UNIT-I

BUILDING MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

A stone is a piece of rock. It is a mass of hard, compacted mineral. The word is often used to
mean a small piece of rock.
The word "stone" also refers to natural rock as a material, especially a building material.
Natural stones used as building material include granite, marble and sandstone.
Manufactured, artificial products, such as concrete or clay bricks, are not stone.
 Stone was one of the first materials used to make tools and buildings. It is a very
sturdy material. It is less affected by weather than wood or brick.

Three Main Rock Types

The so-called “rock cycle” gives birth to 3 main types of stone: igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary. Each of these types of stone undergo specific processes that involve different
physical changes such as eroding, melting, cooling, compacting or deforming. Let’s now see
each of these types of stone in detail.

Igneous rocks
The word “igneous” comes from latin “ignis” which means fire. As a matter of fact, the
formation of this type of stone involves the action of very high temperature and heat. In
particular, these rocks are the result of the cooling of the magma (which is nothing more than
molten rock). This phenomenon can take place either on the Earth’s surface (extrusive
igneous rocks) or beneath the surface (in this case we talk about intrusive igneous rocks).

Metamorphic rocks
This category has to do with a process of changing. The term “metamorphic” in this case
comes from Greek and can be translated as “the after form”. In geology, a metamorphic rock
is a rock that has gone through changes in texture and composition due to actions such as
pressure, high heat or chemical processes.
Sedimentary rocks
As the word itself suggests, “sedimentary rocks” originate from sediments: silt, sand and
organic matter (such as calcareous skeletons of organisms) just to name a few. With time,
these elements are compressed and cemented together to form solid rock. sandstone,
limestone and coal are typical examples of sedimentary rocks.

Dressing of stone
Dressing of stone. A process of providing a proper shape, size and smooth finish to the
rough-surfaced broken stone which is collected from a quarry. The stone found in nature
has to be quarried from its thick beds. The stone found in nature has to be quarried from its
thick beds. After excavating large pieces of rock, it is necessary to break them into smaller
sizes so that they can be used in buildings. This process is done by either hand tools or
machinery.
There are many types of tools uses for the dressing of stones such as pitching tools, mason’s
hammer, club hammer, scabbling hammer, spacing hammer, drafting chisel, point chisel,
punch chisel, claw chisel, soft stone chisels scabbling pick, puncheon, and ax.

BRICKS

A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements
in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a unit primarily composed of clay,
but is now also used informally to denote units made of other materials or other chemically
cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking.[1]
[2]
Bricks are usually produced at brickworks in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes
which vary with region, and are produced in bulk quantities.

Types of Bricks
 Sun-dried bricks. Also known as unburnt bricks, these types of bricks are mostly used
for decorative purposes because they are the weakest. ...
 Burnt bricks. These bricks are divided into four categories

These bricks are divided into four categories:

 First-class bricks: These are the best quality bricks because they are made through
table molding before they are put in a kiln. They are also strong and, therefore, more
durable than all the other types.
  Second-class bricks: These are ground-molded and, as such, don’t have the perfect
shape or texture. They are also burnt in kilns, making them the second-strongest type
of bricks.

 Third-class bricks: These are like unburnt bricks and should only be used in
temporary structures. Their weakness also means they can be damaged easily by
water. They are ground-molded and burnt in clamps instead of kilns.

 Fourth-class bricks: These are of low quality and are, therefore, not suitable for use
in any construction. They are crushed and mixed with concrete before they are used.

 Concrete bricks. ...

 Lime bricks. ...
 Engineering bricks. ...
 Fly ash bricks.

Qualities of Good Bricks

1. The bricks should be table-Moulded, well burnt in kilns, copper-coloured, free from
cracks and with sharp and square edges. The colour should be uniform and bright.
2. The bricks should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.
3. The bricks should give a clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
4. The bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform
compact structure free from voids.
5. The brick should not absorbs water more than 20% by weight, for first class bricks
and 22% by weight for second class bricks, when soaked in water for a period of 24
hours.
6. The bricks should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface,
when it is scratched with finger nail.
7. The bricks should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a
height of about one meter.
8. The bricks should have low thermal conductivity and they should be sound proof.
9. The bricks, when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salt
when allowed to dry in shade.
 10. No bricks should have the crushing strength below 5.50 N/mm2.
Timber

Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also
known as “lumber” in US and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or
firewood of growing trees. Any wood capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size
can be termed as a timber or lumber. It is a stage in the process of wood production.
Timbers are used for the structural purpose. Those woods which are adapted for building
purposes are timbers. Finished timber is supplied in standard sizes for the industry.
Timber is used for building houses and making furniture.

Bamboo

Bamboo is a natural organic material. It is one of the most unique plants on earth. Bamboo is
grown in abundance in many parts of the world, especially in tropical and subtropical regions.
Most timber producing bamboos are from South Asia. The color of bamboo timber is pale
yellow to almost gold. It is an industrial material also identified as the most promising
building material. Bamboo timber is an alternative to tropical hardwoods in recent years. It is
available in many forms.

Advantages

Versatility and Durability

As briefly mentioned above, timber is one of the most versatile materials used within the
construction industry. This material can be bent into its required shape, connected to another
material and much more. Many types of timber are capable of withstanding harsh weather
conditions and are resistant.

Cost

The cost will, of course, depend on the scale of the project, but timber can be cheaper than a
steel-framed building or masonry building, partially due to its speed of construction. If large
open plan spaces are required, however, steel framing will likely be required to ensure
structural stability.

Insulation

Timber can be great for insulation on buildings, whether that is sound or heat. Timber tends
to perform a lot better than steel or brick when used in external cladding to help keep the heat
in, and this can be extremely beneficial for those looking to create a structure which is more
efficient and environmentally friendly.
It is also important to know that timber is a renewable resource making it incredibly eco-
friendly.

Disadvantages

Shrinkage and Swelling

Timber is a natural material and may shrink or swell as it has the ability to absorb water.
Timber should always be suitably treated depending on its use and exposure, and if left
exposed to water rot can lead to loss of quality.

Condensation

Condensation is a problem which can occur in any type of structure but having to deal with it
can be extremely difficult. Condensation occurs when warm air from the inside touches a
cold wall which has not been insulated well. If this happens to a structure which has a timber
frame, it can rot the skeleton of the building.

Fire

If by any chance a fire breaks out, a timber-framed house will not be able to withstand the
heat and flames in the same way a brick or steel structure would. Although a timber-framed
house can be treated with fire retardants, this tends to slow down the surface spread of flames
as well as reducing the production of smoke.

Choosing the right material completely depends on your given project, but each building
material has its own advantages and disadvantages, there are many different materials to
choose from.

However, timber will always be widely used throughout the construction industry, as one of
its biggest advantages is that it is a natural resource, making it readily available and very
economically.

It is important to remember that no construction material is perfect, and that is why a number
of different ones are often used for each project. Aluminium is expensive, steel is one of the
most popular materials but has a relatively poor strength to weight ratio, rusts in an untreated
state and can sometimes be prone to brittle fractures.

Defect of timber

Defects in Timber | Defect Types & Causes

Faisal Ahmed

Timber is a natural product and every natural product has some imperfections. Timbers are
not excluded from that. Most of the defects in
timber cause weakness or others sorts of difficulties. However some defects can be
beneficial for a specific type of work, for example, twisted wood is good for making a bowl
out of timber.

The followings are the five main types of defects in timber:

1. Defects due to Natural Forces

2. Defects due to Attack by Insects
3. Defects due to Fungi
4. Defects due to Defective Seasoning
5. Defects due to Defective Conversion

Defects in Timber due to Natural Forces

a. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the growth
of a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those branches
remain in the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create imperfection known as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

i. Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they become loose
and fall out.
ii. Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect.

Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber. But in
dead knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease the strength of
the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious defects when the
load is perpendicular to the grains.

Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-

i. Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the sapwood and
sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary rays. Cracks are wider
on the outer edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually sapwood, sometimes
heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are extreme heat or frosting during the
growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after cutting off the timber. Extreme heat
or frost causes temperature difference, which causes shrinkage leading to the crack.
ii. Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable to separate
the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the annual ring
completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes, but all cup shakes are
not a ring shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason for this type of crack.
iii. Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from the pith to the
sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the