Module 2 Hydrostatic Pressure and Forces

MODULE 2
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND FORCES

Introduction
This module will discuss the basic principles of pressure as applied to the plane and
curved surfaces.
Intended Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students must be able to:
1. Apply the Continuity Equation with reference to the conservation of mass, Energy
Equation with reference to the Euler equation, and Momentum Equation with
reference to the 2nd Law of Newton on motion.

UNIT PRESSURE
The intensity of pressure (known also as unit pressure or simply called pressure) is the
amount of force exerted by a fluid distributed uniformly over a unit area.

𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨

Where:
P- pressure in Pascal (Pa)
F- force in Newton (N)
A- area in square meter (m2)

If the unit pressure is not uniform over the unit area, it can be expressed as the sum of
differential pressure.

𝒅𝑭
𝑷=
𝒅𝑨

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Pascal’s Law
The French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) states that the pressure is the
same in all directions at any point in a fluid at rest.
It is the principle of transmission of fluid-pressure (also Pascal's Principle) is a principle
in fluid mechanics that states that pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid
is transmitted equally in all directions throughout the fluid.

Atmospheric, Gage and Absolute Pressures

1. Atmospheric pressure is the weight of all gases above the surface in which it comes in
contact. It is also referred as barometric pressure. Under normal conditions, atmospheric
pressure at sea level is equal to 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi), usually rounded off to 100 kPa
(14.7 psi) by engineers. With increase in altitude, atmospheric pressure decreases.
2. Gage pressure, measured with the use of pressure gauges, is the pressure above or below
atmospheric pressure. Negative gauge pressure indicates a vacuum which cannot go
below –101.325 kPa. Positive gauge pressure indicates that the pressure is above
atmospheric. Gage pressure is also called relative pressure.
3. Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. There is no such
thing as negative absolute pressure. In the absence of all matter (complete vacuum), the
absolute pressure is zero.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

Note:
The term pressure, unless otherwise specified, will be used to denote gage or relative
pressure.

Instruments for Measuring Pressure Gage

1. Bourdon Gage
It is a steam type gage; a type of aneroid pressure gauge consisting of a flattened
curved tube attached to a pointer that moves around a dial.

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2. Barograph
It is a recording barometer which provides a continuous record of pressure
over a period of time.

3. Aneroid Barometer
It is a liquid less instrument which is more potable and durable than a mercury
barometer.

4. Manometer
Instruments that use columns of liquids to measure pressures. It is a tube usually
bent in a form of a U, containing a liquid of known specific gravity, the surface of which
moves proportionally to changes in pressure

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Example 2-1
Determine the gage pressure at a point in a body of oil (s=0.8) 2.5m below the
free surface. If the atmospheric on the free surface is 101 KPa, what is the corresponding
absolute pressure at the point?
Given:
S = 0.8
Patm = 101 kPa
h = 2.5 m
Required:
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = ?
Solution:
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 101 𝐾𝑃𝑎 + 0.8 (9.81 ) (2.5𝑚)
𝑚3
𝑷𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎. 𝟔𝟐 𝑲𝑷𝒂 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆

Variation of Pressure with Depth in a Fluid

Consider two points 1 and 2 lie in the ends of fluid prism having a cross-sectional
area dA and length L. The difference in elevation between these two points is h as shown in the
figure. The fluid is at rest and its surface is free. The prism is therefore in equilibrium and all
forces acting on it sums up to zero.

Note: FFS stands for Free Fluid Surface which refers to fluid surface subject to zero
gauge pressure.

The volume of the prism is equal to the length times the base area of the fluid.

The weight of the fluid prism shown is equal to the product of the unit weight and

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volume.

Sum up all the forces in x-direction

but L sin θ = h, thus

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the difference in pressure between any
two points is equal to the product of the unit weight of the fluid and the difference in elevation of
the points.
If h = 0 so that points 1 and 2 are on the same horizontal plane, p2 - p1 = 0 or

Therefore, in any homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressures at all points along the same
horizontal plane are equal.
If point 1 lie on the FFS, the gauge pressure p1 = 0, making p2 - 0 = γh or simply

This means that the pressure at any depth h below a continuous free fluid surface at rest is
equal to the product of the unit weight of fluid and the depth h.

Transmission of Pressure
We can write the equation p2 - p1 = γh into the form

which means that any change in the pressure at point 1 would cause an equal change of

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pressure at point 2. In other words, a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is
transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the liquid.

Pressure Below Layers of Different Liquids

Example 2-2
A tank contains oil of specific gravity=0.80, gasoline of specific gravity =0.90
and seawater of specific gravity =1.03. If the depth of the liquids is 0.50m, 0.80m and 1m for the
oil, gasoline and seawater respectively.
a. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.20m.
b. Find the pressure at a depth of 1.8m.
c. Find the pressure at the bottom of the tank.
Given:
𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.80, 𝑠𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.90, 𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.03

ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.50𝑚, ℎ𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 0.80𝑚, ℎ𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.0𝑚

Solution:
a. Pressure at d=1.20m
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃1.2𝑚 = 0.80 (9.81 3 ) (0.50𝑚) + 0.90 (9.81 3 ) (0.70𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚

𝑷𝟏.𝟐𝒎 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

b. Pressure at 1.80m
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃1.8𝑚 = 0.80 (9.81 3
) (0.50𝑚) + 0.90 (9.81 3 ) (0.80𝑚) + 1.03 (9.81 3 ) (0.50𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑷𝟏.𝟖𝒎 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑷𝒂

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c. Pressure at the bottom

𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝑃𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝛾𝑜𝑖𝑙 ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 + 𝛾𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝛾𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 0.80 (9.81 3
) (0.50𝑚) + 0.90 (9.81 3 ) (0.80𝑚) + 1.03 (9.81 3 ) (0.50𝑚)
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒎 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂

Pressure Head
The equation p = γh may be written into the form

where h or its equivalent p/γ is in hydraulics called the pressure head.

Pressure head is the height of column of homogeneous fluid of unit weight γ that will
produce an intensity of pressure p.

To convert pressure head of liquid A to equivalent pressure head of liquid B

To convert pressure head of any liquid to equivalent pressure head of water

Where:
s = specific gravity
γ = unit weight
ρ = density
Example 2-3
A pressure of 150 KPa is equivalent to how many meters of water? of mercury?
In absolute units, what are the corresponding pressure heads, assuming standard conditions?
Given:
P = 150 kPa
Required:
Pressure heads=? Pressure heads in absolute units =?

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Solution:
𝑃
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑘𝑁
150
𝑚2
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑘𝑁
9.81 3
𝑚

𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟗𝟏 𝒎

𝑘𝑁
101
𝑚2
ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁
+ 15.291 𝑚
9.81 3
𝑚

𝒉𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟓𝟗𝒎

𝑃
ℎ𝐻𝑔 =
𝛾𝐻𝑔
𝑘𝑁
150
𝑚2
ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 𝑘𝑁
(13.6)9.81
𝑚3

𝒉𝑯𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐𝟒 𝒎

𝑘𝑁
101
𝑚2
ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 = 𝑘𝑁
+ 1.124 𝑚
9.81 3
𝑚

𝒉𝑯𝒈 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝒎

Properties of Water
Specific gravity, s = 1.0
Unit weight, γ = 9.81 kN/m3 (or 62.4 lb/ft3 in English system)
Density, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 (or 1.94 slugs/ft3 in English system)
Manometers
Manometer is a simple and inexpensive device of measuring pressure and pressure
difference. It is usually bent to form a U-tube and filled with liquid of known specific gravity.
The surface of the liquid will move in proportion to changes of pressure.

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Types of Manometer
1. Open Manometer
Open manometer is a tube bent into a U-shape to contain one or more fluids of different
specific gravities. It is used to measure pressure. Example of open manometer is shown
below.

2. Differential Manometer
Differential manometer cannot measure pressure but can measure pressure difference.
Frequently in hydraulic problems, difference in pressure is more useful information than
the pressure itself.

Steps in Solving an Open Manometer Problems

1. Draw a sketch of the manometer system approximately to scale. Number in order all
levels of contact of the different fluids, starting with level 0 at the free surface.
2. Decide on the fluid of which head are to be expressed. Water is more desirable. In
most cases, we suggest to use head in water even if there is no water in the system
3. Starting from level 0 (zero gage pressure) at free surface, proceed from level to level
adding or subtracting as the elevation increases or decreases giving due regard to the
specific gravity of the fluid.

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Example 2-4
The manometer shown in the figure is tapped to pipeline carrying oil (sp. Gravity= 0.85).
Determine the pressure at the center of the pipe.

Example 2-5
Calculate the pressure at the center of the pipe.

Example 2-6
In the figure, fluid A is water, fluid B is oil (s=0.85). Determine the difference in
pressure. Note: h= 68 cm

Required: 𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑛 = ?

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Solution:
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
Pm -9.81 𝑚3
(1)(z) – 9.81 𝑚3
(0.85)(0.68m) + 9.81 𝑚3
(1)(v) = Pn
𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
Pm – 9.81 𝑚3
(z) – 5.67018 +9.81 𝑚3
v = Pn

Pm – Pn = 5.67018 + 9.81 (z-v)

Y+v = x + z
1.7m + v= 0.68m + z
z- v = 1.02m
Pm – Pn = 15.60 kPa

Piezometer
Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into the wall of pressure
conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in many purposes, piezometer is
not practical to use in lighter liquids with large pressure and cannot be used to measure gas
pressure.

From the figure above, three piezometers A, B, and C are attached to a pressure conduit
at bottom, top, and side, respectively. The column of liquid at A, B, and C will rise at the same
level above M indicating a positive pressure at M. Also, the piezometer D measures the negative
pressure at N.
Limitations of Piezometer
• Large pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes.
• Gas pressures cannot form a free surface.

Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces

The total hydrostatic force on any plane surface submerged in a fluid of specific weight 𝜸
is equal to the product of the area of the surface and the intensity of pressure at its center of
gravity.
If the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a horizontal surface
submerged in a liquid, the total hydrostatic force is
𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨
Where:

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P is the uniform pressure in Pa

A is the area in m2
F is the force in Newton
In the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged in a liquid, the total pressure can be
found by the following formula:

̅𝑨
𝑭 = 𝜸𝒉
Where:
γ – unit weight of the liquid in N/m3
ℎ̅ – vertical distance from the liquid surface to the centroid of the body in m
A – cross- sectional area of the body in m2

• It is convenient to use 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴, if the plane is submerged in a single liquid and without
gage pressure at the surface.
• If the plane is submerged under layers of different liquids or if the gage pressure at the
liquid surface is not zero, apply the formula

• Distance of the center of pressure , yp

Where

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• Therefore,

or

but

where IG -moment of inertia of the submerged area about a horizontal line through
center of gravity (also known as the centroidal moment of inertia)
e - eccentricity or the distance between the center of pressure and the
center of gravity
- located below the center of gravity

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Example 2-7
A vertical triangular gate with top base horizontal and 1.5m wide is 3m high. It is
submerged in oil having a specific gravity of 0.82 with its top base submerged to a depth of 2m.
Determine the magnitude and location of the total hydrostatic pressure acting on one side of the
gate.
Given:
b= 1.5 m
h= 3m
d = 2m
s = 0.82
Required:
F =?
𝑦𝑝 = ?

Solution:
a. 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
𝑘𝑁 1 1
𝐹 = (0.82) (9.81 ) [ 2𝑚 + (3𝑚)] ( )( 1.5𝑚)( 3𝑚)
𝑚3 3 2

𝑭 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖. 𝟓𝟗𝟕 𝒌𝑵
b. 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦̅ + 𝑒
𝐼𝐺 𝑏ℎ3 (1.5𝑚)(3𝑚)3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒= ; 𝐼𝐺 = = = 1.125𝑚4
𝐴𝑦̅ 12 12
1.125 𝑚4
𝑒= 1 = 0.25𝑚
(1.5𝑚)(3𝑚)[ 2𝑚+ (3𝑚)]
3

1
𝑦𝑝 = [ 2𝑚 + (3𝑚)] + 0.25𝑚
3
𝒚𝒑 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝒎

Example 2-8
A vertical circular gate 1m in diameter is subjected to pressure of liquid of
specific gravity of 1.40 on one side. The free surface of the liquid is 2.60m above the uppermost
part of the gate. Calculate the total force on the gate and the location of the center of pressure.
Required:
𝐹 =?
𝑦𝑝 =?

Solution:
a. 𝐹 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
𝑘𝑁 𝜋
𝐹 = (1.40) (9.81 ) [ 2.60𝑚 + 0.5 𝑚]( 4 )1𝑚2
𝑚3

𝑭 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟒𝟑𝟗 𝒌𝑵

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b. 𝑦𝑝 = 𝑦̅ + 𝑒
𝐼𝐺 𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋(0.5𝑚)4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒= ; 𝐼𝐺 = = = 0.049𝑚4
𝐴𝑦̅ 4 4
𝐼𝐺 0.0494𝑚4
𝑒= = 𝜋
(1𝑚)2 [ 2.60𝑚+ 0.5 𝑚]
= 0.020 m
𝐴𝑦̅
4

𝑦𝑝 = [ 2.60𝑚 + 0.5 𝑚] + 0.020𝑚

𝒚𝒑 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝒎

Example 2-9
An inclined circular gate with water on one side is shown in the figure. Determine the
total resultant force as well as the location.

Force Components on Submerged Curved Surfaces

Oftentimes, it is more convenient and practical to deal with the force components acting
on such surface rather than with the resultant or total surfaces.
This is particularly true with a submerged curved surface.

𝐹𝑉 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝛾𝑉𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝐹𝐻 = 𝛾ℎ̅𝐴
where

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