NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT: ELECTRICAL

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

LECTURE NOTES TERM 3: FULL TIME

SUBJECT: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

CLASS: D8/3

COMPUTER NETWORKS, INTERNET AND THE EMAIL .

1 Introduction to Computer Networks
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that communicate with each other to
share resources, data, and information. The primary purpose of a computer network is to enable
communication, resource sharing, and collaboration among devices.

2 Types of Networks
• Local Area Network (LAN): Covers a small geographic area, such as a home, office, or
campus. High data transfer speeds (up to 10 Gbps or more). Examples include Ethernet and
Wi-Fi networks.
• Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers a large geographic area, connecting multiple LANs. It
typically has lower data transfer speeds compared to LANs. Examples include the Internet
and leased lines.
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Covers a city or large campus. It is intermediate in
size between LANs and WANs and is often used by businesses and government entities.
• Personal Area Network (PAN): Covers a very small area, usually within a few meters. It
is typically used for connecting personal devices, such as Bluetooth connections between a
phone and headphones.

3 Network Topologies
• Star: All devices connect to a central hub or switch. This topology is easy to manage and
troubleshoot.
• Bus: All devices share a single communication line. While simple, it is less reliable; a failure
can bring down the whole network.
• Ring: Devices are connected in a circular path, and data travels in one direction. A failure
in one device can disrupt the entire network.
• Mesh: Every device connects to multiple others, providing redundancy. This topology is
highly reliable but complex and expensive to implement.
• Hybrid: Combines elements of different topologies to suit specific needs.

4 Network Components
• Routers: Devices that forward data packets between different networks, directing traffic.
• Switches: Connect devices within a LAN, using MAC addresses to forward data only to the
intended recipient.

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 • Hubs: Basic networking devices that connect multiple Ethernet devices, making them act as
a single network segment. They are less intelligent than switches.

• Modems: Convert digital data from a computer to analog for transmission over telephone
lines and vice versa.

• Access Points: Enable wireless devices to connect to a wired network using Wi-Fi.

5 Network Protocols
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Ensures reliable communication by establishing a
connection and guaranteeing data delivery.

• Internet Protocol (IP): Responsible for addressing and routing packets of data across net-
works.

• User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless protocol that allows for faster transmis-
sion but without guarantees of delivery or order.

• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/HTTPS): Used for transmitting web pages over the
Internet. HTTPS is the secure version, encrypting data.

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Used for transferring files between a client and server.

6 Network Security
• Firewalls: Monitor and control incoming and outgoing network traffic based on security
rules.

• Encryption: Protects data by converting it into a secure format that can only be read by
authorized parties.

• Virtual Private Network (VPN): Creates a secure, encrypted connection over a less secure
network, such as the Internet.

• Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Monitors network traffic for suspicious activity and
alerts administrators.

7 Functions of Computer Networks

• Resource Sharing: Allows multiple devices to share resources like printers, storage, and
internet connections.

• Data Communication: Enables the transfer of data and information between devices effi-
ciently.

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 • Remote Access: Users can access resources and services from different locations.

• Collaboration: Facilitates communication and collaboration among users through email,

messaging, and video conferencing.

8 Conclusion
Computer networks are essential for modern communication and resource sharing, providing the
foundation for the Internet and various applications that drive everyday activities.

9 Introduction to the Internet

9.1 What is the Internet?
The Internet is a network of interconnected computers using the Transmission Control Proto-
col/Internet Protocol (known as TCP/IP for short): it includes the connecting wires and the equip-
ment used to route the information (the network infrastructure), and the computers themselves.
Even more generally, the Internet is often used to indicate the community of users and comput-
ers collectively. Though a very broad definition, this is perhaps the most useful and interesting —
the Internet is really an information-based society.

9.2 Connecting using an ISP

• Internet Service Provider

• Extends the Internet into your computer

An ISP, or Internet Service Provider, is a company that provides you with a point of access to
the Internet. When you connect to your ISP, your computer (or your own network) becomes an
extension of the Internet itself whilst you remain connected. Examples of ISPs in Zambia include
Zamtel (Lapgreen), Zamnet, Coppernet, Microlink, Realtime, etc.

9.3 How does the connection work from home?

• Modems and routers

• Negotiating a connection

To connect from home, you need several things. Apart from a computer (obviously!), you’ll
need a phone connection, a modem or ADSL router, and some Internet software. Things will be
easier if you’re using a relatively recent operating system, such as Windows Vista/XP or MacOSX,
but it’s possible to connect with older or more obscure systems.

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 With a modem and the appropriate software, you can dial up another modem connected to
another computer and establish a network connection with it. Usually, this computer is linked into
the Internet, and so you’re online.
With an ADSL modem or router, a similar procedure happens, but a filter splits the telephone
line into voice and data (low and high frequencies), and your router negotiates a connection with
the ADSL equipment in the telephone exchange.

9.4 Choosing an ISP

• Dialup, broadband or mobile?

• Occasional or extensive use?

• Tied to a single line, or available anywhere?

Within the University, the computers are connected permanently to the Internet. If you want
to connect from home, you’ll need to connect temporarily to an Internet Service Provider, or ISP,
each time you need to access Internet resources. Setting this up is a fairly painless process, though
you need to choose your ISP carefully.
What to look for: The first decision to make is the type of connection you want. If you’re a
very occasional user, then getting a dialup connection is still often the cheapest and simplest. It’s
also useful if you travel around a lot, as it’s not (usually) tied to a particular phone line/number.
Most people, however, will want a broadband connection because it gives a reliable, almost
instant connection (or ’always-on’ operation) at a high bandwidth.
You might also consider a wireless connection using data over a mobile phone network. These
offer the ultimate mobile solution but can be very expensive, often charging per megabyte of down-
load.

9.5 Who governs/regulates/controls the Internet?

• A collective free-for-all?

• A collaborative technocracy?

• A commercial communications network?

This is a difficult question! The Internet grew as a collaborative network of researchers keen
to share their discoveries in a simple, accessible way. Because of this, there was no real need to
regulate or control the Internet; the information was already free and was of interest only to other
researchers, so it didn’t need protection. But as the Internet has grown, it has become a more
commercial, public entity, and some who use it now wish it to be governed and policed to prevent
certain types of abuse. However, there are various bodies that govern parts of the Internet.

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10 The World Wide Web
10.1 What is the World Wide Web?
• Web servers, which store the web pages

• Web documents, the pages themselves

• Web clients, browsers of many types

The Web consists of many millions of internet-connected computers, each with information on
them that their owner has decided to share. These documents can be formed of anything from plain
text to multimedia or even 3D objects. These computers, called servers, deliver this information
over the Internet to client computers (such as your PC at home) using a protocol called HTTP
(HyperText Transfer Protocol). The HTTP protocol is very simple; essentially it just provides a
mechanism that allows a client to request a document and a server to send that document.
As the web has become more and more popular, its capabilities have increased to include such
things as graphics, animations, scripts, and even complete computer programs, all embedded into
the pages of the documents. Essentially, the web is the easiest to use of the entire internet toolkit
— this is partly why it has become so popular. Various mechanisms allow the viewer to move
around (navigate) the document easily. Clicking on a hyperlink moves you to another part of the
document or to another document altogether.

10.2 The Web’s unique features

• Universal readership – Uses the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is used to read
documents.

• Hyperlinks/hypertext/hypermedia – Combination of links, text, and media in the web.

• Availability of information – Computers are interconnected, so information is readily avail-

able.

• Flexibility to adapt media formats – HTML and HTTP enable the adaptation of new media
forms.

The web has become the most predominant of the new digital media and has provided the
mechanism for many new forms of publishing. There are many reasons why this is so; a few of
them are discussed in the following sections.

10.3 Web Browser

Short for Web browser, a software application used to locate, retrieve, and also display content
on the World Wide Web, including Web pages, images, video, and other files. Today’s browsers
are fully functional software suites that can interpret and display HTML Web pages, applications,
JavaScript, and other content hosted on Web servers. Many browsers offer plug-ins which extend

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the capabilities of a browser so it can display multimedia information (including sound and video),
or the browser can be used to perform tasks such as videoconferencing, to design web pages, or
add anti-phishing filters and other security features to the browser.
The two most popular browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer and Firefox. Other major
browsers include Google Chrome, Apple Safari, and Opera. While most commonly used to access
information on the web, a browser can also be used to access information hosted on Web servers
in private networks.

10.4 How does the web work?

• Web servers and web browsers communicate via HTTP

• HTTP ensures that all parts of the web page are delivered

• Web browser decides how these items are displayed

The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is actually quite simple. The web browser (or client)
makes a request of a webpage to the server, and the web server passes the page back to the browser.
More cleverly, it also passes back any images, sounds, or other media items back to the browser
too.
The web browser is also particularly clever in the way it displays what it retrieves. Web pages
are written in HTML, and the browser knows how to display these correctly, whether you have a
huge flat screen or a tiny screen on a handheld device or phone. The HTML language gives the
browser hints on how to display things, and the browser decides the final layout itself.

10.5 How do web addresses work?

The key to accessing all this information is the URI - the Uniform Resource Identifier. Each web
page has a unique address, specified by its URL – Universal Resource Locator, which tells the
client/browser how to access the page.

10.6 How do web addresses work?

A web search engine is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web. The search
results are generally presented in a list of results often referred to as search engine results pages
(SERPs). The information may consist of web pages, images, information, and other types of files.
Some search engines also mine data available in databases or open directories.
Information on the web is searched using programs called browsers. Examples of search
browsers include Google, Yahoo, Live Search, Bing, Galaxy, MSN Search, Cuil, etc.

11 Emails: The Nature and Use of Email

• Email can be both interactive and asynchronous

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 • Email tends to be a hybrid of spoken and written language

• Email can be both transient and permanent

11.1 How Email Works

• You write an email in your email client (software or web-based)

• Send it to your email server

• Server sends it to recipient’s server

• Recipient retrieves it from their email client

11.2 Email Protocols

There are two main protocols used to send and receive emails:

• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): Used to send emails from a client to a server or
between servers.

• Post Office Protocol (POP) and Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): Used to re-
trieve emails from the server to the client. POP downloads emails to the local device, while
IMAP synchronizes them across devices.

11.3 Email Security

Securing email communications is essential due to the sensitive nature of the information ex-
changed. Common practices include:

• Use of strong passwords

• Two-factor authentication

• Encryption protocols (e.g., SSL/TLS)

11.4 Email Etiquette

Good email etiquette helps maintain professionalism and ensures effective communication. Here
are some key points:

• Use a clear subject line: Summarize the email’s content.

• Be concise: Get to the point quickly and avoid unnecessary details.

• Use proper greetings: Start with a respectful salutation.

• Avoid all caps: It can be perceived as shouting.

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 • Proofread: Check for spelling and grammatical errors before sending.

• Respect the recipient’s time: If it’s not urgent, consider if email is the best medium.

11.5 Netiquette
What is Netiquette? “‘Netiquette’ is network etiquette, which are the dos and don’ts of online
communication. Netiquette covers both common courtesy online and the informal ‘rules of the
road’ of cyberspace.”(Shea, 1997, para 1) Netiquette is a set of rules that encourages appropriate
online behavior related to the social and cultural norms of a community .

Why do we Need Netiquette Rules? The rules of etiquette that apply when communicating on-
line are different from those that apply when communicating in person. So we need to learn such
rules so that we don’t encounter serious barriers as we try to communicate online. :

• Be respectful: Treat others with respect and courtesy.

• Avoid spamming: Don’t send irrelevant messages to many people.

• Use appropriate language: Avoid slang or jargon that might confuse others.

• Think before you post: Consider the potential impact of your words.

• Be mindful of privacy: Don’t share personal information without consent.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Define a Local Area Network (LAN) and provide two examples of its application.

2. Describe the difference between a hub and a switch in networking. Which one is more
efficient and why?

3. Explain the purpose of the OSI model. Name its seven layers and briefly describe the func-
tion of each layer.

4. What is a network topology? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a star topology.

5. What are the roles of routers and switches in a network? How do they differ in terms of
functionality?

The Internet
1. What is the Internet? Discuss its significance in modern communication.

2. Explain how data is transmitted over the Internet. What role do protocols play in this pro-
cess?

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 3. Describe the function of a Domain Name System (DNS) in Internet networking.

4. What is an IP address? Differentiate between IPv4 and IPv6.

5. Discuss the concept of bandwidth and its impact on Internet speed and performance.

Emails
1. Describe the basic components of an email message. What is the purpose of the subject line?

2. Explain the process of how an email is sent from one user to another. Include the roles of
SMTP and POP/IMAP.

3. What are the advantages of using email for communication compared to traditional mail?

4. Discuss common email protocols, including POP3, IMAP, and SMTP. How do they differ in
terms of functionality?

5. What is phishing, and how can users protect themselves from phishing attacks in their email
accounts?

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