simplest form.
x − 3 x ( x − 3)
b Hence find the inverse function f –1(x).
4 21x 2 − 7 x
Simplify fully .
9x2 − 1
EV 5 The iterative formula xn + 1 = 5 6 xn 3 + 13 can be used to solve the equation x5 = 6x3 + 13.
a Starting with x1 = 2.5, find the first four iterations, all correct to 2 decimal places.
b Find x5 correct to 2 decimal places and compare it with x4.
CM 6 f (x) = 3x + 8 g(x) = x3 + 2
a Find a simplified expression for fg(x).
b Using the expression from part a, verify that fg(3) = 95.
7 Find the inverse of each function.
a
a f(x) = px – q b f(x) = a – x3 c f(x) = x + c

( )
2
MR 8 f (x) = 2+ x .
a Find the value of:
i f(0) ii ff(0) iii fff(0) iv ffff(0) v fffff(0).
b Find the nth term of the sequence given by the answers to part a.
CM 9 Show, by iteration, that a solution of the equation x3 = 2x + 2 is given by 1.77, correct
to 2 decimal places.

a Simplify f(x) = 2 x 2 + 3 x − 14 .
2
10
x − 5x + 6

g(x) = 12 − x
2

x
b Solve gf(x) = 1.

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EV 11 4−x
Alex was working out f –1(x) for the function f(x) = .
2 − 3x
Find the mistakes in Alex’s solution and write the correct solution.
4−x
y=
2 − 3x
y(2 – 3x) = 4 – x
2 – 3xy = 4 – x
–3xy = 2 – x
x –3xy = 2
x(1 – 3y) = 2
1 − 3y
x=
2

Hence f –1(x) = 1 − 3 x .
2

PS 12 xn + 1 = 2
2 − xn
If x1 = 5, find the value of each term.
i x219 ii x238 iii x257 iv x276

PS 13 Simplify fully
( x + 2)( x + 4 )( x − 6 ) − x 3 .
7 x 2 + 19 x + 12
PS 14 f(x) = x2 – 81 g(x) = 19 – x
a Solve f(x) = g(x), giving both answers correct to 3 significant figures.
b Solve fg(x)  0.
c Solve gf(x) > 0.
PS 15 A right-angled triangle has a base of (x + 8) cm and a perpendicular height of (x – 2) cm.
The area of the triangle is 22 cm2.
a Show that x2 + 6x – 60 = 0.
The equation x2 + 6x – 60 = 0 can be rewritten as the iterative formula
xn + 1 = 60 − 6 xn .
b Find the value of x, correct to 3 significant figures.
CM 16 f(x) = x2 – 4x g(x) = 2x + 3
a Find fg(2).
b Show that if fg(x) = g f (x), then the answer can be written in the form a ± b 3.
PS 17 Margaret has n beads in a bag, of which 5 are green. She removes two beads at
random from the bag at the same time.
The probability that neither bead is green is 7.
22
a Show that 3n2 – 47n + 132 = 0.
b How many beads were in the bag originally?

24 Review questions 683

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25
Geometry and
measures: Vector
geometry

This chapter is going to show you:

• how to add and subtract vectors
• the properties of vectors
• how to use vectors to solve geometrical problems
• how to prove geometric results.

You should already know:

• that vectors are used to describe translations.

About this chapter

When pilots are planning to land an aircraft, they must consider the speed
and direction of the wind. In this situation, the wind may be represented as a
vector. Vectors are an integral part of the computerised landing system.
Vectors are also used in the science of aerodynamics and, in particular, in
the design of aircraft. They play a key role in the design of wings, where an
upward force or lift is needed to enable the aircraft to fly.
Meteorologists or weather forecasters use vectors to map out weather
patterns. They represent wind speeds by vectors of different lengths, to
indicate the intensity of the wind.
Vectors are used extensively in computer graphics. Software designed to give
the viewer the impression that an object or person is moving around a scene
makes extensive use of the mathematics of vectors.
This chapter will give you a good understanding of how to use vectors in
geometry.

684
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25.1 Properties of vectors

This section will show you how to:
• add and subtract vectors. Key terms
direction magnitude
A quantity that is completely described by its magnitude, and
has no direction associated with it, is a scalar. The mass of a position vector resultant vector
bus (10 tonnes) and the length of a line (25.4 mm) are scalars.
scalar vector
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
It may be represented by a straight line, with an arrow to
show its direction. The length of the line represents the B
magnitude of the vector.
a
This vector a represents the translation or movement
from A to B.
A
You used vectors in transformation geometry, where you
described a translation in terms of horizontal and vertical shifts.
x
A translation was described as   , where x is a movement parallel to the x-axis and y is a movement
 y  x 
parallel to the y-axis. This means that   is a vector, since it has magnitude and direction.
 y
 2 y
The vector describing the translation from A to B is   .
 1
6
2 5
The vector describing the translation from B to C is   . D
0 4
 −3  3
The vector describing the translation from C to D is   . B C
2 2
A
 −1 1
The vector describing the translation from D to A is   .
x
 −3  0 1 2 3 4 5 6
You can express vectors in other ways.
• In textbooks, a vector may be shown as a small letter, such
as a, printed in bold type. When you write the vector
down, you underline it, like this: a.
→
• You may also write the vector a as AB . The arrow above the letters shows the direction: here it is
from A to B. The vector from B to A has the same magnitude but acts in the opposite direction,
→
so you write it as BA. The first letter is always the starting point and the second letter is the
finishing point.
Multiplying a vector by a number (scalar) alters its magnitude (length) but not its direction. For
example, the vector 2a is twice as long as the vector a, but acts in the same direction.

a 2a

A negative vector, for example –b, has the same magnitude as the vector b, but acts in the
opposite direction.

b –b

25.1 Properties of vectors 685

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Addition and subtraction of vectors

Think about two non-parallel vectors, a and b.

b
a

Then a + b is the translation of a followed by the translation of b.

The vector a + b is the resultant vector as it is the result of adding them.
You can see this on a vector diagram.

a+b
b

Similarly, a – b is defined as the translation of a followed by the translation of –b.

a a
–b
–b
a–b

This grid is made from congruent parallelograms.

I M Q S T

E H L P R

B D G K N
b

O C F
a A J

Each small parallelogram represents two independent vectors, a and b.

You can define the position of any point on this grid, with reference to O, as a vector expressed in
terms of a and b. This is the position vector of the point, with respect to O.
→
• The position vector of K is OK or k = 3a + b.
→
• The position vector of E is OE or e = 2b.
You can also define the vector linking any two points, in terms of a and b.
→ → → →
HT = 3a + b PN = a – b MK = 2a – 2b TP = –a – b
Note:
→ →
• OK and HT are equal vectors because they have exactly the same length and act in the same
direction
→ → → →
• MK and PN are parallel vectors but MK has twice the magnitude of PN.

686 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry

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a Refer to the grid on the previous page. Write down each of these vector in terms of a and b.
Example 1
→ → →
i BH ii HP iii GT
→ → →
iv TI v FH vi BQ
b What is the relationship between the vectors in each pair?
→ → → → → →
i BH and GT ii BQ and GT iii HP and TI
c Show that B, H and Q lie on the same straight line.
a i a+b ii 2a iii 2a + 2b
iv –4a v –2a + 2b vi 2a + 2b
→ → → →
b i BH and GT are parallel and GT has twice the magnitude of BH because it is twice its
length.
→ →
ii BQ and GT are equal.
→ → → →
iii HP and TI act in opposite directions and TI has twice the magnitude of HP because it is
twice its length.
→ →
c BH and BQ are parallel and start at the same point B. Therefore, B, H and Q must lie on the
same straight line.

Tebor sees a pine tree, directly opposite him, across a river. He decides to swim across to pick
Example 2

up some cones. He swims with a velocity of 2 m/s, at right angles to the bank. The current of
the river has a velocity of 4 m/s. The river is 40 metres wide.
a At what velocity will Tebor actually be travelling?
b How far along the bank from the tree will Tebor be when he reaches the other side?
As Tebor swims 2 m across the river, he is moved 4 m down the river by the current.
You can use a vector diagram to represent the velocity of Tebor swimming and the velocity of
the current.

4 m/s
2

2 m/s

You can then add the two vectors to give the resultant velocity.
This force is represented by the hypotenuse in the right-angled triangle.
a Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find the resultant.
(Length of the hypotenuse)2 = 22 + 42
= 20
Length of the hypotenuse = 20
So Tebor’s resultant velocity is 4.47 m/s.

(continued )

25.1 Properties of vectors 687

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b Use similar triangles to find x, the distance travelled downstream.

4 x

2 40

x 40
=
4 2
40 × 4
x=
2
= 80 m
Tebor reaches the bank 80 m downstream from the tree.

Exercise 25A
→ →
1 On this grid, OA is a and OB is b. E H J K

a Name three other vectors that are equivalent to a.

b Name three other vectors that are equivalent to b.
c Name three vectors that are equivalent to –a. B D G I
d Name three vectors that are equivalent to –b. b

O a A C F

2 Look again at the grid in question 1. Write each of these vectors in terms of a and b.
→ → → → → →
a OC b OE c OD d OG e OJ f OH
→ → → → → →
g AG h AK i BK j DI k GJ l DK
→ →
MR 3 a What do the answers to parts 2c and 2g tell you about the vectors OD and AG?
→
b On the grid in question 1, there are three vectors equivalent to OG. Name all three.
→ →
MR 4 a What do the answers to parts 2c and 2e tell you about vectors OD and OJ?
→
b On the grid in question 1, there is one other vector that is twice the size of OD .
Which is it?
→
c On the grid in question 1, there are three vectors that are three times the size of OA .
Name all three.

5 Copy this grid. Use the information below

to mark the points C to P on your grid.
→ →
a OC = 2a + 3b b OD = 2a + b
→ →
c OE = a + 2b d OF = 3b
→ → B
e OG = 4a f OH = 4a + 2b
→ → b
g OI = 3a + 3b h OJ = a + b
→ → 3 O A
i OK = 2a + 2b j OM = 2a + b a
2
→ → 5 3
k ON = 1 a + 2b l OP = a + b
2 2 2
688 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry
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CM 6 a Look at the grid you completed in question 5. What can you say about the points
O, J, K and I?
b How could you tell this by looking at the vectors for parts 5g, 5h and 5i?
c There is another point on the same straight line as O and D. Which is it?
→ →
7 On this grid, OA is a and OB is b.
B C D E

O A F G
a

H I J K

Write each of these vectors in terms of a and b.

→ → → →
a OH b OK c OJ d OI
→ → → →
e OC f CO g AK h DI
→ → → →
i JE j AB k CK l DK
→ →
CM 8 a What do your answers to parts 7e and 7f tell you about the vectors OC and CO?
→
b On the grid in question 7, there are five other vectors that are opposite to OC . Name
at least three.
→ →
CM 9 a What do your answers to parts 7j and 7k tell you about vectors AB and CK ?
→
b On the grid in question 7, there are two vectors that are twice the size of AB and act
in the opposite direction. Name both of them.
→
c On the grid in question 7, there are three vectors that are three times the size of OA
and act in the opposite direction. Name all three.

PS 10 An aircraft is flying at 500 mph through a wind of 80 mph blowing from the west. It is
being steered due north. What is the actual bearing and speed of travel of
the aircraft?

PS 11 A boat attempts to sail due east at 15 km/h, but is taken off course by a current of
5 km/h flowing in the south-west direction. Find the resultant speed of the boat and
the bearing on which it sails.

PS 12 The diagram shows two sets of parallel lines. D E H

→ →
OA = a and OB = b
→ → → →
OC = 3OA and OD = 2OB B G
F
a Write each of these vectors in terms of a and b. b
→ →
i OF ii OG
→ → O a A C
iii EG iv CE
b Write down two vectors that can be written as 3a – b.

25.1 Properties of vectors 689

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•EVv →
13 The points P, Q and R lie on a straight line. The vector PQ is 2a + b, where a and b are
vectors.
→
Work out which of these vectors could be the vector PR and which could not be the
→
vector PR. There are two of each.
a 2a + 2b b 4a + 2b c 2a – b d –6a – 3b
→
EV 14 The points P, Q and R lie on a straight line. The vector PQ is 3a – b, where a and b
are vectors.
→
a Write down any other vector that could represent PR .
→
b How can you tell from another vector PS that S lies on the same straight line as P, Q
and R?
CM 15 Use a vector diagram to prove that a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.

CM 16 OABC is a quadrilateral.
C
R
B
c

S 2b
Q
c

O a P a A

P, Q, R and S are the midpoints of OA, AB, BC and OC respectively.

→ → →
OA = 2a, OB = 2b and OC = 2c
a Work out these vectors in terms of a, b and c.
Give your answers in their simplest form.
→ → → →
i AB ii SP iii BC iv PR
b Use vectors to prove that PQRS is a parallelogram.

25.2 Vectors in geometry

This section will show you how to: Key term
• use vectors to solve geometrical problems.
collinear

You can use vectors to prove many results in geometry. The next two examples will show you how.

→ → → 3 B
Example 3

In the diagram, OA = a, OB = b, and BC = 2 a.

M is the midpoint of BC, N is the midpoint of AC and P
is the midpoint of OB. b M
→ P
a Write the vector BN in terms of a and b.
C
b Prove that PN is parallel to OA.
O

N
a

(continued)
690 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry
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→ → → → 1 → 1 1 1
a BN = BC + CN b AN = AC = (–a + b + 3 a) = ( a + b)
2 2 2 2 2
→ 1 →
= BC – AC → → → →
2 PN = PO + OA + AN
3 1 (–2a + 2b + 3 a)
=
2
a–
2 2 = 1 (–b) + a + 1 ( 1 a + b)
2 2 2
1 1
= 3a – 1a – 1b 1
=– b+a+ a+ b
2 4 2 2 4 2
= 5a
= 5 a – 1b 4
4 2
Check that if you started with → →
→ → → → PN is a multiple of a only, so must be parallel to OA .
BN = BO + OA + AN ,
you would get the same result.

Note: If three or more points lie on the same line, they are said to be collinear.

OACB is a parallelogram. C
Example 4

→
OA is represented by the vector a. B
→ P
M
OB is represented by the vector b. b
P is the point that divides OC in the ratio 2 : 1.
M is the midpoint of AC. A
Show that B, P and M are collinear. O a

→ → →
OC = OA + AC
=a+b
→ 2 →
Since P divides OC in the ratio 2:1, then OP = OC
3
2 2
= a+ b
3 3
→ → →
OM = OA + AM
→ →
= OA + 1 AC
2
1
=a+ b
2
→ → →
BP = BO + OP
2 2
= –b + a + b
3 3
2 1
= a– b
3 3
1
= (2a – b)
3
→ → →
BM = BO + OM
1
= –b + a + 2 b

= a – 1b
2
= 1 (2a – b)
2
→ → → →
Therefore, BM is a multiple of BP (BM = 23 BP ).
→ →
Therefore, BP and BM are parallel and, as they have a common point, B, they must lie on the
same straight line.

25.2 Vectors in geometry 691

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Exercise 25B
→ →
CM 1 In the diagram, OA = a and OB = b.
M is the midpoint of AB.
B

b M

O A
a
→
a i Work out the vector AB .
→
ii Work out the vector AM .
→ → →
iii Explain why OM = OA + AM .
→
iv Use your answers to parts ii and iii to work out OM in terms of a and b.
→
b i Work out the vector BA .
→
ii Work out the vector BM.
→ → →
iii Explain why OM = OB + BM .
→
iv Use your answers to parts ii and iii to work out OM in terms of a and b.
→
c Copy the diagram. Show the vector OC which is equal to a + b.
d Describe in geometrical terms the position of M in relation to O, A, B and C.
→ →
MR 2 In the diagram, OA = a and OC = –b. O A
a
N is the midpoint of AC.
→
a i Work out the vector AC .
→
ii Work out the vector AN . –b N
→ → →
iii Explain why ON = OA + AN .
iv Using your answers to parts ii and iii,
→ C
work out ON in terms of a and b.
→
b i Work out the vector CA .
→
ii Work out the vector CN .
→ → →
iii Explain why ON = OC + CN.
→
iv Using your answers to parts ii and iii, work out ON in terms of a and b.
→
c Copy the diagram above and show on it the vector OD which is equal to a – b.
d Describe in geometrical terms the position of N in relation to O, A, C and D.

692 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry

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→ → B
PS 3 In the diagram, OA = a and OB = b. The point C divides
the line AB in the ratio 1 : 2.
→
a i Work out the vector AB. b
→
ii Work out the vector AC . C
→
iii Work out the vector OC in terms of a and b.
b If point D now divides the line AB in the ratio 1 : 3, O A
→ a
write down the vector that represents OD.
→ →
EV 4 The diagram shows the vectors OA = a and OB = b.
B

C
b D

O A E
a
→ →
The point C divides OB in the ratio 2 : 1. The point E is such that OE = 2OA . D is the
midpoint of AB.
a Write down (or work out) these vectors in terms of a and b.
→ → →
i OC ii OD iii CO
→ → → → →
b You can write vector CD as CD = CO + OD. Use this fact to work out CD in terms of a
and b.
→
c Write down a similar rule to that in part b for the vector DE . Use this rule to work out
→
DE in terms of a and b.
d Show how you know that C, D and E lie on the same straight line.
→
MR 5 ABCDEF is a regular hexagon. AB is represented by the
→ A B
vector a and BC by the vector b. a
a By means of a diagram, or otherwise, show
→ b
that CD = b – a.
F C
b Express these vectors in terms of a and b.
→ → →
i DE ii EF iii FA
c Work out the resultant vector of adding:
→ → → → → →
AB + BC + CD + DE + EF + FA E D

Explain your answer.

d Express these vectors in terms of a and b.
→ → → → →
i AD ii BE iii CF iv AE v DF

25.2 Vectors in geometry 693

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→ →
PS 6 ABCDEFGH is a regular octagon. AB is represented by the vector a and BC by the
vector b.
A B
a

b
H C

G D

F E
→
a By means of a diagram, or otherwise, show that CD = 2 b – a.
→
b By means of a diagram, or otherwise, explain why DE = b – 2 a.
c Express these vectors in terms of a and b.
→ → → →
i EF ii FG iii GH iv HA
→ → → →
v HC vi AD vii BE viii BF

MR 7 In the quadrilateral OABC, M, N, P and Q are the B

→ N
midpoints of the sides as shown. OA is represented C
→
by the vector a and OC by the vector c. The diagonal
→
OB is represented by the vector b. c b P
M
a Express these vectors in terms of a, b and c.
→ → →
i AB ii AP iii OP
Give your answers as simply as possible. O Q A
→ a
b i Express the vector ON in terms of b and c.
→
ii Hence express the vector PN in terms of a and c.
→
c i Express the vector QM in terms of a and c.
→ →
ii What relationship is there between PN and QM ?
iii What sort of quadrilateral is PNMQ?
→ →
d Prove that AC = 2 QM .
MR 8 In the diagram, L, M, N, P, Q, R are the midpoints B
of the line segments OA, OB, OC, BC, AC and AB,
as shown.
→ → →
OA = a, OB = b and OC = c
R
a Express these vectors in terms of a and c. P
→ → → →
i OL ii AC iii OQ iv LQ b
M
b Express these vectors in terms of a and b.
→ → A
i LM ii QP
Q
c Prove that the quadrilateral LMPQ is a a C
L
parallelogram.
d Find two other sets of four points that form N c
parallelograms. O

694 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry

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EV 9 In the triangle OAB, M is the midpoint of AB. A

→ →
OA = a and OB = b
→
a Write AM in terms of a and b. a
M
Give your answer in its simplest form.
→
b OC = a + b
O b B
The length of OA is equal to the length of OB.
i Write down the name of the shape OACB.
ii Write down one fact about the points O, M and C.
Give a reason for your answer.

PS 10 ABCD is a trapezium with AB parallel to DC. 6a + kb

→ → → A B
AB = 6a + kb, BC = 2a + 9b and DB = 7a + 3b,
where k is a number. 2a + 9b
7a + 3b
Work out the value of k.

D C

CM 11 a and b are vectors.

→ → →
XY = a + b YZ = 2a + b ZW = a + 2b
→ →
a Show that YW is parallel to XY.
b Write down the ratio YW : Y.
c What do your answers to a and b tell you about the points , Y and W?
d O is the origin.
A, B and C are three points such that:
→ 6  →  1 → 2
OA =   OB =   OC =  
 2  1  − 4
Prove that angle ABC is a right angle.

CM 12 Show, by using vectors that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

25.2 Vectors in geometry 695

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Worked exemplars
EV 1 The diagram shows triangle OAB. M is the midpoint of OA. P lies on BM and BP = 23 BM.
→ →
OA = 2a and OB = 2b
A

a
P

O
2b
B

a Find expressions, in terms of a and b, for:

→ →
i BM ii OP .
Write each answer in its simplest form.
b N is the midpoint of OB. Q lies on AN and AQ = 23 AN.
→
i Find an expression for OQ , in terms of a and b. Write your answer in its
simplest form.
→ →
ii What do your answers for OP and OQ tell you about the points P and Q?

This is an ‘evaluating’ question, so you need to interpret results in the context of the
given problem.
→ You are working towards finding a link
1 a i BM = a – 2b
between P and Q by being directed to
→ → 2 → → →
ii OP = OB + BM finding OP and OQ .
3 → →
= 2b + a – 4 b
2 Once you have found both OP and OQ
3 3 in terms of a and b, then you are able to
2
= a+ b 2 see what connection there is.
3 3 → →
→ → → Having found that OP and OQ are
b i OQ = OA + AQ identical and both start from O, you can
→ 2 → explain that this can only be true if points
= OA + AN
3 P and Q are the same.
→
But AN = b – 2a Alternatively you could point out that the
→ position vectors of P and Q relative to O
So OQ = 2a + 2 (b – 2a) are the same and hence the same point.
3
2
= 2a + b – 4 a
3 3
2
= a+ b 2
3 3
→ →
ii OP = OQ , so P and Q are the
same point as both vectors share
the same origin point O.

696 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry

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CM 2 OABC is a parallelogram.
M is the midpoint of the diagonal OB.
→ →
OA = 2a and OC = 2c
→
a Express OM in terms of a and c.
b Use vectors to prove that M is also the midpoint of the diagonal AC.
A B

2a M

O C
2c

This is a communicating mathematics question where you are asked to present a proof
of M being the midpoint of the other diagonal.
→ → 1 → You need to use vectors to demonstrate
a OB = 2a + 2c and OM = 2 OB
that AM is half of AC, this will show M is
→ the midpoint of AC.
so OM = a + c
→ You need to show clearly each stage of
b AC = 2c – 2a your working.
→ → →
AM = AO + OM
= –2a + a + c
=c–a
→ 1 →
So AM = 2
AC.

Hence M is the midpoint of AC.

25 Worked exemplars 697

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Ready to progress?
I can add and subtract vectors.
I know how to apply vector methods to solve geometrical problems.

I know how to use vectors to prove geometrical results.

Review questions
1 PQRS is a parallelogram. Q 2b M R
M is the midpoint of QR.
N is a point on PS such that NS = 3PN
→ → a
PQ = a QM = 2b
Express these vectors as simply as possible,
in terms of a and b.
→ → → P N S
a MS b SN c NM
EV 2 OABC is a quadrilateral. A Z
B
W, , Y and are the midpoints of BC, OC, OA and AB.
→ → →
O = x, OY = y and OB = 2b. Y 2b
a Write these vectors in terms of b, x and y. y
→ → W
i BA ii CB
→ O
b Show that WZ = y – x x
c Tim said: ‘W Y is a parallelogram.’ Evaluate X
Tim’s statement. C

CM 3 ODEF is a parallelogram.
D A E

O F
A is the midpoint of DE.
B is the midpoint of EF.
Show that AB is parallel to DF.
→ →
CM 4 OPQR is a parallelogram. Let OP = p and OR = r.
a Express these vectors in terms of p and r.
→ →
i OQ ii PR
The point is the midpoint of PR.
→
b Express P in terms of p and r.
c Show that is the midpoint of OQ.

698 25 Geometry and measures: Vector geometry

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CM 5 In the triangle ABC, D is the midpoint of BC, E is the midpoint A

of AC and F is the midpoint of AB. G is a point on AD such that
2
AG = 3 AD.
→ →
AB = x AC = y F
E
a Express each vector in terms of x and y.
→ → → → G
i BC ii BD iii AD iv AG
→ → → B
v DG vi BG vii BE D C
b Show that B, G and E are collinear.
→ →
c Show that BG = 23 BE .
MR 6 PQRS is a parallelogram. A and B are points on PR S R
such that PA = AB = BR.
a State each of these vectors, in terms of x and y. B
→ → → y
i PR ii PA iii PB
→ → A
iv SA v BQ
b Show that SAQB is a parallelogram.
P x Q

→ → →
MR 7 In the diagram, OA = 4a, OB = 2b, AP = 2a, B
→
OQ = 3a + b. Q
a State each of these vectors, in terms of a and b.
→ →
i BP ii BQ P

b Show that B, Q and P are collinear. A

O

PS 8 Prove that the line joining the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is parallel to the
base and half its length.

CM 9 OMNPQR is a regular hexagon.

R r O

Q M
2m

T
P N

RM = MT
→ → →
OR = r OM = m RN = 2m
→
a Work out the vector RM in terms of r and m.
b Prove that NT is parallel to OR.

25 Review questions 699

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Glossary
acceleration The rate at which the velocity of a angle of rotation The angle through which an
moving object increases. object is rotated, to form the image.
acute-angled triangle A triangle in which all the angles around a point The angles formed at a
angles are acute. point where two or more lines meet; their sum
adjacent side The side that is between a given is 360°.
angle and the right angle, in a right-angled triangle. angles on a straight line The angles formed at a
algebraic fraction A fraction that includes algebraic point where one or more inclined (sloping) lines
terms. meet on one side of a straight line; their sum
is 180°.
allied angles Interior angles that lie on the same
side of a transversal that cuts a pair of parallel lines; annual rate A rate, such as interest, that is charged
they add up to 180°. over a period of a year.
apex The top point of a pyramid where all the
edges of the sloping sides meet.
approximate A value that is close but not exactly
equal to another value, which can be used to give
an idea of the size of the value; for example, a
journey taking 58 minutes may be described as
‘taking approximately an hour’; the ≈ sign means ‘is
approximately equal to’.
alternate angles Angles that lie on either side of
a transversal that cuts a pair of parallel lines; the arc Part of the circumference of a circle.
transversal forms two pairs of alternate angles and area rule The rule for the area of triangle A = 21 × a
the angles in each pair are equal. × b × sin C, where a and b are two sides of the
triangle and C is the included angle.
area scale factor The ratio of the area of one shape
to the area of another that is mathematically similar
to it.
arithmetic sequence A sequence of numbers in
which the difference between one term and the
next is constant.
alternate segment The segment in a circle that is asymptote A line that a curve approaches but
based on the chord forming one side of an angle never quite meets.
formed with a tangent at the point of contact, and is
average speed The result of dividing the total
on the opposite side from the angle.
distance travelled by the total time taken for a
journey.
best buy The price that gives best value for money,
the greatest quantity for the least price.
better value The choice that gives more product
per pound or penny.
bias The property of a sample being
unrepresentative of the population; for example,
a dice may be weighted so that it gives a score of 5
more frequently than any other score.
angle bisector A line or line segment that divides
an angle into two equal parts. binomial An expression with two terms; for
example (x + 3).
angle of depression The angle between the
horizontal line of sight of an observer and the direct bisect Cut exactly in half.
line to an object that is viewed from above. boundary The line for an inequality shown on a
angle of elevation The angle between the graph, when the inequality symbol is replaced with =.
horizontal line of sight of an observer and the direct box plot A diagram that shows the median, the
line to an object that is viewed from below. quartiles and the range of a data set.

700 Glossary
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box-and-whisker plot Another name for a box plot. write xy = k. In either case, k is the constant of
centre of enlargement The point, inside or outside proportionality.
the object, on which an enlargement is centred; the constant term A term that has a fixed value; in
point from which the enlargement of an object is the equation y = 3x + 6, the values of x and y may
measured. change, but 6 is a constant term.
centre of rotation The point about which an object continuous data Data, such as mass, length or
or shape is rotated. height, that can take any value; continuous data has
circumference The perimeter of a circle; every no precise fixed value.
point on the circumference is the same distance conversion graph A graph that can be used to
from the centre, and this distance is the radius. convert from one unit to another, constructed by
class interval The range of a group of values in a drawing a line through two or more points where
set of grouped data. the equivalence is known; sometimes, but not
always, a conversion graph passes through the
coefficient A number written in front of a variable
origin.
in an algebraic term; for example, in 8x, 8 is the
coefficient of x. corresponding angles Angles that lie on the same
side of a pair of parallel lines cut by a transversal;
collinear Lying on the same straight line.
the transversal forms four pairs of corresponding
column method (or traditional method) A method angles, and the angles in each pair are equal.
for multiplying large numbers, in which you
multiply the units, tens and hundreds separately,
then add the products together.
combined event Two or more events that occur
together.
common factor A factor that divides exactly into
two or more numbers; 2 is a common factor of 6, 8
and 10. cosine A trigonometric ratio related to an angle in
adjacent
common units To enable you to compare a right-angled triangle, calculated as hypotenuse .
quantities or simplify ratios, they must be expressed
in the same or common units; for example, 2 m : 10 cosine rule A rule relating the cosine of one angle
cm = 200 cm : 10 cm = 20 : 1. in a triangle to the lengths of all three sides.
complementary Forming a whole, for example, a2 = b2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
the probability of an outcome happening and the b 2 + c 2 − a2
probability of the same outcome not happening are cos A =
2bc
complementary, their sum is 1.
completing the square Rewriting the expression cover-up method A method of solving equations by
x2 – 2ax as (x – a)2 – a2. covering up one of the other terms.
composite A function that is made from two or critical values The values of a quadratic inequality
more separate functions. that make the expression equal to zero.
compound interest Interest that is paid on the cross-section A cut across a 3D shape, or the shape
amount in the account; after the first year interest is of the face that is exposed when a 3D shape is cut. For
paid on interest earned in the previous years. a prism, a cut across the shape, perpendicular to its
length.
compound measure A measure based on two units,
such as kilometres per hour (speed) or mass per cubic An expression where the highest power of
cubic centimetre (density). the variable is 3.
conditional probability The probability of cumulative frequency The total frequency of all
one outcome occurring when it is known that values up to the end of each class interval.
another outcome has happened. For example, the cumulative frequency curve A cumulative
probability of the colour of a second ball drawn frequency graph drawn as a curve.
from a bag is conditional on the colour of the first cumulative frequency graph A graph in which the
ball drawn from the bag – if the first ball is not cumulative frequency value is plotted at the end
replaced. of each class interval. The points can be joined by
congruent Exactly the same shape and size. lines or drawn as a curve.
constant of proportionality If two variables x and y cyclic quadrilateral A quadrilateral with vertices
are in direct proportion, you can write an equation, that lie on the circumference of a circle; the sum of
y = kx; if they are in inverse proportion, you can both pairs of opposite angles is 180°.

Glossary 701
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cylinder A prism with a circular cross-section. equidistant At equal distances.

deceleration The rate at which the velocity of a equilateral triangle A triangle in which all the sides
moving object decreases. are equal and all the angles are 60°.
decimal place The position, after the decimal error interval The interval within which a rounded
point, of a digit in a decimal number; for example, value can lie. For example, if x = 25 to the nearest
in 0.025, 5 is in the third decimal place. Also, the whole number, the error interval for x is 24.5  x < 25.5.
number of digits to the right of the decimal point in estimated mean A mean that is estimated from
a decimal number; for example, 3.142 is a number grouped data, by multiplying the frequency by
given correct to three decimal places (3 dp). the mid-class value for each class, adding up the
decimal point A symbol, usually a small dot, products and dividing by the total frequency.
written between the whole-number part and the event Something that happens in a probability
fractional part in a decimal number. problem, such as tossing a coin or predicting the
density The mass of a substance divided by its weather.
volume. exact value Numbers such as 2 and π cannot
difference The result of a subtraction. be calculated to give a terminating or recurring
difference of two squares An expression of the decimal, but can only be approximated to a number
form x2 – y2: the terms are squares and there is a of decimal places or significant figures. The exact
minus sign between them. value is expressed in the form x , which is also
direct proportion A relationship in which one called a surd. π also represents an exact value.
variable increases or decreases at the same rate as exhaustive All possible outcomes of an event; the
another; in the formula y = 12x, x and y are in direct sum of the probabilities of exhaustive outcomes
proportion. equals 1.
direct variation Another name for direct expand Multiply out (terms with brackets).
proportion.
expectation Predicting the number of times you
direction The line along which a vector such as would expect an outcome to occur.
force, weight or velocity acts.
experimental probability An estimate for the
discrete data Data that can only take certain values, theoretical probability.
such as a number of children; discrete data can only
exponential function An expression that has an
take fixed values.
unknown such as x as an index; for example, 2x.
discriminant The expression b2 – 4ac based on the
expression A collection of numbers, letters,
general equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. If the discriminant
symbols and operators representing a number or
of a quadratic equation is negative, then the
amount; for example, x2 − 3x + 4.
equation is not soluble.
exterior angle The angle formed outside a 2D
dispersion A measure to show how a set of data is
shape, when a side is extended beyond the
spread out.
vertex.
distance–time graph A graph that represents a factorial The product of the whole number n and
journey, based on the distance travelled and the all the whole numbers less than n down to 1. It is
time taken. written as x!. For example 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120.
edge The line where two faces or surfaces of a 3D factorisation The arrangement of a given number
shape meet. or expression into a product of its factors. (verb:
element Any member of a set. factorise)
eliminate Given a pair of simultaneous equations first difference The numbers that are produced by
with two variables, you can manipulate one or subtracting each term of a sequence from the one
both equations to remove or eliminate one of the before it, in turn.
variables by a process of substitution, addition or formula A mathematical rule, using numbers
subtraction. and letters, that shows a relationship between
enlargement A transformation in which the object variables; for example, the conversion formula
is enlarged to form an image. from temperatures in Fahrenheit to temperatures
5
equation A relation in which two expressions in Celsius is: C = 9 (F − 32).
are separated by an equals sign with one or more fraction A part of a whole that has been divided
variables. An equation can be solved to find into equal parts; a fraction describes how many
one or more answers, but it may not be true for parts you are talking about.
all values of x.

702 Glossary
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frequency density The frequency of a class interval hypothesis A statement that has to be proved true
divided by the width of the class interval, used or false.
when drawing histograms. identity Expressions either side of a  sign with
frequency polygon A graph in which the mid-points one or more variables, which is true for all values;
of the class intervals are joined, in turn, by straight for example, 3(x + 2)  3x + 6 is an identity.
lines. image The result of a reflection or other
front elevation The perpendicular view from the transformation of an object.
front of a solid shape. included angle The angle between two given sides
frustum A 3D shape produced by removing the top of a triangle.
from a pyramid or cone, by means of a cut parallel inclusive inequality An inequality such as  or .
to the base.
independent events Two or more events that have
function An algebraic expression in which there is no effect on each other’s outcomes.
only one variable, often x.
index The power to which a base number is raised;
geometric sequence A sequence in which each in 34, 4 is the index and 3 is the base number.
term is multiplied or divided by the same number, index notation Expressing a number in terms of one
to produce the next term; for example, 2, 4, 8, 16, ... or more of its factors, each expressed as a power.
is a geometric sequence.
inequality A statement that one expression is
gradient The slope of a line between two or greater or less than another, written with the symbol
more points, calculated as the vertical difference > (greater than) or < (less than) instead of = (equals).
between the coordinates divided by the horizontal
intercept The point where a line cuts or crosses the axis.
difference.
interior angle The inside angle between two
gradient-intercept A form for the equation of a line,
adjacent sides of a 2D shape, at a vertex.
written in terms of its gradient and the intercept on
the vertical axis, y = mx + c where m is the gradient interquartile range A measure of dispersion
and c is the y-intercept. calculated as the upper quartile minus the lower
quartile, often abbreviated to IQR.
grid method (or box method) A method for
multiplying numbers larger than 10, in which intersection The ‘overlap’, the set of elements that
each number is split into its parts: for example, to occur in two or more sets.
calculate 158 × 67: invariant A point that does not change.
158 is 100, 50 and 8 inverse Going the other way.
67 is 60 and 7. inverse function Reverse or opposite; inverse
These numbers are arranged in a rectangle and operations cancel each other out or reverse the
each part is multiplied by the others. effect of each other.
inverse operations An operation that reverses the
6000 effect of another operation; for example, addition is
3000
 100 50 8 the inverse of subtraction, division is the inverse of
480 multiplication.
60 6000 3000 480 700
350 inverse proportion A relationship between two
7 700 350 56 variables in which as one value increases, the other
+ 56
10586 decreases; in the formula xy = 12, x and y are in
inverse proportion.
grouped data Data arranged into smaller, non- inverse variation Another name for inverse
overlapping sets, groups or classes, that can be proportion.
treated as separate ranges or values, for example,
isosceles triangle A triangle in which two sides are
1–10, 11–20, 21–30, 31–40, 41–50; in this example
equal and the angles opposite the equal sides are
there are equal class intervals.
also equal.
highest common factor (HCF) The largest number
iteration A process in which you repeatedly
that is a factor common to two or more other
substitute an answer into an equation to generate
numbers.
an answer that is closer to the actual value.
histogram A diagram, similar to a bar chart, in
like terms Terms in which the variables are
which the area of each bar is proportional to the
identical, but the coefficients are different; for
frequency of its class interval.
example, 2ax and 5ax are like terms but 5xy and 7y
hypotenuse The longest side in a right-angled are not. Like terms can be combined by adding their
triangle, always opposite the right angle. numerical coefficients so 2ax + 5ax = 7ax.

Glossary 703
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limits of accuracy No measurement is entirely mirror line Another name for a line of symmetry.
accurate. The accuracy depends on the tool used to modal group In grouped data, the class with the
measure it. The value of every measurement will be highest frequency.
rounded to within certain limits. For example you
multiplier A number that is used to find the
can probably measure with a ruler to the nearest
result of increasing or decreasing an amount by a
half-centimetre. Any measurement you take could
percentage.
be inaccurate by up to half a centimetre. This is
your limit of accuracy. (See also lower bound and mutually exclusive Outcomes that cannot occur at
upper bound.) the same time.
line bisector A line that divides another line exactly negative correlation A relationship between two
in half sets of data, in which the values of one variable
increase as the values of the other variable
line graph A graph to show how data changes, by
decrease.
means of points joined by straight lines.
negative reciprocal The result of dividing a number
line of best fit A straight line drawn on a scatter
into –1; the negative reciprocal of ab is – ba .
diagram where there is correlation, so that there are
equal numbers of points above and below it; the no correlation No relationship between two sets
line shows the trend of the data. of data.
linear An expression (such as 5x + 2) for which non-linear An expression that is not linear, such as
there is a term with an index of 1 and possibly a x2.
constant term. nth term An expression in terms of n; it allows you
linear graph A straight-line graph that represents a to find any term in a sequence, without having to
linear function. use a term-to-term rule.
linear scale factor The factor of increase between object The original or starting shape, line or point
the lengths of two similar shapes. before it is transformed to give an image.
linear sequence A sequence or pattern of numbers obtuse-angled triangle A triangle containing an
in which the difference between consecutive terms obtuse angle.
is always the same. opposite side The side that is opposite a given
loci The plural of locus. angle, in a right-angled triangle.
locus The path of a point that moves obeying order of rotational symmetry The number of times
given conditions. a 2D shape looks the same as it did originally when
it is rotated through 360° about a central point.
long division A method of division showing all the
If a shape has no rotational symmetry, its order
working, used when dividing large numbers.
of rotational symmetry is 1, because every shape
long multiplication A method of multiplication looks the same at the end of a 360° rotation as it did
showing all the working, used when multiplying originally.
large numbers.
origin The point O(0, 0) on Cartesian coordinate
lower bound The lower limit of a measurement. axes.
(See also limit of accuracy.)
outcome A possible result of an event in a
lower quartile The lowest value of the three probability experiment, such as the different scores
quartiles, often abbreviated to Q1. when throwing a dice.
lowest common multiple (LCM) The lowest number outlier In a data set, a value that is widely
that is a multiple of two or more numbers; 12 is the separated from the main cluster of values.
lowest common multiple of 2, 3, 4 and 6. parabola The shape of a quadratic curve.
magnitude The size of a quantity. pattern Numbers or objects that are arranged
mass The amount of matter in an object. to follow a rule.
maximum A point on a graph where the gradient percentage change A change to a quantity,
is zero, which is higher than the points either side calculated as a percentage of the original
of it. quantity.
measure of location An average or typical value percentage decrease A reduction or decrease to a
that represents a set of data. quantity, calculated as a percentage of the original
mid-class value The mid-point value of each class quantity.
interval. percentage increase An increase to a quantity,
minimum A point on a graph where the gradient is calculated as a percentage of the original
zero, which is lower than the points either side of it. quantity.

704 Glossary
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percentage loss The loss on a financial transaction, Pythagoras’ theorem The rule that, in any right-
calculated as the difference between the buying angled triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is
price and the selling price, calculated as a equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
percentage of the original price. sides.
percentage profit The profit on a financial Pythagorean triple Three numbers, a, b and c, that
transaction, calculated as the difference between satisfy the Pythagorean rule a2 = b2 + c2;
the selling price and the buying price, calculated as {3, 4, 5} and {5, 12, 13} are examples.
a percentage of the original price. quadratic Having terms involving one or two
periodic Repeating at regular periods or intervals. variables, and constants, such as x² − 3 or y² + 2y + 4
perpendicular bisector A line that divides a given where the highest power of the variable is two.
line exactly in half, passing through its midpoint at quadratic expression An expression in which the
right angles to it. highest power of any variable is 2, such as 2x2 + 4.
pi (π) The result of dividing the circumference of quadratic formula A formula used to solve
a circle by its diameter, represented by the Greek quadratic equations of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0,
letter pi (π).
x = –b ± b – 4 ac .
2

plan The view from directly above a solid shape. 2a

quadratic inequality Like a quadratic equation but
point of contact The point where two lines or faces with an inequality symbol such as <.
meet.
quadratic rule A rule for the generation of a
polygon A closed 2D shape with straight sides. quadratic sequence.
population The complete data set in a survey. quadratic sequence A sequence in which the
position vector The vector of a point in relation to first differences are not constant, formed from a
an origin. quadratic rule.
position-to-term rule A rule for generating a term quantity A measurable amount of something
in a sequence, depending on the position of the that can be written as a number, or a number with
term within the sequence. appropriate units; for example, the capacity of a
positive correlation A relationship between two milk carton.
sets of data, in which the values of one variable quartile One of three points that divides a set of
increase as the values of the other variable increase. data, in numerical order, into four equal parts.
power The number of times you use a number or random Chosen by chance, without looking; every
expression in a calculation; it is written as a small, item has an equal chance of being chosen.
raised number; for example, 22 is 2 multiplied by random sample A sample in which every member
itself, 22 = 2 × 2 and 43 = 4 × 4 × 4. of the population has an equal chance of being
power of 10 A number that is produced by chosen.
multiplying 10 by itself repeatedly. ratio The ratio of A to B is a number found by
power of 2 A number that is produced by dividing A by B. It is written as A : B. For example,
multiplying 2 by itself repeatedly. the ratio of 1 m to 1 cm is written as 1 m : 1 cm = 100
primary data Data you have collected yourself. : 1. Notice that the two quantities must both be in
the same units if they are to be compared in this
principal The amount invested or lent. way.
prism A 3D shape that has the same cross-section rational number A number that can be written as a
wherever it is cut perpendicular to its length. fraction, for example, 41 or 10 .
3
product rule for counting A way of working out rationalise Remove a surd from a denominator (by
how many combinations there are for situations multiplying the numerator and denominator by that
where choices can be made. Stated simply, if surd).
there are a ways of doing something and b ways
of doing another thing, then there are a × b ways rearrange Put into a different order, to simplify.
of performing both actions. For example, a pizza reciprocal The result of dividing a number into 1,
parlour offers two types of crust, three types so 1 divided by the number is its reciprocal.
of cheese and five types of toppings. Therefore recurring decimal A decimal number in which a
2 × 3 × 5 = 30 different pizzas could be ordered. digit or pattern of digits repeats for ever.
prove To show without doubt, that something is true. reflection The image formed when a 2D shape is
pyramid A 3D shape with a base and sides rising to reflected in a mirror line or line of symmetry; the
form a single point. process of reflecting an object.

Glossary 705
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region An area bound by inequalities. least significant figure. In 0.246 the first and most
relative frequency An estimate for the theoretical significant figure is 2. Zeros at the beginning or end
probability. of a number are not significant figures.
resultant vector The result of combining two or similar Two shapes are similar if one is an
more vectors. enlargement of the other; angles in the same
position in both shapes are equal to each other.
right-angled triangle A triangle in which one angle
is 90°. similar triangles Two or more triangles where one
is an enlargement of the other.
roots The points on a graph where it crosses the
x-axis. simple interest Money that a borrower pays a
lender, for allowing them to borrow money.
rotation A turn about a central point, called the
centre of rotation. simplify To make an equation or expression easier
to work with or understand by combining like terms
rotational symmetry A type of symmetry in which
or cancelling; for example:
a 2D shape may be turned through 360° so that it 12 2
looks the same as it did originally in two or more 4a – 2a + 5b + 2b = 2a + 7b, 18 = 3 , 5 : 10 = 1 : 2.
positions. simultaneous equation Two equations that are both
sample A selection taken from a larger data set, true for the same set of values for their variables.
which can be researched to provide information sine A trigonometric ratio related to an angle in a
opposite
about the whole population. right-angled triangle, calculated as hypotenuse .
sample size The number of items in a random sample.
sine rule A rule using sines of angles in any
sample space diagram A diagram that shows all the triangle showing that the ratio of the sine of an
outcomes of an experiment. angle to the length of the side opposite it is always
scalar A quantity such as mass that has quantity the same for any given triangle. sina A = sinb B = sinc C .
but does not act in a specific direction. slant height The length of the sloping side of a
scale drawing A drawing that represents cone.
something much larger or much smaller, in which soluble Possible to solve.
the lengths on the image are in direct proportion to
sphere A 3D shape which is the locus of a point
the lengths on the object.
that moves a fixed distance from a given point, the
scale factor The ratio of the distance on the image centre; a 3D shape that has a circular cross-section
to the distance it represents on the object; the whenever it is cut through its centre.
number that tells you how much a shape is to be
standard form A way of writing a number as
enlarged.
a × 10n, where 1  a  10 and n is a positive or
scalene triangle A triangle in which all sides are negative integer.
different lengths.
standard index form See standard form.
scatter diagram A graphical representation
strategy A plan to solve a problem.
showing whether there is a relationship between
two sets of data. strict inequality An inequality such as < or >.
second difference The numbers that are produced subject The variable on the left-hand side of the
by subtracting each first difference of a sequence equals (=) sign in a formula or equation.
from the one before it, in turn. substitute Replace a variable in an expression
secondary data Data that has been collected by with a number and evaluate it; for example, if you
someone else. substitute 4 for t in 3t + 5 the answer is 17 because 3
× 4 + 5 = 17.
sector A region of a circle, like a slice of a pie,
enclosed by an arc and two radii. subtend The joining of the lines from two points
giving an angle.
sequence A pattern of numbers that are related by
a rule. surd An irrational number found by taking a root
of a number such as the square root of 2 ( 2 ) or the
set A collection of objects or elements. cube root of 5 ( 3 5 ).
shift key The key on a calculator that enables you surface area The total area of all of the surfaces of
to use the alternative functions associated with the a 3D shape.
main keys.
systematic counting If you wanted to work out how
side elevation The perpendicular view from the many times the digit 6 was written when writing
end of a solid shape. down all the numbers from 200 to 300 you would
significant figure In the number 12 068, 1 is the first use a systematic counting strategy; for example, 206,
and most significant figure and 8 is the fifth and 216, … 296 is 10 times plus 260, 261, … 269 which

706 Glossary
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is 10 times so the digit 6 will be written 20 times. turning point Any point on a graph where
Note that if the question was how many numbers the gradient is zero; could be a maximum or a
between 200 and 300 contain the digit 6, the answer minimum.
would be 19 as 266 would be counted only once. two-way table A table that records how two
(See also ‘product rule for counting’.) variables are linked.
tangent 1 A straight line that touches a circle unbiased The property of a sample being
just once. representative of the population, so that any
2 A trigonometric ratio related to member of the population may be chosen.
an angle in a right-angled triangle, union The set of all the elements that occur in one
calculated as opposite . or more sets.
adjacent
term 1 A part of an expression, equation or unit cost The cost of one unit, such as a kilogram,
formula. Terms are separated by + and litre or metre, of something.
− signs.
unitary method A method of finding best value
2 A number in a sequence or pattern. by finding the price per unit, or the quantity per
terminating decimal A terminating decimal can be pound or penny.
33
written down exactly. 100 can be written as 0.33, but universal set The set that contains all possible
1
is 0.3333… with the 3s recurring forever. elements, usually represented by the symbol ξ.
3
term-to-term The rule that shows what to do to upper bound The higher limit of a measurement.
one term in a sequence, to work out the next term. (See also limit of accuracy.)
theorem A statement that is a result of a proof. upper quartile The highest value of the three
quartiles, often abbreviated to Q3.
theoretical probability The exact or true probability
of an event happening. variable A letter that stands for a quantity that can
take various values.
theoretical probability space diagram Another name
for a sample space diagram. vector A quantity such as velocity that has
magnitude and acts in a specific direction.
three-figure bearing The angle from north
clockwise, generally given as a three-digit figure. velocity–time graph A graph in which distance
travelled is plotted against time taken.
transform Reflect, rotate, enlarge or translate.
Venn diagram A diagram that shows the
transformation A change to a geometric 2D
relationships between different sets.
shape, such as a translation, rotation, reflection or
enlargement. vertex The point at which two lines meet, in a 2D
or 3D shape.
translation A movement along, up or diagonally on
a coordinate grid. vertical height The height of the top vertex of a 3D
shape, measured perpendicular to the base.
transpose Another word for rearrange.
vertically opposite angles The angles on the
tree diagram A diagram that is used to calculate
opposite side of the point of intersection when
the probability of combined events happening. All
two straight lines cross, forming four angles. The
the probabilities of each single event are written on
opposite angles are equal.
the branches of the diagram.
vertices The plural of vertex.
trend How data increases or decreases in a regular
pattern. volume scale factor The factor of increase between
the volumes of two similar shapes.
trial A single experiment in a probability
experiment. y = mx + c The general equation of a straight line
in which m is the gradient of the line and c is the
trial and improvement A method for finding the
intercept on the y-axis.
solution to an equation by substituting values and
using the results to get closer to the correct answer. zero gradient A line that is parallel to the
horizontal axis has zero gradient.
trigonometry The study of the relationship
between angles and sides in triangles.

Glossary 707
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Index
# quadratic equations 468–505
quadratic factorisation 235–238
0/n indices 444–445 simplification 91
1D problems 595–598 square expansion 231–232
2D problems 314–316, 598–601 substitution 217–218
terms 217, 221

A
variables 217
allied angles 163
a/b indices 445–446 alternate angles 163
acceleration 636 alternate segment theorem 571–573
accuracy limits 452–459 and/or method, probability 548
addition 455–457 angle bisectors 198
continuous data 453 angle of depression 334
discrete data 452 angle of elevation 334
division 456–457 angle of rotation 188
mathematical peculiarity 453 angles 150–177
multiplication 456–457 allied 163
subtraction 455–456 alternate 163
acute-angled triangles 155 around a point 151
addition 455–456 bearings 168–173
accuracy limits 455–456 calculating 319–320
algebraic fractions 665 corresponding 163
fractions 40–42, 45–46, 665 exemplars 174
negative numbers 30 kites 166
probability of outcomes 537–539 parallel lines 163–165
vectors 686–690 parallelograms 166
adjacent side, triangles 316 polygons 157–163
algebra quadrilaterals 166–168
algebraic manipulation 216–247 rectangles 166
basics 217–223 rhombuses 166
binomials 225 scale drawings 168–173
changing subject of formula 241–243, 670–672 squares 166
coefficients 221 on straight line 151
collecting like terms 221 trapeziums 166
composite functions 675–676 triangles 154–156
equations 217, 402–435 trigonometry 319–320
exemplars 244–245, 680–681 vertically opposite 152
expansion 220, 221 annual rate (interest) 140
of more than two binomials 232–234 apex, pyramids 264
quadratic expansion 225–230 approximation 15–22
squares 231–232 arc, length of 256–257
expressions 217 area
factorisation 223–225 circles 249–250
ax1 + bx + c 239–240 cones 266–267
quadratic factorisation 235–238 cylinders 262
formulae 217, 241–243, 670–672 estimating area under a curve 638–641
fractions 665–674 parallelograms 252–253
functions 672–675 ratios 354–355
graphs 626–663 scale factor 351
identities 217 sectors 256–257
inequalities 416–426 similar shapes 351–357
inverse functions 674–675 spheres 268–269
iteration 676–679, 680 trapeziums 253–256
linear graphs 274–303 triangles 619–621
manipulation of 216–247 arithmetic sequences, nth term 92–95
number sequences 86–117 asymptote line 649

708 Index
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‘at least’ problems, probability 547 column method, long multiplication 9

averages 65–66 combined events, probability 536–555
average speed 33 common factors 223
ax1 + bx + c factorisation 239–240 common units, ratios 117–118
complementary outcomes, probability 369
completing the square
B quadratic equations 481–484
quadratic graph transformations 657
bar charts 59–60
composite functions 675–676
bearings 168–173, 336–337
compound interest 140–143
best buys/better value (price comparison) 28–31
compound measures 132–139
bias, statistics 507
density 137
binomials
pressure 137–138
algebra 225, 231–234
rates of pay 132
expansion of more than two binomials 232–234
speed, time and distance 133–136
square expansion 231–232
conditional probability 550–552
bisect 166
cones 266–267, 270
bisectors 198–201, 213
congruent triangles 179–181
BODMAS rule 32
consecutive terms 89
boundaries, graphical inequalities 421
constant of proportionality 579
box plots (box-and-whisker plots) 520–523
constant term
brackets, equations 404–405
linear graphs 282
quadratic equations 478

C continuous data 71, 453

conversion graphs 290
calculators correlation, scatter diagrams 74–75
compound interest 141 corresponding angles 163
factorials 459 cosine curve 604–607
fractions 44–48 cosine function 323–325
indices 387 cosine ratio 316
negative numbers 30–31 cosine rule 614–615
powers 387 cost of products (price comparison) 118–121
shift key 45 counting, product rule 459
standard form 395 counting squares method, enlargements 192
statistical mode 69 cover-up method, graph drawing 282–286
trigonometry 317, 319 critical values, quadratic graphs 499
centre of enlargement 191 cross-section, prisms 159
centre of rotation 188 cube roots 23, 582
chords, circles 567–570 cubes 23, 582, 586
circles cubic graphs 647–648
alternate segment theorem 571–573 cumulative frequency curve 514
area 249–250 cumulative frequency graphs 514–520, 532
chords 567–570 cyclic quadrilaterals 564–566, 575
circumference 249 cylinders 262, 240–241
cyclic quadrilaterals 564–566, 575
equation of tangent 644–646
exemplars 574–575 D
pi (π) 249 data collection 507–510
properties of 556–577 deceleration 636
tangents 567–570, 644–646 decimals
theorems 557–573 converting fractions into 437
circumference, circles 249 converting into fractions 438
class intervals, histograms 524–525 converting into percentages 52
coefficients decimal places 12
algebra 221, 228–229 decimal point 12
linear graphs 282 division 12–15
number sequences 90 fractions 437, 438
quadratic equations 478 multiplication 15
simultaneous equations 411–412 recurring 437, 438
coin throwing, probability 540 terminating 437, 438
collinear points, vectors 691 denominators, rationalising 450–452

Index 709
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density 137 trial-and-improvement method 426–429

depression, angle of 334 variables 217, 406
depth–time graphs 630–631 see also quadratic equations
diagrams equidistant points 201
scatter diagrams 74–78 equilateral 154
space diagrams 539 error intervals 452
statistics 59–65 estimate of mean 71
tree diagrams 542–546 estimation, powers and roots 440–442
Venn diagrams 377–381 events, probability 363
see also drawings exact values 447
dice throwing 539–540 exhaustive outcomes, probability 368
differences, number sequences 89 expansion
difference of two squares 236–237 algebra 220, 221, 231-232
direction, vectors 685 of more than two binomials 232–234
direct proportion 125–128, 579–585 quadratic expansion 225–230
direct variation 579 squares 231–232
discrete data 71, 452 expectation, probability 372–373
discriminants, quadratic equations 480 experimental probability 363–367
dispersion of data 516 exponential functions 650
distance, speed and time 133–136, 146–147, 641–643 exponential graphs 650
distance–time graphs 627–632, 641–642, 659 expressions, algebra 217
division exterior angles, polygons 160–161
accuracy limits 456–457
algebraic fractions 665
decimals 12–15 F
fractions 32–34, 46, 665 factorials 459
long division 9, 10 factorisation
multiples of 9 17 algebra 223–225, 668
negative numbers 30 ax1 + bx + c 239–240
powers 389–391, 392–393 common factors 223
ratios 120 quadratic equations 472–477
drawings, scale drawings 168–173 quadratic expressions 668
see also diagrams quadratic factorisation 235–238
factors 22–24, 109
Fibonacci sequences 96
E first differences, quadratic sequences 105
edges, pyramids 264 force 137
elements, sets 377 formulae
elevation, angle of 334 algebra 217, 241–243
elevations 208–211 algebraic fractions 670–672
elimination method, simultaneous equations 408–410 changing subject of 241–243, 670–672
enlargements 191–192 fractional enlargements 192
equations 402–435 fractional powers 442–446
algebraic fractions 665–674 fractions 38–57
brackets 404–405 addition 40–42, 45–46
changing subject of formula 241–243 algebraic 665–674
coefficient balancing 411–412 calculators 44–48
exemplars 430–431, 680–681 converting decimals into 438
fractional equations 403–404 converting into decimals 437
iteration 676–679 division 42–44, 46
linear equations 403–408 equations 403–404
parallel lines 297 improper fractions 40, 45
perpendicular lines 297 mixed numbers 40, 45
simultaneous equations multiplication 32–34, 46
coefficient balancing 411–412 one quantity as fraction of another 39–40
elimination method 408–410 powers 4437–446
graphs 489–492 rationalising a denominator 450–452
linear/non-linear 490–492, 496–498 ratios 118
problem solving 413–415 reciprocals 43, 438
substitution method 410–411 subtraction 40–42, 45–46
straight-line equation 282, 286–289 frequency density, histograms 524
frequency polygons 510–513, 531
710 Index
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frequency tables, statistics 68, 71 vectors 684–699

front elevations 108 see also trigonometry
frequency tree diagrams 536, 544 gradient-intercept method 282–286
frustum, pyramids 266 gradient of line 278–282, 641–642
graphical inequalities 421–426

G graphs 626–663
asymptote line 649
geometric sequences 96 cosine curve 604–607
geometry cubic graphs 647–648
2D problems 314–316 cumulative frequency graphs 514–520, 532
angles 150–177 depth–time graphs 630–631
arc length 256–257 direct proportion 582–585
bearings 168–173 distance–time graphs 627–632, 641–642, 659
bisectors 108–201,113 drawing graphs 282–286, 470
circles estimating area under a curve 638–641
alternate segment theorem 571–573 exemplars 300–301, 659–660
area 249–250 exponential graphs 650
chords 567–570 intersection method 492–496
circumference 249 inverse proportion 586–587
cyclic quadrilaterals 564–566, 575 linear graphs 274–303
exemplars 574–575 proportionality 582–587, 590
pi (π) 249 quadratic equations 492–496
properties of 556–577 quadratic graphs 469–472, 485–489
tangents 567–570, 644–646 rates of change 641–643
theorems 557–573 reciprocal graphs 649–650
cones 266–267, 270 scatter diagrams 74–78
congruent triangles 179–181 simultaneous equations 295–296
constructions 198–201, 208–211 sine curve 602–603
cylinders 262, 270 statistics 59–65
elevations 208–211 tangent curve 607–609
enlargements 191–192 transformations 653–658, 660
exemplars 174, 212–213, 270–271 velocity–time graphs 633–641, 642
loci y = f(x) transformations 653–658
defining 201–203 grid method, long multiplication 9
problem solving 203–207 grouped data, frequency polygons 510
parallelograms 252–253 grouped frequency tables, statistics 71
plans 208–211
polygons
angles in 157–159
regular polygons 160–163
H
hierarchy of operations 32
prisms 259–261
highest common factor (HCF) 28
pyramids 264–266
histograms 524–530
Pythagoras’ theorem 305–316
hypotenuse of triangle 305
quadrilaterals 166–168
hypothesis testing 507–508
reflections 186
right-angled triangles 304–343
rotational symmetry 181–183
rotations 188 I
scale drawings 168–173 identities, algebra 217
sectors 256–258 image, transformations 183
similarity 344–361 improper fractions 40, 35
similar triangles 345–350 included angle, triangles 614, 617
spheres 268–269 inclusive inequalities 416
transformations 183–187, 212 independent events, probability 547–549
translations 183–184 index notation 25
trapeziums 253–256 indices see powers
triangles 154–156, 179–181, 594–625 inequalities 416–426
congruent 179–181 graphical 421–426
equilateral 154 inclusive 416
isosceles 311–313, 338–339 linear 416–426
right-angled 155, 304–343 number line 418–420
scalene 154 strict 416
similar 345–350
Index 711
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intercept loss, percentages 51

linear graphs 282 lower bound, accuracy limits 452
quadratic curves 485 lower quartile, cumulative frequency graphs 515
interior angles, polygons 158, 160 lowest common multiple (LCM) 28, 40
interquartile range 515–517
intersection, sets 378
intersection method, quadratic equations 492–496 M
invariant points 186, 654 magnitude, vectors 685
inverse, trigonometry 319 map scales 169
inverse functions 674–675 mass 137
inverse operations 241, 672 maximum, turning point 486
inverse proportion 585–589 mean 66, 526–527
inverse variation 585 measure of location (average) 65
isosceles triangles 154 median 66, 515, 526–527
Pythagoras’ theorem 311–313 mid-class value, frequency polygons 510
trigonometry 338–339 minimum, turning point 486
iteration 676–679, 680 mirror line, reflections 186
mixed numbers 40, 45

K modal group 71
mode 66
kites 166 multiples 22–24
multiplication
accuracy limits 456–457
L algebraic fractions 665
LCM see lowest common multiple decimals 12–15
length fractions 42–44, 46, 665
arcs 256–257 long multiplication 9
hypotenuse of triangle 305 multiples of 9 17
linear scale factor 351 negative numbers 30
triangle shorter side 307–309 powers 389–392
limits of accuracy see accuracy limits see also expansion
linear equations 403–408 multiplier method, reverse percentage 144
algebraic solution 496–498 multipliers
graphical solution 490–492 compound interest 140
problem solving 413–415 percentages 48–49, 52
linear graphs 64–65, 274–303 mutually exclusive outcomes, probability 368
conversion graphs 290
cover-up method 282–286
drawing graphs 279–281, 282–286 N
exemplars 300–301 navigation 168–173, 336–337
gradient-intercept method 282–286 negative correlation 75
gradient of a line 278–282 negative enlargements 192
parallel lines 297–299 negative numbers 30–33
perpendicular lines 297–299 negative powers 442–446
simultaneous equations 295–296 negative reciprocals 297
straight-line equation 282, 286–289 negative roots 442–446
uses of 290–294 Nightingale, Florence 58
linear inequalities 416–426 no correlation 75
graphs 420–426 non-linear equations
number line 418–420 algebraic solution 496–498
linear scale factor 351 graphical solution 490–492
linear sequences, nth term 92–95 n-sided polygons 158
line of best fit 75–76 nth term
line bisectors 198, 213 arithmetic sequences 92–95
lists, choices and outcomes 459–464 exemplars 113
loci linear sequences 92–95
defining 201–203 number sequences 90, 92–95, 105–112
problem solving 203–207 quadratic sequences 105–112
long division 9, 10 number
long multiplication 9 accuracy limits 452–459

712 Index
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basic number 8–37 multipliers 48–49, 52

exemplars 34–35, 465 profit/loss 51
fractions 38–57 periodic, graphs 603
hierarchy of operations 32 perpendicular bisectors 198, 199
number line 30, 418–420 perpendicular lines
powers 386–401 bisectors 198, 199
product rule for counting 459 equation of 297
proportion 38–57 linear graphs 297–299
rational numbers 437 pictograms 59, 60
ratios 38–57 pie charts 59–63
reciprocals 438 pi (π) 249
standard form 391–398 plans and elevations 208–211
surds 447–452 Playfair, William 58
systematic counting 461 point of contact, tangents 567
number patterns 87–88, 100–104 polygons
number sequences 86–117 angles in 157–159
arithmetic sequences 92–95 angle sums from triangles 157
coefficients 90 exterior angles 160–161
consecutive terms 89 frequency polygons 510–513, 531
differences 89 interior angles 158, 160
Fibonacci sequences 96 n-sided 158
general rules 89–90, 100–104 regular polygons 160–163
geometric sequences 96 populations, statistics 507
linear sequences 92–95 position-to-term rule 105
nth term 90, 105–112 position vectors 686
patterns 87–88 positive correlation 75
powers of 1 96 powers (indices) 22–24, 386–401
powers of 9 96 0/n indices 444–445
prime numbers 96 of -1 387
quadratic sequences 105–112 of 0 387
special sequences 95–99 of 1 96
terms 89 of 9 96, 91–93
term-to-term sequences 89, 105 a/b indices 445–446
triangular numbers 105 division 389–391, 392–393
estimating 440–442
exemplars 399
O fractional powers 442–446
obtuse-angled triangles 155 multiplication 389–392
opposite side of triangle 316 negative powers 442–446
order of rotational symmetry 181 pressure 137–138
origin, graphs 422 price comparison 128–131
outcomes, probability 363, 368–369, 537–539 primary data 507
outliers, scatter diagrams 75 prime factors 25–29
prime numbers 22, 96
principal, compound interest 140
P prisms, volume 259–261
probability 362–385
parabolas 469
addition rules 537–539
parallel lines
and/or method 548
angles in 163–165
‘at least’ problems 547
equation of 297
coin throwing 540
linear graphs 297–299
combined events 536–555
parallelograms 166, 252–253
complementary outcomes 369
patterns see number, patterns
conditional probability 550–552
pay rates 132
definition 363
percentages
dice throwing 539–540
changes 51, 140–143
events 363
decimals expressed as 52
exemplars 382–383, 553
decreasing quantities by 48–51
exhaustive outcomes 368
exemplars 54–55
expectation 372–373
expressing one quantity as percentage of
experimental probability 363–367
another 51–53
facts 363–364
increasing quantities by 48–51
Index 713
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probability (continued) quadratic inequalities 499–501

finding probabilities 364–365 special cases 476
independent events 547–549 x1 + ax + b = -1 472–474
mutually exclusive outcomes 368 quadratic expansion 225–230
outcomes 363, 368–369 quadratic expressions 105, 225
random outcomes 363 quadratic factorisation 235–238
relative frequency 364 quadratic formula 478–481
sample space diagrams 539 quadratic graphs 469–472, 485–489, 499, 657
sets 377 quadratic inequalities 499–501
terminology 363 quadratic rules 105
theoretical probability 364, 539 quadratic sequences
tree diagrams 542–546 extending differences backwards 110
trials 363 factors 109
two-way tables 364–367 first differences 105
Venn diagrams 377–381 nth term 105–112
problem solving second differences 105
1D problems 595–598 simple rule sequences 109
2d problems 314–316, 598–601 subtracting the squared term 110
accuracy limits 455–459 quadrilaterals 156–158
area ratios 354–355 quantity
basic number 9–11 fractions 39–40
direct proportion 125–128 percentages 48–51
loci 203–207 quartiles
Pythagoras’ theorem 309–311, 314–316 cumulative frequency graphs 515
simultaneous equations 413–415 histograms 526–527
trigonometry 332–335
volume ratios 354–355
product prices 118–121 R
product rule for counting 459 random outcomes, probability 363
profit, percentages 51 range, statistics 66
proportion 38–57 rates of change
constant of proportionality 579 compound interest 140–143
direct proportion 125–128, 579–585 speed, time and distance 133–136, 641–643
exemplars 590–591 variation 578–593
inverse proportion 585–589 rates of pay 132
variation 578–593 rational numbers 437
see also fractions ratios 38–57, 117–125
proportionality, constant of 579 area ratios 354–355
prove, theorems 558 common units 117–118
pyramids 264–266 division 120
Pythagoras’ theorem 305–316 exemplar 147
1D problems 595–598 fractions 118
2D problems 314–316 598–601 trigonometry 316–320, 328–331, 595–609
isosceles triangles 311–313 volume ratios 354–355
problem solving 309–311, 314–316, 595–598 ray method 191
Pythagorean triple 306 rearranging formulae 241, 670–672
reciprocal graphs 649–650

Q reciprocals 43, 438

rectangles 166
quadratic curves 485–489 recurring decimals 437, 438
quadratic equations 468–505 reflections 186
completing the square 481–484 regions, graphical inequalities 421
exemplars 502–503 relative frequency, probability 364
factorisation 472–477 repeated percentage change 140–143
general quadratic equation 475–476 resultant vectors 686
graph plotting 469––472 reverse percentage 143–145
insoluble equations 480 rhombuses 166
intersection method 492–496 right-angled triangles 155, 304–343
plotting graphs 469–472 exemplars 340–341
quadratic curves 485–489 hypotenuse length 305
quadratic formula 478–481 Pythagoras’ theorem 305–316

714 Index
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Pythagorean triple 306 special number sequences 95–99

shorter side length 307–309 speed, time and distance 133–136, 146–147, 641–643
see also trigonometry spheres 268–269
roots square numbers 22
cube roots 23, 582 square roots 22, 582, 586
estimating 440–442 squares 166, 231–232, 582, 586
negative roots 442–446 standard form 391–398
quadratic curves 485 standard index form 395
square roots 22, 582, 586 statistics
rotational symmetry 181–183 averages 55–56
rotations 188 bar charts 59–60
rounding 15, 20 bias 507
box plots 520–523
calculators 69
S continuous data 71
sample space diagrams 539 cumulative frequency graphs 524–520, 532
samples/sampling, statistics 507, 508 data collection 507–510
scalars, vectors 685 diagrams 59–65
scale drawings 168–173 discrete data 71
scale factor 168, 191, 345 estimate of the mean 71
scalene triangles 154 exemplars 79–81, 531–532
scatter diagrams 74–78 frequency polygons 510–513, 531
correlation 74–75 frequency tables 68, 71
line of best fit 75–76 graphs 59–65
negative correlation 75 grouped frequency tables 71
no correlation 75 histograms 524–530
outliers 75 hypothesis testing 507–508
positive correlation 75 interquartile range 515–517
secondary data 507 line graphs 64–65
second differences, quadratic sequences 105 mean, estimation of 71
sectors 256–258 measures 65–74
sequences see number sequences modal group 71
sets 377, 459–464 pictograms 59, 60
shift key, calculators 45 pie charts 59–63
side elevations 208 populations 507
significant figures 15 primary data 507
similarity range 66
areas/volumes of similar shapes 351–357 samples/sampling 507, 508
exemplars 358–360 scatter diagrams 74–78
similar triangles 345–350 secondary data 507
similar triangles 345–350 trends 64
simple interest 140 vertical line charts 59, 60
simultaneous equations straight-line equation 282, 286–289
coefficient balancing 411–412 straight-line graphs see linear graphs
elimination method 408–410 strategy 9
graphical solution 490–492 strict inequalities 416
graphs 295–296 substitution
linear equations 490–492, 496–498 algebra 217–218
linear graphs 295–296 simultaneous equations 410–411, 496
non-linear equations 490–492, 496–498 subtended angles 256, 558
problem solving 413–415 subtraction
substitution method 410–411 accuracy limits 455–456
sine curve 602–603 algebraic fractions 665
sine function 321–322 fractions 30–32, 45–46, 665
sine ratio 316 negative numbers 30
sine rule 610–613 vectors 686–690
slant height, cones 266 surds 447–452
slope of line see gradient of line calculating with 449
soluble, quadratic equations 478 quadratic equations 482
space diagrams, theoretical probability 539 rationalising a denominator 450–452
simplifying 447–449

Index 715
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surface area see area triangular numbers 22, 105

symmetry see rotational symmetry trigonometry 304–343, 594–625
systematic counting 461 1D problems 595–598
2D problems 598–601
adjacent side 316
T angle calculation 319–320, 602–609
tangent curve 607–609 angle of depression 334
tangent function 326–328 angle of elevation 334
tangent ratio 316 area rule 619–621
tangents bearings 336–337
circles 567–570, 644–646 calculating angles 319–320, 602–609
equation of a circle 644–646 calculators 317, 319
gradient of a curve 641–642 cosine curve 604–607
terminating decimals 437, 438 cosine function 323–325
terms cosine ratio 316
algebra 217 cosine rule 614–615
number sequences 89 depression angle 334
term-to-term sequences 89, 105 elevation angle 334
theoretical probability 364, 539 exemplars 340–341, 622–623
three dimensional problems 314–315, 598–601 isosceles triangles 338–339
three-figure bearings 175 navigation 336–337
time, speed and distance 133–136, 146–147, 641–643 opposite side 316
transformations 183–197 problem solving 309–311, 314–316, 329–332
combinations 195–197 Pythagoras’ theorem 305–316, 595–601
enlargements 191–192 ratios 316–320, 328–331, 595–609
exemplar 212 sine curve 602–603
graphs 653–658, 660 sine function 321–322
reflections 186 sine ratio 316
rotations 188 sine rule 610–613
translations 183–184 solving triangles 609–619
translations 183–184 tangent curve 607–609
see also vectors tangent function 326–328
transposing formulae 241, 670–672 tangent ratio 316
trapeziums 166, 253–256 three dimensional problems 598–601
tree diagrams 542–546 two dimensional problems 595–598
trends, statistics 64 turning point, quadratic curves 485, 486–487
trial-and-improvement method 426–429 two dimensional problems 595–598
trials, probability 363 two-way tables, probability 374–377
triangles 154–156
1D problems 595–598
acute-angled 155 U
area rule 619–621 unbiased samples, statistics 508
congruent 179–181 union, sets 378
cosine rule 614–615 unitary method 125, 143
equilateral 154 unit cost 125
exemplars 622–623 universal sets 377
included angle 514, 517 upper bound, accuracy limits 452
isosceles 154, 311–313, 338–339 upper quartile, cumulative frequency graphs 515
obtuse-angled 155
polygon angle sums 157
Pythagoras’ theorem 305–316, 595–601 V
right-angled 155, 304–432 variables 217
hypotenuse length 306 vectors 183, 684–699
Pythagoras’ theorem 305–316 addition and subtraction 686–690
Pythagorean triple 306 exemplars 696–697
shorter side length 307–309 in geometry 690–695
scalene 154 properties of 685–690
similar 345–350 velocity–time graphs 633–641, 642
sine rule 610–613 acceleration/deceleration 636
solving 609–619 estimating area under a curve 638–641
two dimensional problems 595–598 Venn diagrams 377–381

716 Index
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vertex, pyramids 264 similar shapes 351–357

vertical height, cones 266 spheres 268–269
vertical line charts 59, 60
vertically opposite angles 153
vertices, pyramids 264 Y
volume y = f(x) 653–658
cones 266–267 y = mx + c 282, 286–289
cylinders 262 y-intercept, quadratic curves 485–487
prisms 259–261
pyramids 264–266
ratios 354–355
scale factor 351
Z
zero gradient, velocity–time graphs 633

Index 717
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$QVZHUV ([HUFLVH&
 D 50 000 E 90 000 F 30 000
&KDSWHU±1XPEHU%DVLFQXPEHU G 200 H 0.5 I 0.006
J 0.3 K 10 L 0.05
M 1000
([HUFLVH$
 D 56 000 E 80 000 F 31 000
 D 6000 G 1.7 H 0.066 I 0.46
E 5 cans cost £1.95, so 6 cans cost £1.95. J 4.1 K 8.0 L 1.0
32 = 5 × 6 + 2. Cost is £10.53. M 0.80
 D 288 E 16  D 60 000 E 5300 F 89.7
G 110 H 9 I 1.1
 D 38 J 0.3 K 0.7
 E Coach price for adults = £8, coach price for
juniors = £4, money for coaches raised by  D 65, 74 E 95, 149 F 950, 1499
tickets = £12 400, cost of coaches = £12 160,
 Elsecar 750, 849; Hoyland 1150, 1249; Barnsley
profit = £240
164 500, 165 499
 (18.81...) Kirsty can buy 18 models.
 18 to 23 inclusive
 £8.40 per year, 70p per copy
 1, because there could be 450 then 449
 £450
 Donte has rounded to 2 significant figures or
 15 nearest 10 000
 3 weeks  D Advantage – quick. Disadvantage – assumes 3
 £248.75 penguins a square metre which may not be
accurate
 Gavin pays 2926.25 – 1840 = £1086.25 E Advantage. Quite accurate as 5 by 5 is a big
enough area to give a reliable estimate.
 D Col is correct Disadvantage – takes a long time.
 E Abi has multiplied 30 × 50 as 150 instead of
1500. Baz has lined up the columns wrongly ([HUFLVH'
when adding. Instead of lining up the units he  D 60 000 E 120 000 F 10 000
has lined up the first digits. Des has forgotten to G 15 H 140 I 100
add a zero on the second line of the J 200 K 0.08 L 0.09
multiplication, it should be 1530. M 45
([HUFLVH%  D 5 E 25 F 3000
 D 4.6 E 0.08 F 45.716 G 600 H 2000 I 5000
G 94.85 H 602.1 I 671.76 J 400 K 8000 L 4 000 000
J 7.1 K 6.904 L 13.78  30 × 90 000 = 2 700 000
M 0.1 N 4.002 O 60.0 600 × 8000 = 4 800 000
 D 0.028 E 0.09 F 50.96 G 46.512 5000 × 4000 = 20 000 000
200 000 × 700 = 140 000 000
 D 35, 35.04, 0.04 E 16, 18.24, 2.24
F 60, 59.67, 0.33 G 140, 140.58, 0.58  D 54 400 E 16 000

 D 18 E 140  F 1.4 G 12 H 6.9  1400 million

 D 280 E 12 F 240 G 450 H 0.62  His answer is correct but he had one too many
 D 572 EL 5.72 LL 1.43 LLL 22.88 zeros on each value, which cancel each other out.
Matt wrote 600,000 rather than 60,000 and 2000
 D Incorrect as should end in the digit 2 rather than 200. The two mistakes cancelled
E Incorrect since 9 × 5 = 45, so answer must be
themselves out due to the zeros involved.
less than 45
 D Value of the money is about 66 000 000 × 0.2 =
 300
£13 200 000, so it is enough to buy the yacht.
 D 27 E Weight is 66 000 000 × 5 = 330 000 000 grams
E L 27 LL 0.027 LLL 0.27 = 330 tonnes, so they do not weigh as much as
the yacht.
 Mark bought a DVD, some jeans and a pen.
 1420 000 000 000 ÷ 64 000 000 ≈ 22 200, so the
 Headline A does not give the exact figure so does
National Debt per person is approximately £22 200.
not convey any useful information. Headline B is
accurate and records should be given accurately.
Headline C may be correct but without the previous
record does not convey any useful information.



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([HUFLVH(  4 packs of sausages and 5 packs of buns (or

multiples of these)
 D 35 000 E 15 000 F 960
G 5 H 1200 I 500  30 seconds
 D 39 700 E 17 000 F 933  12 minutes; Debbie will have run 4 laps; Fred will
G 4.44 H 1130 I 550
have run 3 laps.
 D 1.74 m E 6 minutes F 240 g
G 83°C H 35 000 people I 15.5 miles  1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = 36,
J 14 m
2 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13 = 49, 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 +
11 + 13 + 15 = 64
 D 10 E 1 F 3
 D −2 E −7 F −12 G −1 H −30
 D 8.79 E 1.03 F 3.07
 D 1 E 3 F 4 G 2 H −4
 82°F, 5 km, 110 min, 43 000 people, 6.2 seconds,
67th, 1788, 15 practice walks, 5 seconds  D 400 E 900 F 2500 G 0.25 H 16
The answers will depend on the approximations  D Student’s own explanation
made. Your answers should be to the same order E 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, 105
as these. F Adding consecutive pairs gives you square
 D £15 000 E £18 000 F £17 500 numbers.

 $1000 
Square number Factor of 56
 D 40 miles per hour E 10 gallons F £70 Cube number 64 8
 D 80 000 E 2000 F 1000 G 30 000 Multiple of 7 49 28
H 5000 I 2500 J 75 K 100  2, 3 and 12
 D 86 900 E 1760 F 1030 G 29 100
 D 1, 64, 729, 4096, 15 625
H 3960 I 2440 J 84.8 K 163
E 1, 8, 27, 64, 125
 Approximately 500 F D D u D
G Square numbers
 £1 million pounds is 20 million 5p coins. 20 000 000 ×
4.2 = 84 000 000 grams = 84 tonnes, so 5 lorries  D 0.2 E 0.5 F 0.6 G 0.9
needed. H 1.5 I 2.1 J 0.8 K 0.7

 22.5° C – 18.2° C = 4.3 Celsius degrees  The answers will depend on the approximations
made. Your answers should be to the same order
 D L 27.571 428 57 LL 27.6 as these.
E L 16.896 516 39 LL 16.9 D 60 E 1500 F 150
F L 18 672.586 16 LL 18 700
([HUFLVH*
 D 37.5 × 48.6 ≈ 40 × 50 = 2000 21.7 ×103.6 ≈
20 × 100 = 2000 985 ÷ 0.54 ≈ 1000 ÷ 0.5 =  D 84 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 7
2000 E 100 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 5
E as both values are rounded down the actual F 180 = 2 × 2 × 3 × 3 × 5
answer must be bigger than 2000. The other G 220 = 2 × 2 × 5 × 11
two must be less than 2000. H 280 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 5 × 7
F Pete is correct it is not possible to tell. 37.5 × I 128 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2
48.6 = 1822.5 985 ÷ 0.54 = 1824.074 J 50 = 2 × 5 × 5
2 2
 149 000 000 ÷ 300 000 = 496.67 ≈ 500 seconds  D 84 = 2 × 3 × 7 E 100 = 22 × 5
2 2 2
F 180 = 2 × 3 × 5 G 220 = 2 × 5 × 11
 D 58.9 × 4.8 ≈ 60 × 5 = 300 H
3
280 = 2 × 5 × 7 I 128 = 2
7

E Lower as both values are rounded up to get the J 50 = 2 × 5

2

estimate. 2 3 2 2
 1, 2, 3, 2 , 5, 2 × 3, 7, 2 , 3 , 2 × 5, 11, 2 × 3, 13,
 Macau’s population density is approximately 710 4 2 2
2 × 7, 3 × 5, 2 , 17, 2 × 3 , 19, 2 × 5, 3 × 7, 2 × 11,
000 times the population density of Greenland. 3 2 3 2
23, 2 × 3, 5 , 2 × 13, 3 , 2 × 7, 29, 2 × 3 × 5, 31,
5 2 2
 26.8 ÷ 3.1 ≈ 27 ÷ 3 = 9 36.2 ÷ 3.9 ≈ 36 ÷ 2 , 3 × 11, 2 × 17, 5 × 7, 2 × 3 , 37, 2 × 19, 3 × 13,
3 2 2
4 = 9. Second calculation must be biggest as first is 2 × 5, 41, 2 × 3 × 7, 43, 2 × 11, 3 × 5, 2 × 23, 47,
4 2 2
smaller than 27 ÷ 3 and second is bigger than 2 × 3, 7 , 2 × 5
36 ÷ 4.  D 2 is always the only prime factor
([HUFLVH) E 64, 128 F 81, 243, 729
G 256, 1024, 4096
2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 6
 D 12 E 9 F 6 G 13 H 15 I 14 H 3, 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 , 3 ; 4, 4 , 4 , 4 , 4 , 4
J 16 K 10 L 18 M 17 N 8 or 16 O 21



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2  –460°F
 D 2 × 2 × 3 × 5 E 2 × 3 × 5
3 4
F 120 = 2 × 3 × 5, 240 = 2 × 3 × 5,
5
 480 = 2 × 3 × 5 ([HUFLVH-
2 2 2 3 3 3
 D 7 × 11 × 13 E 7 × 11 × 13  D –4 E −6 F 4 G 45 H 6 I 6
10 10 10
F 7 × 11 × 13
 D 38 E 24 F −3 G –6 H −1 I 2
 Because 3 is not a factor of 40 so it does not divide J−25 K 25 L 0 M −20 N 4 O 0
exactly.
 D (3 × −4) + 1 = −11 E −6 ÷ (−2 + 1) = 6
 D = 2, E = 7 F (−6 ÷ −2) + 1 = 4 G 4 + (−4 ÷ 4) = 3
H (4 + −4) ÷ 4 = 0 I (16 − −4) ÷ 2 = 10
2 3 3 2
 D 2DE D 4E E 8D E 4D E
 D 49 E −1 F −5 G −12

([HUFLVH+  D 40 E 1 F 78 G 4

 D 20 E 56 F 6 G 28  Possible answer: 3 × −4 ÷ 2
H 10 I 15 J 24 K 30  Possible answer: (2 − 4) × (7 − 3)
 They are the two numbers multiplied together. 2 2
 (–4) = –4 × –4 = +16, –(4) = – (4 × 4) = –16
 D 8 E 18 F 12 G 30
 (5 + 6) − (7 ÷ 8) × 9
 No. The numbers have a common factor.
 –6
Multiplying them together would mean using this
factor twice, thus increasing the size of the
common multiple. It would not be the least common 5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
multiple.  10 weeks
 D 168 E 105 F 84 G 84  16
H 96 I 54 J 75 K 144
 270
 3 packs of cheese slices and 4 packs of bread rolls
2
 D 8 E 7 F 4 G 16 H 14 I 9  D 3 ×5×7 E 63
 D 11.412 712 21 E 11.4
 D LL and LLL E LLL
 D 412.603252 E 400.5
 18 and 24
2 2  D LLLPrime numbers less than 20
 D 6[ \ E [\ E L 252 LL 3780 LLL 18
 D 10.663 418 78 E 11
([HUFLVH,
 1200
 D 7 E –8 F –5 G – 11
H 11 I 6 J 8 K 8  5
, –2 M –1 N –9 O –5
P 5 Q –9 R 8 S 0  D 3.141 592 92 E 0.000 009%
 D –15 E –14 F –24 G 6  D 7:30 pm Monday (7:45 pm on Town Hall Clock)
H 14 I 2 J –2 K –8
 E 6:00 pm on Tuesday (7:00 pm on Town Hall
L –4 M 3 N –24 O –10
clock)
P –18 Q 16 R 36
4 3 2
 D 2 × 3 × 5 × 5 E 2 × 3
 D −9 E 16 F −3 G −32
H 18 I 18 J 6 K −4  D 90 E 240 F 6
L 20 M 16 N 8 O −48
P 13 Q −13 R −8  27 and 36

 D −2 E 30 F 15 G −27 H −7  D 2000
E Higher as top values rounded down and
 D –9 E 3 F 1 denominator rounded up.
 D 16 E −2 F −12  D S and T are 2 and 5. U is 3 E 15
 −1 × 12, 1 × −12, −2 × 6, 2 × −6, −3 × 4, 3 × −4,  m = 5, n = 3
 Any appropriate divisions
 D −24 E 24 degrees F 3 × −6
 −56 ÷ −8, −72 ÷ 4, −15 × 4, 13 × −6
 D 32°F and 212°F E –40°C = –40°F



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&KDSWHU±1XPEHU)UDFWLRQVUDWLR Five-twentieths plus eight-twentieths = thirteen-

twentieths.
DQGSURSRUWLRQ
 
  of 900 = 495,  of 495 = 90 left-handed boys.
([HUFLVH$ 900 – 495 = 405 girls. 
of 405 = 90 left-handed

1 1 2 5
 D  E 5  F 5 G 24
girls. 180 left-handed students altogether so 180
3
out of 900 =  .
H 52  I 1
6
J 72  K 31 
    
+  =  , so  of the counters are yellow.  of
= 52
12  
 30
600 = 255
1
 5 
 D because  +  = 1 

which is greater than 1.

1  
 2
E  of 200 = 80.  of 80 = 50 women at least 40.

30 1  of 200 = 135 members at least 40. 135 – 50 =
 Jon saves 90 3 
85 men at least 40.  of 200 = 120, so 120 – 85
35 7 1
 Matt saves, 100 20 which is greater than 3 , so = 35 men under 40.
Matt saves the greater proportion of his earnings.
   
 D  is  .  is  . Half-way between 8 and 30 is
13 65 16 64
 20 and 25
100 100 so 13 out of 20 is the 
19, so the mid-point fraction is  .
better mark.
E Yes as the mid-point of any two numbers D and E
3 is (D + E) ÷ 2 and adding the same denominator
 8 is the same thing as dividing by 2.
11
 24 ([HUFLVH&
3    
 7
 D   E   F   G 
5  
9 H 12  I   J    K  
 22
3  
 D 4  E   F 5 G  H  
([HUFLVH%
 
 D 

E 5 F  G 
  
 D   E   F 

G  

H  

I

  D   E 2 F   G

 


 Three-quarters of 68   

 D  

 E   F  

 
G   




 D  

E 30  40

 No, one eighth is left, which is 12.5 cl, so enough 2

 5 of  
for one cup but not two cups.
 £10.40
 He has added the numerators and added the
denominators instead of using a common  D  

E 


denominator. Correct answer is   .
  
 After 1 day  of the water is left. On day 2,  ×  =
 Possible answer: The denominators are 4 and 5. I
     
first find a common denominator. The lowest  is lost so total lost is  +  =  +  =  , so
common denominator is 20 because 4 and 5 are  
1 –  is left = 
both factors of 20. So I am changing the fractions to
twentieths. One-quarter is the same as five-
 50 ×   = 75 kg. 120 – 75 = 45, 45 ÷   = 18, so
twentieths (multiplying numerator and denominator
by 5). Two-fifths is the same as eight-twentieths 18 of the   kg bags are packed.
(multiplying numerator and denominator by 4).



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 D 77% is about 
. 243 is about 240, so 
of  D 731 m E 83.52 g F 360 cm
  G 117 min H 81.7 kg I £37.70
240 = 180.
E Lower, as both estimates are lower than the  448
original values.
 No, as the total is £101. She will save £20.20,
which is less than the £25 it would cost to join the
([HUFLVH' club.

 D 1 

E 1  F 1   7% pay rise is an increase of £1925 per year which
 is better than £150 × 12 = £1800
G 

H  I 

 D £6.125 (£6.13)
E [ × 0.025
 D 12  miles E 3  miles
F \ ÷ 1.175 × 1.2

 D 6  
E 8  
F 11   Offer A gives 360 grams for £1.40, i.e. 0.388 pence

per gram.
 
G 3 

H 7  I 4  Offer B gives 300 grams for £1.12, i.e 0.373 pence
per gram, so Offer B is the better offer.

 D –  E Answer is negative Or Offer A is 360 for 1.40 = 2.6 g/p, offer B is 300
for 1.12 = 2.7 g/p, so offer B is better.
 18 

cm  F Both the same as 1.05 × 1.03 = 1.03 × 1.05
 D Shop A as 1.04 × 1.04 = 1.0816, so an 8.16%
  increase.
  (anticlockwise) or  (clockwise)
 £425.25

 D  E  F 5 
 0.9 × 1.1 = 0.99 (99%)

G 5  H 3  
I 
 Area of original circle = 200.96
 
Enlarged area = 200.96 × 1.6 = 321.536
 D 8 

E 65  F 52  Enlarged radius =  y  = 10.1192885125

G 2  
H 2  
I 7  % increase = 2.11928/8 × 100 = 26.49%
 D Let U = 10. Approx formula gives V = 4000,
 
18  m² actual gives V = 4188.79, 188.79 ÷ 4188.79 =
0.045 which is 4.5%
 3 E The value is lower as  × π is greater than 4 as
π is 3.14.
 2 
 D 6 × (1  ) = 18  cm²

E   y 
,  
  cm ([HUFLVH)
   
 D 25% E 60.6% F 46.3% G 12.5%
 
 22 ÷ (2 ×  ) =  ,  ×  ×  = 38  cm²
    H 41.7% I 60% J 20.8% K 10%
L 1.9% M 8.3% N 45.5% O 10.5%

 Volume cuboid =   cm³,  

 
÷(  × )=  32%
 

     6.5%

 , 
= 1  cm
 33.7%
 After 1 day 

is left, after two days 

and after  D 49.2% E 64.5% F 10.6%
three days 

is left  4.9%
 90.5%
 120 ×   = 540. 175 ×   = 262  . 540 – 262  =
 Stacey had the greater percentage increase.
277  . 277  ÷ 2  = 111 bags.
Stacey: (20 − 14) × 100 ÷ 14 = 42.9%
Calum: (17 − 12) × 100 ÷ 12 = 41.7%
([HUFLVH(  Yes, as 38 out of 46 is over 80% (82.6%)
 D 1.1 E 1.03 F 1.2 G 1.07 H 1.12  Let ] = 100. \ 75, [ = 0.6 × 75 = 45, so [ is 45%
 D 0.92 E 0.85 F 0.75 G 0.91 H 0.88 of ]
 D 391 kg E 824.1 cm F 253.5 g  Let ] be 100, [ = 60. If [ is 75% of \, \ = 80, so \ is
G £143.50 H 736 m I £30.24 80% of ].



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 30% of 4800 = 1440. 1.2 × 4800 = 5760. 70% of  Pie charts with these angles:
5760 = 4032. (4032 – 1440) ÷ 1440 = 1.8, so the D 36°, 90°, 126°, 81°, 27°
increase in numbers owning a mobile phone is E 90°, 108°, 60°, 78°, 24°
F 168°, 52°, 100°, 40°
180%.
 D Pictogram with suitable key
 31 ÷ 26 = 1.19 which is a 19% increase. 31% is 5% E Bar chart correctly labelled
more of the total votes cast than 26% F Vertical line chart correctly labelled
G Pie chart with these angles: 60°, 165°, 45°, 15°,
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV 75° and correctly labelled
H Vertical line chart. It shows the frequencies, the
 £572 easiest one to draw and comparisons can be
made.
 D36 seconds
EL 25.2 seconds LL Eve LLL Eve  D 36
E Pie charts with these angles: 50°, 50°, 80°, 60°,
 £120 60°, 40°, 20°
F Student’s bar chart.
 £576
G Bar chart, because easier to make
 D £9 E £13.20 comparisons.

   D Pie charts with these angles: 124°, 132°, 76°,

 D 0.875 E  F   28°
E Split of total data seen at a glance.
 £322
1

 D 55° E 22 F 33 3
%
 
 D Pie charts with these angles:
 
  Strings: 36°, 118°, 126°, 72°, 8°
Brass: 82°, 118°, 98°, 39°, 23°
 5 E Overall, the strings candidates did better, as a
smaller proportion obtained lower grades. A
     higher proportion of Brass candidates scored
 D , , , E
     very good grades.
 28%  Work out the angle for ‘Don’t know’ = 40°, so
40 1
 77% P(Don’t know) = 360
°= 9


 25%
([HUFLVH%
 For bag A P(red) = 0.1875 and for bag B P(red) =
0.186 so Tomas is wrong.  D

 13%
 D 150 men, 100 women E 12%


&KDSWHU±6WDWLVWLFV6WDWLVWLFDO
GLDJUDPVDQGDYHUDJHV

([HUFLVH$
 D 
E About 328 million
F Between 1980 and 1985
G Rising steeply at first, but then leveling off. Rise
in living standards, cheaper flights, more
package holidays

E 16 F 42



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 DL £20 000 LL £28 000 LLL £34 000

 D E A 6% rise would increase the mean salary to
£36 040, a £1500 pay increase would produce
a mean of £35 500.
 D Median E Mode F Mean
 Tom – mean, David – median, Mohammed – mode
 11.6
 42.7 kg
 24

([HUFLVH'
 DL 7 LL 6 LLL 6.4
  EL 8 LL 8.5 LLL 8.2
 D 1280 E 1.9 F 0 G 328
E Smallest difference Wednesday and Saturday
(7°), greatest difference Friday (10°)  D 2.2, 1.7, 1.3 E Better dental care
 D  D 50 E 2 F 2.8
 D Roger 5, Brian 4 E Roger 3, Brian 8
F Roger 5, Brian 4 G Roger 5.4, Brian 4.5
H Roger, smaller range I Brian, better mean
 D 40 E 7 F 3 G 2
H 2.5 I the mode, 3 J 2.4
 5
 The total frequency could be an even number
 where the two middle numbers have an odd
difference.
E about120
F The same people keep coming back and tell  D 34
others, but new customers each week become E [+ 80 + 3\ + 104 = 266, so [+ 3\= 82
more difficult to find. F [= 10, \= 24
 No, you cannot extrapolate the data or the data is G 2.5
likely to change after 5 weeks
([HUFLVH(
 All the temperatures were presumably higher than
20 °C.  DL 30 < x ≤ 40 LL 29.5
EL 0 < y ≤ 100 LL 158.3
FL 5 < z ≤ 10 LL 9.43
([HUFLVH& GL 7–9 LL 8.41
 D47 E53 F55 G65  D 100 < m ≤ 120 E 10.86 kg F 108.6 g
 Mode  D 175 < h ≤ 200 E 31% F 193.3 hours
G No the mean was under 200 and so was the
 Three possible answers: 12, 14, 14, 16, 18, 20, 24; mode.
or 12, 14, 14, 16, 18, 22, 24; or 12, 14, 14, 16, 20,
 24
22, 24
 D Yes, average distance is 11.7 miles per day.
 D Median (mean could be unduly influenced by
E Because shorter runs will be run at a faster
results of very able and/or very poor
speed, which will affect the average.
candidates)
F Yes, because the shortest could be 1 mile, the
E Median (mean could be unduly influenced by
longest 25 miles.
pocket money of students with very rich or
generous parents)  Soundbuy; average increases are Soundbuy 17.7p,
F Mode (numerical value of shoe sizes irrelevant, Springfields 18.7p, Setco 18.2p
just want most common size)
G Median (mean could be distorted by one or two  D 160 E 52.6 minutes
extremely short or tall performers) F Modal group G 65%
H Mode (the only way to get an ‘average’ of non-  The first 5 and the 10 are the wrong way round.
numerical values)
I Median (mean could be unduly influenced by
very low weights of premature babies)



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 Find the midpoint of each group, multiply that by

 D
the frequency and add those products. Divide that
total by the total frequency.
 D Yes, as total in first two columns is 50, so
median is between 39 and 40.
E He could be correct, as the biggest possible
range is 69 – 20 = 49, and the lowest is 60 – 29
= 31.

([HUFLVH)
 D good positive correlation, time taken increases
with the number of press-ups
E strong negative correlation, you complete a 
crossword more quickly as you get older
F No correlation, speed of cars on M1 is not E Yes, as good positive correlation
related to the temperature
 D
G weak, positive correlation, older people
generally have more money saved in the bank
 Dand E


E Little correlation, so cannot draw a line of best
fit or predict the value
 Dand E


F about19 cm/s
G about34 cm
 Dand E


F about 2.4 km
G about 8 minutes
H you cannot extrapolate values from a scatter
diagram or the data may change for longer
journeys

 about 23 mph
F Greta
G about70  Points showing a line of best fit sloping down from
H about70 top left to bottom right



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H
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV PDVVP JUDPV  0DUJRW¶VWRPDWRHV

 D Grade 7 50 < P ≤ 100 12

E 100
360
5
or 18 100 < P ≤ 150 23
150 < P ≤ 200 34
FL 48 LLL 216
200 < P ≤ 250 24
G e.g. pie charts show proportions or they are
250 < P ≤ 300 5
percentages, not actual numbers or do not
300 < P ≤ 350 2
know how many students, etc.
 43.7 matches I
PDVVP 0DUJRW¶V PLG [îP
 D 10 < W ≤ 20 JUDPV  WRPDWRHV SRLQW[
E 10 < W ≤ 20
F 19 minutes
50 < P ≤ 100 12 75 900
 D because over half the students have more than 100 < P ≤ 150 23 125 2875
£10 pocket money, so the mean must be more 150 < P ≤ 200 34 175 5950
than £10 200 < P ≤ 250 24 225 5400
E £11.13 250 < P ≤ 300 5 275 1375
300 < P ≤ 350 2 325 650
 totals 100 17150

estimate for the mean = 171.5 g

J on average Tom’s tomatoes had a smaller mass
and were therefore probably smaller in size
 DL Diagram C LL Diagram A LLL Diagram B
E Diagram A: strong negative correlation, diagram
B: no correlation, diagram C: strong positive
correlation
 DE Student’s graph as follows:Time on horizontal
axis from 0 to 20 and Distance (km) on vertical
axis from 0 to 10 with the following points
plotted: (3, 1.7) (17, 8.3) (11, 5.1) (13, 6.7)
(9, 4.7) (15, 7.3) (8, 3.8) (11, 5.7) (16, 8.7)
(10, 5.3) and with line of best fit drawn.
FG answers depend on student’s line of best fit


 D 100 < P ≤ 150
E 150 < P ≤ 200 &KDSWHU±$OJHEUD1XPEHUDQG
F 159 g
G VHTXHQFHV

([HUFLVH$
 D 11111 × 11111 = 123 454 321,
111111 × 111111 = 12 345 654 321
E 99999 × 99999 = 9 999 800 001,
999999 × 999999 = 999 998 000 001
2 2
 D 7 × 8 = 7 + 7, 8 × 9 = 8 + 8
E 50 × 51 = 2550, 60 × 61 = 3660
2
 D 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 25 = 5 ,
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 36 =
2
6
3
E 21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 = 125 = 5 ,
3
31 + 33 + 35 + 37 + 39 + 41 = 216 = 6
 D 1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1 = 64,
1 + 7 + 21 + 35 + 35 + 21 + 7 + 1 = 128
E 12 345 679 × 45 = 555 555 555,
12 345 679 × 54 = 666 666 666
3 3 3 3 2
 D 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) = 100,
3 3 3 3 3 2
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 225
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
E 36 + 37 + 38 + 39 + 40 = 41 + 42 + 43 + 44 ,



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2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
55 + 56 + 57 + 58 + 59 + 60 = 61 + 62 + E L 2Q+ 1 LL 201
2 2 2
63 + 64 + 65  LLL 99 or 101, 49th and 50th
F L 3Q+ 1 LL 301 LLL 100, 33rd
 D 12 345 678 987 654 321 G L 2Q+ 6 LL 206 LLL 100, 47th
E 999 999 998 000 000 001 H L 4Q+ 5 LL 405 LLL 101, 24th
2
F 12 + 12
I L 5Q+ 1 LL 501 LLL 101, 20th
G 8190 J L 3Q− 3 LL 297 LLL 99, 34th
2
H 81 = 9
3 K L 6Q− 4 LL 596 LLL 98, 17th
I 512 = 8
L L 205 – 8Q LL –595 LLL 101, 13th
J 512
M L 227 – 2Q LL 27 LLL 99 or 101,
K 999 999 999
2 64th and 63rd
L (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9) = 2025
 1 + 500 = 501, 2 + 499 = 501, …. 250 + 251 = 501,  D 2Q  1
3Q  1
250 × 501 = 125250 ˜
E Getting closer to 2 (0. 6 )
3
([HUFLVH% F L 0.667 774 (6dp) LL 0.666 778 (6dp)
G 0.666 678 (6dp), 0.666 667 (6dp)
 D 21, 34: add previous 2 terms
E 49, 64: next square number  D 4Q  1
F 47, 76: add previous 2 terms 5Q  1
E Getting closer to 4 (0.8)
 15, 21, 28, 36 5
F L 0.796 407 (6dp) LL 0.799 640 (6dp)
 61, 91, 127 G 0.799 964 (6dp), 0.799 9996 (7dp)
1 3 2 5 3  D £305 E £600 F 3 G 5
 , , , ,
2 5 3 7 4

 D 6, 10, 15, 21, 28  D 3 , 5 , 7

4 7 10
E It is the sums of the natural numbers, or the 2
numbers in Pascal’s triangle or the triangular E L 0.666 666 777 8 LL
3
numbers.
F For Q, 2Q  1 | 2Q 2
3Q  1 3Q 3
 D 2, 6, 24, 720 E 69!
 364: Daily totals are 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45,  D 8Q+ 2 E 8Q+ 1 F 8Q G £8
55, 66, 78 (these are the triangular numbers).  D Sequence goes up in 2s; first term is 2 + 29
Cumulative totals are: 1, 4, 10, 20, 35, 56, 84, 120, E Q+ 108
165, 220, 286, 364. F Because it ends up as 2Q· Q
G 79th
 X. There are 351 (1 + 2 + ... + 25 + 26) letters from
 If there was a common term then for some value of
A to Z. 3 × 351 = 1053. 1053 − 26 = 1027, 1027 −
Q the expressions would be equal i.e. 2Q = 2Q – 1,
25 = 1002, so, as Z and Y are eliminated, the
Subtracting 2Q from both sides gives 0 = – 1, which
1000th letter must be X.
is impossible.
 29 and 41
 Difference is 19 – 10 = 9. 9 ÷ 3 = 3 so $ = 3. 3 ¯ 5
 No, because in the first sequence, the terms are + E = 10, E = –5
always one less than in the 2nd sequence
 4Q− 2 = 3Q+ 7 rearranges as 4Q– 3Q= 7 + 2, so ([HUFLVH'
Q= 9  D Even,
+ Odd Even
([HUFLVH& Odd Even Odd
 D 13, 15, 2Q+ 1 E 25, 29, 4Q+ 1 Even Odd Even
F 33, 38, 5Q+ 3 G 32, 38, 6Q– 4 E Odd,
H 20, 23, 3Q+ 2 I 37, 44, 7Q− 5
J 21, 25, 4Q− 3 K 23, 27, 4Q– 1 × Odd Even
L 17, 20, 3Q– 1 M –8, –18, 42 – 10Q Odd Odd Even
N 4, 0, 24 – 4Q O –1, –6, 29 – 5Q Even Even Even
2
 D 3Q+ 1, 151 E 2Q+ 5, 105 F 5Q− 2, 248  D 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 16 = 4 , 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 25
2
G 4Q− 3, 197 H 8Q− 6, 394 I Q+ 4, 54 =5
J 5Q+ 1, 251 K 8Q− 5, 395 L 3Q− 2, 148 E L 100 LL 56
M 3Q+ 18, 168 N 47 – 7Q, –303 O 41 – 8Q, –359  D 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144
E because odd + odd = even, odd plus even = odd
 D 33rd E 30th F 100th = 499
and even + odd = odd.
 D L 4Q+ 1 LL 401 LLL 101, 25th F L a + 2b, 2a + 3b, 3a + 5b, 5a + 8b, 8a + 13b



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LL coefficient of a odd and b even, a even and E 4Q− 3

b odd, both odd F 97
G 50th diagram
 D Even E Odd F Odd
G Odd H Odd I Odd
J Even K Odd L Odd  D
 D Odd or even E Odd or even E 2Q+ 1
F Odd or even G Odd F 121 G 49th set
H Odd or even I Even
 D18 E 4Q+ 2 F 12
 D L Odd LL Even LLL Even
 DL 24 LL 5Q− 1 LLL 224
E Any valid answer, e.g. [(\+ ])
E 25
 D 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024
Q Q Q  D 5, 8, 11, 14
E L 2 − 1 LL 2 + 1 LLL 3 × 2 
EL 20 cm LL (3Q+ 2) cm LLL 152 cm
 D The number of zeros equals the power. F 332
E 6
Q Q  DL 20 LL 162
F L 10 – 1 LL 2 × 10 
E 79.8 km
 D 125, 216
 DL 14 LL 3Q+ 2 LLL 41
E 1 + 8 = 9, 1 + 8 + 27 = 36, 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 =
E 66
100… the answers are square numbers
 DL 5 LL Q LLL 18
 D 28, 36, 45, 55, 66
E 20 tins
E L 210 LL 5050
F You get the square numbers. Q
 D 2 
Q–1
E L 100 × 2 ml LL 1600 ml
 D L If Q is odd, Q + 1 is even.
F Next sizes after super giant are 3.2O, 6.4O and
If Q is even, Q + 1 is odd.
12.8O with weights of 3.2 kg, 6.4 kg and 12.8 kg,
Even times odd is always even.
so the largest size is 6.4 litres.
LL 2Q must be even, so 2Q + 1 must be odd.
E Odd Q
Odd  The Qth term is §¨ 3 ·¸ , so as Qgets very large, the
©4¹
Even
Even unshaded area gets smaller and smaller and
Odd eventually it will be zero; so the shaded area will
2 2
F (2Q + 1) = 4Q + 4Q + 1 eventually cover the triangle.
2 2
or (2Q) = 4Q
2
4Q + 4Q is even so adding 1 makes it odd  Yes, as the number of matches is 12, 21, 30, 39, …
2 2
4Q is 2 × 2Q which is even which is 9Q+ 3; so he will need 9 × 20 + 3 = 183
matches for the 20th step and he has 5 × 42 = 210
 11th triangular number is 66, 18th triangular
matches.
number is 171
 D 20 E 120
 D 36, 49, 64, 81, 100
2 2 2
E L Q + 1 LL 2Q LLL Q – 1  Alex’s answer gives 4(Q + 2) = 4Q + 8
Colin’s method gives 4Q + 4
 D 6, 24, 96, 384, 1536
Ed’s method gives 4(Q + 1) = 4Q + 4
E 21, 147, 1029, 7203, 50 421
Gail’s method gives 2 × Q + 2(Q + 2) = 2Q + 2Q + 4 =
F 2, 10, 50, 250, 1250
4Q + 4
G 6, 60, 600, 6000, 60 000
H 54, 162, 486, 1458, 4374 Linear sequence is 8 12 16 20 …. Which has
an Qth term of 4Q + 4 so they are all valid methods
Q–1 Q–1 Q– 1
 D 3 × 2 E 5×4 F 20 × 5 or 4 × 5
Q
except for Alex who forgot that the corners overlap
Q–1 Q–1
G 21 × 3 or 7 × 3
Q
H 24 × 8 or 3 × 8
Q
and should have taken the 4 overlapping corners
away to get 4Q + 8 – 4 = 4Q + 4
 2 as all other primes are odd, so the sum of two of
them will be even, so could not be a prime.
([HUFLVH)
D There are many answers, 5 + 31 = 36, 7 + 29 =
36, 2 + 47 = 49 etc.  D L 34, 43 LL goes up 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.
E There are many answers, 49 – 36 = 13, 81 – E L 24, 31 LL goes up 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
64 = 17 F L 54, 65 LL goes up 5, 6, 7, 8, etc.
G L 57, 53 LL goes down 10, 9, 8, 7, etc.

([HUFLVH(  D 4, 7, 12, 19, 28 E 2, 8, 18, 32, 50

F 2, 6, 12, 20, 30 G 4, 9, 16, 25, 36
 D  H 2, 8, 16, 26, 38 I 4, 7, 14, 25, 40
 D 2Q + 1 E Q
2
F Q(2Q + 1) = 2Q + Q
2
G 2Q + Q + 1



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 D Q E Q+1 E Qth term is 1 2

Q + 1
Q so 1
× 15 × 15 + 1
× 15
2 2 2 2
F Q(Q + 1) G 9900 square units
= 120, so no.
 D Yes, constant difference is 1 E No 2 2
 Front face is Q , sides faces are Qî(Q + 1) = Q + Q
F Yes, constant difference is 2 G No
H Yes, constant difference is 1 I No so total surface area is
2 2 2
2
2 × Q + 4 × (Q + Q) = 6Q + 4Q.
 D 4Q + 4 E Q 2
2
F Q + 4Q + 4
2
G Q + 4Q + 4  Sequence is 1, 7, 19, 37. Qth term is 3Q – 3Q + 1 so
H The sides of the large squares are of length Q+ 2 the 100th hexagonal number is 29 701.
2
so the total number of squares is (Q + 2) which
is the same answer as F.  D Taking the height first. There are Q + 1 strips P
feet long. That is P(Q + 1) in total.
 D Table 10, 15, 21; 6, 10, 15; 16, 25, 36 Taking the width. There are P + 1 strips Q feet
E L 45 LL 100
long. That is Q(P + 1) in total
2 2
 Q + 2Q – 3 = Q + Q + 3, gives Q = 6. Substituting P(Q + 1) + Q(P + 1) = PQ + P + PQ + Q = 2PQ +
gives 45 for both expressions. P+Q
E Taking the nails across a width strip. There are
 D Sequences are 4, 7, 14, 25, 40, 59, 82, … and 4, Q + 1 lots of 2 nails which is 2(Q + 1).
11, 20, 31, 44, 59, 76, … so 59 is the next There are P + 1 width strips, so the total is
common term. 2(Q + 1)(P + 1).
E 59 is the 6th term in each sequence so
substitute 6 into each expression. This will give
59 in both cases.
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 No. Sequence is 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, … so
 D There are many answers, for example D = –3
and E = 1. the first 3 odd terms are prime but 25 is not prime.
E The only solution is F = 2 and G = – 3  D 4Q + 1
E Not odd
 All values of Q from 1 to 39 give a prime number.
F 28th term is 113
Q = 40 gives 1681 which equals 41 × 41
2 2
 Qth term is 5Q + 1. 5 ¯ 150 + 1 = 751
 D (Q + 1)(Q – 1) = Q + Q – Q – 1 = Q – 1
2
E Q – 1 as 50 × 50 – 1 is easy to work out but 51  D 6Q + 3
× 49 isn’t E No, 3Q + 2 generates the sequence 5, 8, 11, 14,
F (Q + 1)(Q – 1) as 100 × 98 is easy to work out but 17, 20, 23, … so the even terms of this
2
99 – 1 isn’t. sequence are always 1 less than the terms of
the original sequence
Q– 1
([HUFLVH*  D 2 ¯ 3 E Not an even number
Q– 1
 D L 36, 49 LL Q
2  D 5¯6 E 8th term is 1 399 680
2
E L 35, 48 LL Q –1  D The first five terms in the sequence are –27, –
2
F L 38, 51 LL Q +2
2 21, –11, 3, 21. Of these terms, 3 is a prime
G L 39, 52 LL Q +3 number.
2
H L 34, 47 LL Q –2 2
E When Q = 29, the expression can be factorised
2
I L 35, 46 LL Q + 10 as 29(2 × 29 – 1) so is not a prime number
2
 D L 37, 50 LL (Q + 1) + 1  D 4, 9, 18, 31, 48 E 2, 2, 3, 5, 8
2
E L 35, 48 LL (Q + 1) – 1
2
F L 41, 54 LL (Q + 1) + 5  Q = 1 (Q – 1) = 0, Q = 2 (Q – 2) = 0, Q = 3 2(3 – 1)
2
G L 50, 65 LL (Q + 2) + 1 (3 – 2)÷ 5 = 2 × 2 × 1 ÷ 5 = 0.8
2
H L 48, 63 LL (Q + 2) – 1 2
2  2Q – 2Q + 3
 D L Q +4 LL 2504
2
E L 3Q + 2 LL 152  D Qth term is Q + 2Q, 12 × 12 + 2 × 12 = 168, so
2
F L (Q + 1) – 1 LL 2600 yes enough squares
G L Q(Q + 4) LL 2700 E 40 × 40 + 2 × 40 = 1680
2
H L Q +2 LL 2502 2 2
 2Q – Q, 2 × 20 – 20 = 780
I L 5Q – 4 LL 246
2 2  The sequence of dots is
 D 2Q – 3Q + 2 E 3Q + 2Q – 3
1 2 5 1 2 1 5, 15, 30, 50,…
F 2
Q + 2
Q+1 G 2
Q +4 2
Q–2
1 2 1 1 2 1
Q     
H 2
Q +1 2
Q+6 I 2
Q +1 2
Q+2 F     
2 D + E 5 10 15 20
 6Q 2D 5 5 5
1 2 1
 D 26 E 1 2
Q + 2
Q F 8475 D = 2  , E = 2  and F = 0,

 D 45



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so the Qth term is 2  2

Q +2  Q  D 1 : 400 000 E 1: 125 000 F 1 : 250 000
  G 1 : 25 000 H 1 : 20 000 I 1 : 40 000
2
2  × 50 + 2  × 50 = 6375 J 1 : 62 500 K 1 : 10 000 L 1 : 60 000

 1
 D 2 km or 500m

&KDSWHU±5DWLRDQGSURSRUWLRQDQG E 78 cm ≈ 39 km. 39 ÷ 15 ≈ 2.6. 2.6 hours = 2 h

36 m. Plus 30 mins is 3 h 06 m so he should be
UDWHVRIFKDQJH5DWLRDQGSURSRUWLRQ back at about 12.06 pm
 D Map A 1 : 250 000, Map B 1 : 1 000 000
([HUFLVH$ E 2 km
F 1.2 cm
 D 1 : 3 E 3: 4 F 2 : 3 G 2 : 3 G 4.8 cm
H 2 : 5 I 2 : 5 J 5 : 8 K 25 : 6
 D 1 : 1.6 E 1 : 3.25 F 1 : 1.125
 D 1 : 3 E 3 : 2 F 5 : 12 G 1 : 1.44 H 1 : 5.4 I 1 : 1.5
G 8 : 1 H 17 : 15 I 25 : 7 J 1 : 4.8 K 1 : 42 L 1 : 1.25
J 4 : 1 K 5 : 6 L 1 : 24
1 4
 Diesel : Petrol = 60 : 90. 5 of 60 = 12. 9 of 90 =
7
 10 40. Total red cars = 52 which is more than 150 ÷ 3
2 = 50 so Yes.
 5
 D 4 : 3 E 90 miles
2 3 F Both arrive at the same time.
 D 5 E 5
 0.4 metres
 7 : 3
 13 – 9 = 4. 4 ÷ 5 = 0.8. 2 × 0.8 = 1.6, 9 + 1.6 = 10.6
 2 : 1
 Athos has 3 more parts than Zena. 24 ÷ 3 = 8, so 1
1 5 part is 8. Zena has 8 marbles.
 D Fruit crush 6 , lemonade 6
Fruit Crush 1.25 1 0.2 0.4 0.5
Lemonade 6.25 5 1 2 2.5
([HUFLVH&
 D 3:2 E 32 F 80
E 0.4 litres F 2.5 litres
 D 100 E 160
1 7 3
 D E F
2 20 20  0.4 litres
5 3 2 7  Jamie has 1.75 pints, so he has enough.
 Sugar 22 , flour 11 , margarine 11 , fruit 22
 8100
 4
 296
 1 : 4
 Kevin £2040, John £2720
 D 5:3:2 E 20
 E C F F G T H T
 13 21 litres
 51
 1 : 1 : 1
 100

([HUFLVH%  40 ml

 D 160 g, 240 g E 80 kg, 200 kg  D 160 cans E 48 cans

F 150, 350 G 950 m, 50 m  D Lemonade 20 litres, ginger 0.5 litres
H 175 min, 125 min I £20, £30, £50 E This one, in part a there are 50 parts in the ratio
J £36, £60, £144 K 50 g, 250 g, 300 g 1
L £1.40, £2, £1.60 M 120 kg, 72 kg, 8 kg 40 : 9 : 1, so ginger is 50 of total amount; in
part b there are 13 parts in the ratio 10 : 2 : 1,
 D 175 E 30%
1 1 1
so ginger is 13 of total amount. 13 ᦫ 50
 D 40% E 300 kg
 21  D Will as his multiple of 10 is also a multiple of 9
E Zeke has rounded off to 1 dp and and Yoko has
 D Mott: no, Wright: yes, Brennan: no, Smith: no, rounded off to 2 dp. They have not used a
Kaye: yes recurring decimal notation.
E For example: W26, H30; W31, H38; W33, H37
 54




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([HUFLVH' 
 D Abe uses 10 × 0.75 = 7.5 litres to do 100 km.
 60 g Caryl uses 100 ÷ 14 = 7.14 litres to do 100 km
 £5.22 and Des uses 100 ÷ (55 × 1.6) × 4.55 = 5.17
litres to do 100 km, so Des’s car is the most
 45 ecomonical.
E It does not give a ‘unit’ value, ie miles per gallon
 £6.72 or litres per mile.
 D £312.50 E 8
([HUFLVH)
 D 56 litres E 350 miles
 D £260 E £307.50 F £323.75 G £289
 D 300 kg E 9 weeks
 D £7.50 E £9.05 F £5.80 G £10.75
 40 seconds
 D L 100 g, 200 g, 250 g, 150 g  D 38 h E 41 21 h F 35 h G 40 h
LL 150 g, 300 g, 375 g, 225 g
LLL 250 g, 500 g, 625 g, 375 g  D Fewer hours E More pay
E 24  D £540 E £702
 I can buy four packs (24 sausages) from Peter  £6.90
(£9.20)
I can only buy two packs (20 sausages) from Paul  375 – 330 = 45, 45 ÷ 6 = £7.50. (375 – 12 × 7.50) ÷
(£7) 7.50 = 38 hours
I should use Peter’s shop to get the most sausages
for £10.  £1 41 [
 400 ÷ 10 = 40 loaves needed. 1.8 kg ÷ 3 = 0.6 kg  Pay is £442.50 tax is £88.50, NI is 442.50 – 88.50 –
per loaf, so 40 × 0.6 = 24 kg of flour. 327.45 = 26.55, 26.55 ÷ 442.5 = 0.06, so the NI
 4 buns and 5 cakes rate is 6%

 11 minutes 40 seconds + 12 minutes = 23 minutes  407 factorises to 1 × 407 or 11 × 37, so Jeff works
40 seconds 37 hours a week at £11 per hour.

 Possible answer:

30 g plain flour (rounding to nearest 10 g) ([HUFLVH*
60 ml whole milk (rounding to nearest 10 ml)  18 mph
1 egg (need an egg)
1 g salt (nearest whole number)  280 miles
10 ml beef dripping or lard (rounding to nearest
10 ml)  52.5 mph

 30 litres  11:50 am

 500 seconds
([HUFLVH(
 D 75 mph E 6.5 h
 D £4.50 for a 10-pack F 175 miles G 240 km
E £1.08 for 6 H 64 km/h I 325 km
F £2.45 for 1 litre J 4.3 h (4 h 18 min)
G Same value
 D 2.25 h E 99 miles
 D Large jar as more g per £
E 75 ml tube as more ml per £  D 1.25 h E 1 h 15 min
F Large box as more g per £  D Sheffield to London via Midland mainline 74.38
G 400 ml bottle as more ml per £ mph. Sheffield to London via East Coast
 D £5.11 mainline 78.26 mph, including the wait at
E Large tin (small £5.11/l, medium £4.80/l, large Doncaster
E Doncaster to London 94.12 mph
£4.47/l)
 D 95p E Family size  D 120 km E 48 km/h

 Mary  6 mph

 D 10 m/s E 3.3 m/s F 16.7 m/s
 Kelly
 D 90 km/h E 43.2 km/h F 1.8 km/h
 12-pack 360 ÷ 12 = 30p per sachet. 40-pack 1150 ÷
40 = 28.75p per sachet. 4 sachets cost 4 × 35 =  18 m/s is 64.8 km/h. 40 km at 64.8 km/h is 0.617
£1.40 but you get 5, so 140 ÷ 5 = 28p per sachet, hours ≈ 37 minutes so train arrives at 8.07 am
so the offer is the best value.



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 ([HUFLVH,
Time 10 10.15 10.30 10.45 11  D £400 E £112.50
F £12.80 G £499.46
Ajeet 16 20 24 28 32
 D 8 years E 12 years
Bijay 0 6 12 18 24
 D L 10.5 g
Time 11.15 11.30 11.45 12 12.15 LL 11.03 g
Ajeet 36 40 44 48 52 LLL 12.16 g
LY 14.07 g
Bijay 30 36 42 48 54 E 9 days
 12 years
Bijay catches Ajeet at 12 noon
 D £14 272.27 E 20 years
 Rebecca: 10 minutes at 50 mph covers 8.333
miles, 10 minutes at 70 mph covers 11.666 miles,  D L 2550
so total distance is 20 miles in 20 minutes which is LL 2168
60 mph, so Rebecca is correct. LLL 1331
Nick: 10 miles at 40 mph takes 15 minutes, 10 E 7 years
miles at 60 mph takes 10 minutes, so total distance
is 20 miles in 25 minutes, which is 48 mph, so Nick  D £6800 E £5440 F £3481.60
is wrong.  D L 1.9 million litres
 Josh should take 40 minutes. Nell should take 50 ÷ LL 1.6 million litres
LLL 1.2 million litres
70 × 60 = 42 minutes, but Josh is likely to meet
E 10th August
traffic through town so is unlikely to travel at
anywhere near 30 mph. Nell is likely to be able to  D L 51 980
travel at 70 mph on the motorway. LL 84 752
LLL 138 186
E 2021
([HUFLVH+
 D 21 years E 21 years
3
 D 0.75 g/cm
 3 years
 4 pa
 30 years
 8 31 g/cm3  1.1 × 1.1 = 1.21 (21% increase)

 2½N  Bradley Bank account is worth £1032,

Monastery Building Society account is worth
 32 g £1031.30, so Bradley Bank by 70p.
2
 5m  4 months: fish weighs 3 × 1.14 = 4.3923 kg; crab
 120 cm
3 weighs 6 × 0.94 = 3.9366 kg

 156.8 g  4 weeks

 30 × 20
([HUFLVH-
 By the handle as smaller area  D 800 g E 250 m F 60 cm
 So they can walk on sand easier due to less G £3075 H £200 I £400
pressure on the surface.  80
 D 19.3 kg  T-shirt £8.40, Tights £1.20, Shorts £5.20, Sweater
E 19.3 kg. Mass is same £10.75, Trainers £24.80, Boots £32.40
F On largest face 965 Pa, On smallest face 3860
Pa  £833.33
 First statue is the fake as density is approximately  £300
3
26 g/cm
 240
3
 Second piece by 1 cm
 £350
3
 0.339 m
 4750 blue bottles
2 2 2 1
 Areas are ½ m . 0.8 m . 0.4m . Sides are 1 m, 2 m  £22
and 0.8 m
 D £1600
 D T E F F F G T E With 10% cut each year he earns £1440 × 12 +
£1296 × 12 = £17 280 + £15 552 = £32 832



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With immediate 14% cut he earns £1376 × 24 =  50.50 ÷ 0.9 ÷ 0.85 = 66.01, so price was £66 and
£33 024, so correct decision other prices are rounded off.
 D 30% E 15%

 Less by 1
% &KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\DQGPHDVXUHV
4
$QJOHV
 £900
 Calculate the pre-VAT price for certain amounts, ([HUFLVH$
and 5 of that amount. Show the error grows as the
6  D 108° E 52° F 59°
amount increases. Up to £280 the error is less than
 D 57° E 40°
£5.
 No; 45° + 125° = 170° and for a straight line it
 £1250 should be 180°.
 £1250  D [ = 100° E [= 110° F [= 30°
 0.28 × 5400 = 1512. 1512 × 2.5 = 3780, 3780 ÷  D [ = 55° E [ = 45° F [ = 12.5°
0.72 = 5250, so population has declined by 150
 D [ = 34°, \ = 98° E [ = 70°, \ = 120°
people.
F [ = 20°, \ = 80°
 Baz has assumed that 291.2 is 100% instead of  6 × 60° = 360°; imagine six of the triangles meeting
112%. He rounded his wrong answer to the correct at a point
answer of £260.
 [ = 35°, \ = 75°; 2[ = 70° (opposite angles), so
35 7
 35% = 100 which cancels to 20 , so the smallest [ = 35° and [ + \ = 110° (angles on a line), so
\ = 75°
number that could have been surveyed is 20.

5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV ([HUFLVH%

 48 mph  DF Students’ own drawings G 180°

 Definite, as his average speed was 80 miles per  D 60° E Equilateral triangle
F Same length
hour which is 128 km/h
 D 70° each E Isosceles triangle
 Totals are 40 and 60 giving 2 : 3 and a total of 100. F Same length
9 : 11 is a ratio of 45 : 55 so swap 10 and 15
 D 109° E 130° F 135°
 D 1.73 ÷ 0.04 = 43.25 so 43 horses, 2.64 ÷ 0.065
 65°
= 40.61 so 40 cattle and 0.95 ÷ 0.01 = 95. Total
43 + 40 + 95 = 178 animals.  Joe is not correct as DFE = 30°, DEF = 75° hence
E Horses in field A = 43, Sheep in field B = 2.64 ÷
angle D = 180° – 105° = 75° but Hannah is correct
0.01 = 264, Cattle in field C, 0.95 ÷ 0.065 =
14.61, so 14 cattle. Total 43 + 264 + 14 = 321 as FED = FDE = 75°
animals  D = 35° (angles in a triangle) because the other
 100° angles in the triangle are 65° (angles on a line) and
80° (opposite angles) giving a total of 145, this
 D 22.5 kg E 30 kg F £19.80
subtracted from the 180 degrees in a triangle
 £8357.35 leaves the answer of 35
 £375  Missing angle = \, [ + \ = 180° and D + E + \ = 180°
 D £4945.97 so [ = D + E
E 5, yes he has £1357.68 in the account so he  32°
has rounded to the nearest £10
 72°
 13.04%
 90
([HUFLVH&
 Joe pays 41.4 – 4.4 = £37, Lucy pays 41.4 ÷ 1.15 =  2, 2, 360°
£36, so Joe’s meal cost more.
 3, 3, 540°
 680.4 ÷ 4500 = £0.1512 per units in 2015. 0.1512 ÷
1.08 = £0.14 pence per unit in 2014. 5400 × £0.14  4, 4, 720°
= £756, so she paid more for the units in 2014.



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 F Exterior angle is 11°, which does not divide

Shape Number of Triangles Angle exactly into 360°
sides sum G Exterior angle is 70°, which does not divide
Triangle 3 1 180 exactly into 360°
Quadrilateral 4 2 360  D 7° does not divide exactly into 360°
Pentagon 5 3 540 E 26° does not divide exactly into 360°
Hexagon 6 4 720 F 44° does not divide exactly into 360°
Heptagon 7 5 900 G 13° does not divide exactly into 360°
Octagon 8 6 1080 1440°  5 u 240°
Nonagon 9 7 1260  48°; 
5
Decagon 10 8 1440
  10
 18, 18, 3240°  [ = 45°, they are the same, true for all regular
polygons
([HUFLVH'  Three are 135°and two are 67.5°
 D 90° E 150° F 80°
 72°, 72°, 108°, 144°, 144°
 D No, total is 350° E Yes, total is 360°
F No, total is 350° G No, total is 370°  93°
H Yes, total is 360° I Yes, total is 360°
 D 90° E Rectangle F Square ([HUFLVH)
 D 120° E 136° F 149°  D G E I F G G I H I I H
G 126° H 114°  D E = F = 70° E G = 75°, H = I = 105°
 60° + 60° + 120° + 120° + 120° + 240° = 720° F J = 50°, K = L = 130° G Q = P = 80°
H J = L = 65°, K = 115° I M = N = 72°, O = 108°
 \ = 360° –4[; 2[ + \ + 2[ = 360°, 4[ + \ = 360°, so \
 D D = 95° E E = 66°, F = 114°
= 360° –4[
 D [ = 30°, \ = 120° E [ = 25°, \ = 105°
 [ = 40°, so the smaller angle is 60° F [ = 30°, \ = 100° G [ = 50°, \ = 110°
H [ = 25°, \ = 55° I [ = 20°, \ = 140°
([HUFLVH(  290°; [ is double the angle allied to 35°, so is
 2 u 145°
Shape Number of Interior angle Each interior  angle BDC = 66° (angles in a triangle = 180°) angle
sides sum angle
BDE = 114° (angles on a line = 180°) so
octagon 8 1080 135
D = 66° (corresponding angle or allied angle)
nonagon 9 1260 140
decagon 10 1440 144  Angle PQD = 64° (alternate angles), so angle DQY
= 116° (angles on a line = 180°)

Regular Number of Interior Exterior  Use alternate angles to see E, D and F are all angles
polygon sides angle angle on a straight line, and so total 180°
square 4 90 90
pentagon 5 108 72  Third angle in triangle equals T (alternate angle),
hexagon 6 120 60 angle sum of triangle is 180°.
octagon 8 135 45
nonagon 9 140 40 ([HUFLVH*
decagon 10 144 36
 D D = 110°, E = 55° E J = L = 63°, K = 117°
 DL 45° LL 8 LLL 1080° F H = f = 94°
EL 20° LL 18 LLL 2880°
FL 15° LL 24 LLL 3960°  D D = 58°, E = 47° E F = 141°, G = 37°
GL 36° LL 10 LLL 1440° F H = g = 65°, I = 115°

 DL 172° LL 45 LLL 7740°  D 65° E 60° F 68°

EL 174° LL 60 LLL 10 440°  both 129°
FL 156° LL 15 LLL 2340°
GL 177° LL 120 LLL 21 240°  Marie is correct, a rectangle is a parallelogram with
 D Exterior angle is 7°, which does not divide all angles equal to 90°
exactly into 360°  D 65°
E Exterior angle is 19°, which does not divide E Trapezium, angle A + angle D = 180° and angle
exactly into 360° B + angle C = 180°



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 135°  D 50° E 32.5°

  A five sided shape can be split into 3 triangles
hence 3 × 180
= 540°
 150°
 angle TQP = 37°(alternate angles), PTQ = 180 –
(29 + 37) = 114° (angles in a triangle), QTS = 180
– 114 (angles on a line) = 66°

  333°

 A trapezium; angles add up to 10[, two angles [  360 ÷ 8 = 45°; exterior angle formula is 360 ÷
and 4[ = 2[ + 3[, the other pair of angles. Hence number of sides, in this case 8
each pair adds up to 180 (since 2 × 180 = 360).  180 – (360 ÷ 6) = 120° or (180 × 4) ÷ 6 = 120°
Hence two pairs of allied angles, hence a
trapezium. Alternatively you could have found that  Selvi might be correct. You will need to draw one
[ = 36 which will give the same result. example showing this is not a kite, and one
example showing that this could be a kite
([HUFLVH+  D Student’s own sketch E 12.4 km
 D Student’s scale drawing. 
E About 19 m so about 38 plants
 DL 84 km LL 280 km &KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\DQGPHDVXUHV
LLL 144 km LY 48 km 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQVFRQVWUXFWLRQVDQG
EL 108 km LL 360 km
LLL 200 km LY 164 km ORFL
 D 36 km E 2 000 000
 1 : 63 360 ([HUFLVH$
 D SAS E SSS F ASA
 D ƒNP E ƒNP
G RHS H SSS I ASA
F ƒNP G ƒNP
H ƒNP I ƒ  NP  D SSS. A to R, B to P, C to Q
E SAS. A to R, B to Q, C to P
 6WXGHQWV¶ 6NHWFKHV
 D 60° E 80° F 40° G 5 cm
 D Sketch
E D is due south of B and B is east of A, so A must  D 110° E 55° F 85° G 110° H 4 cm
be west of D. A bearing to the west will be  SSS or RHS
greater than 180°
 D 090°, 180°, 270° E 000°, 270°, 180°  SSS or SAS or RHS

 D 045° E 286°  For example, use ‫ס‬ADE and ‫ס‬CDG. AD = CD

F measure the distance from X to Y and divide 15 (sides of large square), DE = DG (sides of small
by this to find the scale of the map. Then square), ‫ס‬ADE = ‫ס‬CDG (angles sum to 90° with
measure the distance from Y to P and multiply ‫ס‬ADG), so ∆ADE ≡ ∆CDG (SAS), so AE = CG
by the scale factor
 AB and PQ are the corresponding sides to the 42°
 D 250° E 325° F 144°
angle, but they are not equal in length.
 D 900 m E 280° 
F angle NHS = 150° and HS = 3 cm
([HUFLVH%
 108°
 D 4 E 5 F 6 G 4 H 6
 255°
 D 2 E 2 F 2 G 2 H 2
 9.92 km
 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, J, K, L, M, P, Q, R, T, U, V, W,
Y
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV  D 1
 16° E the central white star or the large dark green
star
 D L 115° F order 16 – the light green star around the
LL opposite angles are equal and the angle central white star, or order 9 – the light green
opposite to [ is 180 – 65 shape between the outer petals and the inner
E the angles do not add up to 360° stars



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 for example: § 3 · § 4· § 5 · §4·

 D ¨© 1 ¸¹ E ¨© -4 ¸¹ F ¨© 2 ¸¹ G ¨© 7 ¸¹
§ 1· §1 · § 4 · § 4 ·
H ¨© 5 ¸¹ I ¨© 6 ¸¹ J ¨© 4 ¸¹ K ¨© 7 ¸¹

§0·
 10 × 10 = 100 (including ¨© 0 ¸¹

 D Check students’ designs for a Snakes and

ladders board.
E L because the ladders always mean moving up
  the board
LL the snakes always mean moving down the
 board
§ [ ·
Number of lines of symmetry
0 1 2 3
 ¨©  \ ¸¹
Order of
1 D A
rotational § 300 ·
2 E B
symmetry  D Check student’s diagram ¨ ¸
3 C E © 500 ¹
 She is correct since the angle sum around the § 1·
centre point is 360 and 360 ÷ 3 = 120  ¨© 4 ¸¹

 Yes she is correct. A triangle can only have 1 or 3  Under a translation every points moves with the
lines of symmetry. If a triangle has 3 lines of same vector, hence all the sides are the same
symmetry it also has rotational symmetry of order length, so we can use the SSS rule of congruency.
3, so this triangle must only have 1 line of
symmetry. This will mean it has two angles identical
([HUFLVH'
and two sides, and hence an isosceles triangle.
 D±H
([HUFLVH&
§1 · §4· § 2· §5 ·
DL ¨© 3 ¸¹ LL ¨© 2 ¸¹ LLL ¨© 1¸¹  LY ¨© 1 ¸¹ 
§ 1 · § 3· § 2 · §3·
¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ ¨ 3¸ ¨3¸
EL © 3 ¹ LL © 1¹  LLL © ¹ LY © ¹
§ 2 · § 1· § 5 · §0·
FL ¨© 3 ¸¹ LL ¨© 1¸¹ LLL ¨© 4 ¸¹ ¨ ¸
LY ©4¹
§3· § 4 · § 5· § 2 ·
GL ¨© 2 ¸¹ LL ¨© 2 ¸¹ LLL ¨© 4 ¸¹ LY ¨ ¸
© 7 ¹


I Reflection in the \-axis
 D±E

F \-value changes sign

G (D, −E)



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 D±E  D±F

G Coordinates are reversed: [becomes \and \


becomes [
H (E, D)
F [-value changes sign
I Any point with [ and \ co-ordinates the same,
G (−D, E)
e.g. (1, 1), (2, 2)
H Any three points with [ co-ordinate 0, e.g. (0, 1),

(0, 2), (0, 3)
 D±F
 Possible answer: Take the centre square as ABCD
then reflect this square each time in the line, AB,
then BC, then CD and finally AD.
 [= –1



 G Coordinates are reversed and change sign, [
becomes –\and \becomes –[
 D±L
H (–E, –D)
 Because a reflection is exactly the same shape as
the original, just in a different orientation, hence we
can use the rule SSS to show the two shapes are
congruent.

([HUFLVH(
 D

M A reflection in \= [


EL Rotation 90°anticlockwise

  LL Rotation 180°



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 D  L

E rotate shape 60° around point B, then repeat

another four times.
 Possible answer: If ABCD is the centre square,

rotate about A 90° anticlockwise, rotate about new
B 180°, now rotate about new C 180°, and finally LL Aᦡ (–1, –2), Bᦡ (–2, –4), Cᦡ (–4, –1)
rotate about new D 180°. LLL Original coordinates ([, \) become (–[, –\)
LY Yes


 L

 D 90° anticlockwise
E 270° anticlockwise
F 300° clockwise 
G 260° clockwise
LL Aᦡ (–2, 1), Bᦡ (–4, 2), Cᦡ (–1, 4)
 DEFL LLL Original coordinates ([, \) become (–\, [)
LY Yes
 The centre of rotation
 Show by drawing a shape or use the fact that (D, E)
becomes (D, –E) after reflection in the [-axis, and
(D, –E) becomes (–D, –E) after reflection in the
\-axis, which is equivalent to a single rotation of
180°.
 she is correct
 D

LL Aᦡ (2, –1), Bᦡ (4, –2), Cᦡ (1, –4)

LLL Original coordinates ([, \) become (\, –[)
LY Yes

EL Rotation 60°clockwise about O

 LL Rotation 120°clockwise about O
 LLLRotation 180°about O
 LYRotation 240°clockwise about O
FL Rotation 60°clockwise about O
 LL Rotation 180°about O



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F 3 : 1
 Rotation 90° anticlockwise about (3, –2) G 9 : 1
 Because under a rotation, the lengths of the original  D (1, 1), (3, –3), (–5, –5) E (1, 1)
shape are preserved, so we can use the rule SSS

to show they are congruent.

([HUFLVH)



 
 D
 D±F

E


1
G Scale factor – 2 , centre (1, 3)
H Scale factor –2, centre (1, 3)
I Scale factor –1, centre (–2.5, –1.5)
J Scale factor –1, centre (–2.5, –1.5)
K Same centres, and the scale factors are
reciprocals of each other
  Enlargement, scale factor –2, about (1, 3)

  Because the sides of triangle C are all larger than

the original triangle B, and so the SSS rule will not
apply.

([HUFLVH*
  (–4, –3)
 D  D (–5, 2)
E Reflection in \-axis

§ 1·
 A: translation ¨ ¸ , B: reflection in \-axis, C:
© 2 ¹
rotation 90°clockwise about (0, 0), D: reflection in [
= 3, E: reflection in \= 4, F: enlargement by scale
factor 2, centre (2, –3)

E 3 : 1



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 D T1 to T2: rotation 90°clockwise about (0, 0)
E T1 to T6: rotation 90°anticlockwise about (0, 0)
§2·
F T2 to T3: translation ¨ ¸
©2¹

G T6 to T2: rotation 180°about (0, 0)
F An enlargement, scale factor –3, centre (2, 2)
H T6 to T5: reflection in \-axis
§4·  (10, 10)
I T5 to T4: translation ¨ ¸
©0¹
([HUFLVH+
 D±G
± Practical work; check students’ constructions
 The centre of the circle
 Start with a base line AB; then construct a
perpendicular to the line from point A. At point B,
construct an angle of 60°. Ensure that the line for
this 60° angle crosses the perpendicular line; where
they meet will be the final point C.

 ± Practical work; check students’ constructions

H Td to T: rotation 90° anticlockwise about (0, 0)

([HUFLVH,
 (3, 1)
 Circle with radius:
D 2 cm E 4 cm F 5 cm
 Reflection in [-axis, translation ¨ 0 ¸ , rotation
§ ·
© 5 ¹  D E F
90°clockwise about (0, 0)

 Translation ¨ 0 ¸ , reflection in [-axis, rotation

§ ·
© 8 ¹
90°clockwise about (0, 0)
 
 D
 D Circle with radius 4 m E

 

 D E F

G  H I



E enlargement of scale factor – 21 about (1, 2)

 No, this can be shown with an example.

 DE



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 Construct the bisector of angle BAC and the
perpendicular bisector of the line AC.


 



  

 Start with a base line, AB, 3 cm long. At point A,

draw a few points all 3 cm away from A towards the
upper right side. Lightly join these dots with an arc.
You can now find the point that is 3 cm away from
point B and draw the equilateral triangle. 

. Gary is correct about the triangle inside, but not a  No, if you accurately draw a diagram showing the
triangle outside as there will be three straight lines, path of each boat, you will find the boat leaving
parallel to each side of the triangle, then these from point B meets the path of the other boat in a
straight lines will be joined with arcs centred on the much shorter time as it’s a smaller distance than
vertex between the lines. fom A to the cross over point.)
 On a map, draw a straight line from Newcastle to
([HUFLVH- Bristol, construct the line bisector, then the search
will be anywhere on the sea along that line.

 D Sketch should show a circle of radius 6 cm
around London and one of radius 4 cm around
Glasgow.
E No
F Yes
   D Yes
 D E Sketch should show a circle of radius 4 cm
around Leeds and one of radius 4 cm around
Exeter. The area where they overlap should be
shaded.
 D This is the perpendicular bisector of the line
from York to Birmingham. It should pass just
below Manchester and just through the top of
  Norwich.
E E Sketch should show a circle of radius 7 cm
around Glasgow and one of radius 5 cm around
London. The area where they overlap should be
shaded.
F The transmitter can be built anywhere on line
constructed in part Dthat is within the area
shown in part E.




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 Sketch should show two circles around


Birmingham, one of radius 3 cm and one of radius
5 cm. The area of good reception is the area
between the two circles.
 Sketch should show a circle of radius 6 cm around
Glasgow, two circles around York, one of radius 4
cm and one of radius 6 cm and a circle around
London of radius 8 cm. The small area in the Irish
Sea that is between the two circles around York
and inside both the circle around Glasgow and the
circle around London is where the boat can be.
 Sketch should show two circles around Newcastle
upon Tyne, one of radius 4 cm and one of radius

6 cm, and two circles around Bristol, one of radius
3 cm and one of radius 5 cm. The area that is
between both pairs of circles is the area that should
be shaded.
 Sketch should show the perpendicular bisector of
the line running from Newcastle upon Tyne to
Manchester and that of the line running from
Sheffield to Norwich. Where the lines cross is
where the oil rig is located.
 Sketch should show the perpendicular bisector of
the line running from Glasgow to Norwich and that
of the line running from Norwich to Exeter. Where
the lines cross is where Fred's house is.
 Leeds 

([HUFLVH.


5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 DE



F rotation of 180° about (–1, 1)

G (–1, 1)

 D A cylinder
E A hexagonal prism



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 D 


 E … an equal distance from A and B

 DE
F rotation of 180° about O




 You should have measured the error of the angle
size and converted that to a percentage error.






 A (9, 0) B (11, –3) C (2, –1)





 It is not always true

 In a rhombus all sides are the same length, so AB
= BC = AD = DC, AC is a common length in both
triangles, so each triangle has the three sides
matching, SSS.




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&KDSWHU±$OJHEUD$OJHEUDLF  D 4P+ 3S+ 2PS

PDQLSXODWLRQ E 3N+ 4K+ 5KN
F 12U+ 24S 13SU
G 19NP+ 20Ní 6P
([HUFLVH$  D 9W + 13W
2 2
E 13\ + 5\
2 2
 D 13 E í3 F 5 F 10H í 6H G 14N í 3NS

 D 1.4 E 1.4 F í0.4  D 17DE+ 12DF+ 6EF

E 18wy + 6ty − 8tw
 D 13 E 74 F 17 F 14mn − 15mp − 6np
3 2
 D 75 E 22.5 F í135 G 8U í 6U 

 D 2.5 E í20 F 2.5  D 5(I+ 2V) + 2(2I+ 3V) = 9I+ 16V
E £(270I+ 480V)
 D
150
E £925 F £42 450 í £30 000 = £12 450
Q
 For [-coefficients, 3 and 1 or 1 and 4; for
 D 2 × 8 + 6 × 11 í 3 × 2 = 76
\-coefficients, 5 and 1 or 3 and 4 or 1 and 7
E 5 × 2 í 2 × 11 + 3 × 8 = 12
 D One odd one even value, different from each  5(3[+ 2) í 3(2[í 1) = 9[+ 13
other.
E Any valid combination, e.g. [= 1, \= 2 ([HUFLVH&
 D L Odd LL Odd  D 6(P+ 2W) E 3(3W+ S)
 LLL Even LY Odd F 4(2P+ 3N) G 4(U+ 2W)
E Any valid expression such as [\+ ] H P(Q+ 3) I J(5J+ 3)
 D £20 J 2(2Z± 3W) K \(3\+ 2)
E L í£40 L W(4W± 3) M 3P(P± S)
LL Delivery cost will be zero. N 3S(2S+ 3W) O 2S(4W+ 3P)
F 40 miles P 4E(2D± F) Q 5EF(Eí 2)
2
R 2E(4DF 3GH) S 2(2D + 3D+ 4)
 A expression, B formula, C identity, D equation T 3E(2D+ 3F+ G) U W(5W+ 4 + D)
V 3PW(2W± 1 + 3P) W 2DE(4E+ 1 – 2D)
 D First term is cost of petrol, each mile is a tenth
X 5SW(2W+ 3 + S)
of £0.98. Second term is the hire cost divided by
the miles.  D Mary has taken out a common factor.
E 29.8p per mile E Because the bracket adds up to £10.
F £30
([HUFLVH%  D, G, Iand Kdo not factorise.
E P(5 + 2S) F W(W± 7) H 2P(2P± 3S)
 D 6 + 2P E 10 + 5O
J D(4D± 5E) L E(5D± 3EF)
F 12 ± 3\ G 20 + 8N
H 6 ± 12I I 10 ± 6Z  D Bernice
J 10N+ 15P K 12G± 8Q E Aidan has not taken out the largest possible
2 2
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2 2
N 4W ± 4W O 8N± 2N  terms but there isn’t an Pin the second term.
2 2
P 8J + 20J Q 15K ± 10K
R
3
\ + 5\ S
4
K + 7K  There are no common factors.
3 3
T N ± 5N U 3W + 12W  Perimeter = 2[ + 8 + [ + 5 +5[ + 4 + 9[ – 3 + 10 – [
3 4 3
V 15G ± 3G W 6Z + 3WZ
3 4 =16[ + 24 = 8(2[ + 3)
X 15D ± 10DE Y 12S ± 15PS
3 2 3 4
Z 12K + 8K J [ 8P + 2P  4 [  12 [
2


 D 5(Wí 1) and 5Wí 5 2[  6
E Yes, as 5(Wí 1) when W= 4.50 is 5 × 3.50 =
£17.50
([HUFLVH'
 He has worked out 3 × 5 as 8 instead of 15 and he 2 2
has not multiplied the second term by 3. Answer  D [ + 5[ + 6 E W + 7W + 12
2 2
should be 15[í 12. F Z + 4Z + 3 G P + 6P + 5
2 2
 D 3(2\+ 3)  D S + 3S – 70 E X – 12X + 32
2 2
E 2(6]+ 4) or 4(3]+ 2) F N + 2N –15 G ] – 12] + 27

 D 22 + 5W E 21 + 19N  D should be 35 on the end

F 22 + 2I G 14 + 3J E should be – 80
F should be – 10[
 D 2 + 2K E 9J+ 5 G should be 12\
F 17N+ 16 G 6H+ 20 H should be – 9]



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([HUFLVH( 2 2
 D D –E
2 2 2 2
 D N + 8N+ 15 E D + 5D + 4 E Dimensions: D + E by D – E; Area: D – E
2 2 2 2
F [ + 2[ – 8 G W + 2W – 15 F Areas are the same, so D – E (D + E) ×
2 2
H Z + 2Z – 3 I I – I – 6  (D – E)
2 2
 D U – 10U + 16 E V – 17V + 70 2 2 2
2 2  First shaded area is (2N) – 1 4N – 1
F G – 17G+ 16 G P – 9P + 18 2
H
2
T – 20T + 99
2
I \ – 13\ + 40 Second shaded area is (2N + 1)(2N – 1) 4N – 1
2
 D 20D E 3E F 200  D 3Z + 22Z + 24
G –11G H 12H, 28 E L 32 224 LL 23.7803
LLL 24.000 440 0012
2 2
([HUFLVH)  D 49D – E E 4896
2 2
 D J – 3J – 4 E \ + \ – 12
2 2
F [ + [ – 12 G S – S – 2 ([HUFLVH+
2 2
H N – 2N – 8 I \ + 3\ – 10 2 2
2  D [ + 10[ + 25 E P +8P + 16
J D + 2D – 3 2 2
F W + 12W + 36 G S + 6S + 9
2 2 2 2 2
 D [ – 9 E W – 25 F P – 16 H P – 6P + 9 I W – 10W + 25
2 2 2 2 2
G W –4 H \ – 64 I S –1 J P – 8P + 16 K N – 14N + 49
2 2 2
J 25 – [ K 49 – J L [ – 36 2 2
 D 9[ + 6[ + 1 E 16W + 24W + 9
2 2
 ([ + 2) and ([ + 3) F 25\ + 20\ + 4 G 4P + 12P + 9
2 2
H 16W – 24W + 9 I 9[ – 12[ + 4
2 2
 D B: 1 × ([ – 2) J 25W – 20W + 4 K 25U – 60U + 36
2 2 2 2
C: 1 × 2 L [ + 2[\ + \ M P – 2PQ + Q
D: 2 × ([ – 1) N
2
4W + 4W\ + \
2
O
2
P – 6PQ + 9Q
2
2 2
E ([ – 2) + 2 + 2([ – 1) 3[ – 2 P [ + 4[ Q [ – 10[
2 2
F Area A ([ – 1)([ – 2) area of square minus R [ + 12[ S [ – 4[

areas (B + C + D)
2
[ – (3[ – 2)
2
[ – 3[ + 2  D Bernice has just squared the first term and the
2
second term. She hasn’t written down the
 D [ – 9 brackets twice.
E L 9991 LL 39 991 E Pete has written down the brackets twice but
2 2 2
2
 D \ + 14\ + 45 has worked out (3[) as 3[ and not 9[ .
2
E L 45.1401 LL 45.4209 F 9[ + 6[ + 1
LLL 44.7204 LY 11 445  Whole square is (2[) 4[ .
2 2

Three areas are 2[ – 1, 2[ – 1 and 1.

([HUFLVH* 2 2
4[ – (2[ – 1 + 2[ – 1 + 1) 4[ – (4[ – 1)
2 2 2
 D 6[ + 11[ + 3 E 12\ + 17\ + 6 4[ – 4[ + 1
2 2
F 6W + 17W + 5 G 8W + 2W – 3 6 3 7 14
H
2
10P – 11P – 6 I
2
12N – 11N – 15  D 9S + 42S T + 49T
2 2
J 6S + 11S – 10 K 10Z + 19Z + 6 2
 D 9N + 24N + 16
2 2
L 6D – 7D – 3 M 8U – 10U + 3 EL 16.2409 LL 92 416 LLL 16.120 225
2 2
N 15J – 16J + 4 O 12G + 5G – 2
2 2
P 8S + 26S + 15 Q 6W + 7W + 2
R
2
6S + 11S + 4 S
2
–10W – 7W ([HUFLVH,
2 2 3 2
T –6Q + Q + 12 U 6I – 5I – 6  D [ + 6[ + 11[ + 6
2 2 3
V –10T + 7T12 W –6S – 7S + 3 E [ – 49[ – 120
2 3 2
X –6W + 10W + 4 F [ + 9[ – 4[ – 36
2 3 2
 D (3[ – 2)(2[ + 1) = 6[ – [ – 2  D [ + 7[ – 17[ + 9
2 3 2
(2[ – 1)(2[ – 1) = 4[ – 4[ + 1 E [ + [ – [ – 10
2
(6[ – 3)([ + 1) = 6[ + 3[ – 3 3 2
2
(4[ + 1)([ – 1) = 4[ – 3[ – 1  D [ + 12[ + 48[ + 64
3 2
2
(3[ + 2)(2[ + 1) = 6[ + 7[ + 2 E [ – 18[ + 108[ – 216
3 2 2 3
2
E Multiply the [ terms to match the [ term and/or F x + 3D[ + 3D [ + D
multiply the constant terms to get the constant 3
 DEF [ + 11[ + 31[ + 21
2

term in the answer. G Can be performed in any order

2 2 2
 D 4[ – 1 E 9W – 4 F 25\ – 9 3 2
 D [ + (D + E + F)[ + (DE + DF + EF)[ + DEF
2 2 2
G 16P – 9 H 4N – 9 I 16K – 1 E S = 0, T = –19,U = –30
2 2 2
J 4 – 9[ K 25 – 4W L 36 – 25\ 3 2
M
2
D –E
2
N
2
9W – N
2
O
2
4P – 9S
2
 D [ – 15[ – 73[ – 57
2
P
2
25N – J
2
Q
2 2
D E –F G
2 2
R
4
D –E
4 E 6[ – 60[ – 146
 



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 D L [ + 2[ + 1
2
LL [ + 3[ + 3[ + 1
3 2 F ([ + 2 + [ + 1)([ + 2 – [ – 1) (2[ + 3)(1)
4 3 2
LLL [ + 4[ + 6[ + 4[ + 1 2[ + 3
2 3 4
E 11 = 121, 11 = 1331, 11 = 14 641 G The answers are the same.
F The digits are the same as the coefficients H 4[
3
 D [ + 9[ + 27[ + 27
2  D ([ + \)([ – \) E ([ + 2\)([ – 2\)
E 27.027 009 001 F ([ + 3\)([ – 3\) G (3[ + 1)(3[ – 1)
3 2
H (4[ + 3)(4[ – 3) I (5[ + 8)(5[ – 8)
 D 2[ + 3[ – 29[ + 30 J (2[ + 3\)(2[ – 3\) K (3W + 2Z)(3W – 2Z)
3 2
E 3[ + 11[ + 8[ – 4 L (4\ + 5[)(4\ – 5[)
3 2
 D 24[ + 26[ – 173[ + 105 
3 3
D (11[ – 3\ )(11[ + 3\ )
3 3
3 2
E 50[ – 315[ + 228[ – 44 5 9 5 9
E (5P – 9Q )( 5P + 9Q )
3 2
F 27[ – 108[ + 144[ – 64 288 144 288 144
F (24S – 31T )(24S + 31T )
2
 82 – 5[ – 32[  D (3[ – 1)(3[ + 1) E 29 and 31
 D (2[ – 7)(2[ + 7) E 3, 23 and 193
([HUFLVH-
 D ([ + 2)([ + 3) E (W + 1)(W + 4) ([HUFLVH/
F (P + 2)(P + 5) G (N + 4)(N + 6)
H (S + 2)(S + 12) I (U + 3)(U + 6)  D (2[ + 1)([ + 2) E (7[ + 1)([ + 1)
J (Z + 2)(Z + 9) K ([ + 3)([ + 4) F (4[ + 7)([ – 1) G (3W + 2)(8W + 1)
2
L (D + 2)(D + 6) M (N + 3)(N + 7) H (3W + 1)(5W – 1) I (4[ – 1)
N (I + 1)(I + 21) O (E + 8)(E + 12) J 3(\ + 7)(2\ – 3) K 4(\ + 6)(\ – 4)
P (W – 2)(W – 3) Q (G – 4)(G – 1) L (2[ + 3)(4[ – 1) M (2W + 1)(3W + 5)
R (J – 2)(J – 5) S ([ – 3)([ – 12) N ([ – 6)(3[ + 2) O ([ – 5)(7[ – 2)
T (F – 2)(F – 16) U (W – 4)(W – 9)  4[ + 1 and 3[ + 2
V (\ – 4)(\ – 12) W (M – 6)(M – 8)
 D All the terms in the quadratic have a common
 D (S – 3)(S – 5) E (\ + 6)(\ – 1) factor of 6.
F (W + 4)(W – 2) G ([ + 5)([ – 2) E 6([ + 2)([ + 3). This has the highest common
H (P + 2)(P – 6) I (U + 1)(U – 7) factor taken out.
J (Q + 3)(Q – 6) K (P + 4)(P – 11)
L (Z + 4)(Z – 6) M (W + 9)(W – 10)  (3[ – 1)([ + 16); 1230
N (K +8)(K – 9) O (W + 7)(W – 9)
2 2  D (33[ + 1)([ – 2) E 100 × 1 = 100
P (G + 1) Q (\ + 10)
2 2
R (W – 4) S (P – 9)  (3[ – 20)
2
T ([ – 12) U (G + 3)(G – 4) 2
 12[ + 14[ – 40; 10[ + 2
V (W + 4)(W – 5) W (T + 7)(T – 8)
 ([ + 2)([ + 3), giving areas of 2[ and 3[, or ([ + 1) ([HUFLVH0
([ + 6), giving areas of [ and 6[.
7
2
 D [ + (D + E)[ +DE  N
3
E L S + T = 7 LL ST = 12
F 7 can only be 1 × 7 and 1 + 7 ≠12  \ ;+1
 D 440  S 34
E L ([ + 3)([ + 1) LL 22 × 20 = 440
2 2 5 5 $9
 D ([ – 3)([ – 8) E (\ – 104)(\ + 4)  U
4
1728 1728
F (] – 864)(] + 2)
 D P S – W E W S–P
([HUFLVH.  P JY
 D ([ + 3)([ – 3) E (W + 5)(W – 5)
F (P + 4)(P – 4) G (3 + [)(3 – [)  P W
H (7 + W)(7 – W) I (N + 10)(N – 10)
J (2 + \)(2 – \) K ([ + 8)([ – 8) 3  2Z
 O
L (W + 9)(W – 9) 2
2
 D [  S P2
E L ([ – 2) LL ([ + 2)
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LLL [ LY 4  D –40 – 32 –72, –72 ÷ 9 –8, 5 × –8 –40
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F A + B – C [ – 4, which is the area of D, E 68 – 32 36, 36 ÷ 9 4, 4 × 5 20
which is ([ + 2)([ – 2).
9
F ) & + 32
2
 D [ + 4[ + 4 – ([ + 2[ + 1)
2
2[ + 3 5
E (D + E)(D – E)



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 Average speeds: outward journey 72 kph, return  D L 12[ + 48 LL 6[ + 48[ + 94
2
3 2
journey 63 kph, taking 2 hours. He was held up LLL [ + 12[ + 47[ + 60
2 3
for 15 minutes. E surface area = 1348 cm and volume = 3360 cm
2 2 2 2 2 2
 U = &/2S, $ = SU = S& /4S = & /4S  D 12[ – [\ – 35\ E (3[ + 7\)(2[ – 5\)

 D \ = 5 [  75 E Pupil’s own checks  r10, r11, r14, r25

9
 D (2[ + 3)([ + 2)
F \ = 7 x  40 G Marlon is incorrect E L 276 LL 20 706 LLL 6.0702
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. Z F 18S m G 12S cm
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P  Y(K  U)
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 0.83 m
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E L 22 LL 38 LLL 90 1.5 : 1)
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E K = $  2SU
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Ay diameter of the tree. Is your classroom smaller than
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F 38.36 g check.
 [ = 5  45 complete revolutions

 20 m  D 2S
E , 8S LL 18S LLL 32S
19  4 x 18  4 x
 D E 2
5x  18 5x  17 F $ = 2S × U

 D 2([ – 8) E [([ – 16)

F ([ – 4)([ + 4) G ([ – 7)([ – 9)
([HUFLVH%
2 2 2
2  D 96 cm E 70 cm F 20 cm
 D 3 × 15 × 4 = 180 E 6[ – 51[ + 90 2 2 2
G 125 cm H 10 cm I 112 m
2
 D L 15[ – 19[ – 56 LL 16[ – 2
2  No, she has used the sloping side instead of the
E 162.25 cm
2
perpendicular height. It should be 6 × 4 = 24 cm²
 D 4[ + 4[ + 1 E 441 F 437
3 2 2 3
 Each parallelogram has an area of 30 cm². The
 D D + 3D E + 3DE + E
3 2 height of each is 5 cm so the length of each must
E 8[ + 36[ + 54[ + 27 F 27.543 608
be 6 cm. [ = 6 + 4 + 6 = 16 cm so Freya is
incorrect.



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 D 500 cm² E 3 × 5 = 15 and so the area will be 360 u C u π u R

2

2 u π u R u 360
([HUFLVH& = CR
2
2 2 2
 D 30 cm E 77 cm F 24 cm 2
G 42 cm
2
H 40 m
2
I 6 cm  (36S − 72) cm
J 3 cm K 10 cm  36.5 cm
2

2
 Area = 15 cm
 16 cm (15.7)
2
 D 27.5 cm, 36.25 cm
2  Each square has side length of U
E 33.4 cm, 61.2 cm
Shaded part of square ; = U – 1 πU
2 2 2
F 38.5 m, 90 m
4
=U (1– 1π)
DE 2
 The area of the parallelogram is . This is the 4
K
In square Y, the four quarter circles will join
same as two trapezia.
together to give an area of radius 1 r, so

2
Two of 20 cm and two of 16 cm
2 2
shaded area
2 2 2
 D 57 m E 702.5 cm F 84 m 2
in Y = U – 𠧨 U ·¸ = U – 1 πU = U (1 – 1 π),
2 2 2 2

 trapezium = 56, square area = 9, shaded area ©2¹ 4 4

= 56 – 9 = 47 cm
2 which is the same as square X.
2
 4, because the total area doubled is about 32 m
([HUFLVH(
 80.2%  D L 21 cm
2
LL 63 cm
3
2 3
 1 100 000 km
2 E L 48 cm LL 432 cm
2 3
F L 36 m LL 324 m
2
 160 cm 3 3 3
 D 432 m E 225 m F 1332 m
 D many possible correct answers,  D A cross-section parallel to the side of the pool
eg base 6 cm, top 4cm, height 1.6π. Shaded always has the same shape.
area is 8π, trapezium must be the the same
E the dimensions cannot be exact due to the E About 3 21 hours
value of S in the area of the circle 1 3
 9= 2 (1.5 + 3) × 1.7 × 2 = 7.65 m
([HUFLVH'  27 = 3 × 3 × 3, 27 + 37 = 64 = 4 , 4 – 3 = 1. Hence
3

2
 DL 5.59 cm LL 22.3 cm the side length is 1 small cube longer, hence 2 cm
2
EL 8.29 cm LL 20.7 cm longer
2
FL 16.3 cm LL 98.0 cm 3 3
GL 15.9 cm LL 55.6 cm
2  D L 21 cm LL 210 cm
2 2
2
E L 54 cm LL 270 cm
 2S cm, 6S cm 3
 146 cm
 D 73.8 cm E 20.3 cm 3 3
 78 m (78.3 m )
area of sector = 1 × S × 8 = 16S,
2

4  327 litres
2
area of circle = S × 4 = 16S  10.2 tonnes
2
 D 107 cm  She was silly because 188160 is simply all the
2
E 173 cm
numbers multiplied together. The volume is
2
 43.6 cm 672 cm

 D 180
S ([HUFLVH)
E If arc length is 10 cm, distance along chord 3 2
 D L 226 cm LL 207 cm
joining the two points of the sector on the 3 2
E L 14.9 cm LL 61.3 cm
circumference will be less than 10 cm, so angle 3 2
F L 346 cm LL 275 cm
at centre will be less than 60° 3 2
G L 1060 cm LL 636 cm
2
 D 66.8° E 10 cm 3 2
 Let sector have radius R and arc length C, the  D L 72S cm LL 48S cm
3 2
angle of the sector is found by E L 112S cm LL 56S cm
3 2
F L 180S cm LL 60S cm
θ = 360 u C G L 600S m
3
LL 120S m
2
2uπuR



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2
 Volume = π × (0.3) × 4.2 = 0.378π ([HUFLVH+
Cost = 0.378 × π × £67.50 = £80.16 which is £80 to 3 2
 D L 3560 cm LL 1430 cm
2sf 3 2
E L 314 cm LL 283 cm
3 2
 1.23 tonnes F L 1020 cm LL 679 cm

 Label should be less than 10.5 cm wide so that it  935 g

fits the can and does not overlap the rim and more 
2
Total area = πrO + πr = π × 3 × O + π × 3
2

than 23.3 cm long to allow an overlap. = (3O+9)π = 24π


2
Volume = π × 32.5 × 100 = 331830.7 cm
3 So 3O+9 = 24, so 3O = 24 – 9 = 15
3 15
1 litre = 1000 cm O= 3 =5
volume = 331830.7 ÷ 1000 = 331.8307 litres =
3 3
332 litres (3 sf)  D 816π cm E 720π mm
2
 There is no right answer. Students could start with  24π cm
the dimensions of a real can. Often drinks cans are
 D 4 cm E 6 cm
not exactly cylindrical. One possible answer is F Various answers, e.g. 60° gives 2 cm, 240°
height of 6.6 cm and diameter of 8 cm. gives 8 cm
3
 7.78 g/cm  If radius of base is U, slant height is 2U.
2
 About 127 cm Area of curved surface = πU × 2U = 2πU , area of
2
base = πU
 A diameter of 10 cm and a length of 5 cm give a  2.7 g/cm
3
3
volume close to 400 cm (0.4 litres).
 2.81 cm
2
([HUFLVH*  252π cm
3 3 3
 D 56 cm E 168 cm F 1040 cm
3 3
G 84 cm H 160 cm ([HUFLVH,
3 3 3
1 1 3  D 36π cm E 288π cm F 1330π cm (3 sf)
 3 base area × h = 3 × 9 × 9 × 10 = 270 cm
2 2 2
 D 36π cm E 100π cm F 196π cm
 D Put the apexes of the pyramids together. The 6 3 2
 65 400 cm , 7850 cm
square bases will then form a cube.
b If the side of the base is a then the height will be 
2
D 1960 cm (to 3sf) E 7444 cm (to nearest unit)
3

1
2 a.  125 cm
3
Total volume of the 6 pyramids is D .
 6232
1 3
Volume of one pyramid is 6 D
 7.8 cm
1 1 2 1
3 × 2 ×D×D 3 × height × base area  D The surface area, because this is the amount of
material (leather or plastic) needed to make the
1 ball
 6.9 m ( 3 height of pyramid) E Surface area can vary from about 1470 cm to
2
2 2
3 3 3
1560 cm , difference of about 90 cm . This
 D 73.3 m E 45 m F 3250 cm seems surprisingly large.
 208 g  48%
 1.5 g  Radius of sphere base radius of cylinder U,
1 height of cylinder 2UCurved surface area of
 3
× 6.4 × 6.4 × + = 81.3 2
cylinder circumference × height 2πU × 2U 4πU
 u  surface area of sphere
So + =  u  = 5.954 = 6.0 (2sf)
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 14.4 cm 2
 29.4 cm
1 3
 Volume of pyramid = 3
× 6 × 9 × 15 = 270 cm  721 cm
2

1 3 3
Volume of part cut off top = 3
× 3 × 2 × 5 = 10 cm  5740 cm (to 3sf)
3
So frustum = 270 – 10 = 260 cm
 610 g (2sf)
volume of frustrum 260 26
Hence volume of pyramid = 270 = 27
 16.6 cm
therefore, Hannah is correct.
 360 g



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 56.5 cm
 D
 Call length of square 2[, so that radius of arcs is [.
2
Then area of square = 4[
1 2
Area of each semicircle = 2
π[ so area of 4 semi
2
circles is 2π[
Area of shaded part is: area of 4 semicircles – area
2
of square = (2π – 4)[
2π  4 2
So percentage shaded = [ × 100 =
4 [2
2π  4
4 × 100 = 57%

1
 3 E

&KDSWHU±$OJHEUD/LQHDUJUDSKV

([HUFLVH$


 F lines in part D intersect at (6, 1), lines in part E

don’t intersect because they are parallel
 D Line isn’t straight
E
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
 y –5 –3 –1 1 3 5 7
  Correct line drawn
 D 

 
E Ian, Ian only charges £85, whilst Joan charges
 D £90 for a 2-hour job.
 D Jada’s method
 D

E (2, 7)
E 4.5 units squared



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([HUFLVH&
 DEFG

 18 units squared

([HUFLVH%
1
 D 2 E 3
F −3 G 1 H −2
1 1 3
I − 3
J5 K −5 L 5
M − 4





HIJK

 D Both answers are correct

E generally the bigger the triangle the more
accurate the answer, so Brianna
 D ladder might slip
E ladder might topple
F L, LL, Y and YL satisfy the safety regulations; LLL
and LY do not
 D 0.5 E 0.4 F 0.2 G 0.1 H 0 LMNO
2 1
 D 1 3 E2 F3 3 G 10 H∞

 Raisa has misread the scales. The second line has

four times the gradient (2.4) of the first (0.6)

 D 3
8
E 2
5
F Although the puzzle appears to be a right-
angled triangle, because the gradients of the
smaller triangles are different there is actually a
bend in the large hypotenuse, so it is actually a
quadrilateral. In the first diagram it has a
concave angle and in the second diagram the
equivalent angle is convex, and the area of the
square hole is spread out between them. 

 0, 2, –1, 1 , – 3
2 2



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LMNO
 D


E (−12, −1)
 D They have the same gradient (3).
E They intercept the \-axis at the same point
 D
(0, −2).
F (−1, −4)
1
 D −2 E 2
F 90°
1
G Negative reciprocal H − 3

([HUFLVH'
 DEFG

E (2, 2)
 D Intersect at (6, 0)
E Intersect at (0, −3)
F Parallel
G −2[+ 9\ = 18
 Dvi Eiii Fv Gii Hi Iiv
 \ = –6[\ = 3[ + 4; 2\ – 5[ = 10; 2\ – [ = 7; \ = 4
 3[ + 2\ = 18 and \ = 9 – [
HIJK  D L [= 3 LL [− \= 4 LLL \= −3
 LY [+ \= −4 Y [= −3 YL \= [+ 4
1 1
E L −3 LL 3 LLL − 3

 Cover-up method for 2[ + \ = 10 and gradient-

intercept method for \ = 11 – 2[

([HUFLVH(
7
 D \= 5 [− 2 or 5\= 7[± 10
E \ = 2[ F 2\= [ + 6
 D L \= 2[+ 1, \= −2[+ 1
LL Reflection in \-axis (and \= 1)
LLL Different sign



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E L 5\= 2[− 5, 5\= −2[− 5 F & = £(10 + 0.078) or Charge = £10 + 7p/unit
LL Reflection in \-axis (and \= −1)
LLL Different sign  D $1900 – $1400 = $500
F L \= [+ 1, \= −[+ 1 E L $7500 LL £3783
LL Reflection in \-axis (and \= 1) 
LLL Different sign
 D [-coordinates go from 2 → 1 → 0 and
\-coordinates go from 5 → 3 → 1.
E [-step between the points is 1 and \-step is 
F \ = 3[ + 2
 D \= −[+ 1
E 5\= −2[− 5
F \= − 32 [− 3 or 2\= −3[− 6

 D L 2\= –[+ 1, \= –2[+ 1

LL Reflection in [= \
LLL Reciprocal of each other
E L 2\= 5[+ 5, 5\= 2[− 5
 \ = 2[ + 15 0ᦪ[≤5
LL Reflection in [= \
LLL Reciprocal of each other \ = [ + 20 5 ᦪ [ ≤ 12
1
F L \= 2, [= 2 \= 2 [ + 26 12 ᦪ [ ≤ 22
LL Reflection in [= \
LLL Reciprocal of each other (reciprocal of zero
is infinity) ([HUFLVH*

 All of the lines except \ = 1

[+9  (4, 1)
4
 (2, 3)
 D \ = –3[ + 5 E \ = 2[ – 4
F \ = 8[ – 3 G \ = 25 – 2[  (3, 10)
H \= 2[–1  (–2, 6)
3

 5[ + 6\ = 30  (–6, –9)
 Chris is correct. The equation of the line is \ =  (1, –1)
1 [ + 2 and (12, 8) satisfies the equation
2  (2, 6)

 D L [ + \ = 100 LL N=1  (2, 8)

E L [ = 46 LL N = 46 1 1
F L \ = 2[ + 1 LL N = 60  (7 2 ,3 2 )
G L \ = [ + 19 LL N = –17
 [ + 2\ = 9.5, 2[ + \ = 8.5
 (4, 11)
Graphs intersect at (2.5, 3.5), so a cheesecake
costs £2.50 and a gâteau costs £3.50.
([HUFLVH)  D P and R E R and S
 D Anya: CabCo £8.50, YellaCabs £8.40, so F P and Q G Q and S
YellaCabs is best; Bettina: CabCo £11.50,  (0, 0), (–3, 3), (–3, –3), (–3, 2), (–2, 2), (2, 2)
YellaCabs £11.60, so CabCo is best; Calista:
CabCo £10, YellaCabs £10, so either  D no solutions, lines are parallel
E If they shared a cab, the shortest distance is 16 E infinite solutions, lines are same
km, which would cost £14.50 with CabCo and F one solution, lines intersect once
£14.80 with Yellacabs.
1 1 ([HUFLVH+
 D L 8 4 kg LL 2 4 kg
 LLL 9 lb LY 22 lb  D Line A does not pass through (0, 1).
E 2.2 lb E Line C is perpendicular to the other two.
F Read off the value for12 lb (5.4 kg) and multiply F (i)
this by 4 (21.6 kg)
1 3 3
 D – 2  E 31  F –2 G 2  H – 32  I – 4
 D 32° F
9
E 5 (Take gradient at & = 10° and 30°)  \ = 3[ + 5, [ + 3\ = 10, \ = 8 – 1
[, \ = 3([ + 2)
3
9
F )= 5 & + 32
 [ = 6 and \ = –2
 D 0.07 (Take gradient at 8 = 0 and 500) [ + \ = 5 and \ = [ + 4
E £10



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\ = 8[ – 9 and \ =  1 [ + 6 
8
2\ = [ + 4 and 2[+ \ = 9
5\ = 2[ + 15 and 2\ + 5[ = 2
\ = 0.1[ + 2 and \ = 33 – 10[
1
 D \= 2 [–2 E \ = –[ + 3
1
F \=– 3 [–1 G \ = 3[ + 5

 D –4
1
E 4
F (11, 7)  
1
G \= 4 [+F
17
Substitute in (11, 7) and solve to get c = 4
, so
4\ – [ = 17
1
 \=– 4
[+2

 L D AB: – 1 , BC: 1, CD: – 1 , DA: 1

5 5
E Parallelogram (two pairs of parallel sides)
2 2
LL D AB: 3 , BC: – 3 , CD: 3 , DA: – 3
2 2
E Rectangle (two pairs of perpendicular sides)
2 1 2
LLL D AB: 5 , BC: 4 , CD: 5 , DA: 1  D 1
(Take gradient at 1 = 0 and 500)
2
E Trapezium (one pair of parallel sides) E £50
\ = – 21 [ + 5
1
 F & = £(50 + 2 ) or £50 + 50p/person
1
 D \ = 3[ – 6  D 10
E Bisector of AB is \ = –2[ + 9, bisector of AC is E 24.5 cm
\= 1
[+ 3
, solving these equations shows the F 0.1 cm or 1 mm
2 2
:
lines intersect at (3, 3). G / = 24.5 + 10
or Length = 24.5 + 1 mm/kg
F (3, 3) lies on \ = 3[ – 6 because (3 × 3) – 6 = 3
 D (5, 5) E (1, 5) F (3, 16)
 (3, 10)
 D 2 E \ = 2[ + 2 F \ = – 21 [ + 7
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV  D Reflection in \-axis ([ = 0); reflection in \ = 1
 (rotations also possible)
E Rotation 90q clockwise; rotation 90q
anticlockwise (reflections also possible)
 30 square units
 36 square units
 (7, 1)


&KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\5LJKWDQJOHG
WULDQJOHV

([HUFLVH$
 Students’ own diagrams
 Possible answers include multiples of 3, 4, 5;
multiples of 5, 12, 13; multiples of 7, 24, 25;
multiples of 8, 15, 17



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 D 4.85 m
 D 10.3 cm E 5.9 cm F 8.5 cm E 4.83 m (There is only a small difference.)
G 20.6 cm H 18.6 cm I 17.5 cm
2 2 2
J 13 cm K 5 cm  Yes, because 24 + 7 = 25
 D √8, √12, √16  6 cm
E Add 4 to 16 to give H4 as √20
 He is partly correct. The perimeter must be larger
 The square in the first diagram and the sum of the
than 20 cm or the rectangle has no width, and the
two squares in the second have the same area.
area is largest when it’s a square, giving a
perimeter of 28.3 cm (3sf). So he should have said
([HUFLVH% the perimeter is between 20 and 28.3 cm.
 D 15 cm E 14.7 cm
F 6.3 cm G 18.3 cm ([HUFLVH'
 D 20.8 m E 15.5 cm  D 32.2 cm
2
E 2.83 cm
2
F 50.0 cm
2

F 15.5 m G 12.4 cm 2
 22.2 cm
 D 5 m E 6 m
2
F 3 m G 50 cm  15.6 cm
 There are infinite possibilities, e.g. any multiple of  D
3, 4, 5 such as 6, 8, 10; 9, 12, 15; 12, 16, 20;
multiples of 5, 12, 13; multiples of 7, 24, 25 and of
8, 15, 17.
2
 498.4 cm
 Any of (0, 0) , (5, 5), (2, 0), (5, 3), (2, 8), (0, 8), 
(–3, 3), (–3, 5) are the most likely points
2 2
E The areas are 12 cm and 13.6 cm
 Use Pythagoras’ theorem to find a few possible respectively, so triangle with 6 cm, 6 cm, 5 cm
dimensions of the rectangle, then plot a graph of sides has the greater area.
one side length against the area. You will see that 2
 D E 166.3 cm
50 is the highest the area will ever get to.
 The large square is 17 by 17 giving 289 square
units.
The red and yellow triangles all have shorter
lengths of 5 and 12, with an area of 30 square
units.
The area of the inner square (green and yellow) 

must be 289 – 4 × 30 = 169, so the hypotenuse of

2
the yellow triangles must be √169 = 13  259.8 cm
2 2 2
You can see that 5 + 12 = 13  D No, areas vary from 24.5 cm to 27.7 cm
2 2

E No, equilateral triangle gives the largest area.

([HUFLVH& F The closer the isosceles triangle gets to an
equilateral triangle the larger its area becomes.
 No. The foot of the ladder is about 6.6 m from the
wall.  Show the right-angled triangle made with
hypotenuse 6.5 m and base 7.4 ÷ 2 = 3.7, giving
 2.06 m the height of the triangle as 5.344 cm. Use area =
 11.3 m ½ × 7.4 × 5.344 to give 19.7733 which rounds to
2
19.8 m (3 sf)
 About 17 minutes, assuming it travels at the same 2
speed.  48 cm

 127 m – 99.6 m = 27.4 m  D 10 cm E 26 cm F 9.6 cm

 6 or 8 cm
 4.58 m
 Andrew didn’t round off any answers until the last
 D 3.87 m E 1.74 m
calculation, and Olly used a rounded off value to
 3.16 m find an intermediate result
 This creates a right-angled triangle with two short
sides of 5 and 12. Use Pythagoras’ theorem to
2 2
show length of line = √( 5 + 12 ) = 13



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([HUFLVH(
 You should have drawn a right angled triangle as
 D L 14.4 cm LL 13 cm LLL 9.4 cm here. H = 13 since this is a 5, 12, 13 Pythagorean
E 15.3 cm triple. See that opposite = 5 and adjacent = 12.
 No, 6.6 m is longest length 5 12
Hence sin [ = 2
+
= 13 and cos [ = 13
 D 20.6 cm E 15.0 cm
 D 8.49 m E 9 m
2 2 2
 10 + 10 + 10 = 300, √300 = 17.3 cm (3sf)

 20.6 cm

 D 11.3 cm E 7 cm F 8.06 cm ([HUFLVH*

2 2 2
 AM = √(22.5 + 15 + 40 ) = 48.283 = 48.3 cm (3sf )  D 30° E 51.7° F 39.8°
 21.3 cm G 61.3° H 87.4° I 45.0°
 D 60° E 50.2° F 2.6°
G 45.0° H 78.5° I 45.6°
([HUFLVH)
 D 31.0° E 20.8° F 41.8°
 D 0.682 E 0.829 F 0.922
G 46.4° H 69.5° I 77.1°
G 1 H 0.707 I 0.342
J 0.375 K 0  D 53.1° E 41.8° F 44.4°
G 56.4° H 2.4° I 22.6°
 D 0.731 E 0.559 F 0.388
G 0 H 0.707 I 0.940  D 36.9° E 48.2° F 45.6°
J 0.927 K 1 G 33.6° H 87.6° I 67.4°
 45°  D 31.0° E 37.9° F 15.9°
G 60.9° H 57.5° I 50.2°
 D L 0.574 LL 0.574
E L 0.208 LL 0.208  D Error message E largest value 1
F L 0.391 LL 0.391 F smallest value –1
G Same
 D L 17.5° LL 72.5° LLL 90°
H L sin 15° is the same as cos 75°
E Yes
LL cos 82° is the same as sin 8°
LLL sin [ is the same as cos (90° – [) 
 D 0.933 E 1.48 F 2.38
G Infinite (calculator will give a maths error)
H 1 I 0.364 J 0.404
K 0

 D 0.956 E 0.899 F 2.16
G 0.999 H 0.819 I 0.577 2 2
J 0.469 K 0.996 Adj = 1, Hyp = 2, hence Opp = √(2 – 1 ) = √3

 Has values ᦫ 1 D 30 is the other acute angle in the triangle and so
 D 4.53 E 4.46 F 6 G 0 for 30, opp = 1 and adj = √3, hence tan30 = 1
3

 D 10.7 E 5.40 E tan 60 = √3

F 68.58 G 0 3
F sin 60 = 2 = 0.87
 D 3.56 E 8.96 F 28.4 G 8.91 3
G cos 30 = 2 = 0.87
 D 5.61 E 11.3 F 6 G 10
1
H sin 30 = 2
 D 1.46 E 7.77 F 0.087 G 9.33
2 2
 D 7.73 E 48.6 F 2.28 G 15.2  Adj = 1, Opp = 1, hence Hyp = √(1 + 1 ) = √2
1
 D 29.9 E 44.8 F 20.3 G 2.38 D sin 45 =
2
1
4 3 4 E cos 45 =
 D 5 , 5, 3 2
7 24 7
E 25 , 25 , 24
([HUFLVH+
 D 17.5° E 22.0° F 32.2°
 D 5.29 cm E 5.75 cm F 13.2 cm
 D 4.57 cm E 6.86 cm F 100 cm



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 D 5.12 cm E 9.77 cm  D 9.02 cm E 7.51 cm

F 11.7 cm G 15.5 cm F 7.14 cm G 8.90 cm
 D 47.2° E 5.42 cm  D 13.7 cm E 48.4°
F 13.7 cm G 38.0° F 7.03 cm G 41.2°
 D 6 E 15 F 30  D 12 E 12 F 2
1  D √3 = 1.73
 D 2
E 
E and F




 D 1
1
 D E E 
2

 

([HUFLVH, ([HUFLVH.
 D 51.3° E 75.5° F 51.3°  D 12.6 E 59.6 F 74.7
G 16.0 H 67.9 I 20.1
 D 6.47 cm E 32.6 cm F 137 cm
 D 44.4° E 39.8° F 44.4°
 D 7.32 cm E 39.1 cm F 135 cm G 49.5° H 58.7° I 38.7°
 D 5.35 cm E 14.8 cm  D 67.4° E 11.3 F 134
F 12.0 cm G 8.62 cm G 28.1° H 39.7 I 263
 D 5.59 cm E 46.6° J 50.2° K 51.3° L 138
F 9.91 cm G 40.1° M 22.8

 D 10 E 39 F 2.5  D Sides of right-hand triangle are sine and cosine

1 E Pythagoras’ theorem
 D 2  F Students should check the formulae
 
30° 45° 60°
1 1 3
Sine 2 2 2
3 1 1
Cosine 2
EF 2 2
1 1
 D
2
 Tangent 3
1 √3

E-F ([HUFLVH/
 65°
 The safe limits are between 1.04 m and 2.05 m.
The ladder will reach between 5.63 m and 5.90 m
up the wall.
  44°
 6.82 m
([HUFLVH-
 31°
 D 33.7° E 36.9° F 52.1°
 D 25° E 2.10 m
 D 5.09 cm E 30.4 cm F 1120 cm
F Thickness of wood has been ignored
 D 8.24 cm E 62.0 cm F 72.8 cm
 D 20° E 4.78 m



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 She would calculate 100 tan 23°. The answer is ([HUFLVH3

about 42.4 m
 D 5.79 cm E 48.2°
 21.1 m F 7.42 cm G 81.6 cm

 One way is stand opposite a feature, such as a  9.86 m

tree, on the opposite bank, move a measured  D 36.4 cm
2
E 115 cm
2
2 2
distance, [, along your bank and measure the F 90.6 cm G 160 cm
angle, ș, between your bank and the feature. Width 2
 473 cm
of river is [ tan ș. This of course requires
2
measuring equipment! An alternative is to walk  39.0 cm 
along the bank until the angle is 45° (if that is
8
possible). This angle is easily found by folding a  Base radius given by 8tan31°, so volume = 3 ×
2
sheet of paper. This way an angle measurer is not π(8tan31) = 193.57357 = 194 (3sf)
required.
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
([HUFLVH0 2
 13.6 cm
 10.1 km
 2 pm
 22° 2 2 2
 diagonal = √(3 + 4 + 12 ) = √169 = 13
 429 m
 237°
 D 156 m
 52.3°
( 200
–1
E No. the new angle of depression is tan 312
)
33° and half of 52° is 26°  D AX and BY are both radii to the tangents at A
and B and so perpendicular to AB, hence
 D 222 m E 42° parallel. So ABYX is a trapezium.
E Draw in a line, YT, parallel to the base AB, so
 D 21.5 m E 17.8 m
that T lies on AX. This gives a right-angled
 D 13.4 m triangle with height (7 – 2) cm = 5 cm.
E We don’t know if the angle of elevation is from The hypotenuse is (7 + 2) cm = 9 cm, hence the
Sunil’s feet or head. This would make a line YT, which is the same length as
2 2
difference to the answer as we would need to AB = √(9 – 5 ) = √56 = 7.4833…
add Sunil’s height if the angle was from his The area of the trapezium = AB × (7 + 2)/2 =
head. 7.4833 × 4.5 = 33.6749 = 33.7 cm² (3sf)
2
1 −1  110 cm 
 Cos θ = 3 so cos 0.3333 = 70.5° (3sf)
 Using square roots is dependent on remembering
 The angle is 16° so Cara is not quite correct. 3
that sin 60° = 2 , then calculating this as 0.866
 William is 137 m away, Isaac is 107 m away.
(3sf).
Using the equilateral triangle will give sin 60° as
([HUFLVH1 Height of triangle/10. The height found by
2 2
 D 73.4 km E 15.6 km Pythagoras as √(10 – 50 ) = √75 = 8.660254, so
sin 60° = 0.866 (3sf).
 D 14.7 miles E 8.5 miles
Both answers are the same.
 Draw a diagram representing the relative places. 
Your diagram will show the angle of the bearing to
-1
fly the direct route as 90° + tan (70/120) = 120°. &KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\DQGPHDVXUHV
So the bearing for the direct route is 120°.
6LPLODULW\
 D 59.4 km E 8.4 km
 D 15.9 km E 24.1 km
([HUFLVH$
F 31.2 km G 052°
 D Yes, 4
 2.28 km
E No, corresponding sides have different ratios.
 235°  D 1 : 3
 D 66.2 km E 11.7 km E Angle R
F 13.1 km G 170° F BA

 48.4 km on a bearing of 100°



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 D Angle P E PR 
Linear Linear Linear Area Volume
 D Same angles
scale ratio fraction scale scale
E Angle Q
factor factor factor
F AR
2
2 1:2 4 8
 D 8 cm 1
E 7.5 cm 3
F [ = 6.67 cm, \ = 13.5 cm 3 1:3 9 27
1
G [ = 24 cm, \ = 13 cm
1 1 1 1
H AB = 10 cm, PQ = 6 cm 4:1
4 4 16 64
I 4.2 cm
5
 D Sides in same ratio E 1:3 5 1:5 25 125
1
F 13 cm G 39 cm
1 1 1 1
10 : 1
 5.2 m 10 10 100 1000

 Corresponding sides are not in the same ratio,


12 : 15 ≠ 16 : 19.  135 cm
2

 Jay is wrong: DE = 17.5 cm; AC : EC = BA : DE, 5 : 2

 D 56 cm
12.5 = 7 : DE, DE = 7 × 12.5 ÷ 5 = 17.5 cm E 126 cm
2

2
 D 48 m
([HUFLVH% 2
E 3 m
 D ABC and ADE; 9 cm 3
 D 2400 cm
E ABC and ADE; 12 cm 3
E 8100 cm
 D 5 cm
 Length ratio = 1 : 2, so volume ratio = 1 : 8. So
E 5 cm
F [ = 60 cm, \ = 75 cm large tin volume = 0.5 × 8 = 4 litres
G DC = 10 cm, EB = 8 cm  1.38 m
3

 82 m
 D £6
SROH 400 4 E Assume that the cost is only based on the
 330
= 600  pole = 330 × 6 = 220
volume of paint in the tin.
 15 m  4 cm
 3.3 m  8 × 60p = £4.80 so it is better value to buy the large
 1.8 m tub

 BC
= 9
, hence BC = 9 × 9
= 13.5 cm  D 3 : 4
9 6 6 E 9 : 16
 c F 27 : 64
3
 720 ÷ 8 = 90 cm
([HUFLVH&
 D 5 cm ([HUFLVH(
E 6 cm  D 111 cm
3
E 641 cm 
3
F 10 cm F 267 cm
3
G 426 cm
3
G [ = 6 cm, \ = 7.5 cm
3
H [ = 15 cm, \ = 21 cm  D Height = 6 cm, Volume = 25 cm
3
I [ = 3 cm, \ = 2.4 cm E Height = 8 cm, Volume = 51 cm 
F Height = 4 cm, Mass = 105 g
[ +12 180 1.7 2136 3
 D 12 =  [= 0.3 = 7120 m, just over G Height = 3 cm, Volume = 130 cm 
21.7
7 km.  6.2 cm, 10.1 cm
E the assumption is that the building, the brick
wall and Brad are all standing on the same  4.26 cm, 6.74 cm
level.
+2 200
 = 140
82
([HUFLVH' 2 200
+ = 64 × 140 = 91.428571
 D L 1:9 LL 4 : 25 LLL 16 : 49
H = √91.428571 = 9.56 (3sf)
E L 1 : 27 LL 8 : 125 LLL 64 : 343
 3.38 m
 8.39 cm



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 26.5 cm  D 0.2, 0.25, 0.38, 0.42, 0.385, 0.397

E 80
 16.9 cm
 D Caryl, most throws E 0.39. 0.31, 0.17, 0.14
 D 4.33 cm, 7.81 cm E 143 g, 839 g F Yes, it is more likely to give a 1 or 2
 53.8 kg  Thursday as it had the highest proportion
 1.73 kg  The missing top numbers are 4 and 5; the two
 8.8 cm bottom numbers are likely to be close to 20.
 Although you would expect the probability to be
 7.9 cm and 12.6 cm
close to 21 , hence 500 heads, it is more likely that
 b
the number of heads is close to 500 rather than
actually 500.
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 Roxy is correct, as the expected numbers are: 50,
 Let height of larger triangle = K.
12.5, 25, 12.5. Sam has not taken into account the
K 40
Using similar triangles: 35  K = 30 fact that there are four red sectors.
Rearrange to 30K = 1400 – 40K
which gives 70K = 1400
K = 20 cm ([HUFLVH%
So small triangle is 35 – 20 = 15 cm tall.  D Yes E Yes F No
Thus the difference between the heights is 20 cm – G No H Yes I Yes
15 cm = 5 cm
 Events Dand I
 D For similar shapes, if the ratio of lengths is 1 : [,
3
then the ratio of volumes will be 1 : [ , so if 
3
5
ratio of lengths is 1 : 3, the ratio of volumes will
3
be 1 : 3 = 1 : 27 3 3 3
E Yes, because if the size (volume) of the plant  D L 10  LL 10  LLL 10
increases by a factor of 27, the lengths have 9 4
increased by a factor of 3. Hence the new LY 10 Y 5
height should be 4 cm × 3 = 12 cm, which it is. E All except LLL
F Event LY
 Andrew is correct, Eve has calculated the length of
AD (8 cm) so ED should be 2 cm.  D Jane/John, Jane/Jack, Jane/Anne, Jane/Dave,
3
Dave/John, Dave/Jack, Dave/Anne, Anne/John,
 D 6 cm E 16 cm Anne/Jack, Jack/John
1 3
324 E L  LL 10 
 D Area scale factor = 100 = 3.24, length scale 10
3 7
factor = √3.24 = 1.8, length of cylinder B = 5 × LLL 10  LY 10 
1.8 = 9 F All except LLL
3
E 933 cm G Event LL

3
 D 8  E 81 
&KDSWHU±3UREDELOLW\([SORULQJ F All except LL
G Outcomes overlap
DQGDSSO\LQJSUREDELOLW\
3
 20 
([HUFLVH$
1
 75 
1 2 1 21 37 163 329
 D 5 , 25 , 10 , 200 , 250 , 1000 , 2000
1  Not mutually exclusive events
E 6 F 1 G 6
H 1000
 D L 0.25 LL 0.4 LLL 0.7
19 27 4 53 69 E Events not mutually exclusive
 D 200 , 200 , 25 , 200 , 200
F Man/woman, American man/American woman
E 40 G Man/woman
F No, it is weighted towards the side with
numbers 4 and 5  D L 0.95
LL 0.9 (assuming person chooses one or other)
 D 32 is too high, unlikely that 20 of the 50 throws LLL 0.3
between 50 and 100 were 5 E Events not mutually exclusive
E Yes, all frequencies fairly close to 100 F Possible answer: pork and vegetarian

 D B E B F C G A  These are not mutually exclusive events.

H B I A J B K B



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([HUFLVH&
 D
 25
 1000
 D 260 E 40 F 130 G 10
 5
 D 150 E 100 F 250 G 0
 D 167 E 833
 1050

 D 
Score 1 2 3 4 5 6
E 9 or 11 F 0
Expected 10 10 10 10 10 10
15 5 30 5
occurrences G 36 = 12 H 36 = 6
E 1 × 10 + 2 × 10 + 3 × 10 + 4 × 10 + 5 × 10 + 6 ×
10 = 210 ÷ 60 = 3.5
([HUFLVH(
F Find the average of the scores, which is 21
6
 D 0.9 E 0.7
21 = 3.5
 D 0.75 E 0.45
 D 0.111 E 40
 D
 281 days
 Multiply the number of tomato plants by 0.997
 400

([HUFLVH'
4
 D 23 E 20% F 25  G 480 
2 3
E L 5 LL 5 LLL 21
 D 10 E 7 F 14% G 15%
1 7
LY 2 Y 10 YL 51 
 D
      
5 6 7 8 9  D L 0.52 LL 0.48 LLL 0.65
6 7 8 9 10 LY 0.35 Y 0.82 YL 0.35
7 8 9 10 11 E 0.3
8 9 10 11 12
 D
E 4
1 3 1
F L 4  LL 16  LLL 4

51
 D 16 E 16 F 73 G 73 

 D
     

1 2 3 4 5 6 E L 0.5 LL 0.6 LLL 0.3
2 4 6 8 10 12
1  D 65 E 70 F 90
E 3 F 4
 
2
 D 45 E 40% F 45%
G No, as you don’t know how much the people
who get over £350 actually earn
22 11
 36 = 18


1 2
D 2 E 5
7 1
F 10 G 5



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 D 130  D L 0.8 LL 12
8 
E L 13 E No asP(six) =  , so Tom is likely to throw 10
LL The probability that a student chosen at sixes
random walks to and from school
5
 Draw a two-way table to show the outcomes
F 26 
     
 0.4
 2 3 4 5 6
 0.5  3 4 5 6 7
 4 5 6 7 8
 D ($ ‰ %)ᦡ E ($ ˆ %)ᦡ  5 6 7 8 9
 6 7 8 9 10
 37  
80 P(score greater than 6) =  , as  <  , she is

 D likely to lose the game

 D 0.3 E 0.5 F 0.6 G 0.3


&KDSWHU±1XPEHU3RZHUVDQG
VWDQGDUGIRUP

 ([HUFLVH$
E 4 5 2 3
 D 2 E 3 F 7 G 5
7 4 1 7
H 10 I 6 J 4 K 1
4 3
L 0.5 M 100
 D 3×3×3×3
E 9×9×9
F 6×6
G 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
 H 2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2×2
F I 8
J 0.1 × 0.1 × 0.1
K 2.5 × 2.5
L 0.7 × 0.7 × 0.7
M 1000 × 1000
 D 16 E 243 F 49
G 125 H 10 000 000 I 1296
J 4 K 1 L 0.0625
M 1 000 000
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV  D 81 E 729 F 36
1 7 G 100 000 H 1024 I 8
 D 2 E 10 J 0.001 K 6.25 L 0.343
M 1 000 000
 D 0.28
3
E the frequencies should all be close to 25  125 m
2 3 2
 D L
3
 LL 10 red, 6 green, 4 blue  E 10 F 2 G 5
10
E she may not have taken one in the 10 trials  3: 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729 – pattern is 3, 9, 7, 1

  4: 4, 16, 64, 256, 1024, 4096 – pattern is 4, 6

%R\V *LUOV 7RWDO 5: 5, 125, 625, 3125, 15 625, 78 125 – all 5

Walk to school 9 21 30  D 1 E 4 F 1
Do not walk to school 18 2 20 G 1 H 1
7RWDO 27 23 50  Any power of 1 is equal to 1.
19 3 36 6
 D 110 E 55  F 22 G 55   10
6
 D 0.18 E 0.49  10
F No as the probabilities are close to 0.2



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 D 1 E –1 F 1 G 1 H –1 F 0.004 67 G 3.46

H 0.207 89 I 0.056 78
 D 1 E –1 F –1 G 1 H 1 J 0.0246 K 0.0076
24
 2 , 4 , 8 , 16
12 8 6 L 0.000 000 999 M 2.3456
N 0.098 7654 O 0.000 043 23
 [ = 6 P 0.000000034578 Q 0.000 000 000 06
R 0.000 0005 67 S 0.005 600 45
([HUFLVH%  D 230 E 578 900
4 3 2 3 –5 F 4790 G 57 000 000
 D 5 E 5 F 5 G 5 H 5 H 216 I 10 500
 D 6
3
E 6
0
F 6
6
G 6
–7
H 6
2 J 0.000 32 K 9870

 D D
3
E D
5
F D
7  D, E and F
4 2 1
G D H D I D  Power 24 means more digits in the answer, so
 D Any two values such that [  \ 10 Venus is heavier.
E Any two values such that [ – \ 10  6
6 15 6
 D 4 E 4 F 4 ([HUFLVH'
–6 6 0
G 4 H 4 I 4
5 2 6  D 0.31 E 0.031 F 0.0031 G 0.000 31
 D 6D E 9D F 8D
G –6D
4
H 8D
8
I –10D
–3
 D 0.65 E 0.065 F 0.0065 G 0.000 65
99
 D 3D E 4D
3
F 3D
4
 D 9999999999 × 10
–99
G 6D
–1
H 4D
7
I 5D
–4
E 0.000000001 ×10 (depending on number of
5 4 3 –2 –2 digits displayed)
 D 8D E E 10D E F 30D E
G 2DE
3 –5 7
H 8D E I
5 –5
4D E  D 31 E 310 F 3100 G 31 000

 D 3D E
3 2
E 3D F
2 4
F 8D E F
2 2 3  D 65 E 650 F 6500 G 65 000
 D Possible answer: 6[² × 2\ and 3[\ × 4[\
5 4  D 250 E 34.5 F 0.004 67
2 7 2 6 8 4 3
E Possible answer: 24[ \ ÷ 2\ and 12[ \ ÷ [ \ G 34.6 H 897 000 I 0.00865
J 60 000 000 K 0.000 567
 12 (D = 2, E = 1, F = 3) 2 –1
 D 2.5 × 10 E 3.45 × 10
4 9
 1 = D[·D[ D[±[ D F 4.67 × 10 G 3.4 × 10
10 –4
H 2.078 × 10 I 5.678 × 10
–4 –3
([HUFLVH& J 6 × 10 K 5.67 × 10
1
L 5.60045 × 10
 D 60 000 E 120 000 F 150 5 1 6
G 42 000 H 1400 I 300  2.81581 × 10 , 3 × 10 , 1.382101 × 10
J 400 K 8000 L 160 000 7 9
 1.298 × 10 , 2.997 × 10 , 9.3 × 10
4
M 4500 N 8000 O 250 000
 100
 D 5 E 50 F 25 G 30 H 7
I 300 J 6 K 30 L 1 M 15
N 40 O 5 P 40 Q 320 ([HUFLVH(
3 2
 D 54 400 E 16 000  D 5.67 × 10 E 6 × 10
–1 3
F 3.46 × 10 G 7 × 10
 30 × 90 000 = 2 700 000 H 1.6 I 2.3 × 10
7

600 × 8000 = 4 800 000 J 3 × 10

–6
K 2.56 × 10
6

5000 × 4000 = 20 000 000 L 4.8 × 10

2
M 1.12 × 10
2

200 000 × 700 = 140 000 000 N 6 × 10

–1
O 2.8 × 10
6

 1400 million  D 4.81 ¯ 10

8
E 9.15 ¯ 10 
12
9 14
 D 31 E 310 F 3100 G 31 000 F 5.67 ¯ 10 G 1.46 ¯ 10
22 9
H 1.63 ¯ 10 I 1.2 × 10
2
 D 65 E 650 F 6500 G 65 000 J 1.08 K 6.4 × 10
1
 D 0.31 E 0.031 F 0.0031 G 0.000 31 L 1.2 × 10 M 2.88
7 –6
N 2.5 × 10 O 8 × 10
 D 0.65 E 0.065 F 0.0065 G 0.000 65 14 8
 D 2.64 ¯ 10 E 1.22 ¯ 10
 D 250 E 34.5 F 4670 F 1.6 × 10
9
G 3.9 × 10
–2

G 346 H 207.89 I 56 780 H 9.6 × 10

8
I 4.6 × 10
–7

J 246 K 0.76 L 999 000 J 2.1 × 10

3
K 3.6 × 10
7

M 23 456 N 98 765.4 O 43 230 000 L 1.5 × 10

2
M 3.5 × 10
9

P 345.78 Q 6000 R 56.7 N 1.6 × 10

4
O 3.81 ¯ 10
8

S 560 045 P 7.18 ¯ 10

12

 D 0.025 E 0.345  D 2.7 × 10 E 1.6 × 10

–2



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–1 –8 7 14 2
F 2 × 10 G 4 × 10  D 4.16 ¯ 10 cm E 1.056 ¯ 10 cm
5 –2
H 2 × 10 I 6 × 10
–5 2
J 2 × 10 K 5 × 10 &KDSWHU±$OJHEUD(TXDWLRQVDQG
L 2 × 10
–3 LQHTXDOLWLHV
 D 5.4 × 10 E 2.9 × 10
–10
F 1.1 G 6.3 × 10
2 –2
H 2.8 × 10 I 5.5 × 10 ([HUFLVH$
2 6
J 4.9 × 10 K 8.6 × 10
 D 30 E 21 F 72 G 12
13 –10 3 1
 2 × 10 , 1 × 10 , mass 2 × 10 g (2 kg) H 6 I 10 2 J –10 K 7

 D (2 )
63
9.2 × 1018 grains L 11 M 2 N 7 O 2 54
64 19
E 2 –1 1.8 × 10 1 1
P 1 Q 11 2 R 5
7
 D 6 × 10 sq miles E 30%
 Any valid equations
4
 5 × 10
 D Amanda
5
 2.3 × 10 E First line: Betsy adds 4 instead of multiplying by 5.
8 Second line: Betsy adds 5 instead of multiplying
 4.55 × 10 kg
by 5.
6 6
 D 2.048 × 10 E 4.816 × 10 Fourth line: Betsy subtracts 2 instead of dividing
2 by 2.
 2.5 × 10
[ +10
 9.41 × 10
4  D 5 = 9.50
E £37.50
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 D 8 E student’s own checks
 D L 2
4
LL 2
8 3
3 9
E L 10 LLL 10
([HUFLVH%
 D 1 500 000 E 6 000 000 000
1 1
 D 196  D 2 E 1 5 F 2 G –2
E units digits is 5 × 5 = 25 so it should end in 5 H –1 I –2 J –2 K –1
9 4
 D 7 E [  Any values that work, e.g. D= 2, E= 3 and F= 30.
F Adds numbers and multiplies powers, but
9  55
should be the other way round. 15[
8 5 6 7 5  3 cm
 D W E P F 9[ G 10D K
11 –5 5 3
 5
 D [ E P F 8N P
 Multiplying out the brackets and simplifying gives
4
 D 7.5 × 10 E 0.009 4[– 24 = 0 which has the solution [ = 6
9 12
 D 2\ E 8P S  168q
–7
 2.48 × 10
24
([HUFLVH&
 1000 litres in a cubic metre, 5.3 × 10 ÷ 2000 =
2.65 × 10
21  D [= 2 E \= 1 F D= 7 G W= 4
H S= 2 I N= –1 J P= 3 K V= –2
4 2 9
 Yes: (6.5 × 10 ) = 4.225 × 10
4 2 9  3[± 2 = 2[+ 5, [= 7
(6 × 10 ) = 3.6 × 10
4 2 8 9
(2.5 × 10 ) = 6.25 × 10 = 0.625 × 10  D G= 6 E [= 11 F \= 1 G K= 4
9 9 9
3.6 × 10 + 0.625 × 10 = 4.225 × 10 H E= 9 I F= 6
7 7
 2.6 × 10 ÷ 2 = 1.3 × 10 ,  D 6[+ 3 = 6[+ 10; 6[± 6[= 10 – 3; 0 = 7, which
7 6 6
short side = 1.3 × 10 – 8 × 10 = 13 × 10 – 8 × is obviously false. Both sides have 6[, which
6 6
10 = 5 × 10 cancels out.
6 6 12 13
Area = 5 × 10 × 8 × 10 = 40 × 10 = 4 × 10 E Multiplying out the brackets gives 12[ + 18 =
 1.5 × 10 sq miles
7 12[ + 18, which is true for all values of [
 8[+ 7 + [+ 4 = 11[+ 5 – [± 4, [= 10
 13 875 000
8 9  D They are both equal to the length of the
 Any value from 1 × 10 to 1 × 10 (excluding
8 9 rectangle
1 × 10 and 1 × 10 ), i.e. any value of the form E 70 cm
2
8
D × 10 where 1 < D ᦪ 10
 D 15
 38.625 E –1
F 2(Q+ 3), 2(Q+ 3) – 5



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G 2(Q+ 3) – 5 = Q, 2Q+ 6 – 5 = Q, 2Q+ 1 = Q, Q= –1 the solution to B and C; (3, –3) is the solution to B
 4[+ 18 = 3[+ 1 + 50, [= 33. Large bottle 1.5 litres, and D.
small bottle 1 litre  84p
 8  10.3 kg
 £4.40
([HUFLVH'
 S 36, F 22. Total weight for Baz is 428 pounds
 D [=41,\=11 E [ = –2, \ = 4 so he can carry the load safely on his trailer.
2 2
F [ = 2 , \ = –1 1
1  E £3.50, S £1.75. Camilla needs £35 so she will
2 2
not have enough money.
 D D = 7, E = 10 E F = 4, G = 11
F H = 5, I = 3  D Intersection points are (0, 6), (1, 3) and (2, 4).
2
Area is 2 cm .
 [ = 12, \ = 2 E Intersection points are (0, 3), (3, 3) and (4, –1).
2
Area is 6 cm .
([HUFLVH(
 When Carmen worked out (2) – (3), she should
 D [ = 9, \ = –2 have got \ 6
E [ = ½, \ = 5 F [ = –3, \ = –10 When Jeff rearranged 2[  8 – [ 10, he should
have got [ 2
 D [=21,\=61 They also misunderstood ‘two, six’ as this
4 2
E [ = 4, \ = 3 F [ = 5, \ = 3 means [ 2 and \ 6, not the other way round.

 D [ = 1, \ = 3 E [ = 5, \ = 9
([HUFLVH+
([HUFLVH)  D \ ≤ 3 E [<6 F W ≥ 18
G [<7 H [≤3 I W≥5
 D [ = 2, \ = 5 E [ = 4, \ = –3
 D 16 E 3 F 7
F [ = 1, \ = 7 G [ = 1, \ = 3
2 4
 2[ + 3 < 20, [ < 8.50, so the most each could cost
H [ = –1, \ 5 I [ 11,\ 3
is £8.49
2 4

 D [ 5, \ 1 E [ 3, \ 8  D Because 3 + 4 = 7, which is less than the third

F [ 9, \ 1 G [ 7, \ 3 side of length 8
H [ 4, \ 2 I [ 6, \ 5 E [ + [ + 2 > 10, 2[ + 2 > 10, 2[ > 8, [ > 4, so
smallest value of [is 5

([HUFLVH*  D [ = 6 and [ < 3 scores −1 (nothing in common),

[ < 3 and [ > 0 scores +1 (1 in common for
 D 3 is the first term. The next term is 3 × D  E, example), [ > 0 and [ = 2 scores +1 (2 in
which equals 14. common), [ = 2 and [ ≥ 4 scores −1 (nothing in
E 14D  E 47 F D 3, E 5 common), so we get − 1 + 1 + 1 − 1 = 0
G 146, 443 E [ > 0 and [ = 6 scores +1 (6 in common), [ = 6 and
[ ≥ 4 scores +1 (6 in common), [ ≥ 4 and [ = 2
 Amul £7.20, Kim £3.50
scores −1 (nothing in common), [ = 2 and [ < 3
 D 3W  5E 810, 3W  3E 630 scores +1 (2 in common). + 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 = 2
E £10.20 F Any acceptable combination, e.g. [ = 2,
[ < 3, [ > 0, [ ≥ 4, [ = 6
 D They are the same equation. Divide the first by
2 and it is the second, so they have an infinite 14
 D y≤4 E x ≥ −2 F x≤ 5
number of solutions.
1 7
E Double the second equation to get 6[  2\ 14 G x > 38 H x<62 I y≤ 5
and subtract to get 9 14. The left-hand sides
are the same if the second is doubled so they  D 3 < [ < 6 E 2 < [ < 5 F −1 < [ ≤ 3
cannot have different values. G 1 ≤ [ < 4 H 2 ≤ [ < 4 I 0 ≤ [” 5

 D 10[  5\ 840, 8[  10\ 1044  D {4, 5} E {3, 4} F {0, 1, 2, 3}

E £4.07 G {1, 2, 3} H {2, 3} I {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

 D My age minus 6 equals 2 × (my son’s age  6

minus 6)
E [ = 46 and \ = 26 ([HUFLVH,
 (1, –2) is the solution to equations A and C;  D [ < 2 E [ ≥ −1 F 3 ᦪ [ ᦪ 6
(–1, 3) is the solution to equations A and D; (2, 1) is



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 ([HUFLVH-


 



 D Because 3 apples plus the chocolate bar cost

more that £1.20: [ > 22
E Because 2 apples plus the chocolate bar left
Max with at least 16p change: [ ≤ 25 
F

G Apples could cost 23p, 24p or 25p.

 Any two inequalities that overlap only on the
integers −1, 0, 1 and 2 – for example, [ > −1 and [
<3
 1 and 4
 4(35 – 7[) = 84
35 – 7[ =21
7[ = 14  D
[=2
Also 35 – 7[ > 0
[<5
So the diagram represents this.
 D [>2

E L Yes LL Yes LLL No





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 D  For example, [ ≥ 1, \ ≤ 3 and \ ≥ [ + 1. There are

many other valid answers.
 May be true: a, c, d, g
Must be false: b, e, h
Must be true: f H
 Test a point such as the origin (0, 0), so 0 < 0 + 2,
E which is true. So the side that includes the origin is
the required side.
 D (3, 0) E (4, 5)
 £59.50

([HUFLVH.
 D 4 and 5 E 4 and 5 F 2 and 3
F  [= 3.5
 D [= 3.7
E L [= 2.4 LL [= 2.8 LLL [= 3.2
F [= 5.8
 Student’s own working

 D±G  [= 1.5

 
3
Guess 3x + 2x Comment
6 660 Too low
7 1043 Too high
6.5 836.875 Too low
6.8 956.896 Too high
6.7 915.689 Too high
6.6 875.688 Too low
6.65 895.538875 Too low

 D Area = [([+ 5) = 100

E Width = 7.8 cm, length = 12.8 cm
3 2
 Volume = [î 2[([+ 8) = 500, [ + 8[ = 250, 4 Ÿ
H L No LL Yes LLL Yes 192, 5 Ÿ 325, 4.4 Ÿ 240.064, 4.5 Ÿ 253.125, 4.45
Ÿ 246.541125, so dimensions are 4.5 cm, 9 cm
 D±I
and 12.5 cm
 Steph is correct because if 7.05 is too low then the
answer will round up to 7.1
3 [ [ 2
 D Cube is [ , hole is 2 × 2 × 8 = 2[ .
Cube minus hole is 1500
E 12 Ÿ 1440, 13 Ÿ 1859, 12.1 Ÿ 1478.741,
12.2 Ÿ 1518.168, 12.15 Ÿ 1498.368 375
J L No LL No LLL Yes so the value of [= 12.2 (to 1 dp)
 D  2.76 and 7.24

5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 8
 3 years
 Length is 5.5 m, width is 2.5 m and area is
2
13.75 m . Carpet costs £123.75
E L No LL Yes
LLL Yes LY No  D B: 3 [, C: 3 [, D: 1 [
8 8 4



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E 3 [ = 300, 800 cars  D [ + \ t 7, \ d 2[ – 1, \ t 1 [

8 2
F : 1 [= 500, 750 cars E \ d [ – 3, [ > 2, [ + \ < 8
4

 No, as [+ [+ 2 + [+ 4 + [+ 6 = 360 gives [= 87° &KDSWHU±1XPEHU&RXQWLQJ
so the consecutive numbers (87, 89, 91, 93) are not DFFXUDF\SRZHUVDQGVXUGV
even but odd
 2 hr 10 min ([HUFLVH$
 –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8  D 0.5 E 0. 3 F 0.25
 Dx = 7, Ex<7 G 0.2 H 0.1. 6  I 0. 1 4285 7
J 0.125 K 0. 1 L 0.1
M 0. 0 7692 3

 D 4 = 0.5714285…
7
 D 6.3 E Solve as a linear equation 5 = 0.714 285 7…
7
 L –3 < [ < 1, number line E; 6 = 0.8571428…
LL –2 < [< 4, number line below; 7
LLL–1 < [ < 2, number line D E They all contain the same pattern of digits,
starting at a different point in the pattern.
 0. 1 , 0. 2 , 0. 3 , etc. Digit in decimal fraction same
as numerator.

 2.78  0. 0 9 , 0. 1 8 , 0. 2 7 , etc. Sum of digits in recurring

pattern 9. First digit is one less than numerator.
 £62
 0.444 ..., 0.454 ..., 0.428 ..., 0.409 ..., 0.432 ...,
 £195 0.461 ...;
9 , 3 , 16 , 4 , 5 , 6
 D [ = 4, \ = 3 22 7 37 9 11 13
E L 1000[ + 1000\ = 7000 o [ + \ = 7
LL 984[ – 984\ = 984 o [ – \ = 1  D 1 E 17 F 29 G 5
8 50 40 16
F D = 9, E = 5
H 89 I 1 J 2 7 K 7
 Let straight part of track = D, inner radius of end = 100 20 20 32
U, outer radius = r + [  D 0.08 3 E 0.0625 F 0.05
[ being the width of the track G 0.04 H 0.02
Length of inner track = 2D +2πU = 300 L
Length of outer track = 2D +2π(U + [) = 320 LL  D 4 E 6 F 5
3 5 2
Subtract equation L from LL to give
2π(U + [) – 2πU = 20 G 10 H 20  I 15
7 11 4
2πU + 2π[ – 2πU = 20
2π[ = 20  D 0.75, 1. 3 ; 0.8 3 , 1.2; 0.4, 2.5; 0.7, 1. 4 2857 1 ;
[ = 3.2 2sf 0.55, 1. 8 1 ; 0.2 6 , 3.75
 D E Not always true, e.g. reciprocal of 0.4 ( 2 ) is 5
5 2
2.5
 1 ÷ 0 is infinite, so there is no finite answer.
 D 10
E 2
F The reciprocal of a reciprocal is always the
original number.
 The reciprocal of [ is greater than the reciprocal of \.
For example, 2 , 10, reciprocal of 2 is 0.5,
reciprocal of 10 is 0.1, and 0.5 > 0.1

 Possible answer: – 1 × –2 1, – 1 × –3 1
2 3
1
E 4 square units
2  D 24.24242 ... E 24
F It’s infinite
F 24   8
99 33
 –4, –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
 D 8 E 34 F 5 G 21
9 99 11 37



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H 4 I 2 J 13 K 1  [ 8 and \ 4 (or [ \ 1)
9 45 90 22
1
L 27 M 7 7 N 31 O 2 2  
2097152
9 11 3 33
–5 0 5 5 0 –5 5 –5 0
 D true E true F recurring  D [ , [ , [ E [ ,[ ,[  F [ ,[ ,[

9 45 = 1 = 0.5
 D
9
E
90 2
([HUFLVH'
 D 5 E 25 F 3 G 5
([HUFLVH% H 20 I 5 J 3 K 10
 D 14 E 100 F 5 G 13 L 3 M 11 N 1 O 1
7 4 2
 8, 25 and 27 P 1 Q 1 R 1
3 5 10
 13 and 14
 D 5 E 12 F 8 G 14
 5 and 6 6 3 9 5

 Answers can be about the same as these H 5 I 3 J 1 K 21

8 5 4 2
D L √(66 × 100) ≈ 8.1 × 10 = 81 L 4 M 1 1
5 7
LL √49 = 7, so √45 ≈ 6.7
3 3 3
LLL √64 = 4, √27 = 3, so √40 ≈ 3.4 § Q1 ·
Q 1
1
4 4  ¨[ ¸ [ Qu Q [ [, but
LY 5.8 ≈ 6 = 36 × 36 ≈ 30× 40 = 1200 © ¹
3 3
Y √45 000 = √45 × 10 ≈ 35
Q[ Q Q [ × Q [ … Q times [, so
E L 81.24 LL 6.708 LLL 3.42
LY 1132 Y 35.57 1
[Q Q[

([HUFLVH&
 21 1 , others are both 1
 64
1 1 8 2
 D 13 E F G 1 
5 6 105 32
 Possible answer: The negative power gives the
H 12  I 1 J 1 K 1
8 9 Z W  31 1
reciprocal, so 27
1 4  27 31
L M
[P P3 The power one-third means cube root, so you need
–2 –1 –3 –1 –Q 1
 D 3 E 5 F 10 G P H W  the cube root of 27 which is 3, so 27 3 3 and
 D L 2
4
LL 2
–1
LLL 2
–4
LY –2
3 1 1
3 –1 –2 6 27 31 3
E L 10 LL 10 LLL 10 LY 10
3 –1 –2 –4
F L 5 LL 5  LLL 5 LY 5
G L 3
2
LL
–3
3  LLL
–4
3  LY –3 
5  Possible answers include [ 16 and \ 64,
[ 25 and \ 125
 D 5 E 6 F 7 G 4 
[3 W P2 T4
([HUFLVH(
H 105  I 1 J 1 K 3 
\ 2[ 3 2P 4W 4  D 16 E 25 F 216 G 81
L 4 M 7  2 3 2 3
 D W
3
5\ 3 8[ 5 E P F N
4 5
G [2
 D 7[ 
–3
E 10S
–1
F 5W
–2  D 4 E 9 F 64 G 3125
–5 –1
G 8P  H 3\  1 1
1 1
 D 5
E 6 F 2 G 3
 D L 25 LL 1  LLL 4
125 5 1 1 1 1
H 4
I 2
J 2
K 3
E L 64 LL 1  LLL 5
16 256
1 1 1 1
F L 8  D 125
 E 216
 F 8
G 27
LL 1  1 1 1 1
32 H 256
I 4
J 4
K 9
LLL 9 or 4 1 
2 2 1 1 1 1
 D 100 000  E 12 F G 27 
G L 1 000 000 25
1 1 1 1 1
 LL H 32
I 32
 J 81
 K 13 
1000
1
8– 3
LLL 1
, others are both 81
2
4  4
 24 (32 – 8)



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 Possible answer: The negative power gives the  Possible answer: 3 × 2 3 ( 6)

– 32 1
reciprocal, so 27  2 2
27 3
2
 (√D + √E) = ( D  E ) , D + 2√DE + E = D + E,
The power one-third means cube root, so we need the Cancel D and E, 2√DE = 0, so D = 0 and/or E = 0.
cube root of 27 which is 3 and the power 2 means
2
2 1 1
square, so 3 9, so 27 3 9 and 2
9
([HUFLVH*
27 3
 Expand the brackets each time.
[1 , 3
2 1
 3 [ 3 [3 , [ 27
2  D 2 3 – 3 E 3 2 –8 F 10  4 5
([HUFLVH) G 12 7 – 42 H 15 2 – 24 I 9– 3

 D 6 E 15 F 2 G 4  D 2 3 E 1 5 F –1 – 2
H 2 10 I 3 J 2 3 K 21 G 7 – 30 H –41 I 73 6

L 14 M 6 N 6 O 30 J 9  4 5 K 3–2 2 L 11  6 2

 D 2 E 5 F 6 G 3  D 3 2 cm E 2 3 cm F 2 10 cm

H 5 I 1 J 3 K 7  D 3 – 1 cm
2
E 2 5  5 2 cm
2

L 2 M 6 N 1 O 3 F  2 3  18 cm
2

 D 2 3 E 15 F 4 2 G 4 3 3  2 5  3
 D E F G
H 8 5 I 3 3 J 24 K 3 7 3 2 5 6
L 2 7 M 6 5 N 6 3 O 30 H 3 I 5 2 J 3  K 5 2
2 2 2
 D 3 E 1 F 2 2 G 2 21  2  2  N 2 3  3 O 5 36
L M
H 5 I 3 J 2 K 7 3 2 3 3
L 7 M 2 3 N 2 3 O 1  D L 1 LL –4 LLL 2
LY 17 Y –44
 D D E 1 F D E They become whole numbers. Difference of two
squares makes the ‘middle terms’ (and surds)
 D 3 2 E 2 6 F 2 3 G 5 2 disappear.
H 2 2  I 3 3 J 4 3 K 5 3
 D Possible answer: 2 and 2 or 2 and 8
L 3 5 M 3 7 N 4 2 O 10 2
E Possible answer: 2 and 3
P 10 10 Q 5 10 R 7 2 S 9 3
 D Possible answer: 2 and 2 or 8 and 2
 D 36 E 16 30 F 54 G 32
H 48 6 I 48 6 J 18 15 K 84 E Possible answer: 3 and 2
L 64 M 100 N 50 O 56 2
 Possible answer: 80 6400, so 80 6400 and
 D 20 6 E 6 15  F 24 G 16 10 70 7000
H 12 10 I 18 J 20 3 K 10 21 Since 6400 ᦪ 7000, there is not enough cable.
L 6 21 M 36 N 24 O 12 30
 9  6 2  2 – (1 ± 2 8  8) 11 – 9  6 2 
 D 6 E 3 5 F 6 6 G 2 3 4 2 2  10 2
H 4 5 I 5 J 7 3 K 2 7 2 2 2 2
 [ – \ (1  2 ) – (1 – 8) 1  2 2  2 – (1
L 6 M 2 7 N 5
– 2 8  8) 3–92 2 4 2 –6  6 2
O Does not simplify
([  \)([ – \) (2 – 2 )(3 2 ) 6 2 –6
 D 2 3 E 4 F 6 2 G 4 2
 4√2 – (√2 – 1) = 3√2 + 1. (√2 – 1)(3√2 + 1) =
H 6 5 I 24 3  J 3 2 K 7 5 – 2√2
L 10 7 M 8 3 N 10 3 O 6
 D L 3Q 2 LL Q 1
 D DEF E D F F E  3
F Q Q 1
E L 5 LL 5 2 u 2
 D 20 E 24 F 10
G 24 H 3 I 6
([HUFLVH+
 D 3  E 8 1  F 5  G 12 H 2
4 3 16
 D 6.5 cm ≤ 7 cm ᦪ 7.5 cm
 D False E False E 115 g ≤ 120 g ᦪ 125 g
F 3350 km ≤ 3400 km ᦪ 3450 km



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3 3
G 49.5 mph ≤ 50 mph ᦪ 50.5 mph  216.125 cm ≤ volume ᦪ 354.375 cm
H £5.50 ≤ £6 ᦪ £6.50
 12.5 metres
I 16.75 cm ≤ 16.8 cm ᦪ 16.85 cm
J 15.5 kg ≤ 16 kg ᦪ 16.5 kg  Yes, because they could be walking at 4.5 mph and
K 14 450 people ≤ 14 500 people ᦪ 14 550 people 2.5 mph meaning that they would cover 4.5 miles 
L 54.5 miles ≤ 55 miles ᦪ 55.5 miles 2.5 miles 7 miles in 1 hour
M 52.5 miles ≤ 55 miles ᦪ 57.5 miles  20.9 m ≤ length ᦪ 22.9 m (3 sf)
 D 5.5 cm ≤ 6 cm ᦪ 6.5 cm 2
 16.4 cm ≤ area ᦪ 21.7 cm (3 sf)
2

E 16.5 kg ≤ 17 kg ᦪ 17.5 kg 3 3
F 31.5 min ≤ 32 min ᦪ 32.5 min  D L 64.1 cm ≤ volume ᦪ 69.6 cm (3 sf)
G 237.5 km ≤ 238 km ᦪ 238.5 km LL £22 578 ≤ price ᦪ £24 515 (nearest £)
H 7.25 m ≤ 7.3 m ᦪ 7.35 m E 23 643 ≤ price ᦪ £23 661 (nearest £)
I 25.75 kg ≤ 25.8 kg ᦪ 25.85 kg F Errors in length compounded by being used 3
J 3.35 h ≤ 3.4 h ᦪ 3.45 h times in D, but errors in weight only used once in
K 86.5 g ≤ 87 g ᦪ 87.5 g E
L 4.225 mm ≤ 4.23 mm ᦪ 4.235 mm  D 14.65 s ≤ time ᦪ 14.75 s
M 2.185 kg ≤ 2.19 kg ᦪ 2.195 kg E 99.5 m ≤ length ᦪ 100.5 m
N 12.665 min ≤ 12.67 min ᦪ 12.675 min F 6.86 m/s (3 sf)
O 24.5 m ≤ 25 m ᦪ 25.5 m
P 35 cm ≤ 40 cm ᦪ 45 cm  D 1.25% (3 sf)
Q 595 g ≤ 600 g ᦪ 605 g E 1.89% (3 sf)
R 25 min ≤ 30 min ᦪ 35 min  3.41 cm ≤ length ᦪ 3.43 cm (3 sf)
S 995 m ≤ 1000 m ᦪ 1050 m
T 3.95 m ≤ 4.0 m ᦪ 4.05 m  5.80 cm ≤ length ᦪ 5.90 cm (3 sf)
U 7.035 kg ≤ 7.04 kg ᦪ 7.045 kg
 14 s ≤ time ᦪ 30 s
V 11.95 s ≤ 12.0 s ᦪ 12.05 s
W 6.995 m ≤ 7.00 m ᦪ 7.005 m  Cannot be certain as limits of accuracy for all three
springs overlap:
 D 7.5 m, 8.5 m E 25.5 kg, 26.5 kg
Red: 12.5 newtons to 13.1 newtons
F 24.5 min, 25.5 min G 84.5 g, 85.5 g
Green: 11.8 newtons to 13.2 newtons
H 2.395 m, 2.405 m I 0.15 kg, 0.25 kg
Blue: 9.5 newtons to 12.9 newtons
J 0.055 s, 0.065 s K 250 g, 350 g
For example, all tensions could be 12 newtons
L 0.65 m, 0.75 m M 365.5 g, 366.5 g
N 165 weeks, 175 weeks O 205 g, 215 g ([HUFLVH-
 There are 16 empty seats and the number getting  Number of possible permutations is 7! ÷ 2!5! = 21.
on the bus is from 15 to 24 so it is possible if 15 or Of these any pair of the first 5 coins will be less
16 get on. than a £1, which is 5! ÷3! 2! = 10. Hence 11 pairs
will have a value greater than £1.
 C: The chain and distance are both any value
between 29.5 and 30.5 metres, so there is no way  6, 16, etc. up to 196 which is 19 plus 60 up to 69,
of knowing if the chain is longer or shorter than the which is 9 (66 already counted) plus 160 up to 169
distance. which is 9 (166 already counted) giving a total of 37
18
 2 kg 450 grams  D L 5040 LL 2.43 × 10 (3 sf)
E This depends on your calculator but 69! = 1.71
 D ᦪ65.5 g E 64.5 g 98
× 10 , which is about the number of atoms in
F ᦪ2620 g G 2580 g
QUINTILLION (look it up) universes.
 345, 346, 347, 348, 349 4 4
 D 10 = 10 000 E 13 = 28 561
 Any number in range 4 < D < 5, eg 4.5 3
 3 × 13 = 6591
([HUFLVH, 3
 D 10 = 1000 E 6
 Minimum 65 kg, maximum 75 kg
 8 × 7 × 6 = 336
 Minimum is 19, maximum is 20
 D 16 ways of choosing an Ace followed by a King
 D 12.5 kg E 20 out of 52 × 52 ways of picking 2 cards with
replacement, so 16 1
 3 years 364 days (Jack is on his fifth birthday; Jill is 2704 169
9 years old tomorrow) E Still 16 ways of taking an ace followed by a King
2 2
but out of 52 × 51 so 16 4
 D 38.25 cm ≤ area ᦪ 52.25 cm 2652 663
2 2
E 37.1575 cm ≤ area ᦪ 38.4475 cm  D 1 6 15 20 15 6 1, 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1, 1 8 28 56
2 2
F 135.625 cm ≤ area ᦪ 145.225 cm 70 56 28 8 1, 1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1, 1 10
 D 5.5 m ≤ length ᦪ 6.5 m, 3.5 m ≤ width ᦪ 4.5 m 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
E 29.25 m
2 E L 10 LL 15
rd th
F 18 m F 7&3 is the 3 value in the 7 row, which is 35
2 2
G 126
 79.75 m ≤ area ᦪ 100.75 m



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8
 D 31 E 8 (2 = 256) &KDSWHU±$OJHEUD4XDGUDWLF
 No The number of people he can expect to throw (TXDWLRQV

six6s is u   Explanations may

([HUFLVH$
vary.
 There are 4 ways to choose the first letter, 3 ways  D Values of \: 27, 16, 7, 0, −5, −8, −9, −8, −5, 0, 7
for the second, and so on. But there are two Is, so E −8.8 F 3.4 or −1.4
4! y 2 = 12. Explanations may vary.  D Values of \: 2, −1, −2, −1, 2, 7, 14
 60 E 0.25 F 0.7 or −2.7
 6 G
 D 435 E 48 F 12 G 32
H 455 I 1296 J 7776 K 67 6000
, 3 628 800
 DL 79 380 LL 35 280 LLL 52 920
E Answers will vary. For example, none of the
players is repeated in another group.
 D 40 320 E 109 600
3 9
 They are both correct. 8 – 1 = 2 – 1 = 511
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 D 13 E 10 F 13
 D 1845 E 1854
 8, 16 and 36
 19
 12! ÷ 10! is greater
4 3
 D 12 = 20736 E 3 × 12 = 5184
 D 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5! = 120  H (1.1, 2.6) and (−2.6, 0.7)
E There will be 24 starting with each letter and
th
CODES will be the first CO word so 13 in the  D Values of \: 15, 9, 4, 0, −3, −5, −6, −6, −5, −3,
list 0, 4, 9
4
 E −0.5 and 3
 D 3 = 81 E 8 F –3
 D Same answer
 D 1
4
E 6 = 1296
25 E
 7 x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15

 D = 7, E = –1 y 28 19 12 7 4 3 4 7 12 19 28

 6√2 Since the quadratic graph has a vertical line of

symmetry and the \-values for [ = 1 and [ = 3 are
 D [= 0.5454.. , 100[ = 54.5454.., 99[ = 54 the same, this means that the \-values will be
[ = 54 , cancel by 9 symmetric about [ = 2. Hence the \-values will be
99 the same for [ = 0 and [ = 4, and so on.
E 0.35454.. = 0.3 + 0.05454.. = 3  6 = Points plotted and joined should give a parabola.
10 110 
33 6 39
110
 110 110  Line A has a constant in front, so is ‘thinner’ than
the rest.
 11
45 Line B has a negative in front, so is ‘upside down’.
Line C does not pass through the origin.
 D 9 E 5√2

 D 5 E 2 ([HUFLVH%
5
 D –2, –5 E 4, 9 F –6, 3
 D L √32 = √16×2 = √16 × √2 = 4√2
LL 14 + 4√6  D –4, –1 E 2, 4 F –2, 5
2 2
E 2 + (2 + √6) = 4 + 4 + 6 + 4√6 = 14 + 4√6 = G –3, 5 H –6, 3 I –1, 2
2
(√2 + √12) so the sides obey Pythagoras’ J –5 K 7
theorem 
2
[([  40) = 48 000, [  40[ – 48 000 0,
 D √27 = 5.20m ([  240)([ – 200) 0
Fence is 2 × 200 + 2 × 240 = 880 m
E Cube side 2.95 m has diagonal 5.07 m. Max
length pole is 5.005 m so it will fit round the  D –10, 3 E –4, 11 F –8, 9 
corner. G 8, 9 H 1 I –6, 7
J –2, 3



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 Mario was correct.

Sylvan did not make it into a standard quadratic E  E2  4F
 E Since D = 1, answers are and
and only factorised the [ terms. She also incorrectly 2
solved the equation [ – 3 4.
E  E2  4F
. When added,
 40 cm 2
 48 km/h E  E2  4F  E  E2  4F E  E 2E
E
 D 4, 9 2 2 2
E L 2, –2, 3, –3 LL 16, 81 ([HUFLVH(
LLL 5, 6, 10, 11
 D 52 (TWO) E 0 (ONE)
F –23 (NONE) G –7 (NONE)
([HUFLVH& H 68 (TWO) I –35 (NONE)
J –4 (NONE) K 0 (ONE)
1 , –3 E 11,–1 –1,2
 D
3 3 2
F
5
, 409 (TWO)
 300
G –2 1 , 3 1 H –1,–1 I 2,4

2 2 2
[  3[ – 1 0; [ – 3[ – 1 0; [  [ – 3 0;
2 2 6 3 3 2
1 5,–7 [ –[–3 0
J , –3 K L –1 2 , 1 2
2 2 6 3 5  2 or –10
3
M 1 ,12 2, 1 ±1 2
4 7
N
3 8
O
4
 Can be factorised: E – 4DF = 1849, 1, 49, 1024, 900
2
Cannot be factorised: E – 4DF = 41, 265, 3529,
P ±2 1 , 0 Q ±1 2 R –1,3 216, 76
4 5 3 2
For those that can be factorised, E – 4DF is a
 D 7, –6 E –2 1 , 1 1 F –1, 11 square number
2 2 13
([HUFLVH)
G –2, 1 H –1,–1 I 1 , –2
5 2 3 2 5 2 2
 D ([ – 2) – 4 E ([7) – 49
J 4 K –2, 1 L –1,0 F
2
([± 3) – 9
2
G ([3) – 9
8 3 2 2
H ([±5) – 25 I ([+10) – 100
M ±5 N –1 2 O “3 1 J
2
([±2) – 5
2
K ([+3) – 6
3 2 2 2
L ([+4) – 22 M ([+1) – 2
P –2 1 , 3 2
([±1) – 8
2
O (x + 9) – 11
2 N
 D Both only have one solution: [ 1.  D 4th, 1st, 2nd and 3rd – in that order
2 2
E B is a linear equation, but A and C are quadratic E Write [ – 4[ – 3 0 as ([± 2) – 7 0, Add 7 to
equations. both sides, square root both sides, Add 2 to
both sides
2 2 2
 D (5[ – 1) (2[  3)  ([  1) , when expanded F L [ –3 ± 2 LL [ 2 ± 7
and collected into the general quadratic, gives
the required equation.  D –2 ± 5 E –7 ± 3 6
2
E (10[  3)(2[ – 3), [ 1.5; area 7.5 cm . F 3± 6 G 5 ± 30
 D Show by substituting into the equation H –10 ± 101 I –4 ± 22
E – 24  D 1.45, –3.45 E 5.32, –1.32
5
F –4.16, 2.16
 5, 0.5  Check for correct proof.
2
 Area = 22.75 m , width 3.5 m  S –14, T –3
([HUFLVH' 2 2
 D [ – 12[+ 40 = ([ – 6) + 4 ≥ 4 for all [
 D 1.77, –2.27 E 3.70, –2.70 E Doesn’t intersect the [-axis
F –0.19, –1.53 G –1.39, –2.27  The answers are 42, – 58. The equation can be
H 1.37, –4.37 I 0.44, –1.69 factorised as ([ – 42)([ + 58) = 0 but it would be
J 1.64, 0.61 K 0.36, –0.79 hard to find the factors of 2436. Completing the
2
L 1.89, 0.11 square works well because [ + 16[ – 2436 =
2
 13 ([ + 8) – 2500 and you can find the square root of
2 2500 without a calculator. Completing the square is
 [ – 3[ – 7 0 therefore the better of the two non-calculator
4+ 0 methods. The formula could also be used without a
 Terry gets [ and June gets 2
8 calculator because E – 4DF = 10 000 so the square
2
(2[ – 1) 0 which only give one root can be taken, but you would have to work out
1 2
solution [ 16 + 4 u 2436 in order to get there.
2
 6.54, 0.46  H, C, B, E, D, J, A, F, G, I
 1.25, 0.8
 D L –0.382, –2.618 LL 6.414, 3.586
LLL 7.531, –0.531 LY 1.123, –7.123



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([HUFLVH* 
D
D L


LL


E L (0, –16) LL (–2, 0) and (8, 0)
LLL (3, –25)
 D roots: (–2, 0) and (2, 0); y-intercept (0, –4)
E roots: (0, 0) and (6, 0); y-intercept (0, 0)
F roots: (–1, 0) and (3, 0); y-intercept (0, –3)
G roots: (–11, 0) and (–3, 0); y-intercept (0, 33)

  (3, –6)

 –14
LLL
  –5
 D (2, 0) E 2 is the only root
 roots: (–0.5, 0) and (5, 0); y-intercept (0, –5);
turning point: (2.25, –15.125)
 roots: (4.65, 0) and (7.85, 0); turning point:
(6.25, –5.13)
 


2
E Each equation is written in the form [ + D[ + E.
You should find that the \-intercept is the value of b.
Graph (i) has its \-intercept at (0, –5), graph
(ii) has its \-intercept at (0, 8) and graph (iii) has
its \-intercept at (0, 0). Note that the graph (iii)’s
equation has no value for E, so E = 0.
F L [ = 5 or –1 LL [= –2 or –4
LLL [ = 0 or 2
G The two [-intercepts have a product of E and
add up to –D This works because the [-
intercepts are the answers of the quadratic
equations when \ = 0.
2 2 2
H The value of [for the turning point is exactly  \ ([− 3) − 7, \ [ − 6[ 9 − 7, \ [ − 6[ 2
halfway between the values of [for the [-
 D (−2, −7)
intercepts. By completing the square, you 2 2
should also be able to see that the [ co-ordinate E L (D, 2E− D ) LL (2D, E− 4D )
2
is the value that makes the brackets zero and  y = 2x + 16x + 14
the \ co-ordinate is the value at the end.
  D 60 m E 80 m, 2 s F 6 s

([HUFLVH+ ([HUFLVH,
 D L (0, –3) LL (–1, 0) and (3, 0)  D (0.7, 0.7), (–2.7, –2.7)
LLL (1, –4) E (6, 12), (–1, –2)
E L (0, 5) LL (–5, 0) and (1, 0) F (4, –3), (–3, 4)
LLL (–2, 9) G (0.8, 1.8), (–1.8, –0.8)
H (4.6, 8.2), (0.4, –0.2)
I (3, 6), (–2, 1)



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2 2
J (4.8, 6.6), (0.2, –2.6) E Equation would be –5 – 4[ – [ = 0. E – 4DF = –4.
2
K (2.6, 1.6), (–1.6, –2.6) Negative E – 4DF has no solutions.
 D (1, 0)  D ([  2)([ – 1) 0 E 5 – –2 7, not –7
E Only one intersection point F \ 2[  7
2
F [  [(3 – 5)  (–4  5) 0
2
G ([ – 1) 0 Ÿ [ 1
([HUFLVH.
H Only one solution as line is a tangent to curve.
 D (5, –1) E (4, 1) F (8, –1)
 D There is no solution.
E The graphs do not intersect.  D (2, 5) and (–2, –3)
2
F [ [4 0 E (–1, –2) and (4, 3)
2
G E ± 4DF –15 F (3, 3) and (1, –1)
H No solution as the discriminant is negative and
there is no square root of a negative number.  D (1, 2) and (–2, –1)
E (–4, 1) and (–2, 2)
 D [ = 4, \ = 31
E There is only one solution because the graphs  D (3, 4) and (4, 3)
have the same shape and are at a constant E (0, 3) and (–3, 0)
distance apart.  D (3, 2) and (–2, 3) E √26
 D Proof  D Proof
E
E [ =  1 , \ =  43 or [ = 5, \ = 7
5 5

 D Proof
E [ = 4, \= –13 or [ = 8, \ = 11
 D [ = 6, \ = 7 or [ = –2, \ = –9
E [ = –1, \ = 2 or [ = –2, \ = –1
F [ = 3, \ = –5 or [ = 5, \ = 3
G [ = 1, \ = –8 or [ = 4, \ = 7
 D (1, 0)
E LLL as the straight line just touches the curve
F 2.17 seconds  D (–2, 1)
E L (2, 1) LL (–2, –1) LLL (2, –1)
([HUFLVH-  D (2, 4) E (1, 0)
 D L –1.4, 4.4 LL –2, 5 LLL –0.6, 3.6 F The line is a tangent to the curve.
E 2.6, 0.4  16 m by 14 m
 D L –1.6, 2.6 LL 1.4, –1.4  30 km/h
E L 2.3, –2.3 LL 2, –2
 10p

([HUFLVH/
 D [ < –4, [ > 4 E –10 d [ d 10
F 0 < [ < 1 G [ d –5[ t 0
H –23 < [ < 23 I [ d – 3 , [ t 3
2 2
J [ < 0, [ > 8 K – 19 d [ d 0
3 2

 D {–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3}

 E {3, 4, 5, 6}
D 2.2, –2.2 E –1.8, 2.8
 a [ < –2, [> 5 E –7 < [< –5
 –3.8, 1.8 F [ d 1, [ t 5 G –8 d [ d 9
H 1 d[d3 I [ < – 11 , [ > –1
 D C and D E A and D 3 2
2
F [  4[ – 1 0 G (–1.5, –10.25)
J [ d 3 , [t 2 K – 3 < [ < 2
5 2 3
 D L \=5 LL \ = [ + 3
LLL \ = –10 LY \ = [  D
Y \ = 3[ – 9 YL \ = 2 – [
YLL \= –3[
E \ = 1 [ + 3
2
E
2 2
 D L 5 – 5[ – [ = 0 LL 11 – 6[ – [ = 0
2 2
LLL 9 – 4[ – [ = 0 LY 30 – 16[ – 3[ = 0



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 D 3<[d61 E 4<[d5 &KDSWHU±6WDWLVWLFVVDPSOLQJDQG

2
PRUHFRPSOH[GLDJUDPV
 [ < 2, [> 10

 [<–3,[>5 ([HUFLVH$
2
 D secondary data

E primary data
F primary or secondary data
G primary or secondary data
H primary data
I primary or secondary data
 D –692 < [ < 708
E [ < –4 – 5 , [ > –4 + 5  3ODQWKHGDWDFROOHFWLRQ. Choose a random sample
F –0.84 d [ d 1.44 of 30 boys and 30 girls from Year 11.
&ROOHFWWKHGDWD. Ask each student to spell the
 £288, £364 same 10 words. This will avoid bias. Pick words
that are often misspelt, eg accommodation,
 [ < –4, –1 < [ < 1, [ > 4
necessary
30 30 &KRRVHWKHEHVWZD\WRSURFHVVDQGUHSUHVHQWWKH
 D
13
231 ᦫ –6 and 2
15 ᦫ 9 GDWD. Calculate the mean number and range for the
number of correct spellings for the boys and for the
 E [< –7, 3 < [ < 6 girls. Draw a dual bar chart to illustrate the data.
,QWHUSUHWWKHGDWDDQGPDNHFRQFOXVLRQV. Compare
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV the mean and range to arrive at a conclusion. Is
there a clear conclusion or do you need to change
 D 9 E 5 any of the 10 words or take a larger sample?
 D Two E One F None  3ODQWKHGDWDFROOHFWLRQ. Choose a random sample
 E –5.27, 1.67 of 20 boys and 20 girls from Year 11.
&ROOHFWWKHGDWD. Ask each student, on average,
 E 3.18 how many hours of sport they play and how many
 15 m, 20 m hours of TV they watch each week.
&KRRVHWKHEHVWZD\WRSURFHVVDQGUHSUHVHQWWKH
 E L –0.3, 3.3 LL 0.6, 3.4 GDWD. Calculate the mean number of hours for the
number of hours playing sport and the number of
 D (0, 36) E (2, 0), (18, 0)
hours watching TV. Draw a scatter diagram to
F (10, –64)
illustrate the data.
 (1, 7), (7, 1) ,QWHUSUHWWKHGDWDDQGPDNHFRQFOXVLRQV. Compare
the means and write down the type and strength of
 D –6 E 3 correlation for the scatter diagram to arrive at a
 D
2
[ – 3[ – 550 = 0 E 25 conclusion. Is there a clear conclusion or do you
need to take a larger sample?
 D [ < –35, [ > 45 E –298 < [ < 302
F [ d –589, [ t 611  6

 2.54 m, 3.54 m  D 3 : 1
E The number of males to females in the survey is
2
 210 cm in the same ratio as the numbers at the match.
 (6, 8), (0, –10)  28.5%
 D (S + T)(S– T D
2 2
E 30 – 1 = (30 + 1)(30 – 1)  0DOH )HPDOH 7RWDO
F 3600
G –31, 29 )XOOWLPH 13 7 20
3DUWWLPH 4 6 10
 075 m 30
2
 D 48 – ([ – 6) E 48 E The numbers in the sample have been rounded.
 complete the square –113, 87
 D, E (1, 4) (5, 20) F [ d 1, [ t5
2 2
 [ – 8[ + 19 = ([ – 4) + 3
2
Because ([ – 4) is a squared term, the smallest
possible value it can have is zero.
Hence 3 is the smallest possible value of
2 2
([ – 4) + 3, so [ – 8[ + 19 is always positive.



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([HUFLVH%  D
DE 4



E Monday 28.4 min, Tuesday 20.9 min,
 DEboys 12.9, girls 13.1 Wednesday 21.3 min
F the girls did slightly better than the boys F There are more patients on a Monday, and so
longer waiting times, as the surgery is closed
during the weekend.
 2.19 hours
 That is the middle value of the time group 0 to 1
minute. It would be very unusual for most of them
to be exactly in the middle at 30 seconds.

([HUFLVH&

 D cumulative frequencies 1, 4, 10, 22, 25, 28, 30
 DE140.4 cm E

 D L 17, 13, 6, 3,1 LL £1.45 F P = 54 s and IQR = 16 s

E L  D cumulative frequencies 1, 3, 5, 14, 31, 44, 47,
49, 50
E



LL £5.35
F Much higher mean. Early morning, people just F P = 56 s and IQR = 17 s
want a paper or a few sweets. Later people are G pensioners as the median is closer to 1 minute
buying food for the day. and the IQRs are almost the same
 D cumulative frequencies 12, 30, 63, 113, 176,
250, 314, 349, 360



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E
 create a grouped frequency table:
$JHD &XPXODWLYH )UHTXHQF\ 0LG [îI
\HDUV  IUHTXHQF\ I SRLQW
[

0 < D≤ 2030 30 10 300

20 < a ≤ 40 95 65 30 1950
40 < a ≤ 60 150 55 50 2750
60 < a ≤ 80 185 35 70 2450
80 < a ≤ 100200 15 90 1350
 7RWDO 200 8800
mean = 8800 = 44 years
200
 create a grouped frequency table:
F P = 606 students 7LPHW &XPXODWLYH )UHTXHQF\ 0LG [îI
G Q1 = 455, Q3 = 732 and IQR = 277 PLQXWHV  IUHTXHQF\ I point,
H approximately 13% [
 D cumulative frequency 2, 5, 10, 16, 22, 31, 39,
45, 50 0<t≤5 6 6 2.5 15
E because the temperature was recorded to the 5 < t ≤ 10 34 28 7.5 210
nearest degree, so for example the highest 10 < t ≤ 15 56 22 12.5 275
temperature in the first group could have been 15 < t ≤ 20 60 4 17.5 70
7.5°  7RWDO 60 570
F mean = 570 = 9.5 minutes
60

([HUFLVH'
 D

G P = 20.5 °C and IQR = 10 °C


 D E The adults are much quicker than the students.
Both distributions have the same interquartile
range, but the range is smaller for the adults
showing that they are more consistent. The
students’ median and upper quartiles are 1
minute, 35 seconds higher. The fastest person
to complete the calculations was a student, but
so was the slowest.
 D

E P = 56, Q1 = 37 and Q3 = 100 

F approximately 18% E Schools are much larger in Lancashire than in
Dorset since it has a greater median. The
 D Paper A P = 66, Paper B P= 56 interquartile range in Dorset is smaller, showing
E Paper A IQR = 25, Paper B IQR = 18 that they have a more consistent size.
F Paper B is the harder paper, it has a lower
median and a lower upper quartile.  D The resorts have similar median temperatures,
G L Paper A 43, Paper B 45 but Resort A has a smaller interquartile range,
LL Paper A 78, Paper B 67 showing that the temperatures are more
consistent. Resort B has a much wider
temperature range, where the greatest
extremes of temperature are recorded.



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78 < P 75 25 82.5 2062.5

E Resort A is probably a better choice as the ≤ 87
weather seems more consistent. 87 < m 100 25 99.5 2487.5
≤ 112
 D  Total 100 7637.
5

mean = 76375 = 76.4 marks (1 dp)

100

 for the girls

E Both distributions have a similar interquartile PDUNP &XPXODWLYH )UHTXHQF\ 0LG [îI
IUHTXHQF\ I SRLQW
range, and there is little difference between the
[
upper quartile values. Men have a wider range
of salaries and the men have a higher median.
49 < P 25 25 59 1475
This indicates that the men are better paid than ≤ 69
the women. 69 < P 50 25 73.5 1837.5
 D ≤ 78
78 < P 75 25 84.5 2112.5
≤ 91
91 < P 100 25 98.5 2462.5
≤ 106
 7RWDO 100 7887.5

mean = 78875 = 78.9 marks (1 dp)

100
The mean is 2.5 marks higher for the girls

E P = £1605 ([HUFLVH(
F 4 = £1550 and 4 = £1640  The respective frequency densities on which each
G histogram should be based are:
D 2.5, 6.5, 9, 2, 1.5 E 3, 6, 10, 4.5

 Therespective frequency densities on which each
histogram should be based are:
D 7, 12, 10, 5 E 0.4, 1.2, 2.8, 1
 D L 24 min LL 12 min LLL 42 min F 9, 12, 13.5, 9

E L 6 min LL 17 min LLL 9 min 

F Either doctor with a plausible reason, e.g.

Dr Khan because on average, her waiting times
are always shorter or Dr Collins because he
takes more time with each patient as the
interquartile range is more spread out.
 Many possible answers but not including any
numerical values: eg Bude had a higher median
amount of sunshine. Bude had a smaller
interquartile range, showing more consistent
sunshine in Bude. So overall this indicates that
Bude had more sunshine on any one day.
 create a grouped frequency table using the  D L work outthe class width × frequency density
quartiles: for each bar and add these together ie 5 ×
for the boys 25 + 5 × 30 + 10 × 20 + 10 × 10 + 20 × 5 +
10 × 10
PDUN &XPXODWLYH )UHTXHQF\ Mid- [îI LL 775
P IUHTXHQF\ I point E 400
[


39 < P 25 25 52 1300  DE 14 kg F 14.6 kg G 33 plants

≤ 65
65 < P 50 25 71.5 1787.5
≤ 78



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E 

 D
6SHHGY 0< 40 50 < 60 70 80 <
PSK  Y≤ < Y Y≤ < Y < Y Y≤
40 ≤ 60 ≤ 70 ≤ 100
50 80
)UHTXHQF\ 80 10 40 110 60 60
E 360 F 64.5 mph G 59.2 mph F 32 G 4 = 22, 4 = 37 and IQR = 15
 D 100 E 32.5 F 101.5  D L £7200 LL £6400
G 10% of 300 = 30, so the pass mark will be in the E L £6000 LL £4700
70-80 interval. There are 60 students in this F On average the men’s wages are higher as their
interval and 30 is half of 60. So the pass mark is median is greater. The women’s wages are
half way between 70 and 80 = 75 more consistent as their interquartile range is
smaller.
 D

7HPSHUDWXUHW 10 11 12 14 16 19
ƒ&  <t <t <t <t <t <t
≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤
11 12 14 16 19 21
)UHTXHQF\ 15 15 50 40 45 15
E12–14°C F14.5°C
G 12.6°C, 17°C, 4.4°C H 14.8°C
 0.45

5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 Choose a suitable sample size and decide whether
to use a random sample or a stratified sample.  D
Make sure that the sample is reliable and unbiased.
Remember that the greater the accuracy required, $JHW 9< 10 12 14 17 19
the larger the sample size needs to be. But the \HDUV  t≤ <t <t <t <t <t
larger the sample size, the higher the cost will be 10 ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤ ≤
and the time taken. Therefore, the benefit of 12 14 17 19 20
achieving high accuracy in a sample will always )UHTXHQF\ 4 12 8 9 5 1
have to be set against the cost of achieving it. E 10–12 F 13
 D G 11, 16, 5 H 13.4
 create a grouped frequency table using the
quartiles:
$PRXQW &XPXODWLYH )UHTXHQF\ 0LG [îI
P  IUHTXHQF\ I SRLQW[

0.50 < P≤ 20 20 1.25 25

2.00
2.00 < P≤ 40 20 2.50 50
3.00
3.00 < P≤ 60 20 3.50 70
4.00

E The adults completed the puzzle quicker as 4.00 < P≤ 80 20 5.00 100
6.00
their average time was better. Also their range
was smaller which makes them more  7RWDO 80 245
consistent.
 D cumulative frequencies: 4, 10, 20, 42, 46, 48 mean = 245 = £3.06
80



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Chapter 19 — Probability: Combined 5 a i 1

4
ii 1
2
iii 3
4
iv 1
4
events b All possibilities are included

6 a 1 b 1 c 1
12 4 6
Exercise 19A
7 a
1 a 1 b 1 c 1
4 4 2

2 a 2 b 4 c 6
11 11 11

3 a 1 b 2 c 11 d 11 e 1
3 5 15 15 3

4 a 60 b 4
5

5 a 0.8 b 0.2 b 6
c i 4 ii 13 iii 1 iv 3
6 a i 0.75 ii 0.6 iii 0.5 iv 0.6 25 25 5 5
b i cannot add P(red) and P(1) as events are
not mutually exclusive 8 a HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT
ii 0.75 (= 1 µ P(blue)) b i 1 ii 3 iii 1 iv 7
8 8 8 8
7 0.46 n
9 a 16 b 32 c 1024 d 2
8 Probabilities cannot be summed in this way as 10 a
events are not mutually exclusive.
1 2 3 4 5 6
9 a i 0.4 ii 0.5 iii 0.9
b 0.45 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
c 2 hours 12 minutes
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10 5 or 0.096 to 3 decimal places
52
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Exercise 19B 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 a 7 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b 2, 12
c 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

b 1 c 18 d twice
Score 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 18
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1
Probability
36 18 12 9 36 6 36 9 12 18 36 11 1
2

d i 1 ii 5 iii 1 12 You would need a 3D diagram or there would be

12 9 2 too many different events to list.
iv 7 v 5 vi 5
36 12 18

1 11 1 5
Exercise 19C
2 a b c d
12 36 6 9
1 a
3 a 1 b 11 c 5
36 36 18

4 a

b i 5 ii 1 iii 1
18 6 9
1 b i 1 ii 1 iii 3
iv 0 v 4 2 4
2

781

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 D 2 E 11 E
13 13

 F L 1 LL 25 
169 169

 D 2 E 1
3 2

F 

 

F L 1 LL 7 LLL 8 
3 15 15

 D 1 E 1
F

 

G L 1 LL 1 LLL 5
6 2 6
H 15 days

 D 2 
5
E L 4 LL 12   0.036
25 25

 D  It will help to show all the 27 different possible

events and which ones give the three different
coloured sweets, then the branches will help you to
work out the chance of each.
Q
 D 1 u 1 u 1 u 1 1 E 1
2 2 2 2 16 2

([HUFLVH'

 D 4 E 4
 9 9

E L 1 LL 3 LLL 7 1 2
8 8 8  D E
169 169
 D  D 0.08 E 0.32 F 0.48

 1 5
× 6 = 0.000 77
6

 D 4 E 9 F 16 
25 25 25

 D 3 E 1 F 119
8 120 120

  D L 1 = 0.005 LL 125 = 0.579

E 0.14 F 0.41 G 0.09 216 216
LLL 91 = 0.421
 D 3  216
5
EL ( 1 ) LL ( 5 ) LLL 1 – ( 5 )
Q Q Q
6 6 6

 D 0.54 E 0.216
 D 0.343 E independent events
F P(exactly two of the three cars are foreign) =
P(FFB) + P(FBF) + P(BFF) = 3 × 0.7 × 0.7 × 0.3
= 0.441
9 10
 10 × 0.6 × 0.4 + 0.6 = 0.046



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 0.8
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 the events are not independent as he may already  D
have a 10 or Jack or Queen or King in his hand, in
which case the probability fraction will have a
different numerator

([HUFLVH(

 D 7 E 2 F 3
10 3 8

 D L 3 LL 5
8 8
E L 5 LL 7
12 12 E 5 F 4
3 7 9 9
F L LL LLL 1
20 20 2
 D
 D L 5 LL 4
9 9
E L 2 LL 1
3 3
F L 1 LL 2 LLL 8
3 15 15

 D 1 E 0
6 
F L 2 LL 1 LLL 0
3 3 E L 0.895 LL 0.105
2
F calculate 0.895
 D L 1 LL 7 LLL 21 LY 7
120 40 40 24 4
E they are mutually exclusive and exhaustive 
15
events
 11
 Both events are independent, the probability of 30
seeing a British made car is always ¼
 work out 5 ÷ 3 (= 5 )
16 8 6
 D 0.54 E 0.38 F 0.08
G they should add up to 1  0.045
 First work out P(first blue) and P(second blue)  0.375
remembering that the numerator and the
denominator will each be one less than for P(first  D 13 as it cannot be square rooted
20
blue). Now work out P(first blue) × P(second blue).
E 1 as this gives a ratio of red to blue of 1 : 2
Then work out P(first white) and P(second white) 9
remembering that the numerator and the  D
denominator will each be one less than for P(first
white). Now work out P(first white) × P(second
white). Finally add together the two probabilities.

 1 
270725

 D


E L 70 = 0.269 LL 60 = 0.231
 260 260
LLL 5 = 0.0192 LY 20 = 0.121
 260 165

E L 12 = 0.086 LL 25 = 0.243
140 103



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&KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\DQG0HDVXUHV J S = 44°, T = 68°

K [ = 40°, \ = 34°
3URSHUWLHVRIFLUFOHV
 D [ = 26°, \ = 128° E [ = 48°, \ = 78°
F [ = 133°, \ = 47° G [ = 36°, \ = 72°
([HUFLVH$ H [ = 55°, \ = 125° I [ = 35°
Students’ own work. J [ = 48°, \ = 45° K [ = 66°, \ = 52°
 D Each angle is 90° and so opposite angles add
([HUFLVH% up to 180° and hence a cyclic quadrilateral.
E One pair of opposite angles are obtuse, i.e.
 D 56° E 62° F 105° G 55° H 45° more than 90°, hence their sum will be more
I 30° J 60° K 145° than 180°.
 D 55° E 52° F 50° G 24° H 39°  D [ = 49°, \ = 49° E [ = 70°, \ = 20°
I 80° J 34° K 30° F [ = 80°, \ = 100° G [ = 100°, \ = 75°
 D 41° E 49° F 41°  D [ = 50°, \ = 62° E [ = 92°, \ = 88°
 D 72° E 37° F 72° F [ = 93°, \ = 42° G [ = 55°, \ = 75°

 ‫ס‬AZY = 35° (angles in a triangle), D = 55° (angle in  D [ = 95°, \ = 138° E [ = 14°, \ = 62°
a semicircle = 90°) F [ = 32°, \ = 48° G [ = 52°

 D [ = \ = 40° E [ = 131°, \ = 111°  D 54.5° E 125.5° F 54.5°

F [ = 134°, \ = 23° G [ = 32°, \ = 19°  D [ + 2[ – 30° = 180° (opposite angles in a cyclic
H [ = 59°, \ = 121° I [ = 155°, \ = 12.5° quadrilateral), so 3[ – 30° = 180°
 ‘BED = 15° (angles at circumference from chord E [ = 70°, so 2[ – 30° = 110° ‫ס‬DOB = 140° (angle
BD are equal); ‘EBC = 180° – (15° + 38°) = 127° at centre equals twice angle at circumference),
(angles in a triangle): ‘ADC = 180° – (15° + 38°) = 127° \ = 80° (angles in a quadrilateral)
(angles in a triangle); [ = its vertically opposite angle  D [
which equals 360° – (127° + 127° + 38°) = 68° E 360° – 2[
(angles in a quadrilateral ). So Lana is correct, but
FG ‫ס‬ADC = 21 reflex ‫ס‬AOC = 180° – [, so ‫ס‬ADC +
Lex probably misread his calculator answer.
‫ס‬ABC = 180°
 ‫ס‬ABC = 180° – [ (angles on a line), ‫ס‬AOC = 360° –
2[ (angle at centre is twice angle at circumference),  Let ‫ס‬AED = [, then ‫ס‬ABC = [ (opposite angles are
reflex ‫ס‬AOC = 360° – (360° – 2[) = 2[ (angles at a equal in a parallelogram), ‫ס‬ADC = 180° – [
point) (opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral), so ‫ס‬ADE
= [ (angles on a line)
 D [ E 2[
F Circle theorem 1 states from an arc AB, any  18°
point subtended from the arc on the
circumference is half the angle subtended at the ([HUFLVH'
centre. So where this arc AB is the diameter,
the angle subtended at the centre is 1 straight  D 38° E 110° F 15° G 45°
line and so 180°, the angle at the circumference  D 6 cm E 10.8 cm F 3.21 cm G 8 cm
then is half of 180 which is 90°, a right angle.
 D [ = 12°, \ = 156° E [ = 100°, \ = 50°
 20° F [ = 62°, \ = 28° G [ = 30°, \ = 60°
 It follows from theorem 1 that wherever point C is  D 62° E 66° F 19° G 20°
on the circumference, the angle subtended from arc
AB at the circumference is always half the angle  19.5 cm
subtended at the centre. So every possible angle  ‫ס‬OCD = 58° (triangle OCD is isosceles), ‫ס‬OCB =
subtended at the circumference from arc AB will 90° (tangent/radius theorem), so ‫ס‬DCB = 32°,
have the same angle at the centre and hence the hence triangle BCD is isosceles (2 equal angles)
same angle at the circumference. This proves circle
–1 OA –1 OC
theorem 3.  D ‫ס‬AOB = cos OB
= cos OB
= ‫ס‬COB
E As ‫ס‬AOB = ‫ס‬COB, so ‫ס‬ABO = ‫ס‬CBO, so OB
([HUFLVH& bisects ‫ס‬ABC
 D D = 50°, E = 95°  If the tangent XY touches the circle at C, then
E F = 92°, [ = 90° CY = 10 cm. ‘ OYC = 30° (theorem 7). Hence where
F G = 110°, H = 110°, I = 70° U is the radius of the circle, then r/10 = tan 30°, hence
G J = 105°, K = 99° r = 10 × tan30° = 5.7735, So Ling is correct to one
H M = 89°, N = 89°, O = 91° decimal place.
I P = 120°, Q = 40°
 38°



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([HUFLVH( both pairs of opposite angles sum to 180°, hence it

is a cyclic quadrilateral.
Students’ own work.
 OBA = 90° – [; OAB = 90° – [, angles in an
isosceles triangle. BOA = 180° – (90° – [ + 90° – [)
([HUFLVH)
= 180° – (180° – 2[) = 180° – 180° + 2[ = 2[
 D D = 65°, E = 75°, F = 40°
E G = 79°, H = 58°, I = 43°  Using Pythagoras’ theorem, OC = 82  122 =
F J = 41°, K = 76°, L = 76° 14.4 (3sf ); PC = 14.4 – 8 = 6.4 (2 sf); the answer is
G N = 80°, P = 52°, Q = 80° given to 2 sf with the assumption that the 12 is 2 sf.
 D D = 75°, E = 75°, F = 75°, G = 30°
E D = 47°, E = 86°, F = 86°, G = 47° &KDSWHU±5DWLRSURSRUWLRQDQG
F D = 53°, E = 53°
G D = 55° UDWHVRIFKDQJH9DULDWLRQ
 D 36° E 70°
 D [ = 25°
([HUFLVH$
E [ = 46°, \ = 69°, ] = 65°  D 15 E 2
F [ = 38°, \ = 70°, ] = 20°
G [ = 48°, \ = 42°  D 75 E 6
 D 150 E 6
 ‫ס‬ACB = 64° (angle in alternate segment), ‫ס‬ACX
= 116° (angles on a line), ‫ס‬CAX = 32° (angles in a  D 22.5 E 12
triangle), so triangle ACX is isosceles (two equal
angles)  D 175 miles E 8 hours
 D £66.50 E 175 kg
 ‫ס‬AXY = 69° (tangents equal and so triangle AXY is
2
isosceles), ‫ס‬XZY = 69° (alternate segment), ‫ס‬XYZ  D 44 E 84 m
= 55° (angles in a triangle) 1
 D 50 E Spaces = 14
area
 D 2[ E 90° – [
F OPT = 90°, so APT = [  17 minutes 30 seconds
 22.5 cm
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
([HUFLVH%
 D 44°, both angles subtended from the same
chord  D 100 E 10
E 52°, each vertex touches the circumference
 D 27 E 5
F 140°, the three points not the centre are
touching the circumference  D 56 E 1.69
 D 55° E 75°  D 192 E 2.25
 D DOB is double DAB  D 25.6 E 5
E DAB and DCB add up to 180° since ABCD is a
 D 80 E 8
cyclic quadrilateral
 D £50 E 225
 To be a rhombus, DOB must equal DCB, you know
that DOB = 2[ (double DAB), you know that DCB =  D 3.2 °C E 10 atm
180° – [ (as ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral), so 2[ =
180° – [, hence 3[ = 180° → [ = 60°  D 388.8 g E 3 mm
 D 2J E 40 m/s
 TPR = 42°, alternate segment; PRQ = 42°,
alternate angles in parallel lines; RPQ = 42°,  D £78 E 400 miles
isosceles triangle; PQR = 180° – 2 × 42° = 96°, 3
angles in a triangle; PTR = 180° – 96° = 84°,  4000 cm
opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral.  £250
 CAO = 90° – 66° = 24°; ACO = 24°, isosceles  D B E A F C
triangle; AOB = 360° – (2 × 90° + 50°) = 130°,
angles in quadrilateral; ACB = 130° ÷ 2 = 65°,  D B E A
2
angles at centre double angle at circumference;  6 = N0 3
OCB = 65° – 24° = 41°; [ = OCB, isosceles triangle
hence [ = 41°.
([HUFLVH&
 OCA = 90° and OBA = 90° as AB and AC are both
tangents to the circle, centre O. This is a pair of  7P = 12 D 3 E 2.5
opposite angles having the sum of 180°. Since the  :[ = 60 D 20 E 6
sum of the angles is 360°, the other pair of angles
BC and BOC will add up to 360° – 180° = 180°, so  4(5 Ȃ W) = 16 D Ȃ3.2 E 4



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2
 0W = 36 D 4 E 5  73.7°

 : 7 24 D 4.8 E 100  9.81 cm


3
[ \ = 32 D 32 E 4  33.5 m

 JS = 1800 D £15 E 36  D 10.0 cm E 11.5° F 4.69 cm

-1
 W'= 24 D 3 °C E 12 km  PS = 4tan 25 = 1.8652306, angle QRP = tan
2
7.8652306 = 63.0°, angle QRP = 63.0 – 25 = 38.0°
 GV = 432 D 1.92 km E 8 m/s 4
 S K 7.2 D 2.4 atm E 100 m  774 m

 : ) 0.5 D 5 t/h E 0.58 t/h  D 2 cm

2 1
 B – This is inverse proportion, as [ increases \ E L (an answer of would also be
2 2
decreases.
accepted)
 
2
LL LLL 1
[ 8 27 64 2
\ 1 2 1  The calculated answer is 14.057869, so Eve is
3 2 correct to give 14° as her answer. She could also
 4.3 miles have been correct to round off to 14.1°
19
 ) = 2.02 × 10 N
([HUFLVH%
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV  25.1°
  D 24.0° E 48.0°
F 13.5 cm G 16.6°
[ 25 100 400
 D 58.6° E 20.5 cm
\ 10 20 40 3
F 2049 cm  G 64.0°
 D ( = 4000Y E 3.6 m/s
 D 73.2° E £7541.53
1
 4  D 3.46 m E 70.5°
 D \ 4[ 3 or \ 3
[
 For example, the length of the diagonal of the base
E L 20 LL 8
is E2  F 2 and taking this as the base of the
 19.4 cm triangle with the height of the edge, then the
 128 hypotenuse is

 D ' = 50
2
E 245 F 3 (D2  ( E2  F 2 )2 ) D2  E2  F 2

 80  It is 44.6°; use triangle XDM where M is the

 D 2.5 E 0.25 F 250 G 50, –50 midpoint of BD; triangle DXB is isosceles, as X is
over the point where the diagonals of the base
 D 10 E 3.375 cross; the length of DB is 656 , the cosine of the
 D 48π E 9 required angle is 0.5 656 ÷ 18.
100 2
 D $ or $% = 100 E 4
%2 ([HUFLVH&
 125 D
 D 27 hertz E Cannot divide by 0
[ sin [ [ VLQ[ [ VLQ[ [ VLQ[
 D = 9, E = 144 0° 0 180° 0 180° 0 360° 0
15° 0.259 165° 0.259 195° ±0.259 345° ±0.259
 40
30° 0.5 150° 0.5 210° ±0.5 330° ±0.5
45° 0.707 135° 0.707 225° ±0.707 315° ±0.707
&KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\DQGPHDVXUHV 60° 0.866 120° 0.866 240° ±0.866 300° ±0.866
75° 0.966 105° 0.966 255° ±0.966 285° ±0.966
7ULDQJOHV
90° 1 90° 1 270° ±1 270° ±1

E They are the same for values between 90° and

([HUFLVH$ 180°. They have the opposite sign for values
between 180° and 360°
 13.1 cm



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 D Sine graph F –0.087 G 0.999

E Line symmetry about [ = 90, 270 and rotational  D 21.2°, 158.8° E 209.1°, 330.9°
symmetry about (180, 0) F 50.1°, 309.9° G 150.0°, 210.0°
H 60.9°, 119.1° I 29.1°, 330.9°
([HUFLVH'  30° , 150°
D  –0.755
[ FRV[ [ FRV[ [ FRV[ [ FRV[
 D 1.41 E –1.37 F –0.0367 G –0.138
ƒ  ƒ ± ƒ ± ƒ 
H 1.41 I –0.492
ƒ  ƒ ± ƒ ± ƒ 
ƒ  ƒ ± ƒ ± ƒ   True
ƒ  ƒ ± ƒ ± ƒ 
ƒ  ƒ ± ƒ ± ƒ 
 D Cos 65° E Cos 40°
ƒ  ƒ ± ƒ ± ƒ   D 10°, 130° E 12.7°, 59.3°
ƒ  ƒ  ƒ  ƒ 
 38.2°, 141.8°
E Negative cosines are between 90 and 270, the
-1
rest are positive,  sin 0.9659 = 74.99428, which is 75 to 2 sf.
435 = 75 + 360. From the sine curve extended,
 D Cosine graph sine 75 = sine 435.
E Line symmetry about [ = 180°, rotational Rose is therefore correct as she has rounded her
symmetry about (90° , 0) , (270° , 0) solution.
Keiren could also be correct as the answer could
([HUFLVH( also be given more accurately as 434.9942838
 D 36.9°, 143.1° E 53.1°, 126.9°
F 48.6°, 131.4° G 224.4°, 315.6° ([HUFLVH*
H 194.5°, 345.5° I 198.7°, 341.3°
J 190.1°, 349.9° K 234.5°, 305.5°  D Maths error E 89.999999
L 28.1°, 151.9° M 185.6°, 354.4°  5 729 577 951
N 33.6°, 146.4° O 210°, 330°
 DE Graph of tan [ F All 0
 Sin 234°, as the others all have the same numerical
value. G Students’ own explanations

 D 438° or 78° + 360Q°  D Tan is positive for angles between 0–90° and
E –282° or 78° – 360Q° 180–270°
F Line symmetry about ±90Q° where Q is an odd E Yes, 180°
integer.
Rotational symmetry about ±180Q° where Q is ([HUFLVH+
an integer.
 D 41.2°, 221.2° E 123.7° and 303.7°
 30q, 150q, 199.5q, 340.5q
 D 14.5°, 194.5° E 61.9°, 241.9°
 D 53.1°, 306.9° E 54.5°, 305.5° F 68.6°, 248.6° G 160.3°, 340.3°
F 62.7°, 297.3° G 54.9°, 305.1° H 147.6°, 327.6° I 105.2°, 285.2°
H 79.3°, 280.7° I 143.1°, 216.9° J 54.4°, 234.4° K 130.9°, 310.9°
J 104.5°, 255.5° K 100.1°, 259.9° L 174.4°, 354.4° M 44.9°, 224.9°
L 111.2°, 248.8° M 166.9°, 193.1°
N 78.7°, 281.3° O 44.4°, 315.6°  Tan 235°, as the others have a numerical value of 1

 Cos 58°, as the others are negative.  D 425° or 65° + 180Q°, Q > 2
E –115° or 65° – 180Q°
 D 492° or 132° + 360Q° F No Line symmetry
E –228° or 132° – 360Q° Rotational symmetry about ±180Q° where Q is
F Line symmetry about ±180Q° where Q is an an integer.
integer. -1 -1
Rotational symmetry about ±90Q° where Q is an  tan 0.4040 = 21.9987 which is 22 to 2 sf, so tan
odd integer. (–0.4040) is same as tan 180 – 22 = 158.
-1
 D L High tides 0940, 2200, low tides 0300, 1520 If you calculate tan ( –0.4040) on your calculator it
LL 12hrs 20min will give –21.9987 = –22 (2 sf).
E L same periodic shape Mel is therefore correct as he has rounded his
LL The period of the cycle is in time not solution. Jose is also correct.
degrees, no negative values on the \ axis
([HUFLVH,
([HUFLVH)
 D 3.64 m E 8.05 cm F 19.4 cm
 D 0.707 E –1 (–0.9998)
F –0.819 G 0.731  D 46.6° E 112.0° F 36.2°
 D –0.629 E –0.875  50.3°, 129.7°



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 This statement can be shown to be true by using  The answer is correct to 3sf but the answer could
D E sin $ be slightly less accurate (as 140m to 2sf) since the
= . As D = E × ,
sin $ sin % sin % question data is given to 2sf
sin $
if D > E then sin $ > sin % and so > 1,
sin % ([HUFLVH/
sin $ 2 2 2
hence E × >E.  D 24.0 cm E 26.7 cm F 243 cm
sin % 2 2
G 21 097 cm H 1224 cm
 2.88 cm, 20.9 cm
 4.26 cm
 D L 30° LL 40°
 D 42.3° E 49.6°
E 19.4 m
2
 36.5 m  103 cm
2
 22.2 m  2033 cm
2
 3.47 m  21.0 cm
2
 The correct height is 767 m. Paul has mixed the  D 33.2° E 25.3 cm
digits up and placed them in the wrong order.  Check that proof is valid.
 26.8 km/h 2
 21 cm
 64.6 km 2
 726 cm
 Check students’ answers.
D2 3
 134° 
4
 Check that proof is valid.
 c

([HUFLVH-
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 D 7.71 m E 29.1 cm F 27.4 cm
122  102  152 -1
 D 76.2° E 125.1° F 90°  cos A = = 0.079166, cos
2 u 12 u 10
G Right-angled triangle
0.079166 = 85.459371 = 85.5° (3 sf), so Oliver is
 5.16 cm incorrect, he has truncated the final answer to 3
figures instead of rounding off.
 65.5 cm
 D 10.7 cm E 41.7° F 38.3°  area = 1 × 7 × 13 × sin 116 = 40.895129 = 40.9 (3 sf)
2 2
G 6.69 cm H 54.4 cm
2 2 2
 AB = 10 + 11 – 2 × 10 × 11 × cos 70 =
 72.3°
145.75557, AB = 12.1 (3 sf). The longest side of a
 25.4 cm, 38.6 cm triangle is opposite the largest angle, so as AB is
the longest side, then angle C must be the largest
 58.4 km at 092.5° angle
 21.8° 1
 D L Let QP = 1, then QT = 2
,
 D 82.8° E 8.89 cm 1
2 1
 42.5 km angle QPT = 30°, sin 30 = 1
= 2

3
 Check students’ answers. LL PT = 1 – ( 21 ) = 3 , so PT =
2 2 2
, hence
4 2
 111°; the largest angle is opposite the longest side
3
3
cos 30 = 2 =
([HUFLVH. 1 2
D 8.60 m E 90° 27.2 cm 3 2 1 2 3 1
 F E ( ) +( ) = + =1
G 26.9° H 41.0° I 62.4 cm 2 2 4 4
F Assume QPT is any right angled triangle with
 7 cm angle PQT as θ and PQ = 1. Then QT = cos θ,
2
PT = sin θ, so using Pythagoras, where QT +
 11.1 km 2 2 2 2
PT = PQ , (sin [) + (cos [) = 1
 19.9 knots
 22.2 m
 D 27.8 miles
 60°, 109.5°, 250.5°, 300°
E 262°
 58.8°
 D $ = 90°; this is Pythagoras’ theorem
E $ is acute
 FB = 52  62 7.81 cm
F $ is obtuse



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AF = 92  7.812 11.92 cm ([HUFLVH%

 D Two taps on E One tap on
So ‫ס‬AFD = sin1( 11.92
6
) 30.2 ° F Shejuti gets in the bath
G Shejuti has a bath
 Jamil is correct to 1dp H Shejuti takes the plug out, water leaves the bath
I Shejuti gets out of the bath
&KDSWHU±$OJHEUD*UDSKV J Water continues to leave the bath until the bath
is empty
([HUFLVH$
 D Graph C
 D L 2h LL 3h LLL 5 h E
E L 40 km/h LL 120 km/h LLL 40 km/h
 D 10 mph E Faster. The graph is steeper.

F 13 1 mph
3
 
 D 30 km E 40 km F 100 km/h
 D L 263 m/min (3 sf) LL 15.8 km/h (3 sf)
E L 500 m/min
F Paul by 1 minute
 D Patrick ran quickly at first, then had a slow
middle section but he won the race with a final
sprint. Araf ran steadily all the way and came
second. Sean set off the slowest, speeded up
towards the end but still came third.
E L 1.67 m/s LL 6 km/h
 There are three methods for doing this question.
This table shows the first, which is writing down the
distances covered each hour.

Time 9am 9:30 10:00 10:30 11:00 11:30 12:00 12:30


Walker 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21

Cyclist 0 0 0 0 7.5 15 22.5 30 ([HUFLVH&

The second method is algebra:  D 20 m/s E 100 metres
' F 150 metres G 750 metres
Walker takes 7hours until overtaken, so 7= ;
6
 D 15 km E 5 km/h
'
Cyclist takes 7± 1.5 to overtake, so 7± 1.5 = .
15  D AB, greatest area E 45 miles F 135 miles
Rearranging gives 157± 22.5 = 67, 97= 22.5,  15 m/s
7= 2.5.
The third method is a graph:  D

E 475 metres
All methods give the same answer of 11:30 when
the cyclist overtakes the walker.  D Could be true or false
E Must be true
 D Vehicle 2 overtook Vehicle 1 F Must be true
E Vehicle 1 overtook Vehicle 2 G Could be true or false
F Vehicles travelling in different directions H Could be true or false
G Vehicle 2 overtook Vehicle 1
H 17:15
I 32.0 mph if you only count travelling time, or ([HUFLVH'
11.3 mph if you count total time. 2 2
 D 6 m/s  E 3 m/s  F 20 s



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G 1200 m H 2100 m F \ = –2[ + 10

2 2 2
 40 km/h , 30 km/h , 100 km/h E 52.5 km  Check proof is valid
3Y 2
\= 3
[– 34
E \ = – 31 [ – 20
 D m/s E 337.5 m  D 5 5 3
10
S S2  T 2 D2
([HUFLVH( F \=– [+ (or )
T T T
 D 80 miles, underestimate
 \ = 2[ – 15, \ = 2[ + 15
 E 250 metres, overestimate
 E [ + \ = 10, [ + \ = –10
F 75 metres, underestimate
 D 10
 G 180 metres, underestimate 2 2
E [ + \ = 90
 D 8 miles, underestimate
 E 40 miles, overestimate ([HUFLVH+
 D L 10 m/s LL 40 m/s  
E L 900m
LL Around1070 m, depending on student’s
division of the shape
F is more accurate because the shapes are closer
to the curve
 D Car starts from rest and speeds up to 10 m/s
after 20 seconds. It then travels at a constant
speed of 10 m/s for 30 seconds, and then
speeds up again to reach 20m/s in the next
10 seconds.  
E 120 metres
 D Values of \: –54, –31.25, –16, –6.75, –2,
 D The lorry increases speed at a steady rate –0.25, 0, 0.25, 2, 6.75, 16, 31.25, 54
whereas the car speeds up quickly at first but E 39.4
then levels off to a constant speed and then
speeds up at an increasing rate to reach 20 m/s.  D Values of \: –24, –12.63, –5, –0.38, 2, 2.9, 3,
E Lorry travels further (600 metres as against car, 3.13, 4, 6.38, 11, 18.63, 30
approximately 550 metres) as area under graph E 4.7 F –1.4 to–1.5
is greater.  D Values of \: –16, –5.63, 1, 4.63, 6, 5.88, 5, 4.13,
4, 5.38, 9, 15.63, 26
([HUFLVH) E L –2.1 LL (–0.8, 6)
LLL (0.7, 3.9) LY (0, 5)
 D tangent drawn E 10 m/s F 0 m/s
 Values of y: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24, –24, –12, –6, –4,
 D L 10–12 km/h LL 20–22 km/h –3, –2, –1
E 2 hours
F L 10 km/h LL 19 km/h
2
 D About 1.8 m/s
2
E About 0.9 m/s
2
F About 1.8 m/s
G 20 s, gradient is zero because this is a
maximum point
 Any two points where the gradient of one is the
negative of the other, e.g. at 1 s and 3 s.

([HUFLVH*
 D 6 E 2 3 F 5 3 G 24
3
 D 6 13 E 176 F 114 G 2

 D inside E outside F on circumference

G on circumference
H outside I inside
 D Values of y: –0.25, –0.33, –0.5, –1, –2.5,
 D any three points such that [ 2  \ 2 25 –5, –10, –12.5, –25, 25, 12.5, 10, 5, 2.5, 1, 0.5,
E 12 0.33, 0.25
1
 D 2
E –2



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 D = 5, E = 3.87
 

 

([HUFLVH,
 DE

E Can’t divide by 0
F 

F \ [ 2  3 is 3 units higher than \ [2

2
G \ [  2 is 2 units lower than \ [2
2
H L \ [  6 is 6 units higher than \ [2
LL \ [ 2  6 is 6 units lower than \ [2

 DE

  
G 0.48 and −10.48
 D Values of \: 0.01, 0.04, 0.11, 0.33, 1, 3, 9, 27
E 15.6 F –0.63

F \ ([  2)2 is 2 units to the right of \ [ 2

G \ ([  1)2 is 1 unit to the left of \ [ 2
H L \ ( [  3)2 is 3 units to the right of
\ [2
LL \ ( [  4)2 is 4 units to the left of \ [ 2

 D Quadratic E Linear F Exponential

G Reciprocal H None I Cubic
J Linear K None L Quadratic
 D The numbers go 1, 2, 4, … which is equivalent
0 1 2 (Q–1)
to 2 , 2 , 2 , … so the formula is 2
63 18 14
E 2 = 9.22 × 10 F £4.61 × 10
Q 50 15
 D Number of pieces = 2 so 2 = 1.1 × 10
pieces
8
E 1.13 × 10 km



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([HUFLVH-  D
 D


 E

3 3
FL \ = −[ LL \=[ –2
3
E Up 3 F Down 1 G 3 to the left LLL \ = ([ + 2)
H 3 to the left and down 1 
2 2
No, as f(–[) = (–[) = [ , and –f([) = –([) = –[
2 2

I Reflect in the [-axis and move up 3 2 2

 D \ = [ + 2 E \ = ([ – 2)
2
 D F \ = –[ + 4
 D Translation
E L Equivalent LL Equivalent

([HUFLVH.
 D \ = f([ – 3) + 2; 3 right and 2 up
E \ = f([ + 7) – 14; 7 left and 14 down
F \ = f([ – 11) – 21; 11 right and 21 down



2
 D \ [ 2  8[  7 E \ = –[ + 6[ + 5
E 90° to the left F 45° to the right 2
G up 2 H reflect in the [-axis F \ = [ – 14[ + 59
I Reflect in the \-axis
J Reflect in both axes 5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV
 All of them.

 
2
 D 19 E 0.7 m/s 
 D

 D \ = cos [ + 3 E \ = cos ([ + 30°)

F \ = cos ([ – 45°) – 2

E –3.0, 1.6, 4.2



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 50 11[ 3 [  2\ [\ 2  8
 D E F
 1F, 2C, 3D, 4A, 5B, 6E 20 6 4\
[ 1 [ 1 2  3[
 D 5 E 4 F 320 G H I
4 4 4

 D x=3 E x=2 F x = 0.75 G x=3
2 2
[ 8 [  2[
 D E F
6 3 10
2[ 2  [ 1
G H
15 2[

[ 2 [\ 2[ 2  12[  18
 D E F
\ 3 75
 D (5, 5) and (7, 1)
1 [ 2  5[  6
E ( 20 , 10 ) G 1 H
4[  2
I
48
3 3
2 1
 D –(0.8–0.9) m/h  J
2[
E 8.6 miles
[ 3[ 2
  D x E F G 3
2 16
17 [  1 13 [  9 3[ 2  5[  2
H I J
10 10 10
[3 2 2[ 2  6\ 2
K L M
2 3 9
 All parts: students’ own working

[2  8
 D E 7
[2  2

[ 2  14 [  37

[  12[ 2  47 [  60
3

[3

 D [6

 First, he did not factorise and just cancelled the

x2s. Then he cancelled 2 and 6 with the wrong
signs. Then he said two minuses make a plus when
adding, which is not true.

2[ 2  [  3

4[ 2  9
 D 3, –1.5 E 4, –1.25 F 3, –2.5 G 0, 1
[ 1 2[  1 2[  1
 D E F
2[  1 [3 3[  2
 [ 1 2[  5
G H
[ 1 4[  1
E 10 m/s
10
 D Proof E 2 or 
3
&KDSWHU±$OJHEUD$OJHEUDLF  D Proof E 2 m/s
IUDFWLRQVDQGIXQFWLRQV 3
 D x + 3 2x2 + 6x + 2 2
E Proof F 99 + 70 2
([HUFLVH$
72  4 [ 2
5[ 23 [ [ 2\  8  D 2 2
 D
6
E
20
F [3 [3
4[
5[  7 13 [  5 5 [  10 4 [ 3  40 [ 2  122[  110
G H I E
6 15 4 [ 1 [  2 [ 3 [  4



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[ 3 ([HUFLVH&

[3 3  DL 8 LL 14 LLL 2 LY 4
EL 36 LL –9 LLL 1241 LY –1.5
([HUFLVH% [7
 D 6 E 3 F 45
4
S S  15 15
 D c=  3 or E c=  D 29 E 218 F 7.832
5 5 5S

5 5  3)  7
 D G=  3 or
) )  D 25 E 249 F 15 G 1807
5  3) 3)  5 H 1807 I 13 J r5
E G = or
) 1 1 )
 D 9 E –39 F –56 G –56
E TS D TS H 12 I 24.84 J r 5
 D a= E b=
TS TS
 DL 54 LL 44 E 6 and –1
E  5F $
F a= G r=
4 S 2K  N
([HUFLVH'
X 25  3
H v= I x=
1 D 5 1 –1 [5 –1 3
 D f ([) = E f ([) = ; 2
4
–1 10 –1 10  x
3 2$ F f ([) = 1 G f ([) =
 D r= E r= [ 2
S  2N 2
S N 1 –1 –1 3
H f ([) = 6x + 7 I f ([) =
[ 5
100 $
 P=
D f ([) = 5[ + 2 E –3 (– 3 ) = 1
–1 –1
100  5<  F f
3[  1 2 2
5D 5E  D Both inverse functions are the same as the
 D b= E a =
D5 E5 original function
E The inverse function is the same as the original
2  2\
 D [ = function
\ 1
F Proof
4 4
E \ – 1 = , ([ – 2)(\ – 1)= 4, [ – 2 = ,
[2 \ 1
([HUFLVH(
4
[= 2 +
\ 1
 D 81 E 61 F 43 G –2.25 H 5.8
4 [24 [2 2 2
F \=1+ and
[2 [2 [2  D 48 E 229 F 18
2  2\ G 29 H –8 I –141
[=
\ 1 3
 DL 4[ – 32 LL 11 – 4[
G Same formulae as in D 2 3
LLL 21 – 27[ + 9[ – [
 D Cannot take U as a common factor LY 16[ – 40
9 6 3
39 Y [ – 18[ + 108[ – 222
E π = 2
U 2U  3K E gh([) = 4 – 4[, hg([) = 11 – 4[, 4 – 4[ z 11 – 4[

3 39  1 (E + 1)
F Yes, U = 2
5π

2:  2]\
 [= ([HUFLVH)
]\
 x2 = 4 x3 = –10 x4 = 88 x5 = –598
1  3\
 [ =  D 1878 E –4372 F –54.048 G 3
2\  5
The first number at the top of the answer is the  5.0701
constant term on the top of the original.
The coefficient of \ at the top of the answer is the  x2 = 3.1414 x3 = 3.1745 x4 = 3.1821
negative constant term on the bottom of the original. x5 = 3.1839 x6 = 3.1843
The coefficient of \ at the bottom of the answer is  D 2.115 = 2.12 (2 dp)
the coefficient of [ on the bottom of the original. E f(2.12) = 0.03 (2 dp)
The constant term on the bottom is negative the
coefficient of [ on the top of the original.  Proof
 D Both are correct  D 3 and 7
E Alice’s answer is easier to substitute into E 7



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F L converges on 7 4  2\
LL diverges, towards square root of a negative, [=
1  3\
LLLconverges on 7 LY stays on 3
–1 4  2[
G [ < 3: diverges, towards square root of a Hence f ([) =
1  3[
negative
[ = 3: stays on 3 3
[ > 7: converges on 7  L LL – 2 LLL 5 LY 8
4 3 5
 D Proof 4
 
E x2 = 7 , x3 = 3, x4 = 7 [ 1
2 2
29 13 29  D 9.51, –10.5
F x2 = , x3 = , x4 =
9 4 9 E [ d 10, [ t 28
F –10 < [ < 10
G x2 = 73 , x3 = 33 , x4 = 73
23 10 23
 D Proof E 5.31
H x2 = 1 + 5 , x3 = 1 + 5 , x4 = 1 + 5
 D 21 E D = –3, E = 2
I x=1+ 5
2  D Proof E 12
 D Proof E 67 cm
F this will depend upon how accurate the final
value of xn+1 is &KDSWHU±*HRPHWU\DQGPHDVXUHV
 D 1 E 3 9HFWRUJHRPHWU\
 D oscillates between 8.046, 0.148 and –2.262
E diverges ([HUFLVH$
F converges on 2.707
 D Any three of: AC , CF , BD , DG , GI , EH , HJ ,
5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV JK
 8 E Any three of: BE , AD
AD , DH , CG , GJ , FI , IK
F Any three of: AO , CA , FC , IG , GD , DB , KJ ,
 D x= D+. E 3.5 JH , HE
&+6
G Any three of: BO , EB , HD , DA , JG , GC , KI ,
D [+3 3
–1
 E f (x) = IF
[ [ 1
 D 2D E 2E F D + E
7[

3[ + 1 G 2D + E H 2D + 2E I D + 2E
J D + E K 2D + 2E L 3D + E
 D x1 = 2.54, x2 = 2.57, x3 = 2.58, x4 = 2.59 M 2D N E O 2D + E
E 2.59 – it’s the same
 D Equal E AI , BJ , DK
3 3
 D fg([) = 3[ + 14 E 3 × 3 + 14 = 95
 D OJ = 2OD and parallel
–1 [+T –1 3
 D f ([) = E f ([) = D[ E AK F OF , BI , EK
S

F f ([) = D  F  
–1
[
 D L 2 LL 8 LLL 18
LY 32 Y 50
2
E 2Q
 Proof

2[  7 5
 D E or 16
[3 6
 D Lie on same straight line
 2 – 3[\ = 4 – [ E All multiples of D + E and start at O
mistake here expanding the brackets F H
1  3\  D –E E 3D – E F 2D – E
[= should be 2 divided by (1 – 3\)
2 G D – E H D + E I –D – E
4[ J 2D – E K –D – 2E L D + 2E
corrected: \ =
2  3[ M –D + E N 2D – 2E O D – 2E
\(2 – 3[) = 4 – [
 D Equal but in opposite directions
2\ – 3[\ = 4 – [
[ –3[\ = 4 – 2\ E Any three of: DA , EF , GJ , FI , AH
H
[(1 – 3\) = 4 – 2\



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 D Opposite direction and AB =  21 CK F 

E BJ , CK
F EB , GO , KH
 506 mph on a bearing of 009° 

 12 km/h on a bearing of 107° G M is midpoint of parallelogram of which OA and

OB are two sides.
 DL D + E LL 3D + E
 LLL 2D – E 2 – 2D
LY 2E  DL –D – E LL – 1 D – 1 E
2 2
E DG and BC LLL 
 Parts E and G could be, parts D and F could not be
 D Any multiple (positive or negative) of 3D – E
E Will be a multiple of 3D – E
 For example, let ABCD be a quadrilateral as
 
shown.
LY 1 D – 1 E
2 2
EL E+D LL 1 E + 1 D
2 2
LLL 

Then AD = ABAB + BD = D + (E + F).

 
But AD = AACC + CD = (D + E) + F.
Hence D + (E + F) = (D + E) + F. LY 1 D – 1 E
2 2
 D L 2E – 2D LL D – F F 
LLL 2F – 2E LY E + F – D
E RQ = D – F = SP , similarly 34 E 65 , so
opposite sides are equal and parallel, hence
PQRS is a parallelogram  
G N is midpoint of parallelogram of which OA and
([HUFLVH% OC are two sides

 DL –D + E LL 1 (–D + E) –D + E LL 1 (–D + E)

2
D+ 1E
2  DL
3
LLL
3 3
LLL 
E 3D+ 1E
4 4

2E 2
 DL LL 1 D + 1 E LLL – E
3 2 2 3
  E 1D– 1E
2 6
LY 1 D + 1 E F DE = DO + OE
2 2
3
D–E LL 1 D – 1 E = D– 1E
EL
2 2 2 2
LLL  G DE parallel to CD (multiple of CD ) and D is a
common point
 D 

LY 1 D + 1 E
2 2

CD = –D + E = E – D
EL –D LL –E LLL D – E



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F 0, vectors return to starting point  In parallelogram ABCD, AB = DC = D, BC = AD

AD = E.
E.
GL 2E LL 2E – 2D LLL –2D
LY 2E – D Y –D – E Let X be the midpoint of diagonal AC. Then DX

 D = –E + 1 (D + E) = 1 (D – E) = 1 DB which is D – E,
2 2 2
hence the midpoint of one diagonal is the same as
the midpoint of the other diagonal, hence they
bisect each other.

5HYLHZTXHVWLRQV

CX = 12  12 E = 2E  D 2E – D E –3E FD+E
CD = CX + XD = 2E–D  DL 2\ 2E
\–2 E 2E– 2[
LL 2
E E WZ = WB + BZ = 1 (2E – 2[) + 1 (2\ – 2E) =
2 2
E – [ + \ – E = \ – [
F XY = \ – [, so parallel and equal in length to
WZ, so Tim must be correct.
  Let OF = [ = DE and OD = \ = FE , then
2 2
 YE   1  1 D= 2 D DF = [± \ and AB = 1 [ – 1 \ = 1 ([ – \)
2 2 2
 DE   DY + YE =E– 2 D
FL –D LL –E  DL S + U LL U – S
LLL D – 2 E LY 2 D – E
E 1 (U – S)
Y 2D+D YL 2E+E 2
YLL 2E + 2 E – D– 2D F OX = S + 1 (U – S) = 1 (S + U) = 1 OQ
2 2 2
YLLL 2E + 2 E – 2D – 2D
 DL \–[ LL 1 (\ – [) LLL 1 ([ + \)
1 (–D + E) = – 1 D + 1 E 2 2
 DL –D + E LL
2 2 2 1 ([ + \)
LY Y – 1 ([ + \) YL 1 (\ – 2[)
3 6 3
LLL 1 D + 1 E
2 2
YLL 1 \ – [
1 2
EL E+ 1F LL –1D+ 1F
2 2 2 2
E BG = 1 (\ – 2[) and BE = 1 \ – [
3 2
FL – D + 1 F
1 LL Equal
2 2 1
LLL Parallelogram = (\– 2[)both are multiples of (\– 2[) so
2
G AC = –D + F = 2(– 1 D + 1 F) = 2 QM are parallel, and with a common point, they must
2 2 all be collinear.
1D F 2 BE = 2 × 1 (\– 2[) = 1 (\– 2[) = BG
 DL LL F – D 3 3 2 3
2
 LLL 1 D + 1 F LY 1 F  DL [\ LL1 [\  LLL 2 [\ 
2 2 2 3 3
EL – 1 D + 1 E LL – 1 D + 1 E  LY 1 [±\  Y 1 [±\ 
2 2 2 2 3 3
F Opposite sides are equal and parallel
G NMRQ and PNLR E SA = 1 [±\   BQ , SB = SA + AB
AB , AQ
Q =
3
AB + BQ = A AB
B + SA , hence SB = AQ ,
 D – 1 D + 1 E hence SAQB has opposite sides equal and
2 2
EL Rhombus parallel, so a parallelogram.
1
LL They lie on a straight line, OM = 2
OC  DL 6D – 2E LL 3D – E
E BP = 2(3D – E) hence it is parallel to BQ with a
 N = 8
common point Q, so the points B, Q and P are
collinear.
 D YW = YZ + ZW = 2D + E + D + 2 2E
= 3D + 3E= 3(D + E) = 3XY  In triangle ABC the midpoint of AB is M and the
E 3:1 midpoint of AC is N
F They lie on a straight line. Let AM = [ and AN = \\,, then MN = \±[ , AB = 2[
G Points are A(6, 2), B(1, 1) and C(2, 24). Using
2 2 and AC = 2\, so BC = 2\ – 2[ = 2(\±[). BC is a
Pythagoras’ theorem, AB = 26, BC = 26 and
2 2 2 2
AC = 52 so AB + BC = AC hence ‫ס‬ABC must
be a right angle.



Please note that this copy remains the intellectual property of Harper Collins Publishers Ltd
and should be used within Moulton School & Science College, NN3 7SD for the intended purpose only
97345_Answers pdf.indd 797 11/09/2018 15:59
 Please note that this copy remains the intellectual property of Harper Collins Publishers Ltd
and should be used within Moulton School & Science College, NN3 7SD for the intended purpose only

multiple of MN and so parallel, MN = 1 BC and so

2
half its length.
 D P–U
E RT = 2 RM = 2 P–U so NT –2P+ 2P– 2U
–2Uparallel to U, hence NT is parallel to OR.



Please note that this copy remains the intellectual property of Harper Collins Publishers Ltd
and should be used within Moulton School & Science College, NN3 7SD for the intended purpose only
97345_Answers pdf.indd 798 11/09/2018 15:59