science talk

ELECTRICITY
Electric current:

Electric current is a flow of electrons in a conductor.

Electric current is amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time.

Electric current is rate of flow of electric charge.

Electric current is amount of charge flowing through a particular cross sectional area in unit
time.

If Q be the net charge flowing through any cross section of a conductor in time t , then I is given
by

Q
I=
t

Q= charge t= time I = current

The SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C)

(One coulomb charge is equivalent to the charge contained in nearly 6 X 10 18 electrons.)

Electrons possesses a negative charge of 1.6 X 10 -19 C

Protons possesses a positive charge of 1.6 X 10 -19 C

The electric current is expressed by a unit called Ampere (A).

Q
I=
t

1Coulomb
1 Ampere =
1sec ond

1 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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One Ampere:

If one coulomb charge is passing through any cross section of a conductor in one second then
amount of current flowing through it is called one ampere.

One ampere is constituted by the flow of one coulomb charge per second.

Small currents are expressed in terms of milliampere (mA) and microampere (µ A).

1 mA= 10-3 A

1 µ A =10 -6 A

An instrument called ammeter measures electric current. It is always connected in series in a

circuit through which the current is to be measured.

Electric Potential:

Charges do not flow in a copper wire by themselves. For flow of charges in a conducting
metallic wire , the electrons move only if there is difference in potential pressure. (called
potential difference) along the conductor.

This difference of potential may be produced by a battery consisting of one or more electric
cells.

Electric potential is the electric level at a particular point.

The current will flow if there is potential difference. (as water flows from higher level to lower
level)

Potential Difference (P.D.) :

The potential difference between two points in an electric field is defined as the amount of
work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another point.

Potential difference = Work done

Quantity of charge transferred

2 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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W
V =
Q

The SI unit of potential difference is Volt (V).

1 Volt Potential difference:

W
V =
Q

1Joule
1V =
1Coulomb

The potential difference between two points is said to be 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done in
moving 1 coulomb of electric charge from one point to another.

Small voltage are measured in terms of millivolts (mV) and microvolts (µV)

1 mV= 10-3 V

1 µ V =10 -6 V

Large voltage are measured in terms of kilovolts (KV) and megavolts (MV)

1 KV= 103 V

1 M V =106 V

Potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called voltmeter. The voltmeter is

always connected in parallel across the points between which the P.D. is to be measured.

Electric circuit:

A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called electric circuit.

3 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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Circuit diagram:

A diagram which indicates how different components in a circuit have been connected by using
the electrical symbols for the components is called a circuit diagram.

Conventional direction of current:

The electrons flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the cell but the
conventional direction of current is from the positive terminal to negative terminal of the cell.

Electric Symbols:

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Resistance:

The electric current is the flow of electrons through a conductor. When the electrons flow from
one part to another part of conductor, they colloid with other electrons and also with the
atoms present in the conductor.

Due to this collision there is some obstruction or opposition to the flow of electrons through
the conductor.

The Property of the conductor due to which it opposes flow of current is called resistance.

It is denoted by symbol

The SI unit of resistance is ohm ()

Conductors and insulators:

On the basis of resistance, substances are divided as conductors and insulators.

The substances which have very low electric resistance are called conductors.

e.g. silver, copper , aluminum etc are good conductors.

The substances which have infinitely high electric resistance are called insulators.

e.g. rubber , wood, glass are good insulators.

Ohm’s Law:

5 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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The electric current flowing in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across its terminal provided that physical state of conductor remains constant.

(The physical state of a conductor means its length , area of cross section , temperature and the
material it is made up of )

If I is the current and V is the potential difference then,

VI

 V=RI

V
 R=
I

 V=IR

R is the resistance . SI unit of resistance is ohm ()

6 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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One ohm resistance :

V
R=
I

1Volt
1 ohm =
1ampere

If one ampere current flows through the conductor and one volt potential difference is applied
across it , then the resistance is one ohm.

Resistivity:

Resistance R of a conductor depends on the length  and area of cross section A of the
conductor.

R

1
And R 
A

l
 R
A

l
 R=  is constant
A

( pronounce it as rho)

 is called resistivity of the conductor. It is also called as specific resistance.

l
R=
A

If we put  = 1 m and A= 1 m2 then

R=

7 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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Resistivity of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area
of cross section.

The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-meter ( m)

Resistivity is the characteristic property of material .It is different for different materials.

The metals and alloys have very low resistivity in the range of 10-8  m to 10-6  m. they are
good conductors of electricity.

Insulators like rubber and glass have resistivity of the order of 1012  m to 1017  m.

Resistance and resistivity of material vary with temperature.

The resistivity of alloys is generally higher than that of its constituent metals.

Resistivity order: metals > Alloys > Insulators

Alloys do not burn (oxidise)readily at high temperature. For this reason they are commonly
used in electric heating devices like electric iron , toasters etc.

Tungsten (w) is used in filaments of electric bulb. Cu and Al are used in electrical transmission
line.

Resistors in series:

If we connect numbers of resistors end to end then the resistors are said to be in series.

In series combination, same current flows through each resistance.

8 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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Three resistors R1 , R2 , R3 are connected in series. The current I passing through each resistor
is same.

Let Rs be effective resistance of series combination.

Connect voltmeter across each resistance and note down the P.D. across each resistor.

Let V1 , V2 , V3 be the P.D. across the three resistors R1, R2, R3 respectively.

Now connect the voltmeter parallel across the series combination of resistors. i.e. between
points C and D and note down P.D. (V)

You will find that P.D. (V) is the addition of V1 ,V2 , V3.

V = V1 + V2 + V3 ……………..(1)

According to ohms law

V= I Rs

V1= I R1 V2= IR2 and V3=IR3

Putting these values in expression (1)

IRs= IR1 + IR2 + IR3

 Rs = R1+R2+R3

For n number of resistors connected in series

Rs = R1+R2+R3 + ………………….+ Rn

If the resistors are connected in series then,

1. In a circuit, the current is the same in every part of the circuit.

2. The resistance of the combination of resistors is equal to the sum of the individual
resistors.
3. The total voltage across the combination is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across
the separate resistors.

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4. The effective resistance in a series combination is greater than the individual

resistances.
5. This combination is used to increase the resistance in a circuit.

Resistors in parallel:

If we connect number of resistors between two common points then resistors are said to be in
parallel.

In parallel combination, the potential difference (P.D.) across each resistor is same.

Three resistors R1, R2,R3 are connected in parallel.

The P.D. across each resistor is same.

Let Rp be the equivalent resistance.

Let I1 , I2 , I3 be the current passing through R1, R2, and R3.

Let v be the P.D. across points C and D.

We find that,

I= I1+I2+I3 …………………….(1)

According to ohms law,

V
I=
Rp
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V V V
I1 = I2 = I3 =
R1 , R2 , R3

Putting these values in equation (1)

V V V V
Rp = R1 + R 2 + R 3

1 1 1 1

Rp = R1 + R 2 + R 3

If n number of resistors are connected in parallel then,

1 1 1 1 1

Rp = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + ……………………. + R 3

If the resistors are connected in parallel then,

1. The sum of the reciprocal of the individual resistance is equal to the reciprocal of
equivalent resistance.
2. The current in various resistors are inversely proportional to the resistances. (higher is
the resistance , lower is the current through it). However the total current is the sum of
the currents flowing in the different branches.
3. The voltage across each resistor is same.
4. The effective resistance of the combination is less than the individual resistance in the
combination.
5. This combination is used to decrease resistance in the circuit.

 We have seen that in a series circuit the current is constant throughout the electric
circuit. Thus it is obviously impracticable to connect an electric bulb and an electric
heater in series, because they need currents of widely different values to operate
properly.
 Another major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the
circuit is broken and none of the components works.

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 If you have used ‘fairy lights’ to decorate buildings on festivals, on marriage celebrations
etc., you might have seen the electrician spending lot of time in trouble-locating and
replacing the ‘dead’ bulb – each has to be tested to find which has fused or gone.
 On the other hand, a parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets.
The total resistance in a parallel circuit is decreased. This is helpful particularly when
each gadget has different resistance and requires different current to operate properly.
Heating effect of the electric current:

When current flows through a metallic conductor, the free electrons in the metal starts
moving from the end which is at lower potential.

These moving electrons collide with the atoms of the metal. At each collision, a part of
kinetic energy of electron converts into heat and slowly the temperature of the conductor
begins to rise.

Thus the production of heat energy in a conductor by the electric current flowing
through it is called the heating effect of the current.

Joule’s law:

V= IR ohm’s law ………………(1)

Q
I=
t

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 Q= I.t ………………..(2)

Potential difference = Work done

Quantity of charge transferred

W
V =
Q

 W = VXQ

Putting values from (1) and (2)

 W = IR X It

 W = I2 R t

When current flows through a conductor , the work done (w) is converted into heat.

 W = I2 R t Joule

H= I2 R t

Using ohm’s law

H= VIt

H= V2t /R

Usually we express heat energy into calories.

1 Cal = 4.18 Joule

Statement of Joule’s law:

The quantity of heat (H)generated in a conductor of resistance (R) , when a current

(I) flows through it for a time (t) is directly proportional to ,
1) The square of the current
2) The resistance of the conductor and
3) The time for which the current flows.

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Applications of heating effect of electric current:

1. The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle and electric
heater are some of the familiar devices based on Joule’s heating.
2. The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an electric bulb. Here, the
filament must retain as much of the heat generated as is possible, so that it gets very
hot and emits light. It must not melt at such high temperature. A strong metal with high
melting point such as tungsten (melting point 3380°C) is used for making bulb filaments.
The filament should be thermally isolated as much as possible, using insulating support,
etc. The bulbs are usually filled with chemically inactive nitrogen and argon gases to
prolong the life of filament. Most of the power consumed by the filament appears as
heat, but a small part of it is in the form of light radiated.
3. Another common application of Joule’s heating is the fuse used in electric circuits. It
protects circuits and appliances by stopping the flow of any unduly high electric current.
The fuse is placed in series with the device. It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal
or an alloy of appropriate melting point, for example aluminium, copper, iron, lead etc.
If a current larger than the specified value flows through the circuit, the temperature of
the fuse wire increases. This melts the fuse wire and breaks the circuit. The fuse wire is
usually encased in a cartridge of porcelain or similar material with metal ends. The fuses
used for domestic purposes are rated as 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A, etc. For an electric iron
which consumes 1 kW electric power when operated at 220 V, a current of (1000/220)
A, that is, 4.54 A will flow in the circuit. In this case, a 5 A fuse must be used.

Electric power:

Power is the rate of doing work.

Similarly ,

Electric power is the electrical work done per unit time.

Electric power is also defined as the rate at which electric energy is consumed.

SI unit of electric power is Watt (W) (Joule/second)

Work
Power =
time

14 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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1 joule
1 watt =
1sec

1 watt power :

If one joule of work done per second then the electric power is 1 Watt.

Kilowatt (KW) is the unit used for commercial purpose.

1 KW= 1000 W

Formula for calculating electric power:

Work
Power =
time

w
P =
t

But W= VIt Joule

VIt
P =
t

 P = VI

Thus

electric power = voltage X Current

using ohm’s law we get,

P= VI

P= I2 R

P=V2/R

The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt . hour (KW.hr)

15 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97

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Commonly known as “Unit”

1 Kw.h = 1000 watt X 3600 second

1 Kw . h = 3.6 x 106 watt . second

 1 KW.hr = 3.6 x 106 Joule.

w
P =
t

W = P.t

Joule=watt.second

Electric energy consumed= p X t

16 SACHIN SIR M.Sc. B.Ed. 70 83 88 93 97