Ex.

No: STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

AIM

To study the microwave components in the laboratory.

COMPONENTS
  
Gunn Diode
  
Reflex Klystron
  
Isolator
  
Circulator
  
Variable attenuator
  
Frequency meter
  
Short termination
  
Matched termination
  
Directional Coupler
  
Horn antenna
  
Magic tee
  
E & H Plane Tee
 
Detector mount

THEORY:
GUNN DIODE
Gunn diode is negative resistance device used as low power oscillator at microwave frequencies
in transmitter. It is also used as local oscillator is receiver front end. J.B gunn discovered microwave
oscillator GaAs and Inp. These are semiconductors having a closely packed energy valley in the
conduction band.
When DC voltage is applied across the material and electric field is essential across it. At low
electric field in the material most of the electric field is transferred into high-energy state.

REFLEX KLYSTRON
It is low power lower efficient microwave oscillator. It has as electron gun. The filament is made
up of tungsten and it is heated. Frequency range is 4 Ghz to 200Ghz. Power output level is 3 watts in X-
band and 10m Watts at 220GHz. Typically 100m Watts efficiency is 10%. The necessary Condition is
that magnitude of the negative real part of the electronic admittance should not be less than the total
conductance of the cavity circuits.

4
ISOLATOR
An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in one
direction only. It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of conditions on its output
side; for example, to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load. To achieve non-
reciprocity, an isolator must necessarily incorporate a non-reciprocal material. At microwave frequencies
this material is invariably a ferrite which is biased by a static magnetic field. The ferrite is positioned
within the isolator such that the microwave signal presents it with a rotating magnetic field, with the
rotation axis aligned with the direction of the static bias field.
The behaviour of the ferrite depends on the sense of rotation with respect to the bias field, and hence is
different for microwave signals travelling in opposite directions. Depending on the exact operating
conditions, the signal travelling in one direction may either be phase-shifted, displaced from the ferrite or
absorbed.

CIRCULATOR

It is defined as port arrangement such that the energy entering into the port is coupled and to
adjacent port but not coupled to other ports.

VARIABLE ATTENUATOR

An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the amplitude or power of a signal without
appreciably distorting its waveform. An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an amplifier, though the
two work by different methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an attenuator provides loss, or gain less
than 1.Attenuators are usually passive devices made from simple voltage divider networks. Switching
between different resistances forms adjustable stepped attenuators and continuously adjustable ones using
potentiometers. For higher frequencies precisely matched low VSWR resistance networks are used.
Fixed attenuators in circuits are used to lower voltage, dissipate power, and to improve impedance
matching. In measuring signals, attenuator pads or adaptors are used to lower the amplitude of the signal a
known amount to enable measurements, or to protect the measuring device from signal levels that might
damage it. Attenuators are also used to 'match' impedances by lowering apparent SWR.

5
FIXED ATTENUATORS
With the help of our experienced engineers, we are able to design and develop a wide and
comprehensive range of Fixed Attenuators, which is available at market leading prices. This range of
fixed attenuators is highly acclaimed in the industry, owing to its application in networks,
telecommunication, instruments and allied fronts. The offered range of fixed attenuators is applauded for
its below cited features:
High attenuation precision
Excellent stability
Excellent reliability.

FREQUENCY METER
The frequency meter is classified into two categories namely direct and indirect frequency
meter. Moving a plunger can vary the distance between the shorted tuning and diode. The timing
arrangement helps the user to read just the distance from the short circuit wherever the signal frequency.
The detector output is normally available in at the coaxial connector, the crystal diode act as a square law
device. The response of the diode to the power is dependent on resistance of the mount the diode used for
detection in X band is IN238.

MATCHED TERMINATION
This is also a termination of load for microwave setup, standing wave occurs when a load does
not completely absorb the power reaching it. Microwave measurement requires a termination resulting in
maximum reflection, when matched terminations serve the purpose.

MOVABLE SHORTS:

We are highly appreciated in the domestic and international market for an unparalleled range of
MovableShorts. These products are utilized in different experiments such as tostudy the characteristics of
reflex klystron and frequency, guide wavelength and free space wave length. In addition to this, the
offered range is skillfully developed by our diligent engineers, who possess commendable experience, in-
depth knowledge and expertise in this domain.

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
Power dividers (also power splitters and, when used in reverse, power combiners) and directional
couplers are passive devices used in the field of radio technology. They couple a defined amount of the
electromagnetic power in a transmission line to another port where it can be used in another circuit. An

6
essential feature of directional couplers is that they only couple power flowing in one direction. Power
entering the output port is not coupled.
Directional couplers are most frequently constructed from two coupled transmission lines set
close enough together such that energy passing through one is coupled to the other. This technique is
favoured due to the microwave frequencies the devices are commonly employed with. However, lumped
component devices are also possible at lower frequencies.
Directional couplers and power dividers have many applications, these include; providing a signal
sample for measurement or monitoring, feedback, combining feeds to and from antennae, and providing
taps for cable distributed systems such as cable TV.

HORN ANTENNA
A horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring metal waveguide
shaped like a horn to direct the radio waves. Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave
frequencies, above 300 MHz. They are used as feeders (called feed horns) for larger antenna structures
such as parabolic antennas, as standard calibration antennas to measure the gain of other antennas, and as
directive antennas for such devices as radar guns, automatic door openers, and microwave radiometers.
Their advantages are moderate directivity (gain), low SWR, broad bandwidth, and simple construction
and adjustment.

MAGIC TEE

The device magic tee is combination of E and H plane. They have arm 3, H arm forms an H-plane
tee and arm 4, E arms an E Plane tee. If Power is fed into arm 3 the electric field divides equally between
arm 1 and arm 2 with the same phase and no output at arm 4. If the power is fed into the arm 4.it divides
equally into arm 1 & 2 but out of phase with no power at arm 3. For that if the power is fed in from arm 1
& 2 it is added in arm 3 and it is subtracted from arm 4.

7
E-PLANE TEE

The side arm is known as E- arm (or) side arm. When TE10 mode is made to propagate into the
port 3 , the output at port 1 and port 2 will have a phase shift of 180 0 (ie ) the electric field line change
their direction when they come out of port 1 and port 2 . E- Plane is also known as voltage (or) Series
junction symmetrical about the centre arm.

H- PLANE TEE

The port 1 and port 2 of the main Wave guide are called collinear arms and the port 3 is known as the
side arm (or) H-arm. This is called H-Plane Tee because the axis of the side arm is parallel to the planes of the
main transmission lines. All the 3 -Arms of the H – Plane tees lines in the plane of the magnetic field and it
divides itself into arms and hence it is known as the current junction .If two input waves are fed into port 1 and
port 2 of the collinear arms, the output at port 3 will be additive and in phase
.If the input is fed at the port 3 of the side arm, the way equally split in port 1 and port 2 will be in phase
and equal in magnitude.

DETECTOR MOUNT
The crystal mount provides a complete DC path for rectification. But this system is affected if
frequency is changed. The crystal detector can be used for detection of microwave power as well as for
maxing microwave signal at input stage at receiver. The output signal can be coupled through a BNC
connector.

8
SLOTTED SECTION
Our organization is counted amongst the most distinguished manufacturers and traders of an
extensive range of Slotted Sections. This range of slotted sections is widely applicable in different
engineering and construction industries. These products are offered in different customized forms and
specifications in accordance with the emerging requirements of the clients. Moreover, this range is best
suited for microwave experiments and is utilized for reflection coefficient.

TUNABLE PROBE

It is used with slotted section. They are for exploring the energy as an electric field in a suitable
fabricated section of wave-guide. The dept generation into a wave-guide section is adjustable by the knob
of the probe. This probe picks up the RF power from the time and power is rectified by crystal power,
which is then fed to VSWR meter.

9
RESULT
Thus the Microwave components were studied in the laboratory

10
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

Microwave bench setup for study of klystron modes

MODEL GRAPH

11
Ex. No: MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON OSCILLATOR

AIM

To determine the mode characteristics of reflex klystron tube oscillator and to determine its Mode
Number, Electronic Tuning Range and Electronic Tuning Sensitivity.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED

1. Klystron Power Supply

2. Reflex Klystron
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Variable attenuator
6. CRO
7. Power Meter
8. Detector Mount
THEORY

The reflex klystron works under the principle of velocity modulation, which results current
density modulation, to transfer a continuous electron beam in to microwave power.
Electrons from the cathode are accelerated and passed through resonator towards the negative
reflector which reflects the electron beam back to the cavity. At the positive cycle of the RF signal the
electrons are accelerated which increases the velocity of the electron beam. At the negative cycle of the
RF signal the electrons are retarded. The electron beam interaction with zero crossings of the RF field
travel in the cavity gap with unchanged velocity.
The accelerated, retarded and unchanged velocity electrons bunch at the positive half cycle of the
RF noise and deliver its energy, make the sustained oscillations.

PROCEDURE

1. Set the equipments as shown in figure.

2. Set up the variable attenuator at minimum position.
3. Keep the knob of klystron power supply as bellow
Mod switch – AM
Beam Voltage knob- Fully anticlockwise.
AM amplitude – around fully clockwise

12
TABULATION:

Beam voltage:_________ Beam Current:________

S.No. Negative Repeller Voltage Power Output Wave meter reading

(Volts) (mW) Frequency (GHz)

13
 AM freq. knob - around mid position.
4. Switch On the klystron power supply and cooling fan.
5. Switch ON the beam voltage/current knob and set beam current.
6. Adjust the reflector voltage knob to set maximum output in CRO.
7.Maximize the output Voltage with AM amplitude and frequency
control knob of power supply.
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum output.
9. Change the repeller voltage knob towards Clockwise directions and note down output power, repeller
voltage and find frequency.
10. Tune the frequency meter and obtain the frequency for corresponding repeller voltage and note down
the frequency when dip in the CRO.
11. Plot the output power Vs repeller voltage and repeller voltage Vs frequency graph.

14
15
RESULT:

Thus the mode characteristics of reflex klystron have been verified.

16
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

Microwave bench setup for study of Gunn Oscillator Characteristics.

MODEL GRAPH

17
Ex. No: CHARACTERISTICS OF GUNN DIODE OSCILLATOR

AIM

To determine the characteristics of Gunn diode oscillator and to find the threshold voltage.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

1. Gunn diode
2. Gunn power supply
3. Isolator
4. Variable Attenuator
5. Pin Modulator
6. Detector Mount
7. CRO
THEORY

The Gunn diode oscillator is based on negative differential conducting effect in bulk semi
conductor which has two conduction bands separate by an energy gap (greater than thermal energies). A
disturbance at the cathode rise to high field region which travels towards the anode. When this field
domain reaches anode, it disappears and another domain is formed at the cathode and starts moving
towards the anode and so on. The time required for domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit time)
gives oscillator frequency.
In a given oscillator the Gunn diode is placed in a resonant cavity dimension. The oscillator
frequency is determined in cavity dimension. Although Gunn oscillator can be amplitude modulated with
the bias voltage when we have used a PIN modulation in square wave modulation of the signal coming
from the Gunn diode. A measure of the square wave capability is the modulation depth is the output ratio
between ON and OFF state.

PROCEDURE

1.Set the components as shown in figure.

2.Keep the control knobs of Gunn power supply as below,
i) Meter switch off
ii) Gunn bias knob –fully anticlockwise
iii) PIN diode frequency-any position.

18
TABULATION:

S.No. Gunn Bias Voltage(V) Gunn Diode Current(mA)

19
 3. Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.
4. Switch ON power supply
5. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various Gunn bias voltage through the
digital panel meter and meter switch do not exceed the bias voltage current.
6. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in the Figure.
7. Measure the threshold voltage with corresponding to maintain maximum current.

RESULT

Thus the Gunn diode oscillator characteristic was obtained and its threshold voltage was
determined.

Threshold Voltage = ………………. Volts

20
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

21
Ex.No: VSWR, FREQUENCY AND WAVE LENGTH MEASUREMENT

AIM:

To determine the VSWR, Frequency and Wave Length Measurement in a rectangular wave guide
working in TE 10 mode.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1. Klystron power supply

2. Reflex Klystron
3. Isolator
4. Frequency meter
5. Variable attenuator
6. Slotted section & Tunable probe
7. Movable short load
8. CRO
9. V.S.W.R Meter.
PROCEDURE:

Set the equipments as

Keep variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position.
Keep the control knob of VSWR meter as below.
Range db : 40 db to 50 db
Input switch : Low impedance
Meter switch : Normal position
Gain : Mid position
Keep control knobs of klystron power supply as given below:
Beam Voltage : Off
Mod-switch : AM
Beam voltage knob : Full anticlockwise
Reflector voltage knob : Full clockwise
Am amplitude knob : Full clockwise
Am frequency & amplitude knob : Mid position
Switch on the klystron power supply, vswr meter and cooling fan.

22
TABULATION

First minima d1 Second minima λg =2(d2 –d1)

Frequency in GHz
in cm d2 in cm cm VSWR

CALCULATION:

Practical Frequency:

λg =2(d2 –d1)=

λc = 2*a =
where a=2.28cm

Calculate the frequency, F=C\ 0,

Where
0 = free space wavelength.
2 2 2
1 / 0 = 1/ ( g) + 1/( c)

C= velocity of light
2 2
F= C* 1/ ( g) + 1/( c)

8
Where, C=3*10 m /s.

23
 Switch on the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300V
Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in vswr meter.
Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of am modulation.
Tune plunger of klystron mount and probe for maximum deflection in vswr meter.
If required change the range db switch variable attenuator position and gain control knob to get deflection
in the scale of vswr meter.
As we move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change.
Measurement of VSWR

Compute vswr from the following equation.

VSWR = λg / π (d1 – d2) = λg / π (Δx)
Where λg is the guide wavelength, d1 and d2 are locations of double minimum points.

Measurement of Frequency and Wave Length

Tune the frequency meter knob to get dip on the CRO and note down frequency from frequency
meter.
Move the probe to next minima position and note down the successive minima distances in the
slotted section; let it be d.
Note the positions of two successive minima.
Calculate λg.
calculate the cutoff wavelength (λc).
λc = 2*a

Where

a =broad dimension of wave guide

a = inner broad dimension of 22.85 or 22.86 mm for X band.

λg = 2*(d2 – d1)

Where
st
d1 is the 1 maximum obtained in slotted section.
nd
d2 is the 2 maximum obtained in slotted section.

24
25
RESULT:

Thus the VSWR, Frequency and Wave Length has been measured.

26
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

27
Ex.No: IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT BY SLOTTED LINE METHOD

AIM

To measure an unknown impedance using the slotted line and verify it by using smith chart.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

Klystron tube 2K25,Klystron power supply skps-600,Klystron mount –XM-251,Isolator XI

621,Frequency meter XF10,Variable attenuator XA520,Slotted line XS565,Tunable probe XP655,VSWR
meter,Waveguide stand SU535,Triner XT441,Movable short

THEORY

The impedance at any point on a transmission line can be written in the form R+jX for comparison
SWR can be calculated as S = 1+| R| / 1-|R|, where, reflection co-efficient R = (Z-Z0) / (Z+Z0), Z0 is the
characteristics impedance of waveguide at operating frequency.
The unknown device is connected to the slotted line and the position of one minima is determined.
The unknown device is replaced by a movable short to the slotted line. Two successive minima positions
are noted.
The choice of the difference between minima position will be guide wave length. One of the minima is
used as reference for impedance measurement. To find the difference of the reference minima and minima
position obtained from unknown load. Let it be „d‟ take a smith chart, taking 1 as centre , draw a circle of
radius equal to s0.mark a point on the circumference of smith chart towards load at a distance equal to d /
λg.
PROCEDURE

1. Set the equipments as shown in figure.

2. Set up the variable attenuator at minimum position.
3. Keep the knob of klystron power supply as bellow
i. Mod switch – AM
ii. Beam Voltage knob- Fully anticlockwise.
iii. AM amplitude – around fully clockwise
iv. AM freq. knob - around mid position.
4. Switch On the klystron power supply and cooling fan.
5. Connect the matched load to the slotted section and obtain the dip frequency in the CRO tuning
the frequency meter.

28
29
 6. Remove the matched load and connect the movable short with the slotted section and move the
slotted section towards load/generator and note down the successive minima‟s distances.
7. From the successive minima distances calculate the guide wave length λg. λg= 2 ( X1 ~ X2),
where X1& X2 are the distances of two successive minima‟s of short circuit.
8. Remove the movable short and connect the Horn antenna as load
i. (unknown impedance) and move the slotted section towards
ii. load/generator and note down the successive minima‟s distances.
9. From the successive minima distances calculate dmin. dmin= ( d1-d2), where d1& d2 are the
distances of two successive minima‟s of Horn Note down the maximum and minimum amplitude
and calculate the VSWR (S). S = Vmax/ Vmin
10. From the above readings calculate the unknown impedance and verify the result by using the
Smith chart.
11. The calculation of unknown impedance:
i. Magnitude of reflection co-efficient |Γ| = (S-1)/(S+1)
ii. Phase constant β = 2π/λg (radians)
iii. Angle of reflection co-efficient θ = π +2βdmin (radians)
jθ
iv. Reflection co-efficient = |Γ| е
v. Characteristics impedance of waveguide Z0= η(λg/ λ0) Ω
vi. Load impedance ZL = Z0 * {(1+Γ)/ (1-Γ)} Ω
vii. Normalized Load impedance = ZL/Z0.

RESULT

Thus the unknown load impedance was measured using slotted line method and verified

30
31
Ex. No:
MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER
AIM:

to measure the numerical aperture of the plastic fiber provided with the kit using 660nm
wavelength LED.

THEORY:

Numerical aperture refers to the angle at which the light incident on the fiber end is totally
internally reflected and is transmitted properly along the fiber. The cone formed by the rotation of this
angle along the axis of the fiber is the cone of acceptance of the fiber. The light ray should strike the fiber
end within its cone of acceptance; else it is refracted out of the fiber core.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Optical fiber Trainer kit

Optical Fiber cable
Power Chords

32
TABULATION:

2 2
Sr. MR in cm PN in cm Radius (r) in Distance (d) in NA= r / (d + r )
No cm cm

1.

2.

3.

4.

Mean NA : 0.592

SAMPLE CALCULATION

MR=1.3

PN=1.3

r= (MR+PN)/4= (1.3+1.3)/4 r =

0.65 cm

d = 0.7 cm
2 2 2 2
NA = r / (d + r ) = 0.65/√ 0.7 +0.65

NA= 0.68

33
.
8) Mean radius is calculated using the following formula
r = (MR+PN) / 4

11) Find the numerical aperture of the fiber using the formula
NA = sin max = r / (d2 + r2)

Where max is the maximum angle at which the light incident is properly transmitted through the
fiber.

Result: Thus the numerical aperture of the fiber cable is measured and it is NA = _________

34
35
Ex.No:
MEASUREMENT OF BENDING LOSSES

AIM:

To measure the Bending losses in the fiber.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Optical fiber Trainer kit

Optical Fiber cable
Power Chords

THEORY:

Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually selected
by taking into account their absorption characteristics for different wavelengths of light, in case of optical
fiber, since the signal is transmitted in the form of light, which is completely different in nature as that of
electrons, one has to consider the interaction of matter with the radiation to study the losses in the fiber.
Losses are introduced in the fiber due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end of the fiber
end to another end, part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also part of the light is
reflected back or in some other direction from the impurity particles in the material contributing to the
loss of the signal at the other end of the fiber. In general terms it is known as propagation loss. Plastic
fiber has the higher loss of the order of 180dB/km.Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the
incident light is violated the losses are introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when the fiber is
subjected to bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss. Another loss is due to the coupling
of fiber at LED and Photo detector ends.

When light travels down optical fibers, some of the light is absorbed by the glass or plastic. When
designing the optical fiber, you need to know the size of this loss to calculate the maximum distance the
signal will travel.

36
TABULATION:

S.No Bending Signal strength

diameter in cm
(No of LED’s that glow)

37
38
TABULATION:

S.No Fiber cable type Signal strength

1. 1 meter fiber

2. 0.5 meter
connectorized
fibers

39
A. MEASUREMENT OF BENDING LOSS

1. Keep the connections with 1 meter fiber as per the above procedure.
2. Adjust the transmitter power so that the SIGNAL STRENGTH reading is 8. Now take the portion
of the fiber and loop it to match the bends as shown in figure. As you match each bends write
down the reading from SIGNAL STRENGTH indicator. What happens when bend in the fiber?
Do not bend the fiber too come back to shape.
3. If you were designing the fiber optic communication systems, you would need to know the
relationship between the size of the bend and the light loss from the bend. In order to describe this
relationship you can measure the loss for different bends and plot them on a graph
Do you notice a pattern to the numbers? Do they steadily increase or decrease? Can you predict
what the readings would be for other bends?

Result:

Thus the propagation loss, bending loss and connector loss is measured for the given fiber optical
cable.

40
41
Ex. No:
DC CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER OPTIC LED AND LASER

AIM:

To study the characteristics of fiber optic LED and plot the graph of forward current v/s output
optical energy and also to study the photo detector response.

THEORY:

In optical fiber communication system, electrical signal is first converted into optical signal with
the help of E/O conversion device as LED. After this optical signal is transmitted through optical fiber, it
is retrieved in its original electrical form with the help O/E conversion device as photo detector.

Different technologies employed in chip fabrication lead to significant variation in parameters for
the various emitter diodes .All the emitters themselves in offering high o/p power coupled into the plastic
fiber. Data sheets for LED s usually specific electrical and optical characteristics ,out of which are
important peak wavelength of emission ,conversion efficiency ( usually specified in terms of power
launched in optical fiber for forward current), optical rise and fall ties which put the limitation on
operating frequency),max forward current through LED and typical forward voltage across LED.

Photodetectors usually comes in variety of forms like photoconductive transistor type output and
diode type o/p. Here also characteristics to be taken into account are response time of the detector which
puts limitation on the operating frequency, wavelength sensitivity and responsibility

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Optical fiber Trainer kit

Optical Fiber cable
CRO
Power Chords

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as shown in fig connect the power supply with proper polarity to FCL -01 &
FCL -02 kits. While connecting this ensures that the power supply is off.
2. Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V (660 nm). Do not remove the cap from connector.
Once the cap is loosened insert the 1 meter fiber into cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it
back.
3. Slightly unscrew the cap of PHOTODIODE .Do not remove the cap from connector. Once the
cap is loosened insert the 1meter fiber into cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
4. Keep the jumper JP1, JP2, JP3& JP4 on FCL-01 as shown in fig 3.1

42
CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER OPTIC LED & DETECTOR

Sr .No Vf If Pi=Vf *If Po=Pi *1.5% R=0.8mA*Po/10 μW I=o/p

current
(V) (mA) (mW) (μW) (mA)
(μA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

43
 5. Keep the jumper JP1, JP2, on FCL-02 as shown in fig 3.1
6. Keep switch S2 in VI position on FCL-01
7. Connect voltmeter & current meter as per the polarities shown in fig 3.1
8. Switch ON the power supply
9. Keep the potentiometer P3 in its maximum position. P3 is used to control current flowing through
the Led
10. Keep the potentiometer P4 fully clockwise rotation.P4 is used to control bias voltage of LED
11. To get the VI characteristics of LED, rotate P3 slowly and measure fwd current & corresponding
fwd voltage. take no of such readings for various current values & plot VI characteristics graph of
the LED
12. For each reading taken above, find out the power, which is product of I & V. this, the electrical
power supply to the LED.
13. With this efficiency assumed, find out optical power coupled into plastic optical fiber for the each
of the reading. plot the graph of fed current v/s o/p optical power of the LED
14. Similarly measure the current at the detector
15. Plot the graph of the Receiver current v/s o/p optical power of the LED
16. Perform the above procedure again all the combination of transmitter & receiver

Vf = Forward voltage of LED SFH 756

If = Forward current of LED SFH 756
Pi = Vf * If (electrical power)
Po = Pi*1.15 % (optical power of LED 756.)
R = 0.8 mA*PO/ 10μW (Responsively)
I =O/p current of photodiode.

Result:

Thus the VI characteristic of LED was obtained & the responsivity of photo detector was plotted.

Cutin Voltage of LED =1.65V.

44
45
Ex.No.

ANALYSIS FIBER OPTIC ANALOG AND DIGITAL LINK

AIM:

The objective of this experiment is to study an 660nm & 950nm fiber analog link and to study the
frequency response of the phototransistor detector. In this experiment you will study the relationship
between the input signal and received signal.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:

Optical fiber Trainer kit

Optical Fiber cable
CRO
Power Chords
.

THEORY:

Fiber optic links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals. Basically a fiber
optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber, & a receiver. The transmitter
module takes the input signal in electrical form & then transforms it into optical (light) energy containing
the same information. The optical fiber is the medium which carriers this energy to the receiver. At the
receiver, light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as originally fed to the
transmitter.

TRANSMITTER

Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver, & Optical source. The buffer
electronics provides both an electronics connection & isolation between the transmitter & the electrical
system supplying the data. The driver electronics provides electrical power to the Optical source in a
fashion that duplicates the pattern of the data being fed to the transmitter. Finally the optical source (LED)
converts the electrical current to light energy with the same pattern. The LED SFH450V (660nm)
supplied with this kit operates outside the visible light spectrum. Its optical output is centered at near
infrared wavelength of 950nm. The LED SFH756V(660nm) supplied with this kit operates at the visible
light spectrum. Its optical output is centered at wavelength of 660nm.

RECEIVER

The function of the receiver is to convert the optical energy into electrical form, which is then
conditioned to reproduce the transmitted electrical signal in its original form. The detector
SFH350V(photo transistor detector) used in the kit has s transistor type output. The parameters usually
considered in the case of detector are its responsivity at peak wavelength & response time.
SFH350V(photo transistor detector) has responsivity of about 0.8ma/10uW at 660nm. But its response
time is quite large & thus has lower bandwidth of about 300KHz.

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Result: Thus fiber optic analog link has been established to transfer the data

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Ex.No: STUDY OF EYE PATTERN
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to study eye pattern using fiber optic link.
EQUIPMENTS:
• Link-B kit with power supply
• Patch chords
• 1 Meter fiber cable
• 20MHz dual channel oscilloscope
NOTE: keep all switch faults in OFF position.

THEORY:
The eye-pattern technique is a simple but powerful measurement method for assessing the data-
handling ability of a digital transmission system. This method has been used extensively for evaluating
the performance of wire systems and can also be applied to optical fiber data links. The eye-pattern
measurements are made in the time domain and allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown
immediately on an oscilloscope.
An eye-pattern can be observed with the basic equipment shown in fig.12.1. The output from a
pseudorandom data pattern generator is applied to the vertical input of an oscilloscope and the data rate is
used to trigger the horizontal sweep. This results in the type of pattern shown in fig.12.2, which is called
the eye pattern because the display shape resembles a human eye. To see how the display pattern is
formed, consider eight possible 4-bit-long NRZ combinations. When these sixteen combinations are
superimposed simultaneously, an eye pattern as shown in fig.12.2 is formed.
To measure system performance with the eye-pattern method, a variety of word patterns should
be provided. A convenient approach is to generate a random data signal, because this is the characteristic
of data streams found in practice. This type of signal generates ones and zeros at a uniform rate but in a
random manner. A variety of pseudorandom pattern generators are available for this purpose. The word
pseudorandom means that the generated combination or sequence of ones and zeros will eventually repeat
but that it is sufficiently random for test purposes. A pseudorandom bit sequence comprises four different
2-bit-long combinations, eight different 3-bit-long combinations, sixteen different 4-bit-long combination
and so on(that is sequences of different N-bit-long combination) up to a limit set by the instrument. After
this limit has been generated, the data sequence will repeat.
A great deal of system performance information can be deduced from the eye-pattern display. To
interpret the eye-pattern, follow the procedure ahead.

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PROCEDURE:
• Make connections as shown in figure. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to
Link-B kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
• Keep switch SW7 as shown in figure to generate PRBS signal.
• Keep switch SW8 towards TX position.
• Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.
• Keep the switch SW10 to EYE-PATTERN position.
• Select PRBS generator clock ay 32KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position.
• Keep jumper JP5 towards +5V position.
• Keep jumper JP6 shorted.
• Keep jumper JP8 towards TTL position.
• Switch ON the power supply.
• Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS generator to the IN post of digital buffer.
• Connect OUT post of digital buffer to TX IN post.
• Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756V (660nm). Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the one-meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing
it back.
• Slightly unscrew the cap of RX1 photo transistor with TTL logic output SFH551V. do not
remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber into
the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back.
• Connect CLK OUT of PRBS generator to EXT.TRIG. of oscilloscope.
• Connect detected signal TTL OUT to vertical channel Y input of oscilloscope. Then observe EYE
PAATERN by selecting EXT.TRIG KNOB on oscilloscope as shown in figure. Observe the eye
pattern for different clock frequencies. As clock frequency increases the EYE opening becomes
smaller.

Result :

Thus system performance was measured with the eye - pattern.

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MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION

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Ex.No: MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION IN FIBERS

AIM

The aim of the experiment is to measure the attenuation in the optical fiber using a laser source.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED

i) Fiber Optic Trainer Kit

ii) Optical fiber cable

THEORY

ATTENUATION

The power coming out of the fiber should be less than the power entering it called attenuation. If
the fibre should be less than communication attenuation is decrease in the light power or intensity during
light propagation along a fiber. Here the light loss caused by the violation of the total internal reflection
concept due to improper fibre coupling called coupling loss.

PROCEDURE

1. Establish the analog link, set the sinusoidal signal amplitude and frequency to 1VPP and 1KHz
respectively using variable control POTs on VOFT-06 unit connect I/O3 output with oscilloscope
using BNC –BNC cable
2. Connect the 1m fiber cable between optical Tx1 an optical Rx1. Turn GAIN control POT
so as to make 4VPP at the receiver unit
3. Replace a 3m fiber cable instead of 1m fiber cable. Note down output signal amplitude
level without altering receiver gain and input signal amplitude and find out attenuation los for 3m fiber
cable as
α=-10log(Vo/Vin)

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TABULATION:

Fiber Length Vin Vout α=-10log(Vo/Vin)

amp time amp Time

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RESULT

Thus the study of attenuation for the optical fiber was performed.

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Ex.no: MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF FIBER

AIM
To study the mode characteristics of single mode fiber

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Advanced fiber optic communication trainer link
2. 1m and 3m fiber cable
3. CRO
THEORY
In the single mode fiber there are actually two independent degenerate propagation modes. These
modes are very similar but their polarization planes are orthogonal. Those may be chosen arbitrarily as
their horizontal and vertical polarization either one of these polarization modes constitute the fundamental
mode. Suppose we arbitrarily choose one of the modes to have its traverse electric field polarized along
the x direction and the other independent orthogonal nodes to be polarized in y direction.

PROCEDURE
1. Make the jumper connections for 660nm wavelength source, connect a 1m fiber cable between optical
TX1 and NA setup
2. Insert the fiber cable in numerical aperture setup
3. Now a circular red spot is shown in graph attached with the base of NA setup. Measure the circle in
horizontally and vertically and find out mean radius of circular spot as,
γ=(DE+BC)/4
4. Find out the numerical aperture for a distance as
2 2
NA = r/(sqrt(d +r ))
Where d is a distance in cm,r is mean radius of circular spot
5. The refractive index of the cladding for a given fiber is 1.402, now find out the refractive index of the
core using the formula
2 2
NA =sqrt(n1 - n2 )
Where n1 is refractive index of core,n2refractive index of cladding and NA is numerical aperture of fiber
6. Calculate V- number as follows
V=( )
Where d is the diameter of core, λ is the wavelength of source
2
7. Now calculate the number of modes, N=V /2

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RESULT
Thus the mode characteristics of single mode fiber was studied and verified.

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