NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY : TIRUCHIRAPPALLI

Dr. K. Murugesan
Professor(HAG)
Department of Mathematics
National Insitute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli 620015,
Tamil Nadu, India
Email : [email protected]

MAIR32 - FOURIER TRANSFORMS AND NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES

LECTURE NOTES ON FOURIER SERIES

[Fourier series - Dirichlet’s conditions - Half range Fourier cosine and sine series - Parseval’s
relation - Fourier series in complex form – Harmonic analysis.]

1
 FOURIER SERIES

1 Basic Definitions

1.1 Periodic Functions

A function f (x) is said to have a period T if for all x, f (x + T ) = f (x), where T is a positive
constant. The least value of T > 0 is called the period of f (x).
Ex: sin x, cos x, tan x, etc.

Example
1. What is the Period of sin x ?
Solution:
f (x) = sin x = sin (x + 2π) = sin (x + 4π)=... Therefore the function has periods 2π, 4π, 6π, etc.
However, 2π is the least value and therefore is the period of f (x).

2. Check cos x is periodic or not ?

Solution:
cos x = cos (2π + x) therefore,
cos x is a periodic function with period 2π.

Exercise
1. What is the period of sin nx and cos nx ?

2. Show that a constant has any positive number as period.

1.2 Limit of a Function

A function f (x) is said to tend to a limit ′ l′ as x tends to ′ a′ if to each given ϵ > 0, there exists a positive
number δ such that |f (x) − l| < ϵ when 0 < |x − a| < δ. This is denoted by

lim f (x) = l
x→a

1.3 Left-Hand and Right-Hand Limits

f (x) is said to tend to l as x tends to ′ a′ through values less than a, if to each ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0
such that |f (x) − l| < ϵ when a − δ < x < a then f (x) is said to tend to l from the left and is denoted by

f (a − 0) = lim f (x)
x→(a−0)

is called left-hand limit.

Similarly if f (x) tends to l as x tends to ′ a′ through values which are greater than a, if there exists δ > 0

2
such that |f (x) − l| < ϵ when a < x < a + δ, then f (x) is said to tend to ′ l′ from the right and is denoted by

f (a + 0) = lim f (x)
x→(a+0)

is called the right-hand limit.

Example
1. Explain the method of finding Left hand limit and Right hand limit ?
Solution:
To find the Left-hand limit: f (a − 0)
Put x = a − h in f (x) and then take the limit as h → 0.
Thus,
f (a − 0) = lim f (a − h).
h→0

To find the Right-hand limit : f (a + 0)

Put x = a + h in f (x) and then take the limit as h → 0.
Thus,
f (a + 0) = lim f (a + h).
h→0

1
2. If f (x) = x sin find f (0 − 0) and f (0 + 0).
x
Solution:
Left hand limit :
Replace: x → 0 − h
 
1
f (0 − 0) = lim (0 − h) sin
h→0 0−h

  
1
= limh→0 (−h) − sin
h

1
= limh→0 h sin
h

=0

3
 Right hand limit :
Replace: x → 0 + h

1
f (0 + 0) = limh→0 (0 + h) sin
0+h

1
= limh→0 h sin
h

=0

Exercise
1
1. If f (x) = 2 x − 1 find f (1 − 0) and f (1 + 0).

2. Find f (a − 0) and f (a + 0) for the function

 2
x
−a f or 0<x<a



 a

f (x) = 0 f or x=a
a3



 a−
 f or x>a
x2

1.4 Continuous function

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if

f (a − 0) = f (a + 0) = f (a)

Note:
f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval (a, b) if it is continuous at every point of the interval.

4
1.5 Discontinuous Function
A function f (x) is said to be discontinuous at a point if it is not continuous at the point.
Ex:
(
x, x<1
f (x) = 2
x , x>1

Here x = 1 is a point of discontinuity.

1.6 Piece wise Continuous Function

A function f (x) is said to be piece wise continuous function in an interval if
(i) the interval can be divided into a finite number of sub-intervals in each of which f (x) is continuous and
(ii) the limits of f (x) as x approaches the end points of each sub-interval are finite.

1.7 Dirichlet Conditions

A function f (x) defined in c ≤ x ≤ c + 2l can be expanded as an infinite trigonometric series of the form

∞ ∞
a0 X nπx X nπx
+ an cos + bn sin ,
2 n=1
l n=1
l

provided
(i)f (x) is defined and single valued except possibly at a finite number of points in (c, c + 2l).
(ii) f (x) is periodic in (c, c + 2l).
′
(iii) f (x) and f (x) are piecewise continuous in (c, c + 2l).
(iv) f (x) has no or finite number of maxima or minima in (c, c + 2l).

2 Fourier Series
The infinite trigonometric series
∞ ∞
a0 X nπx X nπx
+ an cos + bn sin
2 n=1
l n=1
l

is called the fourier series of f (x) which satisfies Dirichlet’s Conditions in c ≤ x ≤ c + 2l.
a0 , an and bn are called Fourier coefficients and the values are given by Euler’s formula .

5
2.1 Write the Euler’s Formulae
The Fourier Series for the function f (x) in the interval c < x < c + 2l is given by

∞ ∞
a0 X nπx X nπx
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin
2 n=1
l n=1
l

Where
Z c+2l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l c

Z c+2l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l c l

Z c+2l
1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l c l

The values of a0 , an and bn are known as Euler’s Formulae .

Example
1. Write the Euler’s Formula of f (x) in (c, c + 2π).
Solution:
Z c+2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π c

Z c+2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π c

Z c+2π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π c

2. Write the fourier coefficients a0 , an and bn in (0, 2π).

Solution:
Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0

6
 Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0

3. What are the Fourier constants a0 , an and bn in (−π, π) ?

Solution:
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π

Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π

4. What are the Fourier coefficients a0 , an and bn in (0, 2l) ?

Solution:
Z 2l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l 0

Z 2l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l 0 l

Z 2l
1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l 0 l

5. What are the Fourier coefficients a0 , an and bn in (−l, l) ?

Solution:
Z l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l −l

7
 Z l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l −l l

Z l
1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l −l l

2.2 Convergence of Fourier Series

Let f (x) can be expanded as a Fourier Series

∞ ∞
a0 X nπx X nπx
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin
2 n=1
l n=1
l

in (c, c + 2l). This series converges to

(i) f (x0 ) if ′ x′0 is a point of continuity.

f (x0 + 0) + f (x0 − 0)
(ii) , if ′ x′0 is a point of discontinuity.
2

Example
1. Find the sum of Fourier series of f (x) = (l − x)2
(i) in (0, 2l) at x = 0
(ii) in (0, 2l) at x = 2l
(iii) in (0, 2l) at x = l
Solution:
(i) x = 0 is a point of d.c.

f (0 + 0) + f (0 − 0)
sum =
2

(l − 0)2 + (l − 0)2
=
2

2l2
=
2

8
 = l2

(ii) x = 2l is a point of d.c.

f (2l + 0) + f (2l − 0)
sum =
2

(l − 2l)2 + (l − 2l)2
=
2

l2 + l2
=
2

2l2
=
2

= l2

(iii) x = l is a point of continuity.

sum = f (l)

= (l − l)2

=0

(
x2 −π < x < 0
2. Find the sum of the Fourier Series of f (x) =
0 0<x<π
(i) at x = 0
π
(ii) at x =
2
Solution:
(i) x = 0 is a point of d.c.

9
 f (0 + 0) + f (0 − 0)
sum =
2

0+0
=
2

=0

π
(ii) x = is a point of continuity in (0, π).
2

Since f (x) = 0 in 0 < x < π then

π
f( ) = 0
2

Exercise
1. Find the sum of the Fourier Series of f (x) = |x| in −π < x < π.
(i) at x = 0 (ii) at x = π (iii) at x = −π

(
k, −1 < x < 0
2. Find the sum of the Fourier Series of at x = 0
0, 0<x<1

10
 PROBLEMS IN THE INTERVAL (0, 2l )

Example
1. Find the Fourier Series expansion of period 2l for the function f (x) = (l − x)2 in the range (0, 2l).
Deduce the sum of the series
∞
X 1
n=1
n2
.
Solution:
Step 1:
The Fourier series of f (x) in (0, 2l) is

∞ ∞
a0 X nπx X nπx
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin ..........(1)
2 n=1
l n=1
l

Step 2: To find a0
Z 2l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l 0

Z 2l
1
= (l − x)2 dx
l 0

2l
(l − x)3

=
−3l 0

(l − 2l)3 − (l − 0)3
=
−3l

−l3 − l3
=
−3l

−2l3
=
−3l

2 2
= l ............(2)
3

11
Step 3: To find an

Z 2l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l 0 l

Z 2l
1 nπx
= (l − x)2 cos dx
l 0 l

Note:

′ ′′ ′′′
u = (l − x)2 , u = −2(l − x), u = 2, u =0

nπx nπx nπx

nπx sin − cos − sin
v = cos , v1 = l l ,v = l
l nπ , v2 = n2 π 2
3
n3 π 3
l l2 l3

nπx  nπx  nπx  2l

     
1  sin  
 − cos  
 − sin 
an = (l − x)2 l − 2(l − x)(−1) l + 2 l 
l  nπ  n 2 2
π n 3 3
π


 
 
 

l l2 l3 0

nπx  nπx nπx 2l

    
1 sin cos 2 sin
= (l − x)2  nπl  − 2(l − x)  2 l2  − l 
 
l n π n3 π 3

l l2 l3 0

   
   
 
1 
2 sin 2nπ  cos 2nπ  2 sin 2nπ 
=  (l − 2l) 
nπ
 − 2(l − 2l)   − 
l 

 n2π2  n3 π 3 

 l l3

l2

     
 
1 sin 0  cos 0  2 sin 0 

−  (l − 0)2  nπ  − 2(l − 0)  2 2  − 3 3 
l 
 n π n π  
l l2 l3

12
Note: sin 2nπ = 0, cos 2nπ = 1
 
1  2l 2l 
=  2 2 + 2 2
l n π n π
l2 l2

 
1  4l 
=
l n2 π 2
 
l2

4l2
= ...........(3)
n2 π 2

Step 4: To find bn
Z 2l
1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l 0 l

Z 2l
1 nπx
= (l − x)2 sin dx
l 0 l

Note:

′ ′′ ′′′
u = (l − x)2 , u = −2(l − x), u = 2, u =0

nπx nπx nπx

nπx − cos − sin cos
v = sin , v1 = l ,v = l ,v = l
l nπ 2
n2 π 2
3
n3 π 3
l l2 l3

nπx  nπx  nπx  2l

     
1  − cos  
 − sin  
 cos 
bn = (l − x)2 l − 2(l − x)(−l) l + 2 l 
l nπ 2 2 3 3 
   n π
 
  n π 

l l2 l3 0

nπx  nπx nπx 2l

    
1 cos sin 2 cos
= −(l − x)2  nπl  − 2(l − x)  2 l2  + l 
 
l 3 3
n π n π

l l2 l3 0

13
      
 
1
2  cos 2nπ   sin 2nπ  2 cos 2nπ 

=  −(l − 2l) nπ − 2(l − 2l) +
l  n2 π 2 n3 π 3 
  
 
l l2 l3

     
 
1 cos 0  sin 0  2 cos 0 

−  −(l − 0)2  nπ  − 2(l − 0)  2 2  + 3 3 
l 
 n π n π  
l l 2 l3

 
2 2
1  −l cos 2nπ 2 cos 2nπ l 2 
= nπ + + nπ − 3 3 
l n3 π 3 n π

l l3 l l3

therefore, sin 2nπ = 0, cos 2nπ = 1

 
2 2
1  −l 2 l 2 
=  nπ + 3 3 + nπ − 3 3 
l n π n π
l l3 l l3

= 0..........(4)

Step:5 The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2), (3) and (4) in (1), we get,

∞
l2 X 4l2 nπx
f (x) = + cos
3 n=1 n2 π 2 l

∞
l2 4l2 X 1 nπx
= + 2 2
cos ............(5)
3 π n=1 n l

Step: 6 Deduction
Here 0 is a point of discontinuity which is an end point of the given interval 0 < x < 2l.
Therefore, the sum of Fourier Series (5) at x = 0 is the average value of f (x) at the end points i.e., at
x = 0 and at x = 2l.
Put x = 0 in (5), we get,
∞
l2 4l2 X 1 f (0) + f (2l)
+ 2 =
3 π n=1 n2 2

14
 l2 + l2
= = l2
2

Since, we have
f (x) = (l − x)2

f (0) = (l − 0)2 = l2

f (2l) = (l − 2l)2 = l2

∞
4l2 X 1 2 l2 3l2 − l2 2l2
= l − = =
π 2 n=1 n2 3 3 3

∞
4 X 1 2
=
π 2 n=1 n2 3

∞
X 1 2π 2
=
n=1
n2 12

∞
X 1 π2
=
n=1
n2 6

2. Find the Fourier Series for f (x) = 2x − x2 in 0 < x < 2.

Solution:
Step: 1
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (0, 2) is

∞ ∞
a0 X X
f (x) = + an cos nπx + bn sin nπx.............(1)
2 n=1 n=1

Since 2l =2 then l =1

Step 2 : To find a0

15
 Z 2
1
a0 = f (x) dx
1 0

Z 2
= (2x − x2 ) dx
0

2
x3

8 12 − 8
= x2 − =4− =
3 0 3 3

4
= ............(2)
3

Step 3 : To find an

Z 2
1
an = f (x) cos nπx dx
1 0

Z 2
= (2x − x2 ) cos nπx dx
0

Note:
′ ′′ ′′′
u = 2x − x2 , u = 2 − 2x, u = −2, u = 0
sin nπx − cos nπx − sin nπx
v = cos nπx, v1 = , v2 = , v3 =
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3
      2
2 sin nπx − cos nπx − sin nπx
= (2x − x ) − (2 − 2x) + (−2)
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3 0

    2
sin nπx  cos nπx  sin nπx
= (2x − x2 ) + (2 − 2x) + 2
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3 0

           
sin nπx − cos nπx − sin nπx cos 0 sin 0
= (4 − 4) − (2 − 4) +2 − 0 + (2 + 0) +2
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3 n2 π 2 n3 π 3

Since, sin 0 = 0, sin 2nπ = 0,

   
cos 2nπ 2
= −2 −
n2 π 2 n2 π 2

16
Since, cos 2nπ = 1
 
−2 2
= − 2 2
n2 π 2 n π

−4
= ...............(3)
n2 π 2

Step 4: To find bn
Z 2
1
bn = f (x) sin nπx dx
1 0

Z 2
= (2x − x2 ) sin nπx dx
0

Note :
′ ′′ ′′′
u = 2x − x2 , u = 2 − 2x, u = −2, u = 0
− cos nπx − sin nπx cos nπx
v = sin nπx, v1 = , v2 = , v3 =
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3
 
− cos nπx
 
− sin nπx
  cos nπx 2
2
= (2x − x ) − (2 − 2x) + (−2)
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3 0

  cos nπx  
− sin nπx
  cos nπx 2
2
= −(2x − x ) + (2 − 2x) −2
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3 0

      
cos 2nπ sin 2nπ cos 2nπ
= −(4 − 4) + (2 − 4) − 2
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3

      
cos 0 sin 0 cos 0
− −(0 − 0) + (2 − 0) −2
nπ n2 π 2 n3 π 3

since, sin 0 = 0, sin 2nπ = 0,

   
cos2nπ 2
= −2 +
n3 π 3 n3 π 3

since, cos 2nπ = 1

17
 2 2
=− + = 0.............(4)
n3 π 3 n3 π 3

Step 5: The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2), (3) and (4) in (1), we get
therefore,

∞
4 X −4
f (x) = + cos nπx
6 n=1 n2 π 2

∞
2 4 X cos nπx
= − 2
3 π n=1 n2

Exercise
(
l−x 0<x≤l
1. Obtain Fourier Series for f (x) of period 2l and defined as follow f (x) = Hence
0 l ≤ x < 2l
P∞ 1
deduce the sum to infinity of the series n=0
(2n − 1)2

2. Determine the Fourier Series for the function f (x) = πx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, = π(2 − x); 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

3. Find the Fourier Series of the function f (x) = 2x − x2 for 0 < x < 3 and f (x + 3) = f (x).

(
x, 0<x<1
4. Find the Fourier Series for the following functions in the given interval f (x) =
0, 1<x<2

18
 PROBLEMS IN THE INTERVAL (0, 2π)

Example
1. Express f (x) = x sin x as a Fourier Series in 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
Solution:
Step 1 : The Fourier Series of f (x) in [0, 2π] is

∞ ∞
a0 X X
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx............(A)
2 n=1 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x sin x dx
π 0

1 2π
= [x(− cos x) − 1.(− sin x)]0
π

1 2π
= [−x cos x + sin x]0
π

1
= [{−2π cos 2π + sin 2π} − {0 − 0}]
π

since, sin 2π = 0, cos 2π = 1

1
= [−2π]
π

= −2................(1)

Step 3 : To find an
Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0

19
 Z 2π
1
= x sin x cos nx dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x[sin(n + 1)x − sin(n − 1)x] dx
2π 0

1
we have, cos A sin B = [sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)]
2
    2π
1 cos(n + 1)x cos(n − 1)x sin(n + 1)x sin(n − 1)x
= x − + − (1) − +
2π n+1 n−1 (n + 1)2 (n − 1)2 0

 2π
1 −x cos(n + 1)x x cos(n + 1)x sin(n + 1)x sin(n − 1)x
= + + −
2π n+1 n−1 (n + 1)2 (n − 1)2 0

  
1 −2π cos 2(n + 1)π 2π cos 2(n − 1)π sin 2(n + 1)π sin 2(n − 1)π
= + + − +0+0+0−0
2π n+1 n−1 (n + 1)2 (n − 1)2

sin 2(n + 1)π = 0, sin 2(n − 1)π = 0

cos 2(n + 1)π = 1, cos 2(n − 1)π = 1

1 1
an = − +
n+1 n−1

−(n − 1) + n + 1
=
n2 − 1

2
= provided n ̸= 1.........(2)
n2 −1

When n = 1, we have
Z 2π
1
a1 = f (x) cos x dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x sin x cos x dx
π 0

20
since, sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
Z 2π
1
= x sin 2x dx
2π 0

    2π
1 cos 2x sin 2x
= x − − 1. −
2π 2 4 0

 2π
1 x sin 2x
= − cos 2x +
2π 2 4 0

   
1 2π sin 4π 0 sin 0
= − cos 4π + − − cos 0 +
2π 2 4 2 4

therefore, sin 4π = 0

1
= [−π cos 4π]
2π

therefore, cos 4π = 1

1
= [−π]
2π

1
= − ...........(3)
2

Step 4 : To find bn
Z 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x sin x sin nx dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x[cos(n − 1)x − cos(n + 1)x] dx
2π 0

since, 2 sin A sin B = cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)

21
     2π
1 sin(n − 1)x sin(n + 1)x cos(n − 1)x cos(n + 1)x
= x − − (1) − +
2π n−1 n+1 (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2 0

"  2π #
1 x sin(n − 1)x x sin(n + 1)x cos(n − 1)x cos(n + 1)x
= − + −
2π n−1 n+1 (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2 0

   
1 2π sin 2(n − 1)π 2π sin 2(n + 1)π cos 2(n − 1)π cos 2(n + 1)π cos 0 cos 0
= − + − − 0−0+ −
2π n−1 (n + 1) (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2 (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2

 
1 cos 2(n − 1)π cos 2(n + 1)π 1 1
= − − +
2π (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2 (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2

sin 2(n + 1)π = 0, sin 2(n − 1)π = 0

cos 2(n + 1)π = 1, cos 2(n − 1)π = 1
 
1 1 1 1 1
= − − +
2π (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2 (n − 1)2 (n + 1)2

therefore,

bn = 0 provided n ̸= 1

When n = 1 , we have
Z 2π
1
b1 = x sin x sin x dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x sin2 x dx
π 0

Z 2π
1
= x(1 − cos 2x) dx
2π 0

Note :
′ ′′
u = x, u = 1, u = 0   2 
sin 2x x cos 2x
v = 1 − cos 2x, v1 = x − , v2 = +
2 2 4

22
     2 2π
1 sin 2x x cos 2x
= x x− − (1) +
2π 2 2 4 0

    2   
1 sin 4π 4π cos 4π cos 0
= 2π 2π − − + − 0−0−
2π 2 2 4 4
4π 2
 
1 1 1
= 2π(2π) − − +
2π 2 4 4

1
= [4π 2 − 2π 2 ]
2π

1
= 2π 2 = π.............(5)
2π

Step 5 : The required Fourier Series

Substituting (1) , (2) , (3) , (4) and (5) in (A) we get,

∞
1 X 2
f (x) = −1 − cos x + π sin x + 2−1
cos nx
2 n=2
n

1 2 2
= −1 + π sin x − cos x + 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x + ....
2 2 −1 3 −1

1
2. If f (x) is a periodic function defined over a period (0, 2π) by f (x) = (3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 ). Prove that
12
P∞ cos nx π2 1 1
f (x) = n=1 2
and hence show that = 1 + 2 + 2 + ......
n 6 2 3
Solution:
Step 1 :
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (0, 2π) is

∞ ∞
a0 X X
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx............(1)
2 n=1 n=1

Step 2: To find a0
Z 2π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π 0

23
 Z 2π
1
= (3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 ) dx
12π 0

1  3 2π
= x − 3x2 π + 2π 2 x 0
12π

1
= [8π 3 − 12π 3 + 4π 3 ] = 0................(2)
12π

Step 3 : To find an
Z 2π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0

Z 2π
1 1
= (3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 ) cos nx dx
π 0 12

Note:
′ ′′ ′′′
u = 3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 , u = 6x − 6π, u = 6, u = 0
sin nx − cos nx − sin nx
v = cos nx, v1 = v2 = , v3 =
n n2 n3
      2π
1 2 2 sin nx −cosnx − sin nx
= (3x − 6xπ + 2π ) − (6x − 6π) +6
12π n n2 n3 0

    2π
1 2 2 sin nx  cosnx  sin nx
= (3x − 6xπ + 2π ) + (6x − 6π) −6
12π n n2 n3 0

      
1 sin 2nπ cos 2nπ sin 2nπ
= [3(2π)2 − 6(2π)π + 2π 2 ] + (12π − 6π) − 6
12π n n2 n3

      
2 sin 0 cos 0 sin 0
− (0 − 0 + 2π ) + (0 − 6π) −6
n n2 n3

 
1 (12π − 6π) 6π
= +
12π n2 n2

24
  
1 12π
=
12π n2

1
=
n2

Step 4 : To find bn
Z 2π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0

Z 2π
1 1
= (3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 ) sin nx dx
π 0 12

Note:
′ ′′ ′′′
u = 3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 , u = 6x − 6π, u = 6, u = 0
− cos nx − sin nx cos nx
v = sin nx, v1 = v2 = , v3 =
n n2 n3
1
 
− cos nx
 
− sin nx
  cos nx 2π
2 2
= (3x − 6xπ + 2π ) − (6x − 6π) +6
12π n n2 n3 0

1
  cos nx  
sin nx
  cos nx 2π
2 2
= −(3x − 6xπ + 2π ) + (6x − 6π) −6
12π n n2 n3 0

     
1 2 2 2 cos 2nπ cos 2nπ 6 cos 2nπ
= −(12π − 12π + 2π ) + (12π − 6π) +
12π n n2 n3

     
cos 0 sin 0 6 cos 0
− −(0 − 0 + 2π 2 ) + (0 − 6π) +
n n2 n3

therefore, sin 2nπ = 0, cos nπ = 1

1 −2π 2 2π 2
 
6 6
= + 3+ − 3 = 0....................(4)
12π n n n n

Step 5 : The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2) , (3) and (4) in (1), we get

∞
X 1
f (x) = 2
cos nx..........(5)
n=1
n

25
 Step 6 : Deduction
Here x = 0 is a point of discontinuity which is one end of the given interval. Therefore, the sum of
Fourier Series (5) at x = 0 is the average value of f (x) at the end points of the given interval.
Put x = 0 in (5) , we get,

π2 π2
∞ + 2
X 1 f (0) + f (2π) 6 6 =π
= =
n=1
n2 2 2 6

Note:
1
f (x) = (3x2 − 6xπ + 2π 2 )
12
1 π2
f (0) = (0 − 0 + 2π 2 ) =
12 6
1 π2
f (2π) = (12π − 12π + 2π 2 ) =
2 2
12 6
∞
X 1 π2
2
=
n=1
n 6

1 1 1 π2
+ + .... =
12 22 32 6

Exercise
1. Express f (x) = (π − x)2 as a Fourier Series of period 2π in the interval 0 < x < 2π. Hence deduce the
1 1 1
sum of the series 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
2 3 4

2. Find the Fourier Series for f (x) = eax in a Fourier Series in (0, 2π)

2
π 2 P∞ cos nx

π−x
3. If f (x) = in the interval , 0 < x < 2π , show that f (x) = + n=1 . Hence show
2 12 n2
2
1 1 1 π
that 2 + 2 + 2 + ..... =
1 2 3 6

1
4. Expand the Fourier Series to represent f (x) = (π − x)2 , 0 < x < 2π.
4

26
3 EVEN AND ODD FUNCTIONS
Even and odd function cases arises only when the function is defined in (−l, l) and (−π, π).

3.1 Definition:
Even : A Function f (x) is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x).
Odd : A Function f (x) is said to be odd if f (−x) = −f (x) or f (x) = −f (−x)

Examples
1. Give examples of even functions. Explain why.
(i) x2 (ii) cos x
Solution:
(i)
f (x) = x2

f (−x) = (−x)2

= x2

f (x) = f (−x)

therefore, x2 is even
(ii)
f (x) = cos x

f (−x) = cos(−x)

= cos x

27
 f (x) = f (−x)

therefore, cos x is even

2. Write few examples of odd function. Explain.

(i) x3 (ii) sin x
Solution:
(i)
f (x) = x3

f (−x) = (−x)3

= −x3

f (x) = −f (−x)

therefore, x3 is odd
(ii)
f (x) = sin x

f (−x) = sin(−x)

= − sin x

f (x) = −f (−x)

therefore, sin x is odd

28
3. Classify the functions as even and odd .
(i) (
x, 0<x<π
f (x) =
−x, −π < x < 0

(ii) (
0, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
sin x, 0<x<π

(iii)
2x


 1+ , −π ≤ x < 0

 π
f (x) =
 1 − 2x ,


0≤x≤π

π

Solution:
(i) (
x, 0<x<π
f (x) =
−x, −π < x < 0

let ϕ1 (x) = x, ϕ2 (x) = −x then ϕ1 (−x) = −x = ϕ2 (x)

(
ϕ1 (x), 0<x<π
=
ϕ2 (x), −π < x < 0

therefore, f (x) is even

(ii) (
0, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
sin x, 0<x<π

Let ϕ1 (x) = 0, ϕ2 (x) = sin x then ϕ1 (−x) = 0 ̸= −ϕ2 (x)

(
ϕ1 (x), −π < x < 0
=
ϕ2 (x), 0<x<π

therefore, f (x) is neither odd nor even.

(iii)
2x


 1+ , −π ≤ x < 0

 π
=
 1 − 2x ,


0≤x≤π

π

29
 (
ϕ1 (x), −π < x ≤ 0
=
ϕ2 (x), 0≤x≤π

Where,
2x 2x
ϕ1 (x) = 1 + , ϕ2 (x) = 1 −
π π

2(−x)
ϕ1 (−x) = 1 +
π

2x
=1− = ϕ2 (x)
π

therefore, f (x) is even

4. Write the Fourier Constants a0 , an , and bn when the function is even in (−l, l), (−π, π).
Solution:
In (−l, l)
Z l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l −l

Z l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l −l l

bn = 0

In (−π, π)
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π

Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

bn = 0

30
5. Write the Fourier Constants a0 , an , and bn when the function is odd in (−l, l), (−π, π).
Solution:
In (−l, l)

a0 = 0

an = 0

Z l
1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l −l l

In (−π, π)

a0 = 0

an = 0

Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π

6. Write the Fourier constants when f (x) is neither even nor odd in (−l, l), (−π, π)
Solution:
In (−l, l)
Z l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l −l

Z l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l −l l

Z l
1 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l −l l

31
 In (−π, π)
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π

Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π

Exercise
1. Classify the following functions as even or odd.
(i) (
1 + x, −l ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) =
1 − x, 0≤x≤l

(ii)
 l
 0, −l < x < −
2




 l
 1 + x, − <x<0

f (x) = 2
l

 1 − x, 0<x<
2


l



 0, <x<l
2

2. Find the constant term in the Fourier Series corresponding to f (x) = x − x3 in (−π, π) .

32
 PROBLEMS IN THE INTERVAL (- l , l )

Examples
(
1 + x, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
1. Find the Fourier Series expansion of the periodic function f (x) defined by f (x) =
1 − x, 0≤x≤2
P∞ 1 π2
Hence deduce that n=1 =
(2n − 1)2 8
Solution:
Let ϕ1 (x) = 1 + x, ϕ2 (x) = 1 − x,
=⇒ ϕ1 (−x) = 1 − x = ϕ2 (x)
=⇒ f (x) is even
theref ore bn = 0

Step 1 :
The required Fourier Series of f (x) in (−2, 2)

∞
a0 X nπx
f (x) = + an cos .............(1)
2 n=1
2

Note: Since l = 2 here

Step 2 :
Z 2
1
a0 = f (x)dx
2 −2

Z 2 
2
= f (x)dx
2 0

Z 2 
= (1 − x)dx
0

" 2 #
(1 − x)2
=
−2 0

(1 − 2)2 (1 − 0)2
 
= −
−2 −2

 
1 1
= − +
2 2

33
 = 0.................(2)

Step 3 : To find an
Z 2
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
2 −2 2

Z 2
2 nπx
= f (x) cos dx
2 0 2

Note: In(0, 2), f (x) = 1 − x

Z 2
nπx
= (1 − x) cos dx
0 2

2
nπx  nπx
  
sin − cos
= (1 − x)  nπ2  − (−1)  2 
  
n2 π 2

2 4 0

nπx  nπx 2
  
sin cos
= (1 − x)  nπ2  − 2 

n2 π 2

2 4 0

       
   
 sin nπ  cos nπ   sin 0  cos 0 
=  (1 − 2) − 2 2 − (1 − 0) − 2 2 

nπ nπ
 

 n π   n π  
2 4 2 4

cos nπ 1
=− 2 2 + 2 2
n π n π
4 4

4
= [1 − cos nπ]
n2 π 2

4
= [1 − (−1)n ]
n2 π 2

34
 
 0 W hen ′ n′ is even
an = 8 ................(3)
 W hen ′ n′ is odd
n2 π 2

Step 4 :The required Fourier series

Substituting (2) , (3) in (1) we get

∞
X 8 nπx
f (x) = cos
n=1,3,5,
n2 π 2 2

∞
8 X 1 (2n − 1)πx
= 2 2
cos .............(4)
π n=1 (2n − 1) 2

Note : To change
P∞ P∞
n=1,3,5, → n=1 Replace n by 2n − 1
Step 5 : Deduction
x = 0 is a point of discontinuity.
Put x = 0 in (4)

∞
8 X 1
f (0) =
π 2 1 (2n − 1)2

∞
f (0 + 0) + f (0 − 0) 8 X 1
= 2
2 π 1 (2n − 1)2

Note : (
1 + x, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
f (x) =
1 − x, 0≤x≤2
=⇒ f (0 + 0) = 1 − 0 = 1
=⇒ f (0 − 0) = 1 + 0 = 1

∞
1+1 8 X
= 2 (2n − 1)2
2 π n=1

therefore,
∞
X 1 π2
2
=
n=1
(2n − 1) 8

2. Obtain the Fourier Series to represents x2 from x = −l to x = l

Solution:

35
Let f (x) = x2
f (−x) = (−x)2 = x2
f (x) = −f (x)
Hence f (x) is even =⇒ bn = 0
Step 1:
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (−l, l) is

∞
a0 X nπx
f (x) = + an cos ................(1)
2 n=1
l

Step 2: To find a0
Z l
1
a0 = f (x) dx
l −l

Z l
1
= x2 dx
l −l

Z l
2
= x2 dx
l 0

2 x3
 
= l
l 3 0

2 l3
 
= −0
l 3

2l3
=
3l

2 2
= l ..............(2)
3

Step 3 : To find an
Z l
1 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l −l l

36
 Z l
1 nπx
= x2 cos dx
l −l l

Z l
2 nπx
= x2 cos dx
l 0 l

Note:
′ ′′ ′′′
u = x2 , u = 2x, u = 2, u = 0
nπx nπx nπx
nπx sin − cos − sin
v = cos , v1 = l l l
l nπ , v2 = n2 π 2
, v3 =
n3 π 3
l l2 l3

nπx  nπx  nπx  l

    
2  sin  
 − cos  
 − sin 
an = x2 l − 2x l + 2 l 
l  nπ   n2 π 2   n π
3 3 
   

l l2 l3 0

nπx  nπx  nπx  l

     
2  sin  
 cos  
 sin 
= x2 l + 2x l − 2 l 
l  nπ   n2 π 2  3 3
 n π 

   
l l2 l3 0

       
 
2 sin nπ  cos nπ   sin nπ 

=  l2  nπ  + 2l  2 2  − 2  3 3  − [0 + 0 − 0]

l 
 n π n π 

l l2 l3

 
2  2l cos nπ 
=
l n2 π 2
 
l2

4l2 cos nπ
=
n2 π 2

4l2 (−1)n
= ...........(3)
n2 π 2

Step 4 : The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2) , (3) in (1) we get

37
 ∞
l2 X 4l2 (−1)n nπx
f (x) = + cos
3 n=1 n2 π 2 l

n nπx
∞
2 l2 4l2 X (−1) cos l
x = + 2
3 π n=1 n2

Exercise
(
L + x, (−L, 0)
1. Obtain Fourier Series for f (x) of period 2L and defined as follows f (x) = Hence
L − x, (0, L)
1 1 1 π2
Deduce that 2
+ 2 + 2 + .... =
1 3 5 8

2. Obtain the Fourier Series for f (x) = x2 in −1 < x < 1.

3. Find the Fourier Series with period 4 to represent the function f (x) = x2 −2 in the interval −2 < x < 2.

38
 PROBLEMS IN THE INTERVAL (−π, π)

Example
(
−K, −π < x < 0 1 1 1 π
1. Find the Fourier Series for f (x) = Hence deduce that 1 − + − + ...... =
K, 0<x<π 3 5 7 4
Solution:
Step 1 :
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (−π, π) is

∞ ∞
a0 X X
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx...........(1)
2 n=1 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π

Z 0 Z π 
1
= f (x)dx + f (x)dx
π −π 0

Z 0 Z π 
1
= −Kdx + Kdx
π −π 0

K
(−x)0−π + (x)π0

=
π

K
= [(−0 − π) + (π − 0)]
π

K
= [−π + π]
π

= 0.................(2)

Step 3 : To find an

39
 Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

Z 0 Z π 
1
= f (x) cos nx dx + f (x) cos nx dx
π −π 0

Z 0 Z π 
1
= −K cos nx dx + K cos nx dx
π −π 0

" 0  π #
K − sin nx sin nx
= +
π n −π n 0

K
= − sin 0 + sin(−nπ) + sin(nπ) − sin 0]
nπ

Since sin nπ = 0

an = 0..................(3)

Step 4 : To find bn
Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π

Z 0 Z π 
1
= f (x) sin nx dx + f (x) sin nx dx
π −π 0

Z 0 Z π 
1
= −K sin nx dx + K sin nx dx
π −π 0

  π 
K  cos nx 0 − cos nx
= +
π n −π n 0

   
K cos 0 cos nπ cos nπ cos 0
= − + − +
π n n n n

40
  
K 1 cos nπ cos nπ 1
= − − +
π n n n n

 
K 2 2 cos nπ
= −
π n n

Since cos nπ = (−1)n

2K
bn = [1 − (−1)n ]
nπ


 0, n is even
bn = ..................(4)
 4K , n is odd
nπ

Substituting (2) , (3) and (4) in (1), we get

∞
X 4K
f (x) = sin nx
n=1,3,5,...
nπ

∞ ∞
" #
X X
→ Replace n → 2n − 1
n=1,3,5,... n=1

∞
4K X 1
= sin(2n − 1)x..............(5)
π n=1 (2n − 1)

Step 5 : Deduction

π
x= is a point of discontinuity .
2

π
Put x = in (5)
2
π ∞
4K X 1 π
f = sin(2n − 1)
2 π n=1 (2n − 1) 2

Note: (
−K, −π < x < 0
f (x) =
K, 0<x<π
π
therefore f =K
2
π 3π
Since sin = 1, sin = −1, ....
2 2

41
 4K 1 1 1
K= [1 − + − + ........]
π 3 5 7

π 1 1 1
= 1 − + − + .....
4 3 5 7

1 1 1
2. Find the Fourier Series to represent x − x2 from x = −π to x = π . Hence Show that 2
− 2+ 2−
1 2 3
1 π2
+ ........ =
42 12
Solution :
Step 1:
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (−π, π) is

∞ ∞
a0 X X
f (x) = + an cos nx + bn sin nx ...........(1)
2 n=1 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z π
1
a0 = f (x) dx
π −π

Z π
1
= (x − x2 ) dx
π −π

π
1 x2 x3

= −
π 2 3 −π

π2 π3 π2 π3
   
1
= − − +
π 2 3 2 3

−2π 3
=
3π

−2π 2
= ...........(2)
3

Step 3 : To find an

42
 Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

Z π
1
= (x − x2 ) cos nx dx
π −π

Note :
′ ′′ ′′′
u = (x − x2 ), u = 1 − 2x, u = −2, u = 0
sin nx − cos nx − sin nx
v = cos nx, v1 = , v2 = , v3 =
n n2 n3
      π
1 sin nx − cos nx − sin nx
an = (x − x2 ) − (1 − 2x) + (−2)
π n n2 n3 −π

    π
1 2 sin nx  cos nx  sin nx
= (x − x ) + (1 − 2x) +2
π n n2 n3 −π

       
1 sin nπ  cos nx  sin nπ sin(−nπ)
= (π − π 2 ) + (1 − 2π) + 2 − (−π − π 2
)
π n n2 n3 n

 cos nπ   
sin(−nπ)
+(1 + 2π) +2
n2 n3

 
1 (1 − 2π) cos nπ (1 + 2π) cos nπ
= −
π n2 n2

1
= [−4π cos nπ]
n2 π

Since cos nπ = (−1)n

−4(−1)n
=
n2

4
= (−1)n+1 ...........(3)
n2

Step 4 : To Find bn

43
 Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π

Z π
1
= (x − x2 ) sin nx dx
π −π

Note :
′ ′′ ′′′
u = (x − x2 ), u = 1 − 2x, u = −2, u = 0
− cos nx − sin nx cos nx
v = sin nx, v1 = , v2 = , v3 =
n n2 n3
1
 
− cos nx
 
− sin nx
  cos nx π
= (x − x2 ) − (1 − 2x) + (−2)
π n n2 n3 −π

1
  cos nx  
sin nx
  cos nx π
2
= −(x − x ) + (1 − 2x) −2
π n n2 n3 −π

−(π − π 2 ) cos nπ
    cos nπ   cos nπ o
1 sin nπ n
= + (1 − 2π) −2 − −(−π − π 2 )
π n n2 n3 n

    cos nπ 
sin(−nπ)
+ (1 + 2π) −2
n2 n3

Since sin nπ = 0

1
= [−π cos nπ + π 2 cos nπ − π cos nπ − π 2 cos nπ]
nπ

1
= [−2π cos nπ]
nπ

−2 2
= (−1)n = (−1)n+1 ...........(4)
n n

Step 5 : The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2) , (3) and (4) in (1); we get

∞ ∞
−π 2 X (−1)n+1 X (−1)n+1
f (x) = +4 2
cos nx + 2 sin nx
3 n=1
n n=1
n

44
 Step 6 : Deduction
x = 0 is a point of continuity .
Put x = 0 in (5) we get

∞
−π 2 X (−1)n+1
f (0) = +4
3 n=1
n2

Since f (0) = 0

∞
−π 2 X (−1)n+1
0= +4
3 n=1
n2

∞
" #
X (−1)n+1 π2
4 =
n=1
n2 3

∞
X (−1)n+1 π2
2
=
n=1
n 12

1 1 1 π2
− + .... =
12 22 32 12

Exercise
1 1 π2
1. Obtain the Fourier Series for f (x) = 1 + x + x2 in (−π, π). Deduce that 2
+ 2 + ..... = .
1 2 6
(
−π −π < x < 0 1 1 1 π2
2. Find the Fourier Series for f (x) if f (x) = Deduce that + + +...+∞ = .
x 0<x<π 12 32 52 8

3. Expand f (x) = (π − x)2 in (−π, π) as a Fourier Series .

4. Determine the Fourier Series expansion of x + x2 in the interval (−π, π) and hence deduce the sum of
1 1 1
series 2 + 2 + 2 + ....
1 2 3

45
 PROBLEMS - ODD FUNCTION IN (−π, π)

Example
x(π 2 − x2 ) sin x sin 2x sin 3x
1. Using Fourier series. Prove that for −π < x < π, = 3 − + ....
12 1 23 33
Solution:

x 2
Let f (x) = (π − x2 )
12
x hx i
f (−x) = − (π 2 − x2 ) = (π 2 − x2 ) =⇒ −f (x)
12 12
=⇒ f (x) is odd ,therefore a0 = 0, an = 0
Step 1:
Hence the given functions is an odd function . Therefore its Fourier Series is

∞
X
f (x) = bn sin nx..........(1)
n=1

Step 2 : To find bn
Z π
1
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π −π

π
x(π 2 − x2 )
Z
1
= sin nx dx
π −π 12

Z π
2 1
= x(π 2 − x2 ) sin nx dx
π 12 0

Z π
1
= (π 2 x − x3 ) sin nxdx
6π 0

      π
1 2 3 − cos nx 2 2 − sin nx  cos nx  sin nx
= (π x − x ) − (π − 3x ) + (−6x) − (−6)
6π n n2 n3 n4 0

    π
1 2 3
 cos nx 
2 2 sin nx  cos nx  sin nx
= −(π x − x ) + (π − 3x ) − 6x +6
6π n n2 n3 n4 0

    
1  cos nπ  sin nπ  cos nπ  sin nπ
= −(π 3 − π 3 ) + (π 2 − 3π 2 ) − 6π +6
6π n n2 n3 n4

46
    
cos 0
− −(0 − 0) +0−0+0
n

Since sin nπ = 0
 
1 −6π cos nπ
=
6π n3

− cos nπ
=
n3

−(−1)n
=
n3

(−1)n+1
= ............(2)
n3

Step 3 : The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2) in (1), we get

∞
X (−1)n+1 sin x sin 2x sin 3x
f (x) = 3
sin nx = 3 − +
n=1
n 1 23 33

Exercise
1. If ′ a′ is neither zero nor an integer, find the Fourier Series expansion of period 2π for the function
f (x) = sin ax in −π ≤ x ≤ π

n+1 sin nx
P∞
2. Show that the Fourier Series for f (x) = x, −π < x < π is given by f (x) = 2 n=1 (−1) .
n

47
 PROBLEMS - EVEN FUNCTION IN (−π, π)

Example
1 1
1. Obtain the Fourier Series to represent the function f (x) = |x|, −π < x < π and deduce + + ... =
12 32
π2
.
8
Solution:
Given f (x) = |x| is a even function. Since f (x) = f (−x) = |x| therefore bn = 0
Step 1:
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (−π, π) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx......(1)
2 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z π
1
a0 = f (x)dx
π −π

Z π
1
= |x|dx
π −π

Z π
2
= |x|dx
π 0

Since, In (0, π), |x| = x

Z π
2
= xdx
π 0

 π
2 x2
=
π 2 0

2 π2
 
= −0
π 2

= π.................(2)

Step 3 : To find an

48
 Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π −π

Z π
1
= |x| cos nx dx
π −π

Z π
2
= |x| cos nx dx
π 0

Since, in (0, π), |x| = x

Z π
2
= x cos nxdx
π 0

    π
2 sin nx − cos nx
= x −1
π n n2 0

 π
2 x sin nx cos nx
= +
π n n2 0

   
2 π sin nπ cos nπ 1
= + − 0+ 2
π n n2 n

 
2 cos nπ 1
= − 2
π n2 n

Since, cos nπ = (−1)n

2
= [(−1)n − 1]
n2 π


 0 if ′ n′ is even
an = ...........(3)
 −4 if ′ n′ is odd
n2 π

Step 4 : The required Fourier Series

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1) we get,

49
 ∞
π X −4
f (x) = + cos nx
2 n=1,3,5 n2 π

 
π 4 cos 3x cos 5x
= − cos x + + + .........(4)
2 π 32 52

Step 5 : Deduction
x = 0 is a point of continuity .
The Fourier Series (4) converges to f (0).
Put x = 0 in (4) we get  
π 4 1 1
f (0) = − 1 + 2 + 2 + .....
2 π 3 5

 
π 4 1 1
0= − 1 + 2 + 2 + ....
2 π 3 5

 
π 4 1 1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ....
2 π 3 5

π2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
8 1 3 5

2. Find the Fourier Series to represent the function f (x) = | sin x|, −π < x < π.
Solution :
Given f (x) = | sin x|
f (−x) = | sin(−x)| = | − sin x| = | sin x| = f (x)
f (x) is even and bn = 0
Step 1 :
The Fourier Series of f (x) in (−π, π) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx.......(1)
2 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z π
1
a0 = f (x)dx
π −π

50
 Z π
1
= | sin x|dx
π −π

Z π
2
= | sin x|dx
π 0

Since, in (0, π)| sin x| = sinx

Z π
2
= sin xdx
π 0

2
= [− cos x]π0
π

2
= [− cos π + cos 0]
π

2
= [− cos π + cos 0]
π

Since, cos π = −1, cos 0 = 1

2
= [1 + 1]
π

4
= .......(2)
π

Step 3 : To find an
Z π
1
an = f (x) cos nxdx
π −π

Z π
1
= | sin x| cos nxdx
π −π

Z π
2
= | sin x| cos nxdx
π 0

51
 Z π
2
= sin x cos nxdx
π 0

Z π
2 1
= [sin(n + 1)x − sin(n − 1)x]dx
π 0 2

Using 2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) − sin(A − B)

 π
1 − cos(n + 1)x cos(n − 1)x
= +
π n+1 n−1 0

 
1 − cos(n + 1)π cos(n − 1)π cos 0 cos 0
= + + −
π n+1 n−1 n+1 n−1

 
1 − cos nπ cos π + sin nπ sin π cos nπ cos nπ + sin nπ sin π 1 1
= + + −
π n+1 n−1 n+1 n−1

 
1 − cos nπ cos π cos nπ cos π 1 1
= + + −
π n+1 n−1 n+1 n−1

 
1 cos nπ cos nπ 1 1
= − + −
π n+1 n−1 n+1 n−1

 
1 (n − 1) cos nπ − (n + 1) cos nπ + n − 1 − n − 1
=
π n2 − 1

1
= [−2 cos nπ − 2]
(n2 − 1)π

−2
= [1 + (−1)n ]
(n2 − 1)π


 0 when ′ n′ is odd
an = −4 ...............(3)
 when ′ n′ is even
π(n2 − 1)

Step 4: The required Fourier Series

52
 Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx
2 n=2

∞
2 X −4
= + cos nx
π n=2,4,... π(n2 − 1)

∞
" #
2 4 X cos nx
= − 2−1
π π n=2,4,...
n

 
2 4 cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x
= − + + + .....
π π 3 15 35

Exercise
1. Expand the function f (x) = x sin x as a Fourier Series in the interval (−π, π)

2. Find the Fourier Series for the function f (x) = | cos x| in the interval (−π, π)

x2
3. Find the Fourier Series of the following function which is assumed to have the period f (x) = ,
4
1 1 1 π2
−π < x < π. Hence deduce 1 + + + + ... =
4 9 16 6

53
4 HALF RANGE EXPANSIONS
In many Engineering problems it is required to expand a function f (x) in the range (0, π) in a Fourier
series of period 2π or in the range (0, l) in a Fourier series of period 2l. If it is required to expand f (x) in
the interval (0, l), then it is immaterial what the function may be outside the range 0 < x < l. We are free
to choose it arbitrarily in the interval (−l, 0).
If we extend the function f (x) by reflecting it in the Y axis so that f (−x) = f (x), then the extended
function is even for which bn = 0. The Fourier expansion of f (x) will contain only cosine terms .
If we extend the function f (x) by reflecting it in the origin so that f (−x) = −f (x), then the extended
function is odd for which a0 = an = 0. The Fourier expansion of f (x) will contain only sine terms .
Hence a function f (x) defined over the interval 0 < x < l is capable of two distinct half range series.
(i) Sine Series
(ii) Cosine Series

Example
1. Write the half range cosine series in (0, l)
Solution:
The half-range cosine series in (0, l) is

∞
a0 X nπx
f (x) = + an cos
2 n=1
l

Z l
2
a0 = f (x)dx
l 0

Z l
2 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l 0 l

2. Write the half range sine series in (0, l)

Solution:
The half-range sine series in (0, l) is

∞
X nπx
f (x) = bn sin dx
n=1
l

Z l
2 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l 0 l

54
3. Write the half range cosine series in (0, π)
Solution :
The half-range cosine series in (0, π) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx
2 n=1

Z π
2
a0 = f (x)dx
π 0

Z π
2
an = f (x) cos nx dx
π 0

4. Write the half range sine Series in (0, π)

Solution :
The half-range sine series in (0, π) is

∞
X
f (x) = bn sin nx
n=1

Z π
2
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0

PROBLEMS - FOURIER SINE SERIES IN (0, l)

1. Find the half range sine series of f (x) = 1 − x in (0, 1).

Solution:
Step 1 :
The half range sine series of f (x) in (0, 1) is

∞
X
f (x) = bn sin nπx [here, l = 1].........(1)
n=1

Step 2 : To find bn
Z l
2
bn = f (x) sin nπxdx
l 0

55
 Z 1
=2 (1 − x) sin nπxdx
0

    1
− cos nπx − sin nπx
= 2 (1 − x) − (−1)
nπ n2 π 2 0

  cos nπx   sin nπx 1

2 −(1 − x) −
nπ n2 π 2 0

  cos nπ  sin nπ     
cos 0 sin 0
= 2 −(1 − 1) − 2 2 − −(1 − 0) − 2 2
nπ n π nπ n π

Since sin nπ = 0

2
bn = .............(2)
nπ

Step 3 : The required Sine Series

Substituting (2) in (1) we get ,

∞
X 2
f (x) = sin nπx
n=1
nπ

2. Find the half range sine series of f (x) = x in (0, l)

Solution :
Step 1 :
The Fourier Sine Series of f (x) in (0, l) is

∞
X nπx
f (x) = bn sin ........(1)
n=1
l

Step 2 : To find bn
Z l
2 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l 0 l

Z l
2 nπx
= x sin dx
l 0 l

56
 l
nπx  nπx
  
2 − cos − sin
= x  l  − (1)  l  
l nπ 
n2 π 2

l l2 0

l
nπx  nπx
  
2 cos sin
= −x  nπl  +  2 l2 
 
l n π
l l2 0

      
   
2 cos nπ sin nπ   −0 cos 0 sin 0 
=  −l  nπ  +  2 2  − +
  
l  n π  nπ n2 π 2 

  
 
l l2 l l2

Since, sin nπ = 0
 
2  −l cos nπ 
= nπ
l
l

2l
= (−1)n+1
nπ

Step 3 : The required Fourier Sine Series

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

∞
X 2l nπx
f (x) = (−1)n+1 sin
n=1
nπ l

∞
2l X (−1)n+1 nπx
= sin
π n=1 n l

Exercise
1. Obtain the half range sine series of the function f (x) = kx(x − 1) in 0 ≤ x ≤ l.


l
 x, 0≤x≤

2. Obtain the Sine Series for the function f (x) = 2
l
 l − x,
 ≤x≤l
2

57
 PROBLEMS - FOURIER SINE SERIES IN (0, π)
1 1 1 π3
1. Find the half range sine series for f (x) = x(π − x) in (0, π). Deduce that − + − ... = .
13 33 53 32
Solution :
Step 1 :
The half range sine series of f (x) in (0, π) is

∞
X
f (x) = bn sin nx..........(1)
n=1

Step 2 : To find bn
Z π
2
bn = f (x) sin nx dx
π 0

Z π
2
= x(π − x) sin nx dx
π 0

Z π
2
= (πx − x2 ) sin nx dx
π 0

2
 
− cos nx
 
− sin nx
  cos nx π
= (πx − x2 ) − (π − 2x) + (−2)
π n n2 n3 0

2
  cos nx  
sin nx
  cos nx π
2
= −(πx − x ) + (π − 2x) −2
π n n2 n3 0

    cos nπ     
2  cos nπ  sin nπ cos 0 sin 0 2 cos 0
= −(π 2 − π 2 ) + (π − 2π) − 2 − −(0 − 0) + (π − 0) −
π n n2 n3 n n2 n3

 
2 −2 cos nπ 2
= + 3
π n3 n

4
= [1 − (−1)n ]
n3 π


 0 when ′ n′ is even
bn = 8
 when ′ n′ is odd
n3 π

58
 Step 3 : The required Sine Series
Substituting bn in (1) we get,

∞
8 X 1
f (x) = sin nx
π n=1,3,5 n3

 
8 1 sin 3x sin 5x
= sin x + + + ... ..........(2)
π 13 33 53

Step 4 : Deduction
π
x = is a point of continuity.
2
π
therefore, The Fourier Series converges to f ( )
2
π
Put x = in (2), we get
2
 
π 8 1 π 1 3π 1 5π
f( ) = sin + 3 sin + 3 sin − ...
2 π 13 2 3 2 5 2

 
π π 8 1 1 1
π− = − + − ...
2 2 π 13 33 53

π 3π 5π
Since , sin = 1, sin = −1, sin = 1, ...
2 2 2
π2
 
8 1 1 1
= − 3 + 3 − ...
4 π 13 3 5

π2
 
8 1 1 1
= − + − ...
4 π 13 33 53

π3
 
1 1 1
= 3 − 3 + 3 − ...
32 1 3 5

 π
 kx, 0≤x≤
2. Find the half range sine series of f (x) in (0, π) given that f (x) = π 2
 k(π − x), ≤x≤π
2
Solution:
Step 1:
The half-range sine series of f (x) in (0, π) is

∞
X
f (x) = bn sin nx...........(1)
n=1

59
Step 2 : To find bn
Z π
2
bn = f (x) sin nxdx
π 0

 π 
Z Z π
2
=  2 f (x) sin nxdx + π f (x) sin nxdx
π 0
2

 π 
Z Z π
2 2
= kx sin nxdx + π k(π − x) sin nxdx
π 0
2

 π 
 
       π
2k  − cos nx − sin nx 2 − cos nx − sin nx
=  x − + (π − x) − (−1)

π n n2 n n 2 π
0
2

 π 
 
    π
2k  −x cos nx sin nx 2
 cos nx  sin nx
= + + −(π − x) −

π

n n 2 n n 2 π
0
2

 π nπ nπ 
2k  − cos sin    cos nπ   sin nπ 
= 2 2 + 2 − (0 + 0) + −(π − π) −
π  n n2  n n2

  nπ  nπ 
  π   cos 2  sin 2 
− − π− −
 2 n n2 

 π nπ nπ π nπ nπ 
2k  − cos sin cos sin
= 2 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 
π n n2 n n2

Since, sin nπ = 0

nπ
2k 2 sin 2
=
π n2

4k nπ
= sin ...........(2)
πn2 2

60
 Step 3 : The required Sine Series
Substituting (2) in (1), we get

∞
X 4k nπ
f (x) = 2
sin sin nx
n=1
πn 2

∞
4k X 1 nπ
= sin sin nx
π n=1 n2 2

Exercise
1. Find a half range Sine Series which represents f (x) = sin px for p not an integer on the interval
0 < x < π.

2. Find the half range sine series of f (x) = x cos x in (0, π).

61
 PROBLEMS - FOURIER COSINE SERIES IN (0, l)

1. Find a Cosine Series for f (x) = x in 0 < x < 1.

Solution:
Step 1 :
The Cosine Series of f (x) in (0, 1) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nπx...........(1)
2 n=1

Step 2: To find a0
Z 1
2
a0 = f (x)dx
1 0

Z 1
=2 xdx
0

1
x2

=2
2 0

 
1
=2 = 1...........(2)
2

Step 3 : To find an
Z 1
2
an = f (x) cos nπxdx
1 0

Z 1
2
an = x cos nπxdx
1 0

    1
sin nπx − cos nπx
=2 x − (1)
nπ n2 π 2 0

 1
x sin nπx cos nπx
=2 +
nπ n2 π 2 0

62
    
sin nπ cos nπx cos 0
=2 + − 0+ 2 2
nπ n2 π 2 n π

 
cos nπ 1
=2 0+ 2 2 − 2 2
n π n π

2
= [(−1)n − 1]
n2 π 2


 0 when ′ n′ is even
an = −4 ...........(3)
 when ′ n′ is odd
n2 π 2

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get

∞
1 X −4
f (x) = + cos nπx
2 n=1,3,5 n2 π 2
∞
1 4 X 1
= − 2 cos nπx
2 π n=1,3,5
n2

P∞ 1 π2
2. Express f (x) = x as a half range cosine series in (0, l) and deduce n=1 2
=
(2n − 1) 8
Solution:
Step 1 :
The half range cosine series of f (x) in (0, l) is

∞
a0 X nπx
f (x) = + an cos ...........(1)
2 n=1
l

Step 2 : To find a0
Z l
2
a0 = f (x)dx
l 0

Z l
2
= xdx
l 0

l
x2

2
=
l 2 0

63
 2 l2
 
= −0
l 2

= l..................(2)

Step 3 : To find an
Z l
2 nπx
an = f (x) cos dx
l 0 l

Z l
2 nπx
= x cos dx
l 0 l

l
nπx  nπx
  
2 sin − cos
= x  nπl  −  l 
 
l n2 π 2

l l2 0

l
nπx  nπx
  
2 sin cos
= x  nπl  +  2 l2 
 
l n π
l l2 0

   
   
2  l sin nπ cos nπ
   cos 0 
=  nπ + − 0 +
l  n2 π 2  n2 π 2 

    
l l2 l2

2 l2
= . [cos nπ − 1]
l n2 π 2

2l
= [(−1)n − 1]
n2 π 2


 0 when ′ n′ is even
an = ........(3)
 −4l when ′ n′ is odd
n2 π 2

Step 4: The required Fourier Cosine Series

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1) we get

64
 ∞
l X 4l nπx
f (x) = + − cos
2 n=1,3,5 n2 π 2 l

∞
l 4l X 1 (2n − 1)πx
= − 2 cos ...........(4)
2 π n=1 (2n − 1)2 l

Step 5: Deduction
Here x = 0 is a point of discontinuity which is an end point of the given interval 0 < x < l .
f (0 + 0) + f (0 − 0)
sum of Fourier Series at x = 0 =
2
Put x = 0 in (4), we get,

∞
f (0 + 0) + f (0 − 0) l 4l X 1
= − 2
2 2 π n=1 (2n − 1)2

Since, f (x) = x, f (0 + 0) = 0, f (0 − 0) = 0

∞
l 4l X 1
0= − 2
2 π n=1 (2n − 1)2

∞
4l X 1 l
=
π 2 n=1 (2n − 1)2 2

∞
X 1 π2
=
n=1
(2n − 1)2 8

Exercise
1. Expand f (x) = x(l − x) over the interval (0, l) as a Fourier cosine series of period ’ l ’ .


1
 kx, 0≤x≤

2. Obtain a half-range cosine series of the function f (x) = 2
1
 k(l − x),
 ≤x≤l
2

65
 PROBLEMS - FOURIER COSINE SERIES IN (0, π)
 π
 x, in 0 ≤ x <
1. Find a cosine series for the function f (x) = 2
 π − x, in π ≤ x < π
2
Solution:
Step 1:
The Cosine Series of f (x) in (0, π) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx...........(1)
2 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z π
2
a0 = f (x)dx
π 0

 π 
Z Z π
2
=  2 f (x)dx + π f (x)dx
π 0
2

 π 
Z Z π
2
=  2 xdx + π (π − x)dx
π 0
2

 π 
2 π
 2  
2 x 2 x
=  + πx −

π 2 0 2 π

2

2 π2 π π π2
 
= + − +
π 8 2 2 8

2 2π 2
 
=
π 8

π
= ...........(2)
2

Step 3 : To find an
Z π
2
an = f (x) cos nxdx
π 0

66
  π 
Z Z π
2 2
= f (x) cos nxdx + π f (x) cos nxdx
π 0
2

 π 
Z Z π
2 2
= x cos nxdx + π (π − x) cos nxdx
π 0
2

 π 
 
       π
2 sin nx − cos nx 2 sin nx − cos nx
=  x −1 + (π − x) − (−1)

π n n2 n n 2 π
0
2

π 
 
       π
2 sin nx cos nx 
2 sin nx cos nx 
=  x + + (π − x) −

π n n2 n n 2 π
0
2

  nπ  nπ  
2  π  sin 2  cos 2 

cos 0
= + − 0+ 2 +
π 2 n n2  n

  nπ  nπ 
 
sin nπ

cos nπ
  π sin cos 
(π − π) − − π−  2 − 2 
n n2  2 n n2 

π nπ nπ π nπ nπ 
2  2 . sin 2 cos
2 − 1 cos nπ . sin cos
= + − − 2 2 + 2 
π n n2 n2 n2 n n2

 nπ 
2  2 cos 2 1 cos nπ 
= − 2−
π n2 n n2

2 h nπ n
i
= 2 cos − 1 − (−1)
n2 π 2

When n is odd, an = 0, that is a1 = a3 = a5 = ...0................(3)

When n is even

2
a2 = [2 cos π − 1 − 1]
22 π

67
 2
=− ................(4)
π.12

2
a4 = [2 cos 2π − 1 − 1]
42 π

therefore, cos 2π = 1

= 0..................(5)

2
a6 = [2 cos 3π − 1 − 1]
62 π

2
= [−2 − 1 − 1]
62 π

−2(4) −2.4
= =
(2.3)2 π 4.32 .π

−2
= ...................(6)
π.32

and so on .
Substituting (2), (3), (4), (5) and (6) in (1) we get
 
π 2 cos 2x cos 6x cos 10x
f (x) = − + + + .......
4 π 12 32 52

2. Using an appropriate
 Fourier expansion show that in the range
 (0, π) , the function sin x can be ex-
4 1 cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x cos 2nx
pressed as − − − − ... − 2
π 2 3 15 35 4n − 1
Solution:
Step 1:
The half range cosine series of f (x) in (0, π) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx...........(1)
2 n=1

68
Step 2: To find a0

2 π
Z
a0 = f (x)dx
π 0
2 π
Z
= sin xdx
π 0
2
= [− cos x]π0
π
2
= [− cos π + cos 0]
π
therefore, cos nπ = −1

2 4
= [−(−1) + 1] = ................(2)
π π

Step 3 : To find an

2 π
Z
an = f (x) cos nxdx
π 0
2 π
Z
= sin x cos nxdx
π 0
2 1 π
Z
= . [sin(1 + n)x + sin(1 − n)x]dx
π 2 0

 π
1 − cos(1 + n)x cos(1 − n)x
= +
π 1+n 1−n 0

 
1 − cos(1 + n)x cos(1 − n)x 1 1
=− + − −
π 1+n 1−n 1+n 1−n

When n is odd,
then cos(1 + n)π = 1 = cos(1 − n)π
 
1 1 1 1 1
an = − + − − = 0....................(3)
π 1+n 1−n 1+n 1−n

When n is even, (1 + n) and (1 − n) is odd

 
1 1 1 1 1
an = − − − − −
π 1+n 1−n 1+n 1−n

Since, cos(1 + n)π = −1; cos(1 − n)π = −1, when ′ n′ is even

69
  
1 2 2
= +
π 1+n 1−n

 
2 1−n+1+n
=
π 1 − n2

 
4 1
= ..........(4)
π 1 − n2

Step 4 : The required Fourier Cosine Series

Substituting (2), (3), and (4) in (1), we get

∞
2 X 4
f (x) = + cos nx
π n=2,4,6 π(1 − n2 )

∞
2 4 X 1
= − 2
cos nx
π π n=2,4,6 n − 1

∞
" #
4 1 X 1
= − cos 2nx
π 2 n=1 (2n)2 − 1

 
4 1 cos 2x cos 4x cos 6x cos 2nx
= − − − − ... − 2
π 2 3 15 35 4n − 1

Exercise

 cos x π
in 0 < x <
1. Obtain Cosine Series for f (x) = π 2
 0 in < x < π
2
(
0 0<x<1
2. Obtain Cosine Series of the function f (x) =
1 1<x<2

70
5 COMPLEX FORM OF FOURIER SERIES
The Fourier Series of f (x) in the interval (c, c + 2l) is

∞ ∞
a0 X nπx X nπx
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin .............(1)
2 n=1
l n=1
l

We know that

inπx −inπx
nπx e l +e l
cos =
l 2

inπx −inπx
nπx e l −e l
sin = .............(2)
l 2i

Using (2) in (1)

 inπx −inπx   inπx −inπx 
∞ ∞
a0 X e l + e l  X e l − e l 
f (x) = + an  + bn  
2 n=1
 2 
n=1
 2i 

1
Since, = −i
i
 inπx −inπx   inπx −inπx 
∞ ∞
a0 X  e l +e l  X  −ie l + ie l 
= + an  + bn  
2 n=1
 2 
n=1
 2 

∞   inπx X ∞   inπx
a0 X an − ibn an + ibn −
= + e l + e l .................(3)
2 n=1
2 n=1
2

a0 an − ibn an + ibn
Put c0 = , cn = , c−n =
2 2 2
∞ inπx ∞ −inπx
X X
f (x) = c0 + cn e l + c−n e l
n=1 n=1

∞ inπx −1 inπx
X X
= c0 + cn e l + cn e l
n=1 n=−∞

71
 ∞ inπx
X
f (x) = cn e l .............(4)
n=−∞

Equation (4) is called the complex form or exponential form of the Fourier Series of f (x) in (c, c + 2l) .

1
cn = (an − ibn )
2

" Z #
1 1 c+2l i c+2l
Z
nπx nπx
= f (x) cos dx − f (x) sin dx (U sing Euler′ s F ormula)
2 l c l l c l

Z c+2l
1 h nπx nπx i
= f (x) cos − i sin dx
2l c l l

Z c+2l
−inπx
1
= f (x)e l dx
2l c

Z c+2l
−inπx
1
cn = f (x)e l dx...................(5)
2l c

Note:

Interval Complex Fourier Series cn

inπx −inπx
P∞ 1 Rl
(−l, l) f (x) = n=−∞ cn e
l f (x)e l dx
2l −l

inπx −inπx
P∞ 1 R 2l
(0, 2l) f (x) = n=−∞ cn e
l f (x)e l dx
2l 0

P∞ 1 Rπ
(−π, π) f (x) = n=−∞ cn e
inx
f (x)e−inx dx
2π −π

P∞ 1 R 2π
(0, 2π) f (x) = n=−∞ cn e
inx
f (x)e−inx dx
2π 0

72
Example
1. Find the complex form of the Fourier Series f (x) = cos ax in −π < x < π
Solution:

Interval Complex Fourier Series cn

P∞ 1 Rπ
(−π, π) f (x) = n=−∞ cn e
inx
......(1) f (x)e−inx dx
2π −π
Z π
1
cn = f (x)e−inx dx
2π −π

Z π
1
= cos ax e−inx dx
2π −π

Z π
1
= e−inx cos axdx
2π −π

π
e−inx

1
= (−in cos ax + a sin ax)
2π (−in)2 + a2 −π

eax
eax cos bxdx =
R
Using (a cos bx + b sin bx)
a2+ b2
 −inπ
einπ

1 e
= (−in cos aπ + a sin aπ) − 2 (−in cos aπ − a sin aπ)
2π a2 − n2 a − n2

1
= [−in cos aπ(e−inπ − einπ ) + a sin aπ(einπ + e−inπ )]
2π(a2 − n2 )

1
= [2in cos aπ sin nπ + 2a sin aπ cos nπ]
2π(a2 − n2 )

Since sin nπ = 0

1
= [2a sin aπ cos nπ]
2π(a2 − n2 )

(−1)n .a sin aπ
= .................(2)
π(a2 − n2 )

73
 Substituting (2) in (1) we get,

∞
X (−1)n .a sin aπ inx
f (x) = e
n=−∞
π(a2 − n2 )

∞
a sin aπ X (−1)n einx
=
π −∞
a2 − n2

2. Find the Complex form of the Fourier Series of f (x) = e−x in −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Solution:

Interval Complex Fourier Series cn

inπx −inπx
P∞ 1 Rl
(−l, l) f (x) = n=−∞ cn e
l ......(1) f (x)e l dx
2l −l

Z l
−inπx
1
cn = f (x).e l dx
2l −l

Z 1
1
= e−x .e−inπx dx
2 −1

Z 1
1
= e−(1+inπ)x dx
2 −1

1
1 e−(1+inπ)x

=
2 −(1 + inπ) −1

1
= [e−(1+inπ) − e1+inπ ]
−2(1 + inπ)

−1
= [e−1 .einπ − e1 .einπ ]
2(1 + inπ)

−1
= [e−1 (cos nπ − i sin nπ) − e1 (cos nπ + i sin nπ)]
2(1 + inπ)

74
 cos nπ
=− [e−1 − e1 ]
2(1 + inπ)

(−1)n
= [e1 − e−1 ]
2(1 + inπ)

(−1)n
= 2 sin hl
2(1 + inπ)

(−1)n sin h1
= ...........(2)
1 + inπ

Substituting (2) in (1) we get,

∞
X (−1)n sin h1 inπx
f (x) = e
n=−∞
1 + inπ

∞
X sin h1 inπx
= (−1)n e
n=−∞
1 + inπ

∞
X (−1)n inπx
= sin h1 e
n=−∞
1 + inπ

Exercise
1. Find the complex for the Fourier Series of f (x) = eax in (−l, l)

2. Find the complex for the Fourier Series of the periodic function f (x) = sin kx in −π < x < π

3. Find the complex form of the Fourier Series of the function f (x) = ek+x when −π < x < π

75
6 PARSEVALS IDENTITY
STATEMENT :
If the Fourier Series corresponding to f (x) converges uniformly to f (x) in (−l, l), then

l ∞
a20 X 2
Z
1
[f (x)]2 dx = + (an + b2n )
l −l 2 n=1

(or)
l ∞
a20
Z
1 1X 2
[f (x)]2 dx = + (a + b2n )
2l −l 4 2 n=1 n

PROOF :
We know that the Fourier Series corresponding to f (x) in (−l, l) is

∞
a0 X  nπx nπx 
f (x) = + an cos + bn sin .............(1)
2 n=1
l l

Where,
Z l Z l
1
a0 = f (x)dx =⇒ a0 l = f (x)dx............(2)
l −l −l

Z l Z l
1 nπx nπx
an = f (x) cos dx =⇒ an l = f (x) cos dx............(3)
l −l l −l l

Z l Z l
1 nπx nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx =⇒ bn l = f (x) sin dx..............(4)
l −l l −l l

Now multiplying both sides of (1) by f (x) and integrating term by term from −l to l, we get

∞
" #
Z l Z l Z l Z l
2 a0 X nπx nπx
[f (x)] dx = f (x)dx + an f (x) cos dx + bn f (x) sin dx .................(5)
−l 2 −l n=1 −l l −l l

Substituting (2),(3),(4) in (5) we get

Z l ∞
a0 X
[f (x)]2 dx = .a0 l + [an .an l + bn .bn l]
−l 2 n=1

∞
( )
a20 X 2
=l + (an + b2n )
2 n=1

76
 l ∞
a20 X 2
Z
1
[f (x)]2 dx = + (an + b2n )
l −l 2 n=1

(or)

l ∞
a20
Z
1 1X 2
[f (x)]2 dx = + (a + b2n )
2l −l 4 2 n=1 n

6.1 PARSEVAL’S IDENTITY ( HALF- RANGE)

Interval Cosine Series Sine Series

2 Rl a2 P∞ 2 Rl P∞
(0, l) 0
[f (x)]2 dx = 0 + n=1 a2n [f (x)]2 dx = n=1 b2n
l 2 l 0

2 Rπ a2 P∞ 2 Rπ P∞
(0, π) 0
[f (x)]2 dx = 0 + n=1 a2n [f (x)]2 dx = n=1 b2n
π 2 π 0

Example
1 1 π4
1. Obtain the half range cosine series for f (x) = x in (0, π) and hence prove that 1 + + + ... = .
34 54 96
Solution:
Step 1 :
The half-range cosine series of f (x) in (0, π) is

∞
a0 X
f (x) = + an cos nx...........(1)
2 n=1

Step 2 : To find a0
Z π
2
a0 = f (x)dx
π 0

Z π
2
= xdx
π 0

77
 π
x2

2
=
π 2 0

2 π2
 
= = π............(2)
π 2

Step 3 : To find an
Z π
2
an = f (x) cos nxdx
π 0

Z π
2
= x cos nxdx
π 0

    π
2 sin nx − cos nx
= x −
π n n2 0

 π
2 x sin nx cos nx
= +
π n n2 0

   
2 π sin nπ cos nπ cos 0
= + − 0+ 2
π n n2 n

 
2 cos nπ 1
= − 2
π n2 n

2
= [(−1)n − 1]
n2 π


 0 when ′ n′ is even
an = ................(3)
 −4 when ′ n′ is odd
n2 π

Step 4 : The required Fourier Cosine Series

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1) we get

78
 ∞
π X −4
f (x) = + cos nx
2 n=1,3,5 n2 π

The Parseval’s identity for Fourier cosine Series in (0, π) is

π
a20 X 2
Z
2
[f (x)]2 dx = + an
π 0 2

−4 ′ ′
Here, a0 = π, an = n is odd
n2 π
π
a20 X 2
Z
2
(x)2 dx = + an
π 0 2

π ∞
π 2 X 16
Z
2
x2 dx = +
π 0 2 n=1
n4 π 2

π
x3 π2
  
2 16 1 1 1
= + 2 4 + 4 + 4 + ...
π 3 0 2 π 1 3 5

2 π3 π2
   
16 1 1 1
−0 − = 2 4 + 4 + 4 + ...
π 3 2 π 1 3 5

2 2 π2
 
16 1 1 1
π − = 2 4 + 4 + 4 + ...
3 2 π 1 3 5

4π 2 − 3π 2
 
16 1 1 1
= 2 4 + 4 + 4 + ...
6 π 1 3 5

π2
 
16 1 1 1
= 2 4 + 4 + 4 + ...
6 π 1 3 5

π4
 
1 1 1
= 4 + 4 + 4 + ...
96 1 3 5

79
  
2l πx 1 2πx 1 3πx 1 1
2. Show that for 0 < x < l, x = sin − sin + sin ... , deduce the value of 2
+ 2+
p l 2 l 3 l 1 2
1
+ .....
32
Solution:
The Sine Series of f (x) in (0, l) is given by

∞
X nπx
f (x) = bn sin .........(1)
n=1
l

Z l
2 nπx
bn = f (x) sin dx
l 0 l

Z l
2 nπx
= x sin dx
l 0 l

l
nπx  nπx
  
2 − cos − sin
= x  l  − (1)  l  
l nπ 
n2 π 2

l l2 0

nπx nπx l
 
2 −x cos sin
=  l + l 
l nπ n2 π 2

l l2 0

   
   
2  −l cos nπ sin nπ
   sin 0 
=  nπ + 2 2 − 0+ 2 2 
l  n π    n π  
l l 2 l2

−2l cos nπ
=
nπ

2l
= (−1)n+1 ...............(2)
nπ

Substituting (2) in (1) we get

∞
2l X (−1)n+1 nπx
f (x) = sin
π n=1 n l

80
  
2l πx 1 2πx
x= sin − sin + ...
π l 2 l

Parseval’s identity for sine Series in (0, l) is

Z l ∞
2 X
[f (x)]2 dx = b2n
l 0 n=1

2l
Here bn = (−1)n+1
nπ
l ∞
4l2
Z
2 X
x2 dx = 2 π2
(−1)2n+2
l 0 n=1
n

l
x3 4l2 1
  
2 1 1
= + + + ...
l 3 0 π 2 12 22 32

Since (−1)2n+2 = 1 whether ′ n′ is odd or even

2l3 4l2 1
 
1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3l π 12 2 3

π2 1 1 1
= 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6 1 2 3

Exercise
P∞ 1 π4
1. Find the Fourier cosine Series for x(π − x) in 0 < x < π and show that n=1 =
n4 90

1 1 1 π4
2. Find the Fourier Series for f (x) = x2 in −π < x < π. Hence show that 4
+ 4 + 4 + .... =
1 2 3 90

3. Expand f (x) = x − x2 as a Fourier Series in −L < x < L and using this series find the root mean
square value of f (x) in the interval

81
7 HARMONIC ANALYSIS
The process of finding the Fourier Series for a function given by numerical values is known as
harmonic analysis. In harmonic analysis the Fourier coefficients a0 , an and bn of the function y = f (x) in
(0, 2π) are given by

a0 = 2 [ mean value of y in (0, 2π) ]

an = 2 [ mean value of y cos nx in (0, 2π) ]
bn = 2 [ mean value of y sin nx in (0, 2π) ]

Note :
(i) The term (a1 cos x + b1 sin x) is called the fundamental or first harmonic , the term (a2 cos 2x + b2 sin 2x)
is called the second harmonic and so on.
(ii) The number of ordinates used should not be less than twice the number of highest harmonic to be found.

1. What are the Fourier Constants a0 , an and bn when f (x) is defined in (0, 2l) in harmonic analysis ?
Solution :

a0 = 2 [ mean value of y in (0, 2l) ]

nπx
an = 2 [ mean value of y cos in (0, 2l) ]
l
nπx
bn = 2 [ mean value of y sin in (0, 2l)]
l

2. What is the value of bn when f (x) is expanded in half range sine series in (0, l) and (0, π) ?
Solution:

nπx
In (0, l) , bn = 2 [Mean value of y sin in (0, l) ]
l
In (0, π) , bn = 2 [Mean value of y sin nx in (0, π) ]

3. In harmonic analysis what is a0 , an when f (x) is expanded in half range cosine series in (0, l) and (0, π)
?
Solution:

In (0, l) , a0 = 2 [Mean value of y in (0, l)]

nπx
an = 2 [ Mean value of y cos in (0, l) ]
l
In (0, π) , a0 = 2 [ Mean value of y in (0, π) ]
an = 2 [ Mean value of y cos nx in (0, π) ]

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 TYPE I - GIVEN DATA ARE IN π - FORM

Example
1. Find the Fourier Series expansion of period 2π for the function y = f (x) which is defined in (0, 2π) by
means of the table of values given below. Find the series upto the third harmonic.

π 2π 4π 5π
x 0 π 2π
3 3 3 3
y 1.0 1.4 1.9 1.7 1.5 1.2 1.0

Solution:

Since the last value of y is a repetition of the first, only the first six values will be used.
The values of y cos x, y cos 2x, y cos 3x, y sin x, y sin 2x, y sin 3x are tabulated in the below table.
We know that the Fourier Series is given by

a0
y= + a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x.......(1)
2

where the Fourier coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 are to be determined from the following table.
x y cos x sin x cos 2x sin 2x cos 3x sin 3x
0 1.0 1 0 1 0 1 0

π
1.4 0.5 0.866 - 0. 5 0.866 -1 0
3

2π
1.9 -0.5 0.866 -0.5 -0.866 1 0
3

π 1.7 -1 0 1 0 -1 0

4π
1.5 -0.5 -0.866 -0.5 0.866 1 0
3

5π
1.2 0.5 -0.866 -0.5 -0.866 -1 0
3 P
y =8.7

83
 y cos x y sin x y cos 2x y sin 2x y cos 3x y sin 3x
1 0 1 0 1 0

0.7 1.212 -0.7 1.212 -1.4 0

-0.95 1.65 -0.95 -1.645 1.9 0

-1.7 0 1.7 0 -1.7 0

-0.75 -1.299 -0.75 1.299 1.5 0

0.6 -1.039 -0.6 -1.039 -1.2 0

P P P P P P
y cos x = -1.1 y sin x= 0.524 y cos 2x= -0.3 ysin2x= -0.173 y cos 3x= 0.1 y sin 3x =0

Using the values in the above table, we get

a0 = P
2 [ Mean
 value of y in (0, 2π)]
y 2
=2 = (8.7) = 2.9 [Here n = 6 ]
n 6

a1 = 2 [ Mean value of y cos x in (0, 2π)]

P 
y cos x
=2 = −0.37
6

a2 = 2 [ Mean value of y cos 2x in (0, 2π)]

P 
y cos 2x 2
=2 = × −0.3 = −0.1
n 6

a3 = 2 [ Mean value of y cos 3x in (0, 2π)]

P 
y cos 3x 2
=2 = × 0.1 = 0.03
n 6

b1 = 2 [ Mean value of y sin x in (0, 2π)]

P 
y sin x 2
=2 = × 0.524 = 0.17
n 6

b2 = 2 [ Mean value of y sin 2x in (0, 2π)]

P 
y sin 2x 2
=2 = × −0.173 = −0.06
n 6

b3 = 2 [ Mean value of y sin 3x in (0, 2π)]

84
 P 
y sin 3x
=2 =0
6

Substituting these values of a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 and b1 , b2 , b3 in (1) we get

a0
y= + (a1 cos x + b1 sin x) + (a2 cos 2x + b2 sin 2x) + (a3 cos 3x + b3 sin 3x)
2

= 1.45 + (−0.37 cos x + 0.17 sin x) − (0.1 cos 2x + 0.06 sin 2x) + 0.03 cos 3x

TYPE 2 - GIVEN DATA ARE IN ’ T ’ - FORM

1. The following table gives the variations of a periodic function over a period ’ T ’

T T T 2T 5T
x 0 T
6 3 2 3 6
f (x) 1.98 1.3 1.05 1.3 -0.88 -0.25 1.98

2πx
Show that f (x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos θ + 1.004 sin θ, Where θ =
T
Solution:
Here the value is a mere preparation of the first therefore we omit that value and consider
the remaining 6 values therefore, n = 6.
Given
2πx
θ= ...............(1)
T

T T T 2T 5T
When ’ x ’ takes the values of 0, , , , , ,
6 3 2 3 6
π 2π 4π 5π
θ takes the values 0, , , π, , ( By Using (1))
3 3 3 3
Let the Fourier Series be of the form

a0
f (x) = + a1 cos θ + b1 sin θ.............(2)
2

Where P 
y
a0 = 2
n

P 
y cos θ
a1 = 2
n

85
 P 
y sin θ
b1 = 2 ,n = 6
n

θ y cos θ sin θ y cos θ y sin θ

0 1.98 1.0 0 1.98 0

π
1.30 0.500 0.866 0.65 1.1258
3

2π
1.05 -0.500 0.866 -0.525 0.9093
3
π 1.30 -1 0 -1.3 0

4π
-0.88 -0.500 -0.866 0.44 0.762
3

5π
-0.25 0.500 -0.866 -0.125 0.2165
3
4.5 1.12 3.013

P
2 y
a0 = = 1.5
6

2X
a1 = y cos θ = 0.37
6

2X
b1 = y sin θ = 1.004
6

Substituting these values of a0 , a1 , and b1 in (2), we get

f (x) = 0.75 + 0.37 cos θ + 1.004 sin θ

86
 TYPE 3 - GIVEN DATA ARE IN ’ DEGREE ’ - F0RM

Example
1. Compute the first two harmonics of the Fourier Sine Series for f (x) from the following data

x 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

f (x) 0 5224 8097 7850 5499 2626 0

Solution:
Here the length of the interval is π therefore we can express the given data in a half range
Fourier Sine Series

f (x) = b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x

x y sin x sin 2x y sin x y sin 2x

0 0 0 0 0 0
30 5224 0.5 0.87 2612.00 4544.88
60 8097 0.87 0.87 7044.39 7044.39
90 7850 1 0 7850.00 0
120 5499 0.87 -0.87 4784.13 -4784.13
150 2626 0.5 -0.87 1313 -2284.62
P P
y sin x = 23603.52 y sin 2x = 4520.52

Now, P   
y sin x 23603.52
b‘1 = 2 =2 = 7867.84
6 6

P   
y sin 2x 4520.52
b2 = 2 =2 = 1506.84
6 6

f (x) = 7867.84 sin x + 1506.84 sin 2x

87
 TYPE 4 - GIVEN DATA ARE IN ’ l ’ - FORM

1. Find the Fourier Series as far as the second harmonic to represent the function given in the following
data.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (x) 9 18 24 28 26 20

Solution:
Here the length of the interval is 6 (not 2π)
i.e., 2l = 6 (or) l = 3
The Fourier Series is

a0 πx 2πx πx 2πx
f (x) = + a1 cos + a2 cos + b1 sin + b2 sin ................(1)
2 3 3 3 3

πx 2πx πx πx 2πx 2πx

x y y cos y sin y cos y sin
3 3 3 3 3 3
0 0 0 9 9 0 9 0

π 2π
1 18 9 15.7 -9 15.6
3 3

2π 4π
2 24 -12 20.9 -12 -20.9
3 3

3 π 2π 28 -28 0 28 0

4π 8π
4 26 -13 -22.6 -13 22.6
3 3

5π 10π
5 20 10 -17.4 -10 -17.4
3 3
125 -25 -3.4 -7 -0.1
Now P 
y 2(125)
a0 = 2 = = 41.66
6 6

P πx 
y cos
a1 = 2  3  = −8.33
6

P πx 
y sin
b1 = 2  3  = −1.13
6

88
 P πx 
y cos
a2 = 2  3  = −2.33
6

P πx 
y sin
b2 = 2  3  = −0.03
6

Substituting these values of a0 , a1 , b1 , a2 and b2 in (1) we get ,

41.66 πx 2πx πx 2πx

f (x) = − 8.33 cos − 2.33 cos − 1.13 sin − 0.03 sin
2 3 3 3 3

πx 2πx πx 2πx
= 20.83 − 8.33 cos − 2.33 cos − 1.13 sin − 0.03 sin
3 3 3 3

Exercise
1. Obtain the constant term and the first harmonic in the Fourier Series expansion for f (x) where f (x)
is given in the following table

x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f (x) 18. 0 18.7 17.6 15.0 11.6 8.3 6.0 5.3 6.4 9.0 12.4 15.7

2. Using the 6 ordinate scheme, analyze harmonically the data to 2 harmonics

π 2π 4π 5π
x 0 π 2π
3 3 3 3
y 10 12 15 20 17 11 10

89